Rhetoric of health and medicine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search The Rhetoric of Health and Medicine ( or Medical Rhetoric) is an academic discipline concerning language and symbols in health and medicine. [1] Rhetoric most commonly refers to the persuasive element in human interactions and is often best studied in the specific situations in which it occurs. [2] As a subfield of rhetoric, medical rhetoric specifically analyzes and evaluates the structure, delivery, and intention of communications messages in medicine- and health-related contexts. Primary topics of focus includes patient - physician communication, health literacy, language that constructs disease knowledge, and pharmaceutical advertising (including both direct-to-consumer and direct-to-physician advertising). The general research areas are described below. Medical rhetoric is a more focused subfield of the rhetoric of science. Practitioners from the medical rhetoric field hail from a variety of disciplines, including English studies, communication studies, and health humanities. Through methods such as content analysis, survey methodology, and usability testing, researchers in this sphere recognize the importance of communication to successful healthcare. [3]Several communication journals, including Communication Design Quarterly, Journal of Business and Technical Communication, [4] Technical Communication Quarterly, [5] and Present Tense, [6] have published special issues on themes related to medical rhetoric. The majority of research in the field is indexed in the academic database EBSCO Communication & Mass Media Complete. The largest bibliography of research is available at http://medicalrhetoric.com/bibliography/articles-and-book-chapters/ although this list is only periodically updated and does not include all of the work in the field (for more complete coverage, search EBSCO). In 2013, scholars in the field also began a biennial symposium, Discourses of Health and Medicine. [7] Scolars in the field use the label "medical rhetoric" in Google scholar. Contents [ hide ]1 History of the field2 Research areas2.1 Rhetoric of pharmaceutical and science commercialization2.2 Rhetoric of mental health2.3 Patient narrative2.4 Rhetorics of alternative medicine2.5 Patient-physician communication3 Professional opportunities3.1 Service3.2 Advocacy4 Rhetorical concepts4.1 Figures of Speech4.1.1 Metaphor and analogy4.1.2 Hyperbole4.2 Stasis4.3 Rhetorical Appeals4.3.1 Ethos4.3.2 Pathos4.3.3 Logos5 Research methodology5.1 Content analysis5.2 Survey research5.3 Usability testing6 References7 External links History of the field [ edit]The rhetoric of health and medicine is tied to the emergence of rhetoric of science in the early 1970s and 1980s. [8] Contemporary theorists such as Kenneth Burke, Michel Foucault, Thomas Kuhn, Bruno Latour, and Steve Woolgar laid the theoretical groundwork for this early interest in the persuasive dimensions of scientific language. In the 1980s the field shifted when rhetorical critics like Martha Solomon and Charles Anderson began analyzing texts on biomedicine. Solomon analyzed the rhetoric used in medical reports during the Tuskegee Syphilis Project, while Anderson examined the writings of surgeon Richard Selzer to comment on the rhetoric of surgery. [9] [10]In the 1990s, the rhetoric of health and medicine emerged more clearly as a field distinct from rhetoric of science. Rhetorical scholar Celeste Condit raised questions about the historical and rhetorical dimensions of issues like abortion and genetics in works such as 1990's Decoding Abortion Rhetoric: Communicating Social Change [11] and 1999's The Meanings of the Gene: Public Debates about Heredity. [12] In these seminal works, Condit focused on what she called "rhetorical formations," or the multiple simultaneous discourses that surrounded each rhetorical object. The field also saw the rise of discussion on disability studies and illness narratives during the 1990s, which initiated the beginning of a Special Interest Group on disability studies at the annual Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC), headed by Brenda Jo Brueggemann. [13] The initiation of this group then inspired a Medical Rhetoric Special Interest Group, headed by Barbara Heifferon, which has continued to meet annually to present day. [14]In the early 21st century, scholars began to pay increasing attention to various topics in the rhetoric of health and medicine. J. Blake Scott’s 2003 book Risky Rhetoric: AIDS and the Cultural Practices of HIV Testing used Michel Foucault 's theory of examination, which defines rhetoric as a form of disciplinary power, to examine the cultural condition that influence HIV testing. [15] He reported that the rhetoric used in public policy and various propaganda led to the stigmatization and discrimination of people with HIV/AIDS. In 2005, Judy Segal’s Health and the Rhetoric of Medicine gained recognition for highlighting the persuasive elements in diagnoses, health policies, illness experiences, and illness narratives. [16] She also addressed direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs, the role of health information in creating the "worried well," and problems of trust and expertise in doctor-patient relationships. In 2010, Lisa Keränen’s Scientific Characters: Rhetoric, Politics, and Trust in Breast Cancer Research addressed issues of research viability and relationships among scientists, patients, and advocates. [17] Kimberly Emmons’ work on the rhetoric surrounding depression, Black Dogs and Blue Words: Depression and Gender in the Age of Self-Care, was published the same year. [18]Research areas [ edit]Rhetoric of pharmaceutical and science commercialization [ edit]The rhetoric of pharmaceutical and science commercialization is the study of the persuasive language and symbols that the pharmaceutical industry and biotechnology companies use to communicate and influence consumers, physicians, regulatory agencies, and other stakeholders in the commercialization of biotechnology. Scholars have found that the language used to define, describe, and regulate pharmaceuticals influences the understanding and perception of the drugs among both the general public [19] and experts. [20] Information about pharmaceutical products is highly regulated [21] and filtered through many channels as it moves from scientist to consumer. [22] Despite the regulations on pharmaceutical advertising, pharmaceutical companies use carefully crafted direct-to-consumer advertising to rhetorically influence the patient-physician dialogue to drive consumption of specific pharmaceutical drugs. [23] Furthermore, pharmaceutical companies mislead physicians and scientists through deceptive rhetorical strategies in technical documentation (which both package inserts directed towards physicians and medical journal articles directed towards scientists). [20] In a recent study, a pharmaceutical company disguised negative performance in one group of subjects by selectively merging data between different patient groups in clinical trials and carefully crafting supporting statements. [20] This study shows that scientific data and knowledge is secondary to rhetorical messages supporting commercialization, and that human health is secondary to company profit. Notably, technical information is subject to obfuscation and distortion so that the message communicated outside of a commercial organization aligns with the primary goal of selling a product. Studying and trying to improve the rhetorical processes involved in pharmaceutical information as it moves through the chain of dissemination is a key concern of rhetorical scholarship on this topic. [24] [25]Rhetoric of mental health [ edit]The rhetoric of mental health considers how language functions in the production of knowledge on topics such as mental and psychological disorders, chemical imbalances in the brain, and variations on what are considered normal mental faculties. [26] The $100 million Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative, introduced by the Obama administration in 2013, is testament to the emerging importance of brain science and mental health in medical science and public policy debate. Neurorhetoric, the study of how language is used in the creation, distribution, and reception of science about the brain, has recently become an important topic in medical rhetoric and composition studies, as well as in popular science publications targeted at non-scientists. [27] Information and texts relevant to the rhetoric of mental health include psychotropic pharmaceutical regulations, their production, prescription, advertising, and consumption, and scientific and popular discussions about major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, autism, and other mental disorders. [28] [29] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM, now in its 5th edition) is a central text for the study of the mental health profession. Patient narrative [ edit]Patient narrative is the clinical story of a person’s past and present medical history documented by a medical clinician. [30] The patient narrative can also be referred to as the medical history, the History and Physical (H & P), or the clinical narrative. The H&P includes a Subject, Objective, Assessment, and Plan ( SOAP note ), which summarizes the patient’s narrative or history of medical illness, objectively reports the patient’s clinical data and lab results, assesses diagnoses and prognoses, and often recommends how to address the patient’s clinical situation. As part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, the government enacted the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act, which mandates that health providers transition from handwritten (typed) patient narratives to electronic patient narratives in forms such as the electronic medical record (EMR) or the electronic health record (EHR). [31] The EMR and EHR are of interest to communication scholars because they economize the words and space of the traditional patient narrative into a structured system of navigation screens and checkboxes. Rhetorics of alternative medicine [ edit]The Rhetoric of alternative medicine differs from traditional medical rhetoric in its emphasis on the persuasive aspects of language related to holistic or other nonstandard approaches. [32] Some of these alternative medical practices include acupuncture, massage therapy, and chiropractic care. Scholars further explore alternative medical practitioners’ claims that they take a holistic approach to medical treatment, assessing a person’s body, mind, and spirit, rather than just treating a disease. [33]Patient-physician communication [ edit]Starting with references to medical care in ancient Greece, Plato’s “Dialogues”, expressed that physician-patient communication should not include any “lively interactions” between the physician and patient. [34] In the Age of Enlightenment, Dr. John Gregory began to emphasize patient-physician communication by introducing the idea of preventative care for “gentleman of a liberal education .” [35] Few found his suggestive style of care useful, and the view that “physicians must assume sole responsibility for protecting the ignorant public from its folly” lived on for some time. [36] As late as the 1980s, the American Medical Association still had not incorporated regulations into their Code of Ethics that required physicians to incorporate patient opinion into the decision-making process. [37] It was not until 1996 when the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was created to protect patient rights and privacy. This law was intended to assure patients that their wishes would be considered in treatment decision-making. [38] [39]Professional opportunities [ edit]For students who take a more applied approach to health and medical rhetoric, there are an increasing number of employment opportunities in industry, government, and nonprofit organizations. Such opportunities fall into two broadly defined categories: service and advocacy. Service [ edit]Service is a situation in which a communication expert helps a healthcare professional be more effective in his or her communication efforts. This might mean the communicator is paid to assist with a task like grant writing, editing, or authoring a medical document. Medical transcriptionists, represented by the Association for Healthcare Documentation Integrity (AHDI), provide another form of professional communication in medical discourse. The AHDI is the world’s largest nonprofit organization representing individuals and organizations in healthcare documentation. By ensuring documentation’s accuracy, privacy, and security, the organization aims to protect public health, increase patient safety, and improve quality of care for healthcare consumers. [40] Other professional medical writing associations include the American Medical Writers Association (AMWA) and the International Academy of Nursing Editors (INANE). Sometimes these medical authors are considered “ ghostwriters ,” or paid writers who write a communicative piece but are not formally acknowledged as a text’s author. Karen L. Wooley says that professional writers must adhere to ethical guidelines that ghostwriters may not be expected to follow. While authors control their content when working with a professional medical writer, Wooley says that ghostwriters may try to take control of the content away from the author and hide certain facts, such as where a project’s funding comes from. [41] Researchers such as Elliott Moffatt are concerned that medical ghostwriting, especially in the context of pharmaceutical research, is dangerous to public health. [42] Possible dangers can include misrepresenting the data and subtly influencing the way clinicians and patients perceive the data. Advocacy [ edit]Advocacy in medical rhetoric is a situation in which the communicator addresses a health-related topic, empowering the citizens of a community to understand how that issue impacts them. This type of health communication enables the public to understand a health issue more thoroughly, providing them with the tools necessary to challenge or change existing power structures within their own communities. Advocacy is often associated with risk communication, the process of explaining natural disasters, human-made hazards, and behavioral practices to the public in a way they can understand. Theorists such as Don Nutbeam propose a need for advocacy and say that health literacy, or people’s ability to access and make decisions with health information, is an important part of empowerment. [43] Nick Pidgeon and Baruch Fischhoff say that communicating complex medical or health information to the public is difficult because past scientists failed to base their communication on solid principles and evidence. [44] Based on these past failures, Pidgeon and Fischhoff argue for a simpler and trustworthier model of science communication. In response to this issue, Jeffrey T. Grabill and W. Michele Simmons propose that technical communicators can provide advocacy because they have both good writing skills and an ability to understand and convey information to patients. [45]Rhetorical concepts [ edit]Rhetoric, like any field of study, is made up of constituent parts. These parts are often referred to as either rhetorical concepts or rhetorical principles. Rhetorical concepts can be seen as tools of the trade that allow rhetoricians to effectively communicate in a way that is most likely to persuade readers and audiences of the messages and meanings intended by the rhetorician. Rhetorical concepts are an important part of what makes an argument persuasive, and all effective arguments inherently contain them. Rhetorical concepts help rhetoricians convey information that would otherwise be unascertainable by the audience, which is especially important for topics that carry heavy implications, such as the complications that often follow complex medical and health needs. [46]Figures of Speech [ edit]Figures of speech are a type of figurative language that often convey specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words that make up the figure. Often providing emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity, they can be used to explain complex, unknown topics to readers and audiences in a way that makes them easier for the reader to understand. [47]Metaphor and analogy [ edit]Metaphor and analogy are important in scientific communication because they make new ideas understandable to both expert and nonexpert audiences. [48] Disease, for example, which is difficult to comprehend on both large and microbiological scales, is often communicated through metaphor and analogy. When a public health campaign “wages war” on cancer, or a microbiologist describes a virus as “attacking” a cell, these forceful words create a war-like metaphor for understanding the way disease works. Notable work in this area has been done by Judy Segal, who chronicled the impact of five biomedical metaphors in her book Health and the Rhetoric of Medicine, including ‘‘medicine is war,’’ ‘‘the body is a machine,’’ ‘‘diagnosis is health,’’ ‘‘medicine is a business,’’ and ‘‘the person is genes, ’’ all of which have had academic, cultural, and social impacts on the way medicine is practiced and understood. [49] Monika Cwiarka has also questioned the use of laboratory mice in behavior-based studies, asking whether certain behaviors observed in mice can be considered analogous to those observed in humans. [50] Another important recent study is Gronnvoll and Landau's research to determine how the public uses metaphor to understand genetic science. [51]Hyperbole [ edit]Hyperbole is a figure of speech more often used by a patient when speaking with a doctor than by doctors communicating with their patients. Where some figures of speech can help to lend meaning or understanding to medical and scientific communication, hyperbole often obscures the truth by exaggerating it, which can have detrimental and even deadly results. Headaches, for example, can occasionally be described by patients as feeling as if their “head’s going to explode.” This type of communication can make it difficult for doctors to understand the true gravity of a symptom, which may lead to misdiagnosis. Furthermore, doctors and scientists need to be especially aware of the negative implications that hyperbole can have in medical discourses. As Joseph Loscalzo points out in his article Clinical Trials in Cardiovascular Medicine in an Era of Marginal Benefit, Bias, and Hyperbole, the use of hyperbole by investigators during medical trials can “often prejudice the trialist in favor of a positive result.” [52] When investigators provide trialists with bias, whether intentionally or unintentionally, the data that is collected may be skewed in the direction of the bias provided by the investigator. Stasis [ edit]Consider a hypothetical conversation between two parties about health care reform. One party may wish to argue the moral necessity of health care reform while the other party wishes to argue that health care reform is economically infeasible. Until both parties agree on the issue at hand (whether it be the economic or moral considerations of health care reform), resolution of the argument cannot take place. Once the parties have agreed on the issue at hand, they have achieved rhetorical stasis. The idea of first agreeing to the issue at hand is central to any discussion between rational people. One example of how stasis can apply to health and medical rhetoric is provided in a recent article by Christa Teston and Scott Graham. These researchers applied the rhetorical concept of stasis to medical discourse by reviewing the FDA discussion on Avastin as a treatment for metastatic breast cancer. They concluded that the absence of stasis resulted in miscommunication between the interested parties. The FDA could have achieved stasis, these authors conclude, by first reaching consensus on the following questions: What counts as clinical benefit? What kinds of evidence would be deemed meaningful? [53]Rhetorical Appeals [ edit]The rhetorical appeals, often referred to as modes of persuasion or ethical strategies, are a set of rhetorical concepts used to persuade audiences. Initially introduced by Aristotle in On Rhetoric, the appeals focus on three ways to persuade your audience: by appealing to the character of the speaker (ethos), the emotions of the audience (pathos), or the logic/truth of the argument itself (logos). [54]Ethos [ edit]Ethos is an appeal to the authority or credibility of the presenter and is especially important in health and medicine communication. As Sarah Bigi explains in her article The Persuasive Role of Ethos in doctor-patient Interactions, “physicians are expected to inform, advise and persuade patients regarding their health problems.” [55] In order to successfully persuade their patients, doctors need to rely on the rhetorical appeals, and the appeal that patients seem to care about the most, is the ethos of the doctor. If a doctor does not seem credible than a patient is unlikely to follow their instructions or diagnosis, which can lead to further health complications down the line. Pathos [ edit]Pathos is an appeal to the audience’s emotions. The speaker may use pathos in a multitude of ways; however, in terms of the rhetoric of health and medicine, two particular emotions stand out: fear and hope. When doctors appeal to fear it is not done so lightly. Doctors have to decide if instilling fear in their patient is the right tactic for persuading their patients to agree with the physician’s treatment plan. For instance, if a patient has diabetes and is likely to lose a toe or foot if they do not change the way they treat their condition, it is up to the doctor to decide when to stop telling their patient that “changing your habits will give you a better life” and to start telling their patient that “if you don’t stop your current habits, you’re going to lose a foot.”When doctors appeal to hope, the doctor tries to persuade the patient through describing a scenario of a positive future that’s only possible by the patient following the doctor’s orders. In some cases, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, the act of presenting this positive emotional state can actually create a positive result in itself. Logos [ edit]Logos is logical appeal or the simulation of it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's claims or thesis. It is important to health and medicine communications because patients want to know which treatments work best, and they want the scientific data to prove it. Having an appeal to logic also enhances ethos because information makes the speaker look knowledgeable and prepared to his or her audience. However, the data can be confusing and thus confuse the audience. So, the doctor has to make sure to leverage the appeals to best persuade their patients. Doctors must decide how many facts and figures are appropriate to persuade an audience of the factual basis of the argument while portraying themselves as a credible speaker and playing to the right emotional state of their patient---all to get the patient to follow the doctor’s orders. Research methodology [ edit]Rhetoricians of health and medicine conduct research primarily through qualitative methods, although quantitative methods are also occasionally employed. Scholars in the field apply these techniques to understand how and for what reasons health and medical communication is accomplished. Content analysis [ edit]Through content analysis, scholars strive to answer the questions first formulated by political scientist Harold Lasswell as they apply to health and medicine texts: “Who says what, to whom, why, to what extent and with what effect?" [56] For example, researchers might study the content of pharmaceutical advertisements on television to determine their appeals to potential consumers. [57] Others might examine the communication of health information via new media such as Twitter [58] and Facebook. [59] Rhetoricians have increasingly turned to computers to facilitate quantitative content analysis as they gather massive data collections from Internet sources. [60]Survey research [ edit]Researchers in the field are also concerned with the effectiveness of health and medical communications. Audience surveys are often used to determine if a target audience understands a given set of health or medical instructions. The results help researchers adjust these instructions and assist audiences in achieving functional health literacy. [61] Other surveys gauge the public’s attitudes and knowledge regarding important medical topics such as mental health. This sort of research identifies gaps for public health agencies to address in their communications. Usability testing [ edit]Creators of health and medical communications often test their work with a subset of their target audience before its wider release. This practice is particularly important when content creators are not themselves part of their target audience, as is often the case for communications that address vulnerable communities such as senior citizens [62] or immigrants with English as a second language. [63] Usability research can include techniques such as “ think aloud ” testing, in which potential users talk the researcher through their navigation of a given computer program or text. Evaluations by experts in other fields, such as design or user experience, are also employed. References [ edit]^ Segal, Judy Z. Health and the Rhetoric of Medicine. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2005. Print.^ Derkatch, Colleen and Judy Segal (2005). 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The Rhetoric of Aristotle: An Expanded Translation with Supplementary Examples for Students of Composition and Public Speaking. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1960. Print.^ Bigi, Sarah S (2011). "The persuasive role of ethos in doctor-patient interactions". Communication & medicine (1612-1783), 8 (1), p. 67.^ Lasswell, Harold (1948). Power and Personality. New York.^ Frosch, Dominick L.; Krueger, Patrick M.; Hornik, Robert C.; Cronholm, Peter F.; Barg, Frances K. (2007-01-01). "Creating Demand for Prescription Drugs: A Content Analysis of Television Direct-to-Consumer Advertising". Annals of Family Medicine. 5 (1): 6–13. doi: 10.1370/afm.611. ISSN 1544-1709. PMC 1783924. PMID 17261859.^ Lee, Joy L; De Camp, Matthew; Dredze, Mark; Chisolm, Margaret S; Berger, Zackary D (2014-10-15). "What Are Health-Related Users Tweeting? A Qualitative Content Analysis of Health-Related Users and Their Messages on Twitter". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 16 (10). doi: 10.2196/jmir.3765. PMC 4296104. PMID 25591063.^ Zhang, Yan; He, Dan; Sang, Yoonmo (2013-06-01). "Facebook as a platform for health information and communication: a case study of a diabetes group". Journal of Medical Systems. 37 (3): 9942. doi: 10.1007/s10916-013-9942-7. ISSN 1573-689X. PMID 23588823.^ Nimrod, Galit (2010-06-01). "Seniors' Online Communities: A Quantitative Content Analysis". The Gerontologist. 50 (3): 382–392. doi: 10.1093/geront/gnp141. ISSN 0016-9013. PMID 19917645.^ "INadequate functional health literacy among patients at two public hospitals". JAMA. 274 (21): 1677–1682. 1995-12-06. doi: 10.1001/jama.1995.03530210031026. ISSN 0098-7484.^ Lin, Carolyn A.; Neafsey, Patricia J.; Strickler, Zoe (2009-03-16). "Usability Testing by Older Adults of a Computer-Mediated Health Communication Program". Journal of Health Communication. 14 (2): 102–118. doi: 10.1080/10810730802659095. ISSN 1081-0730. PMC 2964868. PMID 19283536.^ Moore, Mary; Bias, Randolph G.; Prentice, Katherine; Fletcher, Robin; Vaughn, Terry (2009-04-01). "Web usability testing with a Hispanic medically underserved population". Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA. 97 (2): 114–121. doi: 10.3163/1536-5050.97.2.008. ISSN 1536-5050. PMC 2670225. PMID 19404502. External links [ edit]Anyone interested in professional opportunities in health and medical rhetoric might visit the websites of the following professional organizations: American Medical Writers’ Association (AMWA)Society for Technical Communication (STC)Council for Programs in Technical and Scientific Communication (CPTSC)Association of Teachers of Technical Writing (ATTW)Rhetoric Society of America (RSA)Categories: Rhetoric Medicine in society 
Rhetoric From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the art of rhetoric in general. For the work by Aristotle, see Rhetoric (Aristotle). "Rhetorical Strategies" redirects here. For modes of persuasion, see rhetorical strategies. [ show] This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (April 2015) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Painting depicting a lecture in a knight academy, painted by Pieter Isaacsz or Reinhold Timm for Rosenborg Castle as part of a series of seven paintings depicting the seven independent arts. This painting illustrates rhetoric. Part of a series of articles on Rhetoric Five canons Inventio Dispositio Elocutio Memoria Pronuntiatiov t e Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. It can also be in a visual form; as a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the European tradition. [1] Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion ." [2] Rhetoric typically provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations, such as Aristotle's three persuasive audience appeals, logos, pathos, and ethos. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Along with grammar and logic (or dialectic —see Martianus Capella ), rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a central part of Western education, filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments. [3] The word is derived from the Greek ῥητορικόςrhētorikós, "oratorical", [4] from ῥήτωρ rhḗtōr, "public speaker", [5] related to ῥῆμα rhêma, "that which is said or spoken, word, saying", [6] and ultimately derived from the verb ἐρῶ erō, "I say, I speak". [7]Contents [ hide ]1 Uses1.1 Scope1.2 As a civic art1.3 As a course of study1.4 Knowledge1.4.1 Eloquentia Perfecta2 History2.1 Sophists2.2 Isocrates2.3 Plato2.4 Aristotle3 Canons3.1 Cicero3.2 Quintilian3.3 Medieval to Enlightenment3.4 Sixteenth century3.5 Seventeenth century3.6 Eighteenth century4 Modern4.1 Notable modern theorists4.2 Methods of analysis4.2.1 Criticism seen as a method4.2.2 Observation on analytic method4.3 Strategies4.4 Criticism4.4.1 Additional theoretical approaches4.4.2 Purpose of criticism5 French6 Animal rhetoric7 See also8 Notes9 References10 Further reading11 External links Uses [ edit]Scope [ edit]Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse writ large. Rhetoricians have studied the discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, cartography, and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law. [8] Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful and strategic manipulation of symbols. Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a crucial tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists —disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic, regardless of his experience in that field. This method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. [9]Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth. In "Gorgias," one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. [10] Rhetoric, in Plato's opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, which masks the undesirability of unhealthy food by making it taste good. Thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric— deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic. [11] Yet, even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, Aristotle extended the definition of rhetoric, calling it the ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in a given situation, thereby making rhetoric applicable to all fields, not just politics. When one considers that rhetoric included torture (in the sense that the practice of torture is a form of persuasion or coercion), it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic (especially, based upon the syllogism) was viewed as the basis of rhetoric. However, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric. [12] Yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice. He restricted rhetoric to the domain of the contingent or probable: those matters that admit multiple legitimate opinions or arguments. The contemporary neo-Aristotelian and neo-Sophistic positions on rhetoric mirror the division between the Sophists and Aristotle. Neo-Aristotelians generally study rhetoric as political discourse, while the neo-Sophistic view contends that rhetoric cannot be so limited. Rhetorical scholar Michael Leff characterizes the conflict between these positions as viewing rhetoric as a "thing contained" versus a "container." The neo-Aristotelian view threatens the study of rhetoric by restraining it to such a limited field, ignoring many critical applications of rhetorical theory, criticism, and practice. Simultaneously, the neo-Sophists threaten to expand rhetoric beyond a point of coherent theoretical value. Over the past century, people studying rhetoric have tended to enlarge its object domain beyond speech texts. Kenneth Burke asserted humans use rhetoric to resolve conflicts by identifying shared characteristics and interests in symbols. By nature, humans engage in identification, either to identify themselves or another individual with a group. This definition of rhetoric as identification broadened the scope from strategic and overt political persuasion to the more implicit tactics of identification found in an immense range of sources. [13]Among the many scholars who have since pursued Burke's line of thought, James Boyd White sees rhetoric as a broader domain of social experience in his notion of constitutive rhetoric. Influenced by theories of social construction, White argues that culture is "reconstituted" through language. Just as language influences people, people influence language. Language is socially constructed, and depends on the meanings people attach to it. Because language is not rigid and changes depending on the situation, the very usage of language is rhetorical. An author, White would say, is always trying to construct a new world and persuading his or her readers to share that world within the text. [14]Individuals engage in the rhetorical process anytime they speak or produce meaning. Even in the field of science, the practices of which were once viewed as being merely the objective testing and reporting of knowledge, scientists must persuade their audience to accept their findings by sufficiently demonstrating that their study or experiment was conducted reliably and resulted in sufficient evidence to support their conclusions. The vast scope of rhetoric is difficult to define; however, political discourse remains, in many ways, the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing specific techniques and conceptions of persuasion, considered by many a synonym for "rhetoric." [15]As a civic art [ edit]Throughout European History, rhetoric has concerned itself with persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts. Because of its associations with democratic institutions, rhetoric is commonly said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of free speech, free assembly, and political enfranchisement for some portion of the population. Those who classify rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power to shape communities, form the character of citizens and greatly effect civic life. Rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the ancient philosophers. Aristotle and Isocrates were two of the first to see rhetoric in this light. In his work, Antidosis, Isocrates states, "We have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts; and, generally speaking, there is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish." With this statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in the foundation of all aspects of society. He further argues in his piece Against the Sophists that rhetoric, although it cannot be taught to just anyone, is capable of shaping the character of man. He writes, "I do think that the study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character." Aristotle, writing several years after Isocrates, supported many of his arguments and continued to make arguments for rhetoric as a civic art. In the words of Aristotle, in the Rhetoric, rhetoric is "... the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." According to Aristotle, this art of persuasion could be used in public settings in three different ways. He writes in Book I, Chapter III, "A member of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator's skill are observers. From this it follows that there are three divisions of oratory – (1) political, (2) forensic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display". Eugene Garver, in his critique of "Aristotle's Rhetoric", confirms that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a civic art. Garver writes, "Rhetoric articulates a civic art of rhetoric, combining the almost incompatible properties of techne and appropriateness to citizens." [16] Each of Aristotle's divisions plays a role in civic life and can be used in a different way to affect cities. Because rhetoric is a public art capable of shaping opinion, some of the ancients including Plato found fault in it. They claimed that while it could be used to improve civic life, it could be used equally easily to deceive or manipulate with negative effects on the city. The masses were incapable of analyzing or deciding anything on their own and would therefore be swayed by the most persuasive speeches. Thus, civic life could be controlled by the one who could deliver the best speech. Plato explores the problematic moral status of rhetoric twice: in Gorgias, a dialogue named for the famed Sophist, and in The Phaedrus, a dialogue best known for its commentary on love. This concern is still maintained to nowadays. More trusting in the power of rhetoric to support a republic, the Roman orator Cicero argued that art required something more than eloquence. A good orator needed also to be a good man, a person enlightened on a variety of civic topics. He describes the proper training of the orator in his major text on rhetoric, De Oratore, modeled on Plato's dialogues. Modern day works continue to support the claims of the ancients that rhetoric is an art capable of influencing civic life. In his work Political Style, Robert Hariman claims, "Furthermore, questions of freedom, equality, and justice often are raised and addressed through performances ranging from debates to demonstrations without loss of moral content". [17]James Boyd White argues further that rhetoric is capable not only of addressing issues of political interest but that it can influence culture as a whole. In his book, When Words Lose Their Meaning, he argues that words of persuasion and identification define community and civic life. He states that words produce "... the methods by which culture is maintained, criticized, and transformed." [18] Both White and Hariman agree that words and rhetoric have the power to shape culture and civic life. In modern times, rhetoric has consistently remained relevant as a civic art. In speeches, as well as in non-verbal forms, rhetoric continues to be used as a tool to influence communities from local to national levels. As a course of study [ edit]Rhetoric as a course of study has evolved significantly since its ancient beginnings. Through the ages, the study and teaching of rhetoric has adapted to the particular exigencies of the time and venue. [19] The study of rhetoric has conformed to a multitude of different applications, ranging from architecture to literature. [20] Although the curriculum has transformed in a number of ways, it has generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of composition as a means for moving audiences. Generally speaking, the study of rhetoric trains students to speak and/or write effectively, as well as critically understand and analyze discourse. Rhetoric began as a civic art in Ancient Greece where students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical persuasion, especially in legal disputes. Rhetoric originated in a school of pre-Socratic philosophers known as the Sophists circa 600 BC. Demosthenes and Lysias emerged as major orators during this period, and Isocrates and Gorgias as prominent teachers. Rhetorical education focused on five particular canons: inventio (invention), dispositio (arrangement), elocutio (style), memoria (memory), and actio (delivery). Modern teachings continue to reference these rhetorical leaders and their work in discussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion. Rhetoric was later taught in universities during the Middle Ages as one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (along with logic and grammar ). [21] During the medieval period, political rhetoric declined as republican oratory died out and the emperors of Rome garnered increasing authority. With the rise of European monarchs in following centuries, rhetoric shifted into the courtly and religious applications. Augustine exerted strong influence on Christian rhetoric in the Middle Ages, advocating the use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understanding, especially in the church. The study of liberal arts, he believed, contributed to rhetorical study: "In the case of a keen and ardent nature, fine words will come more readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by pursuing the rules of rhetoric." [22] Poetry and letter writing, for instance, became a central component of rhetorical study during the Middle Ages. [23] After the fall of the Republic in Rome, poetry became a tool for rhetorical training since there were fewer opportunities for political speech. [24] Letter writing was the primary form through which business was conducted both in state and church, so it became an important aspect of rhetorical education. [25]Rhetorical education became more restrained as style and substance separated in 16th-century France with Peter Ramus, and attention turned to the scientific method. That is, influential scholars like Ramus argued that the processes of invention and arrangement should be elevated to the domain of philosophy, while rhetorical instruction should be chiefly concerned with the use of figures and other forms of the ornamentation of language. Scholars such as Francis Bacon developed the study of "scientific rhetoric." [26] This concentration rejected the elaborate style characteristic of the classical oration. This plain language carried over to John Locke 's teaching, which emphasized concrete knowledge and steered away from ornamentation in speech, further alienating rhetorical instruction, which was identified wholly with this ornamentation, from the pursuit of knowledge. In the 18th century, rhetoric assumed a more social role, initiating the creation of new education systems. " Elocution schools" arose (predominantly in England) in which females analyzed classic literature, most notably the works of William Shakespeare, and discussed pronunciation tactics. [27]The study of rhetoric underwent a revival with the rise of democratic institutions during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Scotland's author and theorist Hugh Blair served as a key leader of this movement during the late 18th century. In his most famous work "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres", he advocates rhetorical study for common citizens as a resource for social success. Many American colleges and secondary schools used Blair's text throughout the 19th century to train students of rhetoric. [28]Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in the wake of the US and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected in the studies of the era as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero and others to inspire defense of the new republic. Leading rhetorical theorists included John Quincy Adams of Harvard who advocated the democratic advancement of rhetorical art. Harvard's founding of the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory sparked the growth of rhetorical study in colleges across the United States. [25] Harvard's rhetoric program drew inspiration from literary sources to guide organization and style. Recently, there have been studies conducted examining the rhetoric used in political speech acts to illustrate how political figures will persuade audiences for their own purposes. [29] [30]Debate clubs and lyceums also developed as forums in which common citizens could hear speakers and sharpen debate skills. The American lyceum in particular was seen as both an educational and social institution, featuring group discussions and guest lecturers. [31] These programs cultivated democratic values and promoted active participation in political analysis. Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos) as well as trace rhetorical development throughout the course of history. Rhetoric has earned a more esteemed reputation as a field of study with the emergence of Communication Studies departments as well as Rhetoric and Composition programs within English departments in universities and in conjunction with the linguistic turn. Rhetorical study has broadened in scope, and is especially utilized by the fields of marketing, politics, and literature. Rhetoric, as an area of study, is concerned with how humans use symbols, especially language, to reach agreement that permits coordinated effort of some sort. [32] Harvard University, the first university in the United States, based on the European model, taught a basic curriculum, including rhetoric. Rhetoric, in this sense, how to properly give speeches, played an important role in their training. Rhetoric was soon taught in departments of English as well. [33]Knowledge [ edit]The relationship between rhetoric and knowledge is an old and interesting philosophical problem, partly because of our different assumptions on the nature of knowledge. But it is fairly clear that while knowledge is primarily concerned with what is commonly known as "truth", rhetoric is primarily concerned with statements and their effects on the audience. The word "rhetoric" may also refer to "empty speak", which reflects an indifference to truth, and in this sense rhetoric is adversarial to knowledge. Plato famously criticized the Sophists for their rhetoric which had persuaded people to sentence his friend Socrates to death regardless of what was true. However, rhetoric is also used in the construction of true arguments, or in identifying what is relevant, the crux of the matter, in a selection of true but otherwise trivial statements. Hence, rhetoric is also closely related to knowledge. Eloquentia Perfecta [ edit]Eloquentia Perfecta is a Jesuit rhetoric that revolves around cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good. History [ edit]Rhetoric has its origins in Mesopotamia. [34] Some of the earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in the Akkadian writings of the princess and priestess Enheduanna (c. 2285–2250 BC, [35] while later examples can be found in the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the time of Sennacherib (704–681 BC). [36] In ancient Egypt, rhetoric had existed since at least the Middle Kingdom period (c. 2080–1640 BC). The Egyptians held eloquent speaking in high esteem, and it was a skill that had a very high value in their society. The "Egyptian rules of rhetoric" also clearly specified that "knowing when not to speak is essential, and very respected, rhetorical knowledge." Their "approach to rhetoric" was thus a "balance between eloquence and wise silence." Their rules of speech also strongly emphasized "adherence to social behaviors that support a conservative status quo" and they held that "skilled speech should support, not question, society." [37] In ancient China, rhetoric dates back to the Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551–479 BC), and continued with later followers. The tradition of Confucianism emphasized the use of eloquence in speaking. [38] The use of rhetoric can also be found in the ancient Biblical tradition. [39]In ancient Greece, the earliest mention of oratorical skill occurs in Homer 's Iliad, where heroes like Achilles, Hector, and Odysseus were honored for their ability to advise and exhort their peers and followers (the Laos or army) in wise and appropriate action. With the rise of the democratic polis, speaking skill was adapted to the needs of the public and political life of cities in ancient Greece, much of which revolved around the use of oratory as the medium through which political and judicial decisions were made, and through which philosophical ideas were developed and disseminated. For modern students today, it can be difficult to remember that the wide use and availability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just coming into vogue in Classical Greece. In Classical times, many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed their works before an audience, usually in the context of a competition or contest for fame, political influence, and cultural capital; in fact, many of them are known only through the texts that their students, followers, or detractors wrote down. As has already been noted, rhetor was the Greek term for orator: A rhetor was a citizen who regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge about public speaking in the process, though in general facility with language was often referred to as logôn techne, "skill with arguments" or "verbal artistry." [40]Rhetoric thus evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Today the term rhetoric can be used at times to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscuring the truth. Classical philosophers believed quite the contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the discovery of truths, because it provided the means of ordering and clarifying arguments. Sophists [ edit]Main article: Sophists In Europe, organized thought about public speaking began in ancient Greece. [41] Possibly, the first study about the power of language may be attributed to the philosopher Empedocles (d. c. 444 BC), whose theories on human knowledge would provide a basis for many future rhetoricians. The first written manual is attributed to Corax and his pupil Tisias. Their work, as well as that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have written judicial speeches that others delivered in the courts. Teaching in oratory was popularized in the 5th century BC by itinerant teachers known as sophists, the best known of whom were Protagoras (c. 481–420 BC), Gorgias (c. 483–376 BC), and Isocrates (436–338 BC). The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from city to city, teaching in public places to attract students and offer them an education. Their central focus was on logos or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, its functions and powers. They defined parts of speech, analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argumentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality. They claimed to make their students "better," or, in other words, to teach virtue. They thus claimed that human "excellence" was not an accident of fate or a prerogative of noble birth, but an art or " techne " that could be taught and learned. They were thus among the first humanists. Several sophists also questioned received wisdom about the gods and the Greek culture, which they believed was taken for granted by Greeks of their time, making them among the first agnostics. For example, they argued that cultural practices were a function of convention or nomos rather than blood or birth or phusis. They argued even further that morality or immorality of any action could not be judged outside of the cultural context within which it occurred. The well-known phrase, "Man is the measure of all things" arises from this belief. One of their most famous, and infamous, doctrines has to do with probability and counter arguments. They taught that every argument could be countered with an opposing argument, that an argument's effectiveness derived from how "likely" it appeared to the audience (its probability of seeming true), and that any probability argument could be countered with an inverted probability argument. Thus, if it seemed likely that a strong, poor man were guilty of robbing a rich, weak man, the strong poor man could argue, on the contrary, that this very likelihood (that he would be a suspect) makes it unlikely that he committed the crime, since he would most likely be apprehended for the crime. They also taught and were known for their ability to make the weaker (or worse) argument the stronger (or better). Aristophanes famously parodies the clever inversions that sophists were known for in his play The Clouds. The word "sophistry" developed strong negative connotations in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient Greece sophists were nevertheless popular and well-paid professionals, widely respected for their abilities but also widely criticized for their excesses. Isocrates [ edit]Main article: Isocrates Isocrates (436–338 BC), like the sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more heavily on native talent and desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would function to improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a city. In fact, Isocrates was an outspoken champion of rhetoric as a mode of civic engagement. [42] He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod, seeking to inspire in them a desire to attain fame through civic leadership. His was the first permanent school in Athens and it is likely that Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches ( "Antidosis" and "Against the Sophists" are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory (he was one of the canonical " Ten Attic Orators ") and keys to his entire educational program. He had a marked influence on Cicero and Quintilian, and through them, on the entire educational system of the west. Plato [ edit]Main articles: Plato and Platonism Plato (427–347 BC) famously outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues; particularly the Gorgias and Phaedrus dialogues wherein Plato disputes the sophistic notion that the art of persuasion (the sophists' art, which he calls "rhetoric"), can exist independent of the art of dialectic. Plato claims that since sophists appeal only to what seems probable, they are not advancing their students and audiences, but simply flattering them with what they want to hear. While Plato's condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the Gorgias, in the Phaedrus he suggests the possibility of a true art wherein rhetoric is based upon the knowledge produced by dialectic, and relies on a dialectically informed rhetoric to appeal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philosophy. Thus Plato's rhetoric is actually dialectic (or philosophy) "turned" toward those who are not yet philosophers and are thus unready to pursue dialectic directly. Plato's animosity against rhetoric, and against the sophists, derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was sentenced to death after sophists' efforts. Aristotle [ edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main article: Rhetoric (Aristotle)A marble bust of Aristotle Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a student of Plato who famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic." [43] As the "antistrophe" of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned after the structure of the " strophe " (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. The core features of dialectic include the absence of determined subject matter, its elaboration on earlier empirical practice, the explication of its aims, the type of utility and the definition of the proper function. For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to, but different from, the domain or scope of application of dialectic. In Nietzsche Humanist (1998: 129), Claude Pavur explains that " [t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of.'" When Aristotle characterizes rhetoric as the antistrophe of dialectic, he no doubt means that rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislative assembly. The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs, not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought. These, for him, are in the domain of dialectic. Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric systematically describes civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). It is more of an objective theory than it is an interpretive theory with a rhetorical tradition. Aristotle's art of rhetoric emphasizes persuasion as the purpose of rhetoric. His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion," essentially a mode of discovery, limits the art to the inventional process, and Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. In his account, rhetoric is the art of discovering all available means of persuasion. A speaker supports the probability of a message by logical, ethical, and emotional proofs. Some form of logos, ethos, and pathos is present in every possible public presentation that exists. But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements of style and (briefly) delivery, but also emotional appeals (pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos). Aristotle identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof: ethos (Aristotle's theory of character and how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable—there being three qualities that contribute to a credible ethos: perceived intelligence, virtuous character, and goodwill); [44] pathos (the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience. ); and, logos (the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, to construct an argument). Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An "enthymeme" would follow today's form of a syllogism; however it would exclude either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience is providing the missing premise. Because the audience is able to provide the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message. Aristotle identified three different types or genres of civic rhetoric. Forensic (also known as judicial), was concerned with determining the truth or falseness of events that took place in the past and issues of guilt. An example of forensic rhetoric would be in a courtroom. Deliberative (also known as political), was concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future. Making laws would be an example of deliberative rhetoric. Epideictic (also known as ceremonial), was concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present. Examples of epideictic rhetoric would include a eulogy or a wedding toast. Canons [ edit]The Five Canons of Rhetoric serve as a guide to creating persuasive messages and arguments. These are invention (the process of developing arguments); style (determining how to present the arguments); arrangement (organizing the arguments for extreme effect); delivery (the gestures, pronunciation, tone and pace used when presenting the persuasive arguments); and memory (the process of learning and memorizing the speech and persuasive messages.) [45]In the rhetoric field, there is an intellectual debate about Aristotle's definition of rhetoric. Some believe that Aristotle defines rhetoric in On Rhetoric as the art of persuasion, while others think he defines it as the art of judgment. Rhetoric as the art of judgment would mean the rhetor discerns the available means of persuasion with a choice. Aristotle also says rhetoric is concerned with judgment because the audience judges the rhetor's ethos. One of the most famous of Aristotelian doctrines was the idea of topics (also referred to as common topics or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name. Cicero [ edit]Main articles: Cicero, Asiatic style, De Inventione, De Oratore, Brutus (Cicero), De Optimo Genere Oratorum, and De Partitionibus Oratoriae Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero For the Romans, oration became an important part of public life. Cicero (106–43 BC) was chief among Roman rhetoricians and remains the best known ancient orator and the only orator who both spoke in public and produced treatises on the subject. Rhetorica ad Herennium, formerly attributed to Cicero but now considered to be of unknown authorship, is one of the most significant works on rhetoric and is still widely used as a reference today. It is an extensive reference on the use of rhetoric, and in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it achieved wide publication as an advanced school text on rhetoric. Cicero is considered one of the most significant rhetoricians of all time, charting a middle path between the competing Attic and Asiatic styles to become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators. [46] His works include the early and very influential De Inventione (On Invention, often read alongside the Ad Herennium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), De Oratore (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue form), Topics (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance), Brutus (Cicero) (a discussion of famous orators) and Orator (a defense of Cicero's style). Cicero also left a large body of speeches and letters which would establish the outlines of Latin eloquence and style for generations to come. It was the rediscovery of Cicero's speeches (such as the defense of Archias) and letters (to Atticus) by Italians like Petrarch that, in part, ignited the cultural innovations that we know as the Renaissance. He championed the learning of Greek (and Greek rhetoric), contributed to Roman ethics, linguistics, philosophy, and politics, and emphasized the importance of all forms of appeal (emotion, humor, stylistic range, irony and digression in addition to pure reasoning) in oratory. But perhaps his most significant contribution to subsequent rhetoric, and education in general, was his argument that orators learn not only about the specifics of their case (the hypothesis) but also about the general questions from which they derived (the theses ). Thus, in giving a speech in defense of a poet whose Roman citizenship had been questioned, the orator should examine not only the specifics of that poet's civic status, he should also examine the role and value of poetry and of literature more generally in Roman culture and political life. The orator, said Cicero, needed to be knowledgeable about all areas of human life and culture, including law, politics, history, literature, ethics, warfare, medicine, even arithmetic and geometry. Cicero gave rise to the idea that the "ideal orator" be well-versed in all branches of learning: an idea that was rendered as "liberal humanism," and that lives on today in liberal arts or general education requirements in colleges and universities around the world. Quintilian [ edit]This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main articles: Quintilian and Byzantine rhetoric Quintilian (35–100 CE) began his career as a pleader in the courts of law; his reputation grew so great that Vespasian created a chair of rhetoric for him in Rome. The culmination of his life's work was the Institutio Oratoria ( Institutes of Oratory, or alternatively, The Orator's Education ), a lengthy treatise on the training of the orator, in which he discusses the training of the "perfect" orator from birth to old age and, in the process, reviews the doctrines and opinions of many influential rhetoricians who preceded him. In the Institutes, Quintilian organizes rhetorical study through the stages of education that an aspiring orator would undergo, beginning with the selection of a nurse. Aspects of elementary education (training in reading and writing, grammar, and literary criticism) are followed by preliminary rhetorical exercises in composition (the progymnasmata) that include maxims and fables, narratives and comparisons, and finally full legal or political speeches. The delivery of speeches within the context of education or for entertainment purposes became widespread and popular under the term "declamation." Rhetorical training proper was categorized under five canons that would persist for centuries in academic circles: Inventio (invention) is the process that leads to the development and refinement of an argument. Once arguments are developed, dispositio (disposition, or arrangement) is used to determine how it should be organized for greatest effect, usually beginning with the exordium. Once the speech content is known and the structure is determined, the next steps involve elocutio (style) and pronuntiatio (presentation). Memoria (memory) comes to play as the speaker recalls each of these elements during the speech. Actio (delivery) is the final step as the speech is presented in a gracious and pleasing way to the audience – the Grand Style. This work was available only in fragments in medieval times, but the discovery of a complete copy at the Abbey of St. Gall in 1416 led to its emergence as one of the most influential works on rhetoric during the Renaissance. Quintilian's work describes not just the art of rhetoric, but the formation of the perfect orator as a politically active, virtuous, publicly minded citizen. His emphasis was on the ethical application of rhetorical training, in part a reaction against the growing tendency in Roman schools toward standardization of themes and techniques. At the same time that rhetoric was becoming divorced from political decision making, rhetoric rose as a culturally vibrant and important mode of entertainment and cultural criticism in a movement known as the "second sophistic," a development that gave rise to the charge (made by Quintilian and others) that teachers were emphasizing style over substance in rhetoric. Medieval to Enlightenment [ edit]After the breakup of the western Roman Empire, the study of rhetoric continued to be central to the study of the verbal arts; but the study of the verbal arts went into decline for several centuries, followed eventually by a gradual rise in formal education, culminating in the rise of medieval universities. But rhetoric transmuted during this period into the arts of letter writing ( ars dictaminis) and sermon writing ( ars praedicandi ). As part of the trivium, rhetoric was secondary to the study of logic, and its study was highly scholastic: students were given repetitive exercises in the creation of discourses on historical subjects ( suasoriae) or on classic legal questions ( controversiae ). Although he is not commonly regarded as a rhetorician, St. Augustine (354–430) was trained in rhetoric and was at one time a professor of Latin rhetoric in Milan. After his conversion to Christianity, he became interested in using these " pagan " arts for spreading his religion. This new use of rhetoric is explored in the Fourth Book of his De Doctrina Christiana, which laid the foundation of what would become homiletics, the rhetoric of the sermon. Augustine begins the book by asking why "the power of eloquence, which is so efficacious in pleading either for the erroneous cause or the right", should not be used for righteous purposes (IV. 3). One early concern of the medieval Christian church was its attitude to classical rhetoric itself. Jerome (d. 420) complained, "What has Horace to do with the Psalms, Virgil with the Gospels, Cicero with the Apostles?" Augustine is also remembered for arguing for the preservation of pagan works and fostering a church tradition that led to conservation of numerous pre-Christian rhetorical writings. Rhetoric would not regain its classical heights until the Renaissance, but new writings did advance rhetorical thought. Boethius (480?–524), in his brief Overview of the Structure of Rhetoric, continues Aristotle's taxonomy by placing rhetoric in subordination to philosophical argument or dialectic. [47] The introduction of Arab scholarship from European relations with the Muslim empire (in particular Al-Andalus) renewed interest in Aristotle and Classical thought in general, leading to what some historians call the 12th century Renaissance. A number of medieval grammars and studies of poetry and rhetoric appeared. Late medieval rhetorical writings include those of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225?–1274), Matthew of Vendome ( Ars Versificatoria, 1175? ), and Geoffrey of Vinsauf ( Poetria Nova, 1200–1216). Pre-modern female rhetoricians, outside of Socrates' friend Aspasia, are rare; but medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious orders, such as Julian of Norwich (d. 1415), or the very well-connected Christine de Pizan (1364?–1430? ), did occur if not always recorded in writing. In his 1943 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation in English, Canadian Marshall Mc Luhan (1911–1980) surveys the verbal arts from approximately the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe (1567–1600?). [48] His dissertation is still noteworthy for undertaking to study the history of the verbal arts together as the trivium, even though the developments that he surveys have been studied in greater detail since he undertook his study. As noted below, Mc Luhan became one of the most widely publicized thinkers in the 20th century, so it is important to note his scholarly roots in the study of the history of rhetoric and dialectic. Another interesting record of medieval rhetorical thought can be seen in the many animal debate poems popular in England and the continent during the Middle Ages, such as The Owl and the Nightingale (13th century) and Geoffrey Chaucer 's Parliament of Fowls (1382?). Sixteenth century [ edit]Walter J. Ong's article "Humanism" in the 1967 New Catholic Encyclopedia surveys Renaissance humanism, which defined itself broadly as disfavoring medieval scholastic logic and dialectic and as favoring instead the study of classical Latin style and grammar and philology and rhetoric. (Reprinted in Ong's Faith and Contexts (Scholars Press, 1999; 4: 69–91. ))Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam One influential figure in the rebirth of interest in classical rhetoric was Erasmus (c. 1466–1536). His 1512 work, De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum (also known as Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style ), was widely published (it went through more than 150 editions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity, but provides a traditional treatment of res-verba (matter and form): its first book treats the subject of elocutio, showing the student how to use schemes and tropes; the second book covers inventio. Much of the emphasis is on abundance of variation ( copia means "plenty" or "abundance", as in copious or cornucopia), so both books focus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of variety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the De Copia, Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the sentence "Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero." Another of his works, the extremely popular The Praise of Folly, also had considerable influence on the teaching of rhetoric in the later 16th century. Its orations in favour of qualities such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in Elizabethan grammar schools, later called adoxography, which required pupils to compose passages in praise of useless things. Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540) also helped shape the study of rhetoric in England. A Spaniard, he was appointed in 1523 to the Lectureship of Rhetoric at Oxford by Cardinal Wolsey, and was entrusted by Henry VIII to be one of the tutors of Mary. Vives fell into disfavor when Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon and left England in 1528. His best-known work was a book on education, De Disciplinis, published in 1531, and his writings on rhetoric included Rhetoricae, sive De Ratione Dicendi, Libri Tres (1533), De Consultatione (1533), and a rhetoric on letter writing, De Conscribendis Epistolas (1536). It is likely that many well-known English writers were exposed to the works of Erasmus and Vives (as well as those of the Classical rhetoricians) in their schooling, which was conducted in Latin (not English) and often included some study of Greek and placed considerable emphasis on rhetoric. See, for example, T. W. Baldwin's William Shakspere's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke, 2 vols. (University of Illinois Press, 1944). The mid-16th century saw the rise of vernacular rhetorics—those written in English rather than in the Classical languages; adoption of works in English was slow, however, due to the strong orientation toward Latin and Greek. Leonard Cox 's The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke (c. 1524–1530; second edition published in 1532) is considered to be the earliest text on rhetorics in English; it was, for the most part, a translation of the work of Philipp Melanchthon. [49] A successful early text was Thomas Wilson 's The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), which presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric. For instance, Wilson presents the five canons of rhetoric (Invention, Disposition, Elocutio, Memoria, and Utterance or Actio ). Other notable works included Angel Day's The English Secretorie (1586, 1592), George Puttenham 's The Arte of English Poesie (1589), and Richard Rainholde 's Foundacion of Rhetorike (1563). During this same period, a movement began that would change the organization of the school curriculum in Protestant and especially Puritan circles and led to rhetoric losing its central place. A French scholar, Pierre de la Ramée, in Latin Petrus Ramus (1515–1572), dissatisfied with what he saw as the overly broad and redundant organization of the trivium, proposed a new curriculum. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that remained for rhetoric. See Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Harvard University Press, 1958; reissued by the University of Chicago Press, 2004, with a new foreword by Adrian Johns). Ramus was martyred during the French Wars of Religion. His teachings, seen as inimical to Catholicism, were short-lived in France but found a fertile ground in the Netherlands, Germany and England. [50]One of Ramus' French followers, Audomarus Talaeus (Omer Talon) published his rhetoric, Institutiones Oratoriae, in 1544. This work provided a simple presentation of rhetoric that emphasized the treatment of style, and became so popular that it was mentioned in John Brinsley 's (1612) Ludus literarius; or The Grammar Schoole as being the "most used in the best schooles." Many other Ramist rhetorics followed in the next half-century, and by the 17th century, their approach became the primary method of teaching rhetoric in Protestant and especially Puritan circles. [51] John Milton (1608–1674) wrote a textbook in logic or dialectic in Latin based on Ramus' work. [52]Ramism could not exert any influence on the established Catholic schools and universities, which remained loyal to Scholasticism, or on the new Catholic schools and universities founded by members of the religious orders known as the Society of Jesus or the Oratorians, as can be seen in the Jesuit curriculum (in use right up to the 19th century, across the Christian world) known as the Ratio Studiorum (that Claude Pavur, S. J., has recently translated into English, with the Latin text in the parallel column on each page (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2005)). If the influence of Cicero and Quintilian permeates the Ratio Studiorum, it is through the lenses of devotion and the militancy of the Counter-Reformation. The Ratio was indeed imbued with a sense of the divine, of the incarnate logos, that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means to reach further devotion and further action in the Christian city, which was absent from Ramist formalism. The Ratio is, in rhetoric, the answer to St Ignatius Loyola's practice, in devotion, of "spiritual exercises." This complex oratorical-prayer system is absent from Ramism. Seventeenth century [ edit]In New England and at Harvard College (founded 1636), Ramus and his followers dominated, as Perry Miller shows in The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (Harvard University Press, 1939). However, in England, several writers influenced the course of rhetoric during the 17th century, many of them carrying forward the dichotomy that had been set forth by Ramus and his followers during the preceding decades. Of greater importance is that this century saw the development of a modern, vernacular style that looked to English, rather than to Greek, Latin, or French models. Francis Bacon (1561–1626), although not a rhetorician, contributed to the field in his writings. One of the concerns of the age was to find a suitable style for the discussion of scientific topics, which needed above all a clear exposition of facts and arguments, rather than the ornate style favored at the time. Bacon in his The Advancement of Learning criticized those who are preoccupied with style rather than "the weight of matter, worth of subject, soundness of argument, life of invention, or depth of judgment." On matters of style, he proposed that the style conform to the subject matter and to the audience, that simple words be employed whenever possible, and that the style should be agreeable. [53]Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) also wrote on rhetoric. Along with a shortened translation of Aristotle 's Rhetoric, Hobbes also produced a number of other works on the subject. Sharply contrarian on many subjects, Hobbes, like Bacon, also promoted a simpler and more natural style that used figures of speech sparingly. Perhaps the most influential development in English style came out of the work of the Royal Society (founded in 1660), which in 1664 set up a committee to improve the English language. Among the committee's members were John Evelyn (1620–1706), Thomas Sprat (1635–1713), and John Dryden (1631–1700). Sprat regarded "fine speaking" as a disease, and thought that a proper style should "reject all amplifications, digressions, and swellings of style" and instead "return back to a primitive purity and shortness" ( History of the Royal Society, 1667). While the work of this committee never went beyond planning, John Dryden is often credited with creating and exemplifying a new and modern English style. His central tenet was that the style should be proper "to the occasion, the subject, and the persons." As such, he advocated the use of English words whenever possible instead of foreign ones, as well as vernacular, rather than Latinate, syntax. His own prose (and his poetry) became exemplars of this new style. Eighteenth century [ edit]Arguably one of the most influential schools of rhetoric during this time was Scottish Belletristic rhetoric, exemplified by such professors of rhetoric as Hugh Blair whose Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres saw international success in various editions and translations. Modern [ edit]At the turn of the 20th century, there was a revival of rhetorical study manifested in the establishment of departments of rhetoric and speech at academic institutions, as well as the formation of national and international professional organizations. [54] Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew King suggest that the early interest in rhetorical studies was a movement away from elocution as taught in departments of English in the United States, and was an attempt to refocus rhetorical studies away from delivery only to civic engagement. Collectively, they write, twentieth century rhetorical studies offered an understanding of rhetoric that demonstrated a "rich complexity" of how rhetorical scholars understood the nature of rhetoric. [55] Theorists generally agree that by the 1930s a significant reason for the revival of the study of rhetoric was the renewed importance of language and persuasion in the increasingly mediated environment of the 20th century (see Linguistic turn) and through the 21st century, with the media focus on the wide variations and analyses of political rhetoric and its consequences. The rise of advertising and of mass media such as photography, telegraphy, radio, and film brought rhetoric more prominently into people's lives. More recently the term rhetoric has been applied to media forms other than verbal language, e.g. Visual rhetoric. Notable modern theorists [ edit]Chaïm Perelman was a philosopher of law, who studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. He was among the most important argumentation theorists of the 20th century. His chief work is the Traité de l'argumentation – la nouvelle rhétorique (1958), with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, which was translated into English as The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation, by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver (1969). Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca move rhetoric from the periphery to the center of argumentation theory. Among their most influential concepts are "dissociation," "the universal audience," "quasi-logical argument," and "presence. "Kenneth Burke was a rhetorical theorist, philosopher, and poet. Many of his works are central to modern rhetorical theory: A Rhetoric of Motives (1950), A Grammar of Motives (1945), Language as Symbolic Action (1966), and Counterstatement (1931). Among his influential concepts are "identification," "consubstantiality," and the "dramatistic pentad." He described rhetoric as "the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols." [56] In relation to Aristotle's theory, Aristotle was more interested in constructing rhetoric, while Burke was interested in "debunking" it. Edwin Black was a rhetorical critic best known for his book Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method [57] (1965) in which he criticized the dominant "neo-Aristotelian" tradition in American rhetorical criticism as having little in common with Aristotle "besides some recurrent topics of discussion and a vaguely derivative view of rhetorical discourse." Furthermore, he contended, because rhetorical scholars had been focusing primarily on Aristotelian logical forms they often overlooked important, alternative types of discourse. He also published several highly influential essays including: "Secrecy and Disclosure as Rhetorical Forms", [58] "The Second Persona," [59] and "A Note on Theory and Practice in Rhetorical Criticism". [60]Marshall Mc Luhan was a media theorist whose theories and whose choice of objects of study are important to the study of rhetoric. Mc Luhan's famous dictum "the medium is the message" highlights the significance of the medium itself. No other scholar of the history and theory of rhetoric was as widely publicized in the 20th century as Mc Luhan. [61]I. A. Richards was a literary critic and rhetorician. His The Philosophy of Rhetoric is an important text in modern rhetorical theory. In this work, he defined rhetoric as "a study of misunderstandings and its remedies," [62] and introduced the influential concepts tenor and vehicle to describe the components of a metaphor—the main idea and the concept to which it is compared. [63]The Groupe µ. This interdisciplinary team has contributed to the renovation of the elocutio in the context of poetics and modern linguistics, significantly with Rhétorique générale (1970; translated into English as A General Rhetoric, by Paul B. Burrell et Edgar M. Slotkin, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981) and Rhétorique de la poésie (1977). Stephen Toulmin was a philosopher whose models of argumentation have had great influence on modern rhetorical theory. His Uses of Argument is an important text in modern rhetorical theory and argumentation theory. [64]Richard Vatz is a rhetorician responsible for the salience-agenda/meaning-spin conceptualization of rhetoric, later revised (2014) to an "agenda-spin" model, a conceptualization which emphasizes persuader responsibility for the agenda and spin he/she creates. His theory is notable for its agent-focused perspective, articulated in /The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion/ (Kendall Hunt), derived from the Summer, 1973 /Philosophy and Rhetoric/ article, "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. "Richard M. Weaver was a rhetorical and cultural critic well known for his contributions to the new conservatism. He focused on the ethical implications of rhetoric and his ideas can be seen in "Language is Sermonic" and "The Ethics of Rhetoric." According to Weaver there are four types of argument, and through the argument a person habitually uses the critic can see the rhetorician's worldview. Those who prefer the argument from genus or definition are idealists. Those who argue from similitude see the connectedness between things and are used by poets and religious individuals. The argument from consequence sees a cause and effect relationship. Finally the argument from circumstance considers the particulars of a situation and is an argument preferred by liberals. Gloria Anzaldua was a "Mestiza" and "Borderland" rhetorician, as well as a Mexican-American poet and pioneer in the field of Chicana lesbian feminism. Mestiza and Borderland rhetoric focused on ones' formation of identity, disregarding societal and discourse labels. [65] With "Mestiza" rhetoric, one viewed the world as discovering one's "self" in others and others' "self" in you. Through this process, one accepted living in a world of contradictions and ambiguity. [65] Anzaldua learned to balance cultures, being Mexican in the eyes of the Anglo-majority and Indian in a Mexican culture. [65] Her other notable works include: Sinister Wisdom, [66] Borderlands/La Fronters: The New Mestiza, [67] and La Prieta. [68]Gertrude Buck was one of the prominent female rhetorical theorists who was also a composition educator. Her scholastic contributions such as "The present status of Rhetorical Theory" [69] to inspire the egalitarian status of hearers-speakers to achieve the goal of communication. Another piece that she edited with Newton Scott is "Brief English Grammar" which troubled the common prescriptive grammar. This book received a lot of praise and critiques for descriptive nature of social responsibility from non-mainstream beliefs. [70]Krista Ratcliffe is one of the prominent female rhetorical theorists. She wrote one of her influential models of "Rhetorical Listening: Identification, Gender, Whiteness.” In it, she theorizes many ways in which effect has to navigate the pitfalls of biases, ideological and cultural conditioning, and appropriation. She points out and recommends relentless engagement. In her Book, Ratcliffe seems to recommend [71] when she said that I would suggest that teachers should keep themselves open to hearing diverse layers in their students' texts that both challenge their biases and point to new textual possibilities. Methods of analysis [ edit]Criticism seen as a method [ edit]Rhetoric can be analyzed by a variety of methods and theories. One such method is criticism. When those using criticism analyze instances of rhetoric what they do is called rhetorical criticism (see section below). According to rhetorical critic Jim A. Kuypers, "The use of rhetoric is an art; as such, it does not lend itself well to scientific methods of analysis. Criticism is an art as well; as such, it is particularly well suited for examining rhetorical creations." [72] He asserts that criticism is a method of generating knowledge just as the scientific method is a method for generating knowledge: "The way the Sciences and the Humanities study the phenomena that surround us differ greatly in the amount of researcher personality allowed to influence the results of the study. For example, in the Sciences researchers purposefully adhere to a strict method (the scientific method). All scientific researchers are to use this same basic method, and successful experiments must be 100 percent replicable by others. The application of the scientific method may take numerous forms, but the overall method remains the same—and the personality of the researcher is excised from the actual study. In sharp contrast, criticism (one of many Humanistic methods of generating knowledge) actively involves the personality of the researcher. The very choices of what to study, and how and why to study a rhetorical artifact are heavily influenced by the personal qualities of the researcher. In criticism this is especially important since the personality of the critic considered an integral component of the study. Further personalizing criticism, we find that rhetorical critics use a variety of means when examining a particular rhetorical artifact, with some critics even developing their own unique perspective to better examine a rhetorical artifact." [72]Edwin Black (rhetorician) wrote on this point that, "Methods, then, admit of varying degrees of personality. And criticism, on the whole, is near the indeterminate, contingent, personal end of the methodological scale. In consequence of this placement, it is neither possible nor desirable for criticism to be fixed into a system, for critical techniques to be objectified, for critics to be interchangeable for purposes of [scientific] replication, or for rhetorical criticism to serve as the handmaiden of quasi-scientific theory. [The] idea is that critical method is too personally expressive to be systematized. [73]Jim A. Kuypers sums this idea of criticism as art in the following manner: "In short, criticism is an art, not a science. It is not a scientific method; it uses subjective methods of argument; it exists on its own, not in conjunction with other methods of generating knowledge (i.e., social scientific or scientific). [I]nsight and imagination top statistical applications when studying rhetorical action." [74]Observation on analytic method [ edit]There does not exist an analytic method that is widely recognized as "the" rhetorical method, partly because many in rhetorical study see rhetoric as merely produced by reality (see dissent from that view below). It is important to note that the object of rhetorical analysis is typically discourse, and therefore the principles of "rhetorical analysis" would be difficult to distinguish from those of " discourse analysis ." However, rhetorical analytic methods can also be applied to almost anything, including objects—a car, a castle, a computer, a comportment. Generally speaking, rhetorical analysis makes use of rhetorical concepts (ethos, logos, kairos, mediation, etc.) to describe the social or epistemological functions of the object of study. When the object of study happens to be some type of discourse (a speech, a poem, a joke, a newspaper article), the aim of rhetorical analysis is not simply to describe the claims and arguments advanced within the discourse, but (more important) to identify the specific semiotic strategies employed by the speaker to accomplish specific persuasive goals. Therefore, after a rhetorical analyst discovers a use of language that is particularly important in achieving persuasion, she typically moves onto the question of "How does it work?" That is, what effects does this particular use of rhetoric have on an audience, and how does that effect provide more clues as to the speaker's (or writer's) objectives? There are some scholars who do partial rhetorical analysis and defer judgments about rhetorical success. In other words, some analysts attempt to avoid the question of "Was this use of rhetoric successful [in accomplishing the aims of the speaker]?" To others, however, that is the preeminent point: is the rhetoric strategically effective and what did the rhetoric accomplish? This question allows a shift in focus from the speaker's objectives to the effects and functions of the rhetoric itself. Strategies [ edit]Rhetorical strategies are the efforts made by authors to persuade or inform their readers. Rhetorical strategies are employed by writers and refer to the different ways they can persuade the reader. According to Gray, there are various argument strategies used in writing. He describes four of these as argument from analogy, argument from absurdity, thought experiments, and inference to the best explanation. [75]Criticism [ edit]Modern rhetorical criticism explores the relationship between text and context; that is, how an instance of rhetoric relates to circumstances. Since the aim of rhetoric is to be persuasive, the level to which the rhetoric in question persuades its audience is what must be analyzed, and later criticized. In determining the extent to which a text is persuasive, one may explore the text's relationship with its audience, purpose, ethics, argument, evidence, arrangement, delivery, and style. [76] In his Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method, scholar Edwin Black states, "It is the task of criticism not to measure ... discourses dogmatically against some parochial standard of rationality but, allowing for the immeasurable wide range of human experience, to see them as they really are." [77] While the language "as they really are" is debatable, rhetorical critics explain texts and speeches by investigating their rhetorical situation, typically placing them in a framework of speaker/audience exchange. The antithetical view places the rhetor at the center of creating that which is considered the extant situation; i.e., the agenda and spin. [78]Additional theoretical approaches [ edit]Following the neo-Aristotelian approaches to criticism, scholars began to derive methods from other disciplines, such as history, philosophy, and the social sciences. [79] The importance of critics' personal judgment decreased in explicit coverage while the analytical dimension of criticism began to gain momentum. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, methodological pluralism replaced the singular neo-Aristotelian method. Methodological rhetorical criticism is typically done by deduction, where a broad method is used to examine a specific case of rhetoric. [80] These types include: Ideological criticism – critics engage rhetoric as it suggests the beliefs, values, assumptions, and interpretations held by the rhetor or the larger culture. Ideological criticism also treats ideology as an artifact of discourse, one that is embedded in key terms (called " ideographs ") as well as material resources and discursive embodiment. Cluster criticism – a method developed by Kenneth Burke that seeks to help the critic understand the rhetor's worldview. This means identifying terms that are 'clustered' around key symbols in the rhetorical artifact and the patterns in which they appear. Frame analysis – when used as rhetorical criticism, this theoretical perspective allows critics to look for how rhetors construct an interpretive lens in their discourse. In short, how they make certain facts more noticeable than others. It is particularly useful for analyzing products of the news media. Generic criticism – a method that assumes certain situations call for similar needs and expectations within the audience, therefore calling for certain types of rhetoric. It studies rhetoric in different times and locations, looking at similarities in the rhetorical situation and the rhetoric that responds to them. Examples include eulogies, inaugural addresses, and declarations of war. Narrative criticism – narratives help organize experiences in order to endow meaning to historical events and transformations. Narrative criticism focuses on the story itself and how the construction of the narrative directs the interpretation of the situation. By the mid-1980s, however, the study of rhetorical criticism began to move away from precise methodology towards conceptual issues. Conceptually driven criticism [81] operates more through abduction, according to scholar James Jasinski, who argues that this emerging type of criticism can be thought of as a back-and-forth between the text and the concepts, which are being explored at the same time. The concepts remain "works in progress," and understanding those terms develops through the analysis of a text. [82]Criticism is considered rhetorical when it focuses on the way some types of discourse react to situational exigencies—problems or demands—and constraints. This means that modern rhetorical criticism is based in how the rhetorical case or object persuades, defines, or constructs the audience. In modern terms, what can be considered rhetoric includes, but it is not limited to, speeches, scientific discourse, pamphlets, literary work, works of art, and pictures. Contemporary rhetorical criticism has maintained aspects of early neo-Aristotelian thinking through close reading, which attempts to explore the organization and stylistic structure of a rhetorical object. [83] Using close textual analysis means rhetorical critics use the tools of classical rhetoric and literary analysis to evaluate the style and strategy used to communicate the argument. Purpose of criticism [ edit]Rhetorical criticism serves several purposes or functions. First, rhetorical criticism hopes to help form or improve public taste. It helps educate audiences and develops them into better judges of rhetorical situations by reinforcing ideas of value, morality, and suitability. Rhetorical criticism can thus contribute to the audience's understanding of themselves and society. According to Jim A. Kuypers, a dual purpose for performing criticism should be primarily to enhance our appreciation and understanding. ' [W]e wish to enhance both our own and others' understanding of the rhetorical act; we wish to share our insights with others, and to enhance their appreciation of the rhetorical act. These are not hollow goals, but quality of life issues. By improving understanding and appreciation, the critic can offer new and potentially exciting ways for others to see the world. Through understanding we also produce knowledge about human communication; in theory this should help us to better govern our interactions with others.' Criticism is a humanizing activity in that it explores and highlights qualities that make us human." [84]French [ edit]Rhetoric was part of the curriculum in Jesuit and, to a lesser extent, Oratorian colleges until the French Revolution. For Jesuits, right from the foundation of the Society in France, rhetoric was an integral part of the training of young men toward taking up leadership positions in the Church and in State institutions, as Marc Fumaroli has shown it in his foundational Âge de l'éloquence (1980). The Oratorians, by contrast, reserved it a lesser place, in part due to the stress they placed on modern language acquisition and a more sensualist philosophy (like Bernard Lamy 's La Rhétorique ou l'Art de parler (1675), which is an excellent example of their approach). Nonetheless, in the 18th Century, rhetoric was the structure and crown of secondary education, with works such as Rollin's Treatise of Studies achieving a wide and enduring fame across the Continent. [85] Later, with Nicolas Boileau and François de Malherbe, rhetoric is the instrument of the clarity of the comment and speech ; the literature that ensues from it is named "Sublime". The main representative remains Rivarol. The French Revolution, however, turned this around. Philosophers such as Condorcet, who drafted the French revolutionary chart for a people's education under the rule of reason, dismissed rhetoric as an instrument of oppression in the hands of clerics in particular. The Revolution went as far as to suppress the Bar, arguing that forensic rhetoric did disservice to a rational system of justice, by allowing fallacies and emotions to come into play. Nonetheless, as later historians of the 19th century were keen to explain, the Revolution was a high moment of eloquence and rhetorical prowess, although set against a background of rejecting rhetoric. Under the First Empire and its wide-ranging educational reforms, imposed on or imitated across the Continent, rhetoric regained little ground. In fact, instructions to the newly founded Polytechnic School, tasked with training the scientific and technical elites, made it clear that written reporting was to supersede oral reporting. Rhetoric reentered secondary curriculum in fits and starts, but never regained the prominence it had enjoyed under the ancien régime, although the penultimate year of secondary education was known as the Class of Rhetoric. When manuals were redrafted in the mid-century, in particular after the 1848 Revolution to formulate a national curriculum, care was taken to distance their approach to rhetoric from that of the Church, which was seen as an agent of conservatism and reactionary politics. By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education (the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education). Rhetoric was then relegated to the study of literary figures of speech, a discipline later on taught as Stylistics within the French literature curriculum. More decisively, in 1890, a new standard written exercise superseded the rhetorical exercises of speech writing, letter writing and narration. The new genre, called dissertation, had been invented in 1866, for the purpose of rational argument in the philosophy class. Typically, in a dissertation, a question is asked, such as: "Is history a sign of humanity's freedom?" The structure of a dissertation consists in an introduction that elucidates the basic definitions involved in the question as set, followed by an argument or thesis, a counter-argument or antithesis, and a resolving argument or synthesis that is not a compromise between the former but the production of a new argument, ending with a conclusion that does not sum up the points but opens onto a new problem. Hegelianism influenced the dissertation design. It remains today the standard of writing in French humanities. By the beginning of the 20th century, rhetoric was fast losing the remains of its former importance, and eventually was taken out of the school curriculum altogether at the time of the Separation of State and Churches (1905). Part of the argument was that rhetoric remained the last element of irrationality, driven by religious arguments, in what was perceived as inimical to Republican education. The move, initiated in 1789, found its resolution in 1902 when rhetoric was expunged from all curricula. At the same time, Aristotelian rhetoric, owing to a revival of Thomistic philosophy initiated by Rome, regained ground in what was left of Catholic education in France, in particular at the prestigious Faculty of Theology of Paris, now a private entity. Yet, rhetoric vanished substantially from the French scene, educational or intellectual, for some 60 years.. In the early 1960s a change began to take place, as the word rhetoric and the body of knowledge it covers began to be used again, in a modest and almost secret manner. The new linguistic turn, through the rise of semiotics as well as of structural linguistics, brought to the fore a new interest in figures of speech as signs, the metaphor in particular (in the works of Roman Jakobson, Groupe µ, Michel Charles, Gérard Genette) while famed Structuralist Roland Barthes, a classicist by training, perceived how some basic elements of rhetoric could be of use in the study of narratives, fashion and ideology. Knowledge of rhetoric was so dim in the early 1970s that his short memoir on rhetoric was seen as highly innovative. Basic as it was, it did help rhetoric regain some currency in avant-garde circles. Psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, his contemporary, makes references to rhetoric, in particular to the Pre-Socratics. Philosopher Jacques Derrida wrote on Voice. At the same time, more profound work was taking place that eventually gave rise to the French school of rhetoric as it exists today. [86]This rhetorical revival took place on two fronts. [87] First, in 17th-century French studies, the mainstay of French literary education, awareness grew that rhetoric was necessary to push the limits of knowledge further, and also to provide an antidote to Structuralism and its denial of historicism in culture. This was the pioneering work of Marc Fumaroli who, building on the work of classicist and Neo-Latinist Alain Michel and French scholars such as Roger Zuber, published his famed Age de l'Eloquence (1980), was one of the founders of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric and was eventually elevated to a chair in rhetoric at the prestigious College de France. He is the editor in chief of a monumental History of Rhetoric in Modern Europe. [88] His disciples form the second generation, [89] with rhetoricians such as Françoise Waquet and Delphine Denis, both of the Sorbonne, or Philippe-Joseph Salazar ( fr: Philippe-Joseph Salazar on the French Wikipedia), until recently at Derrida's College international de philosophie, laureate of the Harry Oppenheimer prize and whose recent book on Hyperpolitique has attracted the French media's attention on a "re-appropriation of the means of production of persuasion". [90]Second, in the area of Classical studies, in the wake of Alain Michel, Latin scholars fostered a renewal in Cicero studies. They broke away from a pure literary reading of his orations, in an attempt to embed Cicero in European ethics. Meanwhile, among Greek scholars, the literary historian and philologist Jacques Bompaire, the philologist and philosopher E. Dupréel, and later the literature historian Jacqueline de Romilly pioneered new studies in the Sophists and the Second Sophistic. The second generation of Classicists, often trained in philosophy as well (following Heidegger and Derrida, mainly), built on their work, with authors such as Marcel Detienne (now at Johns Hopkins), Nicole Loraux, Medievalist and logician Alain De Libera (Geneva), [91] Ciceronian scholar Carlos Lévy (Sorbonne, Paris) and Barbara Cassin (Collége international de philosophie, Paris). [92] Sociologist of science Bruno Latour and economist Romain Laufer may also be considered part of, or close to this group. Also French philosophers specialized in Arabic commentaries on Aristotle's Rhetoric. [93]Links between the two strands—literary and philosophical—of the French school of rhetoric are strong and collaborative, and bear witness to the revival of rhetoric in France. [94] A recent issue of Philosophy & Rhetoric presents current writing in the field. [95]Animal rhetoric [ edit]Rhetoric is practiced by social animals in a variety of ways. For example, birds use song, various animals warn members of their species of danger, chimpanzees have the capacity to deceive through communicative keyboard systems, and deer stags compete for the attention of mates. While these might be understood as rhetorical actions (attempts at persuading through meaningful actions and utterances ), they can also be seen as rhetorical fundamentals shared by humans and animals. [96] The study of animal rhetoric has been described as biorhetorics. [97]The self-awareness required to practice rhetoric might be difficult to notice and acknowledge in some animals. However, some animals are capable of acknowledging themselves in a mirror, and therefore, they might be understood to be self-aware and engaged in rhetoric when practicing some form of language, and therefore, rhetoric. [98]Anthropocentrism plays a significant role in human-animal relationships, reflecting and perpetuating binaries in which humans are assumed to be beings that "have" extraordinary qualities while animals are regarded as beings that "lack" those qualities. This dualism is manifested through other forms as well, such as reason and sense, mind and body, ideal and phenomenon in which the first category of each pair ( reason, mind, and ideal) represents and belongs to only humans. By becoming aware of and overcoming these dualistic conceptions including the one between humans and animals, human knowledge of themselves and the world is expected to become more complete and holistic. [99] The relationship between humans and animals (as well as the rest of the natural world) is often defined by the human rhetorical act of naming and categorizing animals through scientific and folk labeling. The act of naming partially defines the rhetorical relationships between humans and animals, though both may be understood to engage in rhetoric beyond human naming and categorizing. [100]Contrary to the binary assumptions deriving from anthropocentrism, which regarded animals as creatures without extraordinarily qualities, it does exist some specific animals with a sort of phrónēsis which confers them capabilities to "learn and receive instruction" with rudimentary understanding of some significant signs. Those animals do practice deliberative, judicial, and epideictic rhetoric deploying ethos, logos, and pathos with gesture and preen, sing and growl. [101] Since animals offer models of rhetorical behavior and interaction that are physical, even instinctual, but perhaps no less artful, getting rid of our accustomed focus on verbal language and consciousness concepts will help people interested in rhetoric and communication matters promote human-animals' rhetoric. [102]See also [ edit]Artes liberales Casuistry Civic humanism Chironomia Composition studies Conversation theory Critical thinking Demagogy Digital rhetoric Discourse analysis Formal fallacy Figure of thought Glossary of rhetorical terms Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)Language and thought Multimodality New rhetoric Pedagogy Persuasion technology Phenomenology Psychological manipulation Propaganda Rhetoric of science Rhetoric of health and medicine Rhetorical operations Rhetorical reason Rogerian argument Rule of three Semiology Speechwriter Technical communication Miscellaneous terms Ad captandum Allusion Antimetabole Aphesis Apologue Aposiopesis Archaism Atticism Brachyology Cacophony Catachresis Chiasmus Circumlocution Climax Conceit Dynamic and formal equivalence Eloquence Enthymeme Euphemism Figure of speech Hendiadys Hysteron proteron Idiom Innuendo Ipse dixit Kenning Literary topos Mediation Merism Metanoia Negation Parable Paraphrase Paraprosdokian Pericope Period Perissologia Praeteritio Proverb Representation Rhetorical device Rhetorical stance Rhetorical velocity Soundbite Synchysis Synesis Synonymia Tautology Tertium comparationis Truism Word play Rhetoric portal Philosophy portal Psychology portal Political speech resources List of political slogans List of speeches Notes [ edit]^ See, e.g., Thomas Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition ( University of Chicago, 1991).^ "... rhetoric is a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics ..." Aristotle. Rhetoric. (trans. W. Rhys Roberts). I:4:1359. Archived 16 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine . ; Aristotle, Rhetoric 1.2.1, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2011.^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece. See, for instance, Johnstone, Henry W. Jr. (1995). "On Schiappa versus Poulakos." Rhetoric Review. 14:2. (Spring), 438–40.^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhetorikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhetor, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhema, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Ero, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, and Donald N. Mc Closkey The Rhetoric of Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public Affairs, London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. ; "In the last ten years, many scholars have investigated exactly how rhetoric works within a particular field." Theodora Polito, " Educational Theory as Theory of Culture: A Vichian perspective on the educational theories of John Dewey and Kieran Egan " Educational Philosophy and Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005, doi: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2005.00136.x; Deirdre N. Mc Closkey (1985) " The Rhetoric of Economics "; JSTOR 2724987 (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press ); Nelson, J. S. (1998) Tropes of Politics (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press); Brown, R. H. (1987) Society as Text (Chicago, University of Chicago Press ).^ Rosamond Kent Sprague, ed., "The Older Sophists: A Complete Translations by Several Hands of the Fragments" in Die Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Edited by Diels-Kranz (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1972), 50–54^ Plato, "Gorgias," The Classical Library^ Rapp, Christof. " Aristotle's Rhetoric – The Agenda of the Rhetoric ", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy^ George A. Kennedy, Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).^ Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).^ James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984).^ Michael Leff, "The Habitation of Rhetoric" in Contemporary Rhetorical Theory: A Reader, ed. John Louis Lucaites, et al. (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).^ Garver, Eugene. Aristotle's Rhetoric. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994. Print.^ Hariman, Robert. Political Style: The Artistry of Power. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Print.^ White, James B. When Words Lose Their Meaning. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Print.^ Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric & Its Christian and Secular Tradition. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1999.^ Vickers, Brian. "Deconstruction's Designs on Rhetoric." Rhetoric and Pedagogy: Its History, Philosophy, and Practice. Ed. Winifred Bryan Horner and Michael Leff. 295–315.^ cf. Conley, T. M. (1990) Rhetoric in the European Tradition. (University of Chicago Press. ; Kennedy, G. A., 1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press.^ "Rhetoric." Augnet. n.p., 2010. Web. 12 April 2010. Augnet.org Archived 12 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine.^ Prill, Paul E. "Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages." Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 129–47. doi: 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129. JSTOR 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129.^ Prill, Paul E. "Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages." Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 131. doi: 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129. JSTOR 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129.^ a b "A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition." The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine.^ Zappen, James P. "Francis Bacon and the Historiography of Scientific Rhetoric." Rhetoric Review 8.1 (1989): 74–88. JSTOR 465682.^ Edwards, Paul C. "Elocution and Shakespeare: An Episode in the History of Literary Taste." Shakespeare Quarterly 35.3 (1984): 305–14. doi: 10.2307/2870367. JSTOR 2870367.^ "A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition." The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine.^ Roffee, J. A. (2016). "Rhetoric, Aboriginal Australians and the Northern Territory intervention: A socio‐legal investigation into pre‐legislative argumentation" (PDF). International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. 5 (1): 131–47. doi: 10.5204/ijcjsd.v5i1.285.^ Roffee, J. A. (2014). "Synthetic Necessary Truth Behind New Labour's Criminalisation of Incest". Social & Legal Studies. 23: 113–30. doi: 10.1177/0964663913502068.^ Ray, Angela G. The Lyceum and Public Culture in the Nineteenth-Century United States. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2005), 14–15.^ Hauser, Gerard (2002). Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. Illinois: Waveland Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57766-221-1.^ Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical Theory: An Introduction (with Info Trac). Canada: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 0-534-63918-6.^ William W. Hallo (2004), "The Birth of Rhetoric", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 25–46, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ Roberta Binkley (2004), "The Rhetoric of Origins and the Other: Reading the Ancient Figure of Enheduanna", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 47–64, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ Paul Y. Hoskisson & Grant M. Boswell (2004), "Neo-Assyrian Rhetoric: The Example of the Third Campaign of Sennacherib (704–681 BC)", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 65–78, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ David Hutto (Summer 2002), "Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric in the Old and Middle Kingdoms", Rhetorica, University of California Press, 20 (3): 213–33, doi: 10.1525/rh.2002.20.3.213^ George Q. Xu (2004), "The Use of Eloquence: The Confucian Perspective", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 115–30, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ David Metzger (2004), "Pentateuchal Rhetoric and the Voice of the Aaronides", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 165–82, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ cf. Mogens Herman Hansen The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes (Blackwell, 1991); Josiah Ober Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens (Princeton UP, 1989); Jeffrey Walker, "Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity;" (Oxford UP, 2000).^ cf. Kennedy, G. A. (1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press. p. 3.^ Isocrates. "Against the Sophists." In Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph D, LL. D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980.; Isocrates. "Antidosis." In Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph D, LL. D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980.^ Aristotle's Rhetoric Book I Chapter 1 [1354a] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.^ Note: This could be any position in which the speaker—whether an acknowledged expert on the subject, or an acquaintance of a person who experienced the matter in question—knows about the topic. For instance, when a magazine claims that An MIT professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big-name "MIT" (a world-renowned American university for the advanced research in mathematics, science, and technology) establishes the "strong" credibility.^ Note: Memory was added much later to the original four canons.^ Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129ff^ Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, Boston: Bedford / St. Martins, 2nd ed., 2001, p. 486.^ Mc Luhan's dissertation was scheduled to be published in a critical edition by Gingko Press in April 2006 with the title The Classical Trivium: The Place of Thomas Nashe in the Learning of His Time.^ Frederic Ives Carpenter, "Leonard Cox and the First English Rhetoric," Modern Language Notes, Vol. 13, No. 5 (May 1898), pp. 146–47. doi: 10.2307/2917751. JSTOR 2917751 – subscription required).^ See Marc Fumaroli, Age de l'Éloquence, 1980, for an extensive presentation of the intricate political and religious debates concerning rhetoric in France and Italy at the time^ See Walter J. Ong, Ramus and Talon Inventory (Harvard University Press, 1958); Joseph S. Freedman, Philosophy and the Art Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities (Ashgate, 1999).^ Which has now been translated into English by Walter J. Ong and Charles J. Ermatinger in The Complete Prose Works of John Milton (Yale University Press, 1982; 8: 206–407), with a lengthy introduction by Ong (144–205). The introduction is reprinted in Ong's Faith and Contexts (Scholars Press, 1999; 4: 111–141).^ See Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of Discourse ( Cambridge University Press, 1975).^ Histories of the emergence of rhetorical studies in 20th-century America can be found in Cohen, H. (1994). The history of speech communication: The emergence of a discipline, 1914–1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association; and Gehrke, P. J. (2009). The ethics and politics of speech: Communication and rhetoric in the twentieth century. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.^ Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew King, Twentieth-Century Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westpost, CT: Praeger, 2001).^ Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical theory: an introduction. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-63918-6.^ Black, Edwin. (1965) Rhetorical Criticism a Study in Method. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.^ Black, Edwin (1988). "Secrecy and Disclosure as Rhetorical Forms". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 74 (2): 133. doi: 10.1080/00335638809383833.^ Black, Edwin (1970). "The Second Persona". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 56 (2): 109. doi: 10.1080/00335637009382992.^ Black, Edwin (1980). "A Note on Theory and Practice in Rhetorical Criticism". Western Journal of Speech Communication: WJSC. 44 (4): 331–36. doi: 10.1080/10570318009374018.^ When Mc Luhan was working on his 1943 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation on the verbal arts and Nashe, he was also preparing the materials for his book The Mechanical Bride: The Folklore of Industrial Man (Vanguard Press, 1951). This was a compilation of exhibits of ads and other materials from popular culture with short essays involving rhetorical analyses of the ways in which the material in an item aims to persuade and comment on the persuasive strategies in each item. Mc Luhan later shifted the focus of his rhetorical analysis and began to consider how communication media themselves affect us as persuasive devices. Mc Luhan expresses this insight when he says " The medium is the message ". This shift in focus from his 1951 book led to his two most widely known books, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (University of Toronto Press, 1962) and Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (Mc Graw-Hill, 1964)'; these books represent an inward turn to attending to one's consciousness in contrast to the more outward orientation of other rhetoricians toward sociological considerations and symbolic interaction.^ Richards, I. A. (1965) The Philosophy of Rhetoric New York: Oxford.^ Richards, I. A. (1965) The Philosophy of Rhetoric New York: Oxford. p. 97^ Toulmin, Stephen (2003). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53483-3.^ a b c Lunsford, Andrea A. (1998). "Toward a Mestiza rhetoric: Gloria Anzaldua on composition and postcoloniality". JAC. 18: 1–27. JSTOR 20866168.^ Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2000). The rhetorical tradition: Readings from classical times to the present. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 1585–1588. ISBN 978-0-312-14839-3.^ Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2000). The rhetorical tradition: Readings from classical times to the present. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 1584–1585. ISBN 978-0-312-14839-3.^ Camp, Jessica Rae (2010). Radical rhetoric: Excavating Gloria Anzaldua's "La Prieta". Ann Harbor, MI: Dissertation. p. 45.^ Getrude, Buck (1900). "The Present Status of Rhetorical Theory". Modern Language Notes. 15: 84–87. JSTOR 2917917.^ Campbell, Joann (1996). Toward a feminist rhetoric: The writing of Gertrude Buck. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.^ "Krista Ratcliffe".^ a b Jim A. Kuypers, "Rhetorical Criticism as Art," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).^ Edwin Black, Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method (Madison, Wi: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), x–xi.^ Jim A. Kuypers, "Rhetorical Criticism as Art," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009). See also, Jim A. Kuypers, "Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Constraints in Rhetorical Criticism," in Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).^ Gray, J. W. "Four Argument Strategies". Retrieved 19 February 2016.^ Ryan, David (2007). The Speaking/Writing Connection. Berkeley, CA: Parthenon West Books. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-9765684-9-0.^ Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 131.^ Bitzer, Lloyd F. "The Rhetorical Situation." Philosophy & Rhetoric, Winter (1968). 1–14. JSTOR 40236733. cf. Vatz, Richard E. "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation." Philosophy & Rhetoric, Summer (1973) JSTOR 40236848 and The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion, (Kendall Hunt, 2012, 2013)^ Jansinski, James. " The Status of Theory and Method in Rhetorical Criticism ." Western Journal of Communication 65, No. 3 (Summer 2001): 249. doi: 10.1080/1057031010937470.^ Foss, Sonja. 1989. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc.^ Stephanie Houston Grey, "Conceptually-Oriented Criticism," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).^ Jasinski, "Status," 256.^ Leff Michael (2001). "Lincoln at Cooper Union: Neo-Classical Criticism Revisited". Western Journal of Communication. 65 (3): 232–48. doi: 10.1080/10570310109374704.^ Jim A. Kuypers, "Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Constraints in Rhetorical Criticism," in Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).^ See Thomas M. Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition, University of Chicago Press, 1990 for insights on French pre-1789 rhetoricians; for a fuller historical review with excerpts, Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'art de parler, Paris, Klincksieck, 2003.^ See also article on Rhétorique in the French Wikipedia^ See Philippe-Joseph Salazar's overview, "Rhetoric Achieves Nature. A View from Old Europe", Philosophy & Rhetoric 40 (1), 2007, 71–88^ Histoire de la rhétorique dans l'Europe moderne 1450–1950, Marc Fumaroli ed., Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1999. ISBN 2-13-049526-5^ Refer to " De l'éloquence à la rhétoricité, trente années fastes ", Dix-Septième Siècle 236, LIX (3), 2007, 421–26 ISBN 978-2-13-056096-8^ idee-jour.fr Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.^ L'art des Généralités, Paris, 1999.^ Barbara Cassin, L'effet sophistique, Paris, Gallimard, 1995^ Maroun Aouad, Le Livre De la Rhétorique d'Ibn Tumlus. Paris: Vrin. 2006. Le Commentaire Moyen d' Averroes à la Rhétorique d'Aristote. Paris: Vrin. 3 Vol. 2002.^ Alongside the French school, the work of Belgians Chaim Perelman and his disciple Michel Meyer is noteworthy, although Perelman's foundational work remained generally unknown in France until the 1990s.^ "Project MUSE – Philosophy and Rhetoric-Volume 42, Number 4, 2009".^ Kennedy, George A. (1998). Comparative Rhetoric: An Historical and Cross-Cultural Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11–28. ISBN 0-19-510932-5.^ Kull, Kalevi 2001. A note on biorhetorics. Sign Systems Studies 29 (2): 693–704.^ Davis, Diane (2011). "Creaturely Rhetorics". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 44 (1): 88–94. doi: 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0088. JSTOR 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0088.^ Segeerdahl, Pär (2015). "The rhetoric and prose of the human/animal contrast". Language & Communication. 42: 36–49. doi: 10.1016/j.langcom.2015.03.001.^ Melzow, Candice Chovanec (Spring 2012). "Identification, Naming, and Rhetoric in The Sky, the Stars, the Wilderness and The Maine Woods". Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment. 19.2 (2): 356–374. doi: 10.1093/isle/iss084.^ Kennedy, George (1992). "A Hoot in the Dark The evolution of general rhetoric". Philosophy & Rhetoric. 25 (1): 1–21. JSTOR i40009015.^ Hawhee, D. (2011). "Toward a Bestial Rhetoric". Philosophy and rhetoric. 44 (1): 81–87. doi: 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0081. JSTOR 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0081. References [ edit]Primary sources The locus classicus for Greek and Latin primary texts on rhetoric is the Loeb Classical Library of the Harvard University Press, published with an English translation on the facing page. Aristotle. Rhetoric. Cicero. De Inventione. Latin only.—. De Oratore. Latin only. Demosthenes. Orations. Greek. English. Cornificius. De Ratione Dicendi. Latin only. Isocrates. Against the Sophists. Henry Peacham. The Garden of Eloquence. George Puttenham. The Arte of Poesie. [ dead link] at Representative Poetry Online Quintilian. Institutio oratoria. Johannes Susenbrotus. Epitome troporum. Thomas Wilson. The Arte of Rhetorique. Secondary sources Ralf van Bühren: Die Werke der Barmherzigkeit in der Kunst des 12.–18. Jahrhunderts. Zum Wandel eines Bildmotivs vor dem Hintergrund neuzeitlicher Rhetorikrezeption (Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, vol. 115), Hildesheim / Zürich / New York: Verlag Georg Olms 1998. ISBN 3-487-10319-2Bernard K. Duffy and Martin Jacobi: The Politics of Rhetoric: Richard Weaver and the Conservative Tradition (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993). ISBN 0-313-25713-2Eugene Garver, Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character (University of Chicago Press, 1994) ISBN 978-0-226-28425-5. Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of Discourse ( Cambridge University Press, 1975)Charles U. Larson, Persuasion Reception and Responsibility Twelfth Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning (2012)Jacqueline de Romilly, The Great Sophists in Periclean Athens (French orig. 1988; English trans. Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1992). William Safire, Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History (2004) ISBN 978-0-393-05931-1. Amelie Oksenberg Rorty, Aristotle's Rhetoric Los Angeles, United States of America (1996)Further reading [ edit]Andresen, Volker. Speak Well in Public – 10 Steps to Succeed. ISBN 1-4563-1026-7. Duffy, Bernard K. and Richard Leeman. eds. American Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Orators (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005). ISBN 0-313-32790-4Cox, Leonard. The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke at Project Gutenberg. Garver, Eugene. Aristotle's Rhetoric: On Art of Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-226-28425-5Jansinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Sage Publications, Inc. 2001. [ ISBN missing]Kennedy, George A. Aristotle, On Rhetoric. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. [ ISBN missing]Kuypers, Jim A. ed. Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014). ISBN 978-0-7391-8018-1Kuypers, Jim A. and Andrew King. Twentieth-Century Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001). ISBN 0-275-96420-5Rainolde (or Rainholde), Richard. A booke called the Foundacion of Rhetorike at Project Gutenberg. Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-520-20228-3External links [ edit]Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rhetoric Look up rhetoric or wordcraft in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. American Rhetoric: The Power of Oratory in the United States. Brian Vickers on Rhetoric in the Cambridge Companion to English Poetry Wikibooks: Rhetoric and Composition Mitchell, Anthony. A Primer for Business Rhetoric. Discusses how messages are dumbed down to make them acceptable to wide audiences. Newall, Paul. An introduction to Rhetoric and Rhetorical Figures. Aimed at beginners. [ show]v t e Philosophy of language [ show]v t e Philosophical logic [ show]v t e Communication studies [ show]v t e Narrative Authority control GND: 4076704-8 NDL: 00572475Categories: Rhetoric Applied linguistics Narratology Critical thinking skills Communication studies  . Temperance and Prohibition Era Propaganda: A Study in Rhetoricby Leah Rae Berk Beginnings: The Minister and the Physician Team Up In 1805, Benjamin Rush, a physician from Philadelphia, wrote an essay titled "The Effects of Ardent Spirits Upon Man". Rush's writing reflected the changing attitudes towards distilled alcohol at the time, especially among the US medical community. Rush's article drew upon ideas from a century earlier; at the beginning of the eighteenth century, medical practitioners began taking a more scientific approach to medicine. Scientists and doctors like Rush felt that the American public needed to be made aware of the health hazards inherent in alcohol consumption. Rush's argument against the consumption of ardent spirits was not only scientific, but also moral. At the end of his essay, Rush described the moral evils that resulted from the use of distilled spirits such as fraud, theft, uncleanliness and murder (Runes 339). Not long after Rush began writing about alcohol's detrimental effects on moral and physical health, he began a correspondence with the Boston Minister Jeremy Belknap. The physician and the minister soon became collaborators, using a mixture of scientific and moral claims in their fight against the consumption of alcoholic beverages. The teaming up of the minister and the physician is emblematic of a century of rhetoric surrounding alcohol use and abuse in America. For over a century, Americans argued for abstinence from alcohol using a combination of scientific and moral reasons. What made Rush and Belknap's writing compelling and persuasive for many Americans? Why did later propaganda continue to use Rush and Belknap's two-fold argument against alcohol consumption? In this paper I will address these questions by discussing the rhetorical methods used in Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda. Anti-liquor Propaganda: A Study in Rhetoric W. J. Rorabaugh, author of the 1979 book The Alcoholic Republic, wrote "Temperance reformers…flooded America with propaganda" (196). Rorabaugh cited the American Tract Society as one example: by 1851 the Society had distributed nearly five million temperance pamphlets (196). Pamphlets and propaganda were an essential aspect of the American antiliquor crusade, from the Temperance Movement through the Prohibition Era. Although these publications came in a variety of forms and styles, they all used two fundamental rhetorical techniques: logos and pathos. Logos is an appeal to logic; it includes scientific evidence, statistics, facts and other provable forms of information. Rush's use of scientific evidence in "The Effects of Ardent Spirits Upon Man" is an example of logos. A subcategory of logos is ethos or credibility. Not only should facts be provable, they must also come from a trustworthy and reliable source. The second rhetorical technique employed by anti-liquor propaganda is pathos or appeals to emotion. The final part of Rush's essay dealing with morals and value judgments is based in pathos. Both logos and pathos played an important role in Temperance and Prohibition era propaganda, although ultimately, pathos proved to be the most widely used rhetorical method. Temperance and Prohibition era propaganda appealed to emotion through religious language, drawing upon the prevalent morals and values of the times. Both the Temperance Movement and Prohibition Era coincided with periods of intense religious fervor in the US. These religious revivals were steeped in Puritan moral codes which in turn served as the basis for the underlying ideology of antiliquor propaganda. Temperance, Prohibition and the Puritans: A Brief History Religious Revivals in the 1800s and Early 1900s Widespread religious fervor was a central feature of the Temperance and Prohibition eras. In the early nineteenth century, a religious revival known as the Second Great Awakening took the nation by storm (284). As James Morone wrote in his recent book, Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History, "With preachers announcing that the millennium lay at hand, men and women began to swear off hard spirits; the yearning for perfection drew them until they were pledging total abstinence" (284). Many of the original Temperance societies had religious affiliations, like the evangelical American Temperance Society which was founded in 1826. Ten years later, at the evangelical American Temperance Society's height, one out of every ten Americans was a member (Morone 284). Roughly a century later, in the 1910s, there was conservative religious revival in the United States. The religious movements of the Prohibition Era promoted a back to basics approach with a clear, narrow definition of what it meant to be a faithful, observant Christian. Protestant fundamentalists warned of the approaching millennium and the Second Coming of Christ and criticized "the nation's slack morals, 'creampuff' religions" and "'godless social service nonsense'" (Morone 335). Fundamentalist preachers like Billy Sunday told Americans that "the path to heaven ran through a literal reading of the Bible" (335). Prohibition provided political backing and legitimacy for the religious revivals of the early twentieth century. While critics scoffed at the fundamentalists' stance on the coming millennium and interpretations of the bible, calling them backwards and extreme, Christian fundamentalists held their ground regarding their anti-drinking crusade. According to Morone, "Prohibition offered them [fundamentalists] their one link to national authority, the one public commitment to resisting moral decay" (337). The morals and values that the religious revivals of the Temperance and Prohibition Eras promoted were steeped in Puritan ideology. Who were the Puritans? What were their fundamental beliefs? Puritan ideology Puritan ideology emerged as a response to the chaos of the English Reformation in the sixteenth century and seventeenth centuries. The original Puritans criticized the corruption in the Church of England and demanded a return to religious purity. Critics mocked these people, calling them "Puritans," and the name stuck. The Puritans were among the original English settlers of North America; their first fleet arrived in Massachusetts in 1630. According to James Morone, "No aspect of the Puritan world is more often recalled than the notion of a mission, an errand in the wilderness sealed by a covenant with God" (35). The mission of the Early American Puritans hinged upon the concepts of individual and communal responsibility. Individuals controlled their final destinies: salvation for the righteous and eternal damnation for the sinners, however, the Puritan covenant held the entire community responsible for sinners in this life. God would punish all, saint and sinner alike, with disease, drought, famine and other misfortunes if a community did not reform its sinners. How could individuals and communities achieve success and salvation? According to the Puritans, the answer lay in education, discipline and hard work. Puritans defined the home as the primary place of instruction and saw parents as the most important moral models and instructors for children. Industriousness was a virtue with positive outcomes in this life and the afterlife. The Puritans' emphasis on the importance of hard work developed into what it commonly known as the "Protestant work ethic" (Morone 15). The Early American Puritan values of individual and communal salvation, hard work and the proper education of children are constant themes in Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda. Types of Propaganda I found five major categories of Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda: scientific pamphlets, religious pamphlets, posters, children's pamphlets and the fifth category, songs and poems. Using examples of these five forms of propaganda, I will discuss how Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda used logos and pathos and why these rhetorical techniques were effective. Scientific Pamphlets Scientific pamphlets presented facts and logical arguments against drinking alcohol, while religious pamphlets drew directly upon Christian doctrine, often citing biblical reasons for temperance. Although the terms scientific and religious seem to translate directly in logos and pathos, both types of propaganda used a mixture of rational and emotional appeals to promote abstinence from alcohol. The scientific pamphlets claimed proven, scientific evidence and practical advice as the basis for their arguments. Titles such as "Alcohol: Practical Facts for Practical People" and "Answers to Favorite Wet Arguments," both from the early 1900s, reinforced the idea that these pamphlets contained factual, objective truth. Most pamphlets also established their ethos or credibility by citing the research and conclusions of experts, including doctors and scientists. The names of the associations distributing these pamphlets, such as the Scientific Temperance Federation of Boston, added to this air of scientific credibility. Scientific pamphlets also found truth in numbers, using statistics to prove that alcohol was harmful to individuals and society. Pamphlets like "The Cost of Beer (1880s)" and "A Way to Make Money - And a Better Way (early 1900s)" discussed the personal and social expenses of drinking. First they appealed to logos, using statistical evidence. These pamphlets calculated the cost of alcohol, from the price per gallon to the cost of yearly consumption in cities like New York. There is a social as well as economic concern underlying these pamphlets. For example, "The Cost of Beer" addressed pathos by claiming that alcohol consumption leads to noise, broils, stupidity and drunkenness. The underlying message of many of the scientific pamphlets was that an individual must know all the facts in order to make an informed decision. Yet, the information provided in these pamphlets pointed to only one viable option: temperance. To further the idea that abstinence was obviously the one true answer, a number of scientific temperance pamphlets had rhetorical questions as titles, such as these pamphlets from the early 1900s: "Do you want to be efficient?" "Do you want to be powerful?" and "Do you want a better rating?" Who could say no to these questions? These titles in the form of rhetorical questions likely piqued readers' interest, and, as in the case of "The Cost of Beer," these pamphlets intertwined logical, moral and emotional appeals. The three pamphlets "Do you want to be efficient?" "Do you want to be powerful?" and "Do you want to a better rating?" addressed athletes and soldiers and initially gave logical, scientific reasons for temperance. The first reason was that alcohol is unhealthy. "Do you want to be efficient?" quoted a noted European psychiatrist who said that "Alcohol in all forms and doses is a poison." Reasons regarding the health problems resulting from alcohol drew upon a variety of scientific fields including psychology, human biology, neuroscience and medicine. These reasons led to the same conclusion: alcohol interferes with mental and physical processes, hurting the body and putting the drinker at a disadvantage. For example, one of the section headings of "Do you want a better rating?" read "Mere Physical Fitness Is Not All" and included the following quotations: Physical fitness is a farce without self-control, judgment, and discretion, which are the three qualities of mind first to be dulled by and made incompetent by the use of alcohol. - Dr. Haven Emerson One of the effects of alcohol is to interfere with the coordination of nerve and muscle. It has been repeatedly found that moderate amounts of alcohol interfere with skilled actions which depend on this co-ordination, such as rifle shooting and typing speed. - Dr. E. H. Derrick, M. D. These quotations not only bring up the health reasons for temperance but also a second reason: abstainers are more industrious and productive. This is another form of logos which uses practical, rather than scientific, knowledge. While the scientific evidence was impressive because it drew upon information and resources that may otherwise have been inaccessible to many readers, these more practical arguments were compelling because they were familiar, appealing to a deeply-ingrained value, the Protestant work ethic. Like "The Cost of Beer," these three pamphlets addressed pathos by discussing social as well as physical health, an argument which hearkened to the Puritan idea of social welfare. The pamphlet "Do you want to be powerful?" stated: Experiment shows that drinking but one small bottle of beer or one glass of wine may impair a man's driving capacity… Practically all the hit-run fatal accidents are caused by drunken drivers, says Frank A. Goodwin, Massachusetts Registrar of Motor Vehicles. This common sense reasoning seems to be an appeal to logic: drinking interferes with one's ability to drive. Individual safety, however, was not the primary concern. The underlying message of this quotation was to alert drivers that their drinking could have harmful effects on others. The example the quotation uses, hit-run accidents, is an appeal to pathos, because it conjures up the image of an innocent victim who is left injured while the driver speeds away. The implication is that people who drink and drive are irresponsible and hurt others, clearly disregarding the Puritan value of concern and consideration for members of one's community. Religious Pamphlets Religious pamphlets used Christine Doctrine, especially references to the Bible, as the foundation for their argument against alcohol consumption. Pamphlets like "The Holy Bible and Drink" and "Christian Temperance Catechism" (both from the early 1900s) quoted passages from the bible that warned against the evils of drinking. Directly quoting the bible was taken from the Puritan tradition where "emphasis is nearly always on the Bible, which they [the Puritans] saw in sharp contrast to tradition and to merely human ideas and usages" (Emerson 46). "The Holy Bible and Drink" presented twenty frequently asked questions about alcohol consumption from "What about 'one will not hurt you'?" to "What about drunkards being saved?" (2) and a list of pro-temperance answers in the form of quotations from the bible. "Christian Temperance Catechism" took a more step by step approach, using a series of questions and answers which drew on Christian Doctrine and sometimes included quotations from the scriptures. It began with the simplest and most innocuous seeming question and answer: "What is temperance? The proper control of appetite" (1). The questions and answers become more specific and emotionally charged throughout the pamphlet, ending with question and answers like "How can we work successfully against intemperance? By learning and by showing others how the use of intoxicants ruins soul and body" (8). Although these pamphlets followed a logos structure with logical arguments citing evidence from an established source, i.e. the bible, their underlying messages appealed to pathos. For example, "Christian Temperance Catechism" mentioned alcohol as a major source of suffering in society, both spiritual and physical. According to this pamphlet, American society suffered more from intemperance than all other forms of sin and claimed alcohol was a poison and "the cause of three fourths of all of the disease and proverty [sic] and sorrow and crime in our land" (2). Not all Religious pamphlets utilized a logos format to fight temperance. The early twentieth century pamphlet "Don't Unwittingly Join The Enemy's Forces" is a clear appeal to pathos. Taken from an address given by Bishop Nicholson of the Methodist Episcopal Church, this pamphlet draws upon the Puritan tradition of preaching. The Puritans placed great emphasis on preaching and most "insisted that 'human authorities' have no place in sermons" (Emerson 45). Religious leaders supporting the Temperance movement, like Bishop Nicholson, saw the fight against intemperance as a crusade, literally a holy war. The authority justifying and supporting this fight was not mere human beings, but God. In his address Bishop Nicholson appealed to deeply held American values and Puritan morals, describing intemperance as a threat to democracy and morality. Nicholson, like many Temperance leaders, described the struggle against liquor as a second American revolution; first Americans freed themselves from the British, now they must free themselves from alcohol. This argument drew upon the American value of liberty and Puritan morals concerning individual and communal responsibility and salvation. As in a crusade, there was a clearly defined enemy in Nicholson's address. Nicholson not only criticized his opposition, the "wets" or anti-Temperance supporters, he vilified them. Nicholson inspired pathos by describing those who protested temperance as hateful, unprincipled and criminal men with unworthy motives. His argument was passionate and urgent. Not only was the fight against intemperance "the greatest struggle since the Civil War for the effectuation of Democracy" (2), it was a "life and death struggle with the greatest single evil of the ages…the most unprincipled, the most unscrupulous, and the most Satanic forces possible to conceive" (5). Following in the tradition of Puritan preaching, Nicholson explained that the fight against intemperance was not merely a human endeavor, but God's mission: "God expects every man and every woman to do his or her duty…" (5) He conflated divine and earthly aspirations, saying that people can take part in God's mission by voting against pro-liquor legislation. Nicholson then took his appeal to pathos a step further, claiming that those who do not actively fight intemperance were supporting the enemy, (hence the title of the pamphlet "Don't Unwittingly Join the Enemy's Forces") and therefore neglecting their responsibilities as American Patriots and Christians. He criticized voter apathy, describing those who do not vote as "criminal and unpatriotic" (5), because by not voting these people were effectively giving their vote to the enemy. Although some religious pamphlets did contain appeals to logos in their structure or actual arguments, the overarching rhetorical technique in this form of propaganda was pathos. Religious pamphlets evoked emotional responses by appealing to people's deeply held religious values and patriotic sentiments. Posters (All posters mentioned in this section are from 1913)In many ways, Temperance and Prohibition Era posters offered a condensed version of the scientific and religious pamphlets, presenting their most striking and compelling arguments through images and sound bytes. Many of the posters took the Benjamin Rush approach, showing scientific and logical evidence to prove that alcohol consumption was detrimental to both body and soul. Many posters referred to scientific studies and statistical information, citing medical and scientific experts for ethos. Like the titles of scientific pamphlets (ex. "Alcohol: Practical Facts for Practical People"), the headings of the posters purported indisputable information. Poster headings like "Deaths, Defect, Dwarfings in the Young of Alcoholized Guinea Pigs," "Death Rate From Various Diseases in Drinkers and General Class" and "Insurance Records Show that Drink Shortens Life 11%" with their graphs and charts hardly seem debatable. Despite their scientific and factual claims, many of the underlying messages of these posters were steeped in Puritan morality and appeals to pathos. Temperance Era posters hinted both at the importance of responsible parenting and the Protestant work ethic, both deeply held Puritan values. A number of posters described how children of alcoholic parents suffered developmentally, both physically and emotionally, citing statistics and scientific studies as proof. Some described how parents who drink have a higher rate of defective children: "Defective Children Increased with Alcoholization of Fathers," "Drinkers' Children Developed More Slowly," "Hand in Hand: Feeblemindedness and Alcoholism: More alcoholism found in parents of Feebleminded than those of Normal Children" and "Child Death Rate Higher in Drinkers' Families." Others depicted the psychological problems drinking caused children: "Drink the Largest Cause of Unhappy Homes in Chicago," "Children in Misery, Parent's Drink to Blame in at Least Three Cases Out of Every Four" and "Drink Burdens Childhood. "Temperance and Prohibition Era posters described alcohol as the source of society's individual and social problems. Alcohol was the cause of laziness, inability to concentrate and other impediments to the ideals of success and the Protestant work ethic as noted in the posters: "Drink Impaired Scholarship," "The Better Chances of the Sober Workman," "Alcohol Impairs Muscle Work" and "Daily Drinking Impaired Memory." Like the scientific pamphlets, these posters used charts, percentages, results from studies and quotations from scientific and medical experts. Still other posters were more explicitly moralizing, like the following poster which drew upon the Puritan value of care for others: DRINK MAKES ONE MORE LIABLE TO ACCIDENT WHAT THE ACCIDENT INSURANCE COMPANY SAYS: "A man whose nerves have been made unsteady by a recent debauch or by the habitual use of alcohol, should not be permitted to operate dangerous machinery or to carry on dangerous work. He endangers not only his own life, but the lives of others. "The last line, "He endangers not only his own life, but the lives of others," is italicized, the implication being that individuals must care about the welfare of their fellow human beings. A number of Temperance and Prohibition Era posters, like a number of the religious pamphlets, used a logos format to make a pathos appeal. These posters contained graphs and statistical information, presenting moral claims as factual information, such as "Alcoholism and Degeneracy," "Intemperance as a Cause of Poverty Greatly Reduced Since Prohibition" and "Drink A Great Cause of Immorality." The poster "Drink A Great Cause of Immorality" showed the results of a study of 865 Immoral Inebriate Women, claiming that 40% of their immorality was due solely to drink, including as evidence a statement by a medical expert: "There is no apparent reason why any of the persons…should have become immoral but for preceding alcoholism." "Intemperance as a Cause of Poverty Greatly Reduced Since Prohibition" presented a graph that tracked the drop in poverty as a result of increased temperance, therefore conflating intemperance and immoral behavior with greater social ills like poverty. Posters are a powerful form of propaganda; their succinct and striking messages create a sense of urgency. In a poster, complex and extensive information must be condensed into a few words and images. Temperance and Prohibition Era posters did just this, using startling information and making emotional appeals to Americans' most deeply held morals and values. Children's pamphlets A significant amount of Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda was targeted towards children. Since logical and scientific arguments may not have made sense to young children, the main rhetorical technique in children's pamphlets was pathos. This form of anti-liquor propaganda related children's emotional responses and experiences to moral issues. The large quantity of temperance pamphlets targeted towards children was likely a result of Puritan ideology. According to the Puritans, children's moral education began at home; as the Puritan minister and saint Richard Greenham, wrote in his essay "Of the good education of children": If parents would have their children blessed at church and school, let them beware they give their children no corrupt examples at home by any carelessness, profaneness or ungodliness. Otherwise, parents will do them more harm at home than both pastors and schoolmasters can do them good abroad. (Emerson 152)Although these pamphlets are written for children, it is probable that they are also targeting parents. A central theme in many children's pamphlets is the role of parents in promoting temperance and how a child should react if his/her parent is intemperate. Children's pamphlets generally began with an illustration and a story about a child or an animal whose experiences served as a subtle or direct warning against intemperance. The next section would usually contain a poem, dialogue or mini-story which reinforced the ideas presented in the first story. Many of these pamphlets also ended with advice, telling children to abstain from alcohol and to join the temperance crusade. Two examples of children's pamphlets are "Grandmother's boy (1880s)" and "Look out for the trap! (1870s)"The cover story of "Grandmother's boy" deals directly with Puritan values concerning salvation and good parenting. In the pamphlet's opening story, a little boy who has been raised by his pro-temperance grandmother pays his father a visit. The father is a wealthy, educated man who is enjoying a bottle of wine with his friends. The son, who has taken the temperance pledge, embarrasses his father, asking him why he is drinking alcohol, and then says: " 'If I'd known you drinked such stuff, I shouldn't wanted to come and see you. It makes folks drunkards, and makes them so wicked they can't go to heaven (3-4).'" The child's reaction to his father's drinking appeals to pathos, especially fear, in two ways. First, it plays upon parents' fear that their children will lose respect for them and not want to spend time with them. Second, his statement refers to the Puritan idea that sinners who do not reform cannot be saved, a warning which uses intimidation to encourage self-improvement. The following section in the pamphlet "Grandmother's boy" is a poem titled "Johnny's Soliloquy," which expresses the messages of the first story even more explicitly. The poem encourages children to serve as models to their parents, as in the phrase, "The boy is father to the man (3)" which is repeated throughout the poem. By taking the temperance pledge of total abstinence from alcohol and encouraging their parents to do so, children modeled the Puritan ideal of saving oneself and others. The last two paragraphs of the "Grandmother's Boy" titled "Stand Firm!" make a stirring call to arms. Describing temperance as the "way of truth and right (4)," this section of the pamphlet reads like an excerpt from a passionate sermon. It draws upon the crusade concept, telling the reader that "God will help us" and that the struggle against temptation is a fight children can and must win. The children's pamphlet "Look out for the trap!" also warns against the dangers of temptation. This pamphlet begins with a picture and story of two squirrels. As in an Aesop's fable, the two squirrels come into trouble as a result of their own foolishness - both fell prey to temptation - and there is a moral at the end of the story: "Children, avoid temptation. Always be sure there is no trap beyond" (2). In this story the trap beyond is set by Charlie Wood, who tempts the squirrels into his home with good food. Once Charlie slams the door shut, the squirrels realize that "they were no longer their own masters" (2). Charlie's imprisonment of the squirrels is analogous to, as temperance supporters would have put it, a drunkard's enslavement to drink. The story of the two squirrels ends with an anecdote. The narrator switches from third person omniscient to a more conversational, first person, telling the reader he saw a young boy give in to temptation. Worst of all, the one who tempted him was his mother. This final appeal to pathos is meant to shock both children and parents and to show children that even though their parents may have the best intentions, those intentions may be wrong and harmful. The second part of "Look out for the trap!" is a short story titled "Why Joseph Signed the Pledge." The story draws upon a common theme in Temperance propaganda: a child living in poverty whose father is a drunkard and therefore cannot provide for his family. The story evokes a great deal of pity for Joseph, the protagonist, who is taunted by a wealthier classmate. "Oh! You needn't feel so big…" says the classmate, "your folks are poor and your father is a drunkard" (3). The story describes the Puritan ideal of redemption through self-improvement and helping others. Joseph's mother reminds him to depend upon his own energies, trust in God and remember that he is responsible only for his own faults (4). Joseph remembers his mother's advice and, through his hard work and determination achieves the epitome of the Protestant work ethic, becoming "a useful and respected man." He follows the Puritan value of individual and communal improvement by helping his father become "a sober man and 'respected by other folks'" (4). The boy who taunted Joseph in school, however, lives to see his wealthy father become poor and a drunkard. Joseph's story concludes with a piece of advice: "Boys, never twit another for what he can not help" (4). The moral of the story is a direct reference to the gold rule (i.e. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you) and appeals to human compassion, kindness and respect. "Grandmother's boy," "Look out for the trap" and many other children's pamphlets present a dilemma whose solution is temperance. The dilemma is an extreme situation, often of pain, suffering or another intense emotion which must be immediately and directly addressed. Abstinence from alcohol is always the happy ending - as soon as the characters in the story swear off spirits they become successful, happy and achieve salvation. Songs and Poems In Hellfire Nation, James Morone discusses one of America's earliest anthems, the jeremiad. Dating back to the seventeenth century, the jeremiad was "a lament that the people have fallen into sinful ways and face ruin unless they swiftly reform" (14). The jeremiad described specific crimes which had invoked God's wrath, scolding Americans for their moral degeneracy, and reminding people of "their mission with an immodest goal: redeem the world" (Morone 42, 45). The poems and songs of the Temperance and Prohibition Eras were direct descendants of the jeremiad. Like the jeremiad, these poems and songs defined a specific problem, intemperance, its ruinous effects on both individual and society, and the need for personal and communal responsibility and reform. Three central themes in Temperance era songs and poetry were the drunkard's story, the crusade and temperance as a form of liberty. Although their themes were similar to other Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda, songs and poems had a distinct style and structure. Unlike scientific and religious pamphlets, posters, and children's pamphlets, which used text and images, songs and poems formed part of an oral tradition. While a reader can always re-read a complex argument or refer to a new fact or statistic in a text, a listener cannot re-hear a song or poem. As a result, the songs and poems are more repetitive and direct, drawing upon common themes and widely accepted ideas rather than introducing new information. Like children's pamphlets, Temperance and Prohibition Era songs and poems use pathos more or less exclusively. Many songs and poems speak specifically to the plight of drunkards, both as an example of the dangers of intemperance and to encourage people to join the temperance crusade. Religious references are especially prevalent: alcohol is described as an evil temptation and the devil's agent. Drunkards are those who have fallen from grace; they have lost control of their lives and sunk to ruin and damnation. According to these poems and songs, alcohol is to blame for most of society's ills. Once complete abstinence is achieved, prisons will empty, crime will cease, humanity will be saved and the kingdom of heaven will reign on earth. The poems "The Curse of Rum (1800s)" and "The Face Upon the Floor (early 1900s)" and the song "The Drunkard's Fall (early 1900s)" depict the dangers of drinking and the plight of the drunkard. "The Curse of Rum" draws upon common religious themes in order to demonize alcohol. The poem describes rum as the serpent from the Garden of Eden, a "soul destroyer" (1) that has destroyed the paradise of the home by bringing disease and sin into society. The underlying message in these songs and poems is not to take the first drink, because once people begin, they lose control and cannot stop. According to "The Face Upon the Floor" and "The Drunkard's Fall," even the most successful and promising individuals can fall prey to alcohol's evils once they take their first drink. "The Face Upon the Floor" depicts a penniless, filthy, wretched drunkard who wanders into a bar and tells a group of young men his story, from wealth, good looks and a loving wife to how drinking led him to current state, and then falls to the floor dead. "The Drunkard's Fall," whose subtitle reads "a warning for all college men wherein is declared how a Yale man was fired yesterday for over-cutting" describes how even the best and the brightest fall to ruin once they take to drinking. As the refrain states: "He was a Yale man, but he done all wrong." The young man becomes apathetic, lazy and eventually goes insane from drinking. Neither he nor the drunkard in "The Face Upon The Floor" can achieve the goals of the Protestant work ethic or reach spiritual salvation. Their alcohol abuse has taken away their capabilities for productivity and success, both on earth and in the world to come. Songs and poetry make more direct appeals to pathos than other types of temperance propaganda because of their oversimplification and use of hyperbole. Oftentimes the title of a song or poem is enough to evoke a strong emotional response, as in the case of the song title "Father's a Drunkard and Mother is Dead (1866)." Song and poem titles may give a clear warning or command, like the songs "Girls, Wait For A Temperance Man (1867)" and "Help The Fallen Brother (mid to late 1800s)." The first song is a reference to the Puritan ideal of good parenting and addresses both children's' and parents' fears that children will not be taken care of and even abandoned. "Help The Fallen Brother" is a clear appeal to compassion and the Puritan idea that everyone must be reformed in order for a community to achieve success and salvation. The solution to these individual and social ills, as mentioned in other types of Temperance Propaganda, was the crusade. The first verse and chorus of the "Anti-Saloon Battle Hymn (1907)" for example, provides a rousing call to arms: The might are gathering for conflict; / The right is arrayed against wrong; / The hosts of the righteous are singing, / And this is the voice of their song: — Cho. — The Saloon, it must go! Do you hear us?/ Repeat it again and again. They strive to make millions of money;/ We strive to save hundreds of men!As in Bishop Nicholson's address, the enemy, in this case the saloon, is clearly defined and its motives are proclaimed immoral and unjust. The battle hymn describes the saloon as an "awful, unspeakable monster" and asks God to free the people of the United states from its shackles. Metaphors of slavery and liberation and their relationship to the temperance crusade are a significant aspect of Temperance era songs and poetry. The song "Emancipation (1914)" speaks of America as a nation with "True liberty so grand,/ that makes men free" and alcohol as a monster that enslaves Americans. The song conflates the crusade's mission with Puritan ideals of personal and communal salvation, ending with the stanza: This is the hope of all / To see the traffic fall, / And not one slave. Then wave from sea to sea, / By union temperance plea, / Old Glory's jubilee, / Our nation free!Even the most convincing anti-temperance supporter would have been hard pressed to refute the stanza above. It makes a powerful appeal to pathos, addressing many Americans' pride in their freedom and faith. How could anyone question such fundamental beliefs? And, if anyone did, who would listen? Conclusion Despite Benjamin Rush's efforts, "his widely circulated warnings had little influence upon the consumption of alcohol" (Rorabaugh 187). In fact, alcohol consumption actually rose during Rush's anti-liquor crusade and did not begin to decrease until the early 1830s (Rorabaugh 187). W. J. Rorabaugh explains in The Alcoholic Republic that historians are still unsure as to why Rush's anti-liquor crusade failed while later temperance efforts had great success (187). I propose that the answer lies in the rhetoric. Benjamin Rush took a logos approach to promoting temperance, noting the harmful physiological effects of alcohol. He did not appeal to pathos until the end of "The Effect of Ardent Spirits Upon Man," when he described the moral depravity and social ills caused by alcohol consumption. Rush's use of pathos may have been too little too late. The weakness of using a logical argument is that it can be refuted, either with other logical explanations, new information or emotional appeals. It is harder to question people's emotions and deeply held morals and values. To do so would not only be considered offensive, it would also be futile. As I wrote earlier, how could anyone question such fundamental beliefs? And, if anyone did, who would listen? Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda were founded on pathos. Although a number of pamphlets drew upon both logos and pathos, many forms of propaganda, including children's pamphlets, songs and poems, used only emotional appeals. Temperance and Prohibition Era propaganda appealed to deeply held beliefs, based upon Puritan ideology and all-American values. While Rush's more scientific arguments could be disputed or ignored, most Americans would not question the importance of God, hard work, personal and communal salvation and freedom. Works Cited"Alcohol Impairs Muscle Work." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Alcohol: Practical Facts for Practical People." Boston, MA: Scientific Temperance Federation, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Alcoholism and Degeneracy." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Aristotle. The Rhetoric and The Poetics. Trans. W. Rhys Roberts and Ingram Bywater. New York: The Modern Library, 1954. "The Better Chances of the Sober Workman." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Bishop Nicholson. "Don't Unwittingly Join the Enemy's Forces." Westerville, Ohio: American Issue Publishing Company, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Cherrington, Ernest H. "Answers to Favorite Wet Arguments." Westerville, Ohio: American Issue Press, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. 11 Nov. 2004. "Child Death Rate Higher in Drinkers' Families." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Children in Misery, Parents' Drink to Blame in at Least Three Cases Out of Every Four." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Colman, Julia. "Christian Temperance Catechism." 19--? Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "The Cost of Beer." New York: Published for the Woman's National Christian Temperance Union by the National Temperance Society and Publication House, 188-?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "The Curse of Rum." Providence, 18--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Daily Drinking Impaired Memory." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. D'Arcy, H. A. "The Face Upon The Floor." Montreal: Metropolitan Show Print, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Death Rate From Various Diseases in Drinkers and General Class." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Deaths, Defects, Dwarfings in the Young of Alcoholized Guinea Pigs." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Decide for Yourself." Columbus, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation, Inc., 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Defective Children Increased With Alcoholization of Fathers." Boston, MA: Scientific Temperance Federation, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Do you want a better rating?" Washington, D. C.: Scientific Temperance Federation, Inc., 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Do you want to be efficient?" Boston, MA: Scientific Temperance Federation, Inc., 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Do you want to be powerful?" Boston, MA: Scientific Temperance Federation, Inc., 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "A Doleful New Ballad Called The Drunkard's Fall." New Haven: Bibliographical Press, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drink Burdens Childhood." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drink A Great Cause Of Immorality." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drink Impaired Scholarship." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drink the Largest Cause of Unhappy Homes in Chicago." Boston, MA: Scientific Temperance Federation, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drink Makes One More Liable to Accident." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Drinker's Children Develop More Slowly." Westerville, Ohio: Lincoln-Lee Legion, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Dungan, G. W. "Anti-Saloon Battle Hymn." Moore, PA, 1907. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Emerson, Everett H. English Puritanism from John Hooper to John Milton. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press, 1968. "Girls, Wait For a Temperance Man." New York: C. M. Tremaine, 1867. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection . "Grandmother's Boy." New York: National Temperance Society and Publication House, 188-?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Hand in Hand: Feeblemindedness, Alcoholism." Boston, MA and Westerville, Ohio: Scientific Temperance Federation and American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "The Holy Bible and Drink." Westerville, Ohio: Temperance Foundation Inc., 19--. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Hubbard, Evangelist. "Emancipation." Galesburg, Il., 1914. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Insurance Records Show That Drink Shortens Life 11%." Westerville, Ohio: American Issue Publishing Company, 1913. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Intemperance as a Cause of Poverty Greatly Reduced Since Prohibition." Boston, MA: Constitution Defense Committee, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Keith, Oscar. "Help the Fallen Brother." Worcester, MA: Worcester Reform Club, between 1850 and 1899. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "Look out for the trap!" New York: The National Temperance Society and Publication House, 187-?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Morone, James A. Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003. Parkhurst, E. A. "Father's a Drunkard and Mother is Dead." Washington, D. C.: John F. Ellis, 1866. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Rorabaugh, W. J. The Alcoholic Republic: An American Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. Runes, Dagobert D. The Selected Writings of Benjamin Rush. New York: Philosophical Library, 1947. Tannenbaum, Barbara. TA 22: Persuasive Communication. Brown University, Fall 2004. "The Titanic Carried Down 1503 People." Westerville, Ohio: American Issue Publishing Company, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. "A Way to Make Money and a Better Way." Westerville, Ohio: American Anti-Saloon League Press Bureau, 19--?. Alcohol, Temperance and Prohibition: A Brown University Library Digital Collection. Written in partial fulfillment of requirements for UC 116: Drug and Alcohol Addiction in the American Consciousness (Professor David Lewis — Fall 2004)  . Top definitionrhetoric The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively I would tear you apart with my rhetoricby John March 21, 2005190 53The Urban Dictionary Mug One side has the word, one side has the definition. Microwave and dishwasher safe. Lotsa space for your liquids. Buy the mug  Rhetorical Appeals Rhetorical Appeals Using Appeals to Kairos in Persuasive Writing Written by Angela Eward-Mangione Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 5599No better time to use appeals to kairos in your persuasive writing exists. If this term and/or topic are completely new, read “ Kairos .” Every day, writers who understand and effectively incorporate kairos into their writing have an advantage: they can creditably connect their message to the audience’s sense of place and time. An effective writer appeals to kairos by considering, and taking advantage of, the moment into which one’s writing will enter. Ask these questions: Where will my writing be read? When will my writing be read? Read more: Using Appeals to Kairos in... Rhetorical Appeals Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 81284To view the Rhetorical Appeals table, please open the full article. Read more: Rhetorical Appeals Logical Fallacies Written by Jessica Mc Kee and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 121747By now you know that all arguments operate according to an internal logic. No matter which of the four rhetorical appeals the author uses, her thesis will succeed or fail based on the soundness of her argument. In classical logic, an argument is sound only if all of its premises are true and the argument is valid. And an argument is valid only if its conclusion follows logically from the combination of its premises. For example, Plato’s classic syllogism, “All men are mortal; Socrates is a man: therefore, Socrates is mortal” is both valid and sound. Its premises are true, and the conclusion is undeniable given an understanding of the definitions of the terms. Read more: Logical Fallacies Fallacious Ethos Written by Jessica Mc Kee and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 103523Ad Hominem (Argument to the Person): Attacking the person instead of the argument. For example, "You say I shouldn't drink so much, but you drink every day." The validity of the argument (drink less) can't be based on the behavior of the person making the argument. Instead, the validity of the argument should be evaluated on its own terms—separate from the person making the claim. Read more: Fallacious Ethos Fallacious Pathos Written by Kendra Gayle, Jessica Mc Kee, and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 91411Argument by Dismissal: Rejecting an idea without providing a reason or explanation for its dismissal. For instance, there is a tendency to cry "socialism" when faced with calls for a single-payer system in the ongoing health care debate. Such a dismissal of the single-payer system may include the observations, "This is America!," or, "You are free to live elsewhere if you prefer. "Read more: Fallacious Pathos Fallacious Logos Written by Emily Lane, Jessica Mc Kee, and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 81340Appeal to Nature: Suggesting a certain behavior or action is normal/right because it is "natural." This is a fallacious argument for two reasons: first, there are multiple, and often competing, ways to define "nature" and "natural." Because there is no one way to define these terms, a writer cannot assume his or her reader thinks of "nature" in the same way he or she does. Second, we cannot assume that "unnatural" is the same as wrong or evil. We (humans) have made lots of amendments to how we live (e.g., wearing clothes, living indoors, farming) with great benefit. Read more: Fallacious Logos Pathos Written by Kendra Gayle, Jessica Mc Kee, and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 170637"Let's not forget that the little emotions are the great captains of our lives, and we obey them without realizing it." – Vincent Van Gogh Remember those after-school specials that aired on TV when you were a kid? They always had some obvious moral (like "don't drink and drive"). And they were often really emotionally driven. At the end of the show, the camera would pan out, showing the protagonist alone and suffering for the poor decisions that he or she had made. Read more: Pathos Fallacious Kairos Written by Kate Pantelides, Megan Mc Intyre, and Jessica Mc Kee Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 67440Red Herring: Introducing irrelevant facts or claims to detract from the actual argument. For instance, our invasion of Iraq was predicated, in part, upon the connection between the attacks of 9/11 and Saddam Hussein. The war was described by some as an appropriate response to the terrorist attacks on 9/11, but in reality, the connection between Iraq and Saddam Hussein was a red herring. Hussein was not connected to Al Qaeda, the terrorist network that perpetrated the attacks, or 9/11. Read more: Fallacious Kairos Logos Written by Emily Lane, Jessica Mc Kee, and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 163664" Logic is the anatomy of thought. " – John Locke"Logos" is the appeal to logic. Logos isn't logic like the formal logic in math, philosophy, or even computer science; it is the consistency and clarity of an argument as well as the logic of evidence and reasons. In formal logic, in abstraction, the following is the case: if A is true and B is true and A is an instance of B, then the repercussions of B will always be true. Read more: Logos Ethos Written by Jessica Mc Kee and Megan Mc Intyre Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 116401I've always wondered why candidates have to "approve this message"; I mean, if President Obama is on camera talking about himself, then can't I assume he approves the message? Why does he have to state that he approves it at the end? There's certainly a law that governs what must be said at the end of a political advertisement, or else President Obama wouldn't say exactly the same thing as every other politician at the end of an ad, but there's also an element of persuasion at work here. Read more: Ethos Kairos Written by Kate Pantelides, Megan Mc Intyre, and Jessica Mc Kee Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 155437" This is the right time, and this is the right thing. " – Sir Thomas Moore"Kairos" is an ancient rhetorical concept that has gained importance in different disciplines over the centuries. So what is it? Kairos is knowing what is most appropriate in a given situation; for our purposes, let's think of it as saying (or writing) the right thing at the right time. Read more: Kairos Rhetorical Appeals: A Checklist for Writers Written by Angela Eward-Mangione Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 14018Why use rhetorical appeals in persuasive writing? Using rhetorical appeals in persuasive writing increases a writer’s chances of achieving his or her purpose. Any rhetorical purpose must be connected to an audience, and rhetorical appeals have been proven to successfully reach and persuade audiences. Read more: Rhetorical Appeals: A... Rhetorical Appeals: An Overview Written by Angela Eward-Mangione Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 19118Successful writers write to win. Whether a writer wants to achieve a particular grade on a paper, persuade a specific audience to adopt an argument, or obtain an interview with a company, a writer writes with a purpose that he or she aims to fulfill. Using rhetorical appeals, particularly in persuasive writing, is a powerful way to persuade an audience. Moreover, rhetorical appeals work. For example, in “Reductions in smoking prevalence and cigarette consumption associated with mass-media campaigns,” authors Karen Friend and David T. Levy examine state and local mass-media anti-tobacco campaigns that endeavor to change social norms, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding smoking. Read more: Rhetorical Appeals: An... Using Pathos in Persuasive Writing Written by Angela Eward-Mangione Parent Category: Rhetoric Category: Rhetorical Appeals Hits: 10010Incorporating appeals to pathos into persuasive writing increases a writer’s chances of achieving his or her purpose. Read “ Pathos ” to define and understand pathos and methods for appealing to it. The following brief article discusses examples of these appeals in persuasive writing. An important key to incorporating pathos into your persuasive writing effectively is appealing to your audience’s commonly held emotions. To do this, one must be able to identify common emotions, as well as understand what situations typically evoke such emotions. Read more: Using Pathos in Persuasive...  FACULTY... Web Content Display Web Content Display FACULTY... The Naval Research Program provides an opportunity for faculty to identify current and relevant topics within the Do N/Do D that align with your research interests. Faculty are invited to participate in the Naval Research Working Group (NRWG) to hear current topics briefed, as well as to meet with Topic Sponsors to discuss and scope a potential research project. Independent of the NRWG, faculty are encouraged to browse topics and reach out to the Topic Sponsor of a topic of interest, irrespective to the funding cycle. Why Participate? Advantages of Participation Engage in NPS-funded research of current Do N/Do D research issues which can be directly funded in follow-on research by Topic Sponsor Organizations. Establish new research relationships with Do N Topic Sponsor organization personnel and points-of-contact. How to... Search for or Submit a Research Topic Submit an Initial Research Form (IREF)Prepare the NRP Research Project Proposal Package Web Content Display Web Content Display Research Topic Submission and Review The organization of the NPS NRP is based upon an annual research topic solicitation process that merges Department of Navy research, analysis, and studies requirements with NPS faculty and students who have unique expertise and experience. The NRP Topic Portal facilitates an ongoing collaborative workflow environment for NPS Students, NPS Faculty and Fleet Sponsors to review, submit, discuss, and sponsor NPS NRP topics for potential funding and thesis consideration. Topic review, board consideration for funding and project award is structured around a fiscal year (FY) annual cycle. There is a FY deadline that usually occurs in April. However, new topic submissions or resubmission of previously unfunded topics can be done at any time of the year. Topic Submission and Review Cycle Topic Submission Those wishing to be Topic Sponsors create topics via the NRP Topic Portal. Topics may also be entered by faculty and students but must have a Topic Sponsor established prior to submission of an IREF. Topics will be presented and discussed during the NRWG with NPS faculty and students. When you create a new topic on the NRP Topic Portal you are submitting it for review and consideration for NRP funding. All Topics must be aligned with Navy and/or Marine mission requirements. Topic Proposals that have already been reviewed by the Requirements Review Board (R3B) or Marine Requirements Overview Council (MROC)will receive higher NRP priority for research. Presence or absence of R3B or MROC approval for a topic is validated by the Research Topic Sponsor. Naval Research Working Group (NRWG)The primary synchronization and collaboration event for students, Topic Sponsors, and faculty to discuss relevant Do D research. The output of the spring event is a completed Initial Research Estimate Form (IREF) for proposed research and funding consideration. Independent of the NRWG, faculty and students are encouraged to browse topics and reach out to Topic Sponsors to discuss topics of interest, irrespective to the funding cycle. IREF Submission {NRWG Output}The IREF is used to submit a preliminary proposed research Statement of Work (SOW) for NRP research topics. During and following the NRWG, faculty and students work with Topic Sponsors to scope proposed projects, and then submit an IREF for topics they wish to research. Discussions with the Topic Sponsor is strongly encouraged. IREFs are submitted via the NRP Topic Portal by NPS faculty. An immediate supervisor at NPS and the Topic Sponsor POC must approve and sign the IREF for it to be considered at the Navy Topics Research Board (TRB) or Marine Executive Research Board (ERB) for potential funding. IREF Prioritization Just prior to the TRB/ERB, approved IREFs are sent to the sponsoring organization's Topic Sponsor Lead. The Topic Sponsor Lead then coordinates with their organization to internally prioritize the approved IREFs. At this time organizations may also choose to co-sponsor a project or move a project to another sponsor as appropriate for the naval mission. Navy Topics Research Board (TRB) or Marine Executive Research Board (ERB)The TRB is a U. S. Navy entity for prioritization and approval of research requirements. The TRB consists of at least one representative from ASN (RDA), N1, N2/N6, N3/N5, N4, N8, N9, and Fleet Force (s). The ERB is the Marine Corps entity for prioritization and approval of research requirements. The ERB consists of at least one representative from I, II, & III MEF, E2O, HQMC Aviation, HQMC I&L, HQMC MR&A, HQMC PP&O, HQMC P&R, CDET, MCMSMO, MCWL, MARCORSYSCOM, MARFORCYBER, and MARFORRES. These organizations will represent Topic Sponsors for projects undertaken within the NPS NRP or comprise the majority of Navy/Marine Corps analysis. They will review, validate, prioritize, and recommend assignment of NPS NRP resources to research projects in order to address specific Navy/Marine Corps research requirements. The TRB/ERB will verify that proposed research is relevant, not duplicative, tied to Chief of Naval Operations, Chief of Naval Research, Commandant’s Planning Guidance, Marine Corps Science and Technology Objectives, Chairman Joint Chief of Staff Planning Guidance, Department of Defense (DOD), Strategic Guidance, other strategic documents or initiatives such as Research Sponsor vision statements. The TRB/ERB will designate NPS NRP research projects with a status of Requirement (of immediate need to the research sponsors), Tabled (requires more project definition), or Cancelled (project being funded by another Naval entity or of no value). If a proposed IREF is selected as a candidate for funding, the faculty researcher ( Principal Investigator (PI)) will then be asked to prepare a detailed research topic proposal and budget. Detailed Research Topic Proposal & Budget Submission Package The detailed research proposal and budget package is the culmination of iterative discussions with the Topic Sponsor. It provides a definitive agreement of the proposed work between the Topic Sponsor and the research PI. Once a PI has developed the formal research topic and budget proposal, an immediate supervisor at NPS and the Topic Sponsor must approve and sign the topic proposal package and submit the completed package to the NRP. A fully completed proposal package must be submitted to and approved by the NRP before funds are released to begin research. It is important that PIs, their supervisors, and Topic Sponsors work closely to complete the package in a timely manner. If a PI fails to submit a completed package to the NRP by the deadline, the funding award may be canceled and awarded to an alternate candidate. Project Execution/Deliverables Between October 1st - 15th accounts are funded by the NRP, and PIs can begin their research projects. Students assist faculty in the execution of funded research and production of deliverables. Topic Sponsors are responsible for coordinating with faculty PIs and for oversight of the execution of their individual research projects undertaken under the NPS NRP process. PIs are responsible for all project specific deliverables as outlined and approved in their signed research topic proposal as well as for the NRP specific NRP PI Project Deliverables.  . Literature Topics and Research Summary: This handout provides examples and description about writing papers in literature. It discusses research topics, how to begin to research, how to use information, and formatting. Contributors: Mark Dollar, Purdue OWL Last Edited: 2013-09-28 12:15:24What kinds of topics are good ones? The best topics are ones that originate out of your own reading of a work of literature, but here are some common approaches to consider: A discussion of a work's characters: are they realistic, symbolic, historically-based? A comparison/contrast of the choices different authors or characters make in a work A reading of a work based on an outside philosophical perspective (Ex. how would a Freudian read Hamlet ? )A study of the sources or historical events that occasioned a particular work (Ex. comparing G. B. Shaw's Pygmalion with the original Greek myth of Pygmalion)An analysis of a specific image occurring in several works (Ex. the use of moon imagery in certain plays, poems, novels)A "deconstruction" of a particular work (Ex. unfolding an underlying racist worldview in Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness)A reading from a political perspective (Ex. how would a Marxist read William Blake's "London"? )A study of the social, political, or economic context in which a work was written — how does the context influence the work? How do I start research? The Internet Once you have decided on an interesting topic and work (or works), the best place to start is probably the Internet. Here you can usually find basic biographical data on authors, brief summaries of works, possibly some rudimentary analyses, and even bibliographies of sources related to your topic. The library The Internet, however, rarely offers serious direct scholarship; you will have to use sources found in the library, sources like journal articles and scholarly books, to get information that you can use to build your own scholarship-your literary paper. Consult the library's on-line catalog and the MLA Periodical Index. Avoid citing dictionary or encyclopedic sources in your final paper. How do I use the information I find? The secondary sources you find are only to be used as an aid. Your thoughts should make up most of the essay. As you develop your thesis, you will bring in the ideas of the scholars to back up what you have already said. For example, say you are arguing that Huck Finn is a Christ figure; that's your basic thesis. You give evidence from the novel that allows this reading, and then, at the right place, you might say the following, a paraphrase: According to Susan Thomas, Huck sacrifices himself because he wants to set Jim free (129). If the scholar states an important idea in a memorable way, use a direct quote. "Huck's altruism and feelings of compassion for Jim force him to surrender to the danger" (Thomas 129). Either way, you will then link that idea to your thesis.  Best Colleges with Rhetoric and Composition Degrees in the U.S. Best Colleges United States Education and Liberal Arts English Education Rhetoric and Composition Best Colleges with Rhetoric and Composition Degrees in the U. S. Share This Facebook Twitter Pinterest Share This Facebook Twitter Pinterest If you are seeking a degree in Rhetoric and Composition, you'll find there is a large range of degrees that can be earned. A major in Rhetoric and Composition is a popular major and can be found at many different colleges and universities, all of which are listed below. Our 2018 ranking of the best colleges that offer Rhetoric and Composition degrees is based on the compilation of our data from reliable government sources, student surveys, college graduate interviews, and editorial review. You can find more information about a Rhetoric and Composition degree below along with a look at schools that offer online degrees in Rhetoric and Composition. The Best Rhetoric and Composition Colleges of 20171University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Minneapolis, MNUniversity of Minnesota-Twin Cities offers 4 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a large city. In 2015, 314 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 306 Bachelor's degrees, 7 Doctoral degrees, and 1 Master's degree. Based on 168 Reviews Read more: University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Reviews Get Admissions Info2University of Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh Campus Pittsburgh, PAUniversity of Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh Campus offers 5 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a large city. In 2015, 202 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 188 Bachelor's degrees, 7 Certificates degrees, 5 Doctoral degrees, and 2 Master's degrees. Based on 72 Reviews Read more: University of Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh Campus Reviews Get Admissions Info3University of California-Berkeley Berkeley, CAUniversity of California-Berkeley offers 4 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a mid sized city. In 2015, 88 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 80 Bachelor's degrees, 4 Master's degrees, and 4 Doctoral degrees. Based on 140 Reviews Read more: University of California-Berkeley Reviews Get Admissions Info4SUNY at Albany Albany, NYImage by UAlbany SUNY at Albany offers 3 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a small city. In 2015, 245 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 245 Bachelor's degrees. Based on 28 Reviews Read more: SUNY at Albany Reviews Get Admissions Info5University of South Florida-Main Campus Tampa, FLUniversity of South Florida-Main Campus offers 4 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a large city. In 2015, 217 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 205 Bachelor's degrees, 8 Doctoral degrees, and 4 Master's degrees. Based on 56 Reviews Read more: University of South Florida-Main Campus Reviews Get Admissions Info6George Mason University Fairfax, VAGeorge Mason University offers 2 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a large suburb. In 2015, 248 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 248 Bachelor's degrees. Based on 36 Reviews Read more: George Mason University Reviews Get Admissions Info7Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PAImage by @tackastazirafa Carnegie Mellon University offers 3 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large private university in a large city. In 2015, 6 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 5 Master's degrees, 1 Doctoral degree. Based on 16 Reviews Read more: Carnegie Mellon University Reviews Get Admissions Info8New York University New York, NYImage by Jean-Christophe Benoist New York University offers 3 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large private university in a large city. Based on 60 Reviews Read more: New York University Reviews Get Admissions Info9Texas State University San Marcos, TXTexas State University offers 5 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a small suburb. In 2015, 188 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 155 Bachelor's degrees, 23 Master's degrees, and 10 Certificates degrees. Based on 36 Reviews Read more: Texas State University Reviews Get Admissions Info10West Chester University of Pennsylvania West Chester, PAWest Chester University of Pennsylvania offers 4 Rhetoric And Composition Degree programs. It's a large public university in a large suburb. In 2015, 163 students graduated in the study area of Rhetoric And Composition with students earning 153 Bachelor's degrees, and 10 Master's degrees. Based on 16 Reviews Read more: West Chester University of Pennsylvania Reviews Get Admissions Info List of Rhetoric and Composition Schools in the U. S. Filter: Degree Levels Associate's Bachelor's Certificates Doctoral Master's Program Length Less than 2 years (below associate)At least 2 but less than 4 years Four or more years Control Type Private for-profit Private not-for-profit Public School Logo School Name Average tuition Student Teacher Ratio Enrolled Students University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Minneapolis, MN3 /514 : 1 50,678University of Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh Campus Pittsburgh, PA4 /57 : 1 28,649University of California-Berkeley Berkeley, CA3 /521 : 1 38,189SUNY at Albany Albany, NY3 /522 : 1 17,178University of South Florida-Main Campus Tampa, FL2 /522 : 1 42,067George Mason University Fairfax, VA3 /521 : 1 33,929Carnegie Mellon University Pittsburgh, PA5 /511 : 1 12,963New York University New York, NY5 /58 : 1 50,027Texas State University San Marcos, TX3 /528 : 1 37,979West Chester University of Pennsylvania West Chester, PA3 /522 : 1 16,597Old Dominion University Norfolk, VA3 /525 : 1 24,672University of Michigan-Ann Arbor Ann Arbor, MI3 /57 : 1 43,651Clemson University Clemson, SC3 /520 : 1 22,698The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX3 /518 : 1 50,950University of Richmond University of Richmond, VA5 /59 : 1 4,181University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Champaign, IL4 /520 : 1 45,842Syracuse University Syracuse, NY5 /518 : 1 21,789University of New Mexico-Main Campus Albuquerque, NM2 /515 : 1 27,285University of North Texas Denton, TX3 /531 : 1 37,299University of California-Davis Davis, CA3 /515 : 1 35,186Bowling Green State University-Main Campus Bowling Green, OH3 /522 : 1 16,908Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX3 /525 : 1 35,859Saint Joseph's College-New York Brooklyn, NY5 /516 : 1 4,749Miami University-Oxford Oxford, OH3 /519 : 1 19,076Texas Christian University Fort Worth, TX5 /515 : 1 10,323« ‹ 1 2 3 › »Find Local Colleges Offering Rhetoric and Composition Degrees United States Alabama Colleges Arizona Colleges California Colleges Colorado Colleges Florida Colleges Georgia Colleges Illinois Colleges Indiana Colleges Iowa Colleges Kansas Colleges Kentucky Colleges Louisiana Colleges Maine Colleges Michigan Colleges Minnesota Colleges Mississippi Colleges Missouri Colleges Nebraska Colleges New Jersey Colleges New Mexico Colleges New York Colleges North Carolina Colleges North Dakota Colleges Ohio Colleges Oklahoma Colleges Oregon Colleges Pennsylvania Colleges Rhode Island Colleges South Carolina Colleges South Dakota Colleges Tennessee Colleges Texas Colleges Utah Colleges Virgin Islands Colleges Virginia Colleges Washington Colleges Washington DC Colleges West Virginia Colleges Wisconsin Colleges Getting a Rhetoric and Composition Degree Online Schools offering online Rhetoric and Composition degrees Online Rhetoric and Composition degrees are available at a variety of different schools with as many as 193 degrees earned at the most popular school. Read more below about all schools that have offered online Rhetoric and Composition degrees. If you are interested learning more about getting a degree online, check out our page dedicated to online degree information . Certificate Associate's Bachelor's Master's Doctoral Old Dominion University 0 0 193 0 0Northern Arizona University 0 0 0 25 0University of Nebraska at Kearney 0 0 20 0 0Stark State College 0 11 0 0 0Amarillo College 0 2 0 0 0Show More Schools How many schools offer online Rhetoric and Composition degrees?3Associate's3Bachelor's2Master's What degrees do people get in Rhetoric and Composition? Associate's2-year Length28Colleges80Graduates Bachelor's4-year Length138Colleges3,226Graduates Certificates< 1 year Length8Colleges32Graduates Doctoral1-2 year Length19Colleges103Graduates Master's1+ years Length41Colleges168Graduates Rhetoric and Composition Degree Overview When going for a Rhetoric and Composition degree, know that there are many options for a traditional degree as well as higher education opportunities. The most standard path for those earning a degree in Rhetoric and Composition can presume a standard two to four years to earn a degree. The most common Rhetoric and Composition degree earned was a bachelor's degree and it also has the widest range of school possibilities as well. The second most popular Rhetoric and Composition degree that people obtain is a master's degree which expresses a focus on higher learning. This implies that the degree requires dedication to schooling and you may want to seek more than a four year time commitment. Although a certificate is offered at some schools, getting a certificate is not very common. Keeping in mind what you hope to achieve by earning a degree in Rhetoric and Composition, look to choose a degree at a school that can meet your flexibility and schedule needs. Average cost of college for a Rhetoric and Composition degree Average Tuition and Fees for a 2 year Degree$4,144Public In-State$6,911Public Out-of-State Average Tuition and Fees for a 4 year Degree$8,735Public In-State$31,452Private In-State$19,841Public Out-of-State$31,452Private Out-of-State  Modes of persuasion This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)The modes of persuasion, often referred to as ethical strategies or rhetorical appeals, are devices in rhetoric that classify the speaker's appeal to the audience. They are: ethos, pathos, and logos, and the less used kairos. Aristotle 's Rhetoric describes the modes of persuasion thus: Persuasion is clearly a sort of demonstration, since we are most fully persuaded when we consider a thing to have been demonstrated. Of the modes of persuasion furnished by the spoken word there are three kinds. [...] Persuasion is achieved by the speaker's personal character when the speech was so spoken as to make us think him credible. [...] Secondly, persuasion may come through the hearers, when the speech stirs their emotions. [...] Thirdly, persuasion is effected through the speech itself when we have proved a truth or an apparent truth by means of the persuasive arguments suitable to the case in question. Contents [ hide ]1 Ethos2 Pathos3 Logos4 Kairos5 See also6 References7 External links Ethos [ edit]Main article: Ethos Ethos (plural: ethea) is an appeal to the authority or credibility of the presenter. It is how well the presenter convinces the audience that the presenter is qualified to speak on the subject. This can be done by: Being a notable figure in the field in question, such as a college professor or an executive of a company whose business is related to the presenter's topic Demonstrating mastery of the terminology of the field Being introduced by or producing bona fides from other established authorities Pathos [ edit]Main article: Pathos Pathos (plural: pathea) is an appeal to the audience’s emotions. The terms sympathy, pathetic, and empathy are derived from it. It can be in the form of metaphor, simile, a passionate delivery, or even a simple claim that a matter is unjust. Pathos can be particularly powerful if used well, but most speeches do not solely rely on pathos. Pathos is most effective when the author or speaker demonstrates agreement with an underlying value of the reader or listener. In addition, the speaker may use pathos and fear to sway the audience. Pathos may also include appeals to audience imagination and hopes; done when the speaker paints a scenario of positive future results of following the course of action proposed. In some cases, downplaying the ethos can be done while emphasizing pathos, for example as William Jennings Bryan did in his Cross of Gold speech: I would be presumptuous, indeed, to present myself against the distinguished gentlemen to whom you have listened if this were but a measuring of ability; but this is not a contest among persons. The humblest citizen in all the land when clad in the armor of a righteous cause is stronger than all the whole hosts of error that they can bring. I come to speak to you in defense of a cause as holy as the cause of liberty—the cause of humanity.— William Jennings Bryan [1]Logos [ edit]Main article: Logos Logos (plural: logoi) is logical appeal or the simulation of it, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's claims or thesis. Having a logos appeal also enhances ethos because information makes the speaker look knowledgeable and prepared to his or her audience. However, the data can be confusing and thus confuse the audience. Logos can also be misleading or inaccurate, however meaningful it may seem to the subject at hand. In some cases, inaccurate, falsified, or miscontextualized data can even be used to enact a pathos effect. Such is the case with casualty numbers, which, while not necessarily falsified, may include minor casualties (injuries) that are equated with deaths in the mind of an audience and therefore can evoke the same effect as a death toll. Kairos [ edit]Main article: Kairos In simple words, this is the time and place. An orator uses this to their advantage to persuade the audience to act now at the time being. [2]See also [ edit]Persuasion theorists References [ edit]^ Bryan, William (July 9, 1896). "Bryan's "Cross of Gold" Speech: Mesmerizing the Masses". History Matters. Retrieved July 28, 2014.^ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kairos External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Persuasion techniques. Aristotle's Rhetoric (translated work)Silva Rhetoricae: Forest of Rhetoric (general article)European Rhetoric (general article)Ethos, Logos and Pathos Examples (Examples of Ethos, Logos and Pathos)  Rhetorical device From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2015) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Put a period at the end of a sentence. Do not put a period after every word you type. In rhetoric, a rhetorical device, resource of language, or stylistic device is a technique that an author or speaker uses to convey to the listener or reader a meaning with the goal of persuading them towards considering a topic from a different perspective, using sentences designed to encourage or provoke an emotional display of a given perspective or action. Rhetorical devices can be used to evoke an emotional response in the audience, but that is not their primary purpose. Contents [ hide ]1 Categories2 Irony and metaphor2.1 Examples3 Sonic devices4 Altered signification devices5 See also6 External links Categories [ edit]Logos is the use of logical ideas to appeal to the audience. Pathos is an appeal to the audience's emotions. Ethos describes the guiding tenets that characterize a community, nation or ideology; it may also appeal to the author's credibility. It is an appeal based on the character of the speaker. Kairos is an appeal to the timeliness of the argument. Irony and metaphor [ edit]Two common rhetorical devices are irony and metaphor. The use of irony in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience an incongruity that is often used as a tool of humor in order to deprecate or ridicule an idea or course of action. The use of metaphor in rhetoric is primarily to convey to the audience a new idea or meaning by linking it to an already familiar idea or meaning. By making the new concept appear to be linked to (or a type of) the old and familiar concept, the person using the metaphor hopes to help the audience understand the new concept. Examples [ edit]An example of rhetorical device is this passage attributed to a speech by Abraham Lincoln about a political adversary who "dived down deeper into the sea of knowledge and come up drier than any other man he knew". This attributed quote uses a body of water as a metaphor for a body of knowledge with the ironical idea of someone who gained so little from his education that he achieved the impossible of jumping into a body of water and climbing back out without getting wet. Sonic devices [ edit]Sonic devices depend on sound. Alliteration is the use of a stream of words with the same first phoneme, only interrupted by grammatically required words (e.g. a (n), the, to, for, by, etc.). It is used for emphasis, suggesting a humorous or even threatening tone. The zoo kept several selfish seals. I hate that heartless heathen. Assonance is the repetition of a similar set of vowel sounds. It is used to emphasize intensity, mood, and imagery, among others. Cacophony is the use of words with harsh consonants, usually at the beginning of a word. Kit-Katpaupercacophonyperpetuate Onomatopoeia is the use of words that attempt to emulate a sound. When used colloquially, it is often accompanied by multiple exclamation marks and in all caps. It is common in comic strips and some cartoons.smek - high-fiving someone; smacking someone in the facethwap - lying down carelessly; dropping a pile of papers or books carelesslykaboom - explodingding-dong - ringing a doorbellplop - sitting/lying down carelessly (also a verb: “Plop down on the couch.”)bang - exploding; shooting a powerful gunclappew - shooting a laser gun Altered signification devices [ edit]Devices of altered signification shift the meaning of words. Metaphor comparison of two objects or ideas that does NOT use "like or "as. "Simile is a gentler form of metaphor that always uses "as" or "like" to compare something to something else. For example, "his beard was like a lion's mane.¨See also [ edit]Figure of speech Glossary of rhetorical terms Stylistic device Rhetorical modes External links [ edit]Handbook of rhetorical devices List of Fallacious Arguments Online Resource of Rhetorical Devices Rhetorical Figures in Sound Categories: Rhetorical techniques  700 Argumentative Essay Topics 700 Argumentative Essay Topics June 11, 2017 by admin Argumentative Essay, Essay Samples, Free Essay Samples, Essay Topics1200Argumentative Essay Topics From Team At Essay Basics Click To See Examples Of Argumentative Writing When it comes to essay writing professors usually supply students with topics to write about. However, there are cases when a student is free to write on any topic he wishes. The first step is where a great number of students get stuck. What topic to write about? The topic must be interesting, the topic must be essential and finally the topic must be informative. Argumentative Essay Topics Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 3:36We’ve done a great job on thinking about some interesting topics for you. We tried to come up with the topics that concern our everyday life at the same time will not sound ordinary. Check out this list of topics for argumenative writing that are grouped by different subject areas and choose something that fits you. We want you to make your final decision by saying “Here we go! This is a perfect topic for my upcoming essay!” Have fun with your writing assignment! Hope this list gives you a great essay writing help. List Of Categories Sport Technology Politics Dating and Sex Art Music and Movies Internet and Social Media International Relations Law enforcement and Justice System Parenting and Childhood Current Generation Religion and Spirituality Morality and Responsibility Education Jobs and Careers Health and Nutrition Science Miscellaneous Artificial Intelligence Space Life in the Future Drugs Vegetarianism Tattoos EDM Music Rap Music Rock Music Donald Trump Blockchain Cryptocurrencies Internet of things Machine learning Facebook CLICK HERE TO DOWNLOAD ALL TOPICSTopics with examples of writing Examples Of Argumentative Writing First Second Third Did you Know we can Write your Essay for You?250+ Argumentative Essay Topics Sports1 Is rugby dangerous?2 Are footballers overpaid?3 Is athletics underrated?4 Is golf fun?5 Is golf only meant for the rich in the society?6 Where does golf get its revenue?7 Is swimming healthy?8 Why is marching band grouped as a sport?9 Does cheerleading fit in games?10 How is chess considered as a beneficial sports activity?11 Hockey as a dangerous sport.12 Steroid users should be banned from any sports activities. Technology1 Are we becoming technological zombies?2 Will there come a time when there will be no innovation and technological advancement?3 Is the current technology too advanced for us?4 Are mobile phones killing authenticity?5 Will robots make us lazier or more efficient?6 What should be the actual cost of technology?7 Are technological gadgets, the leading cause of cancer?8 Is this the age of digital explosion?9 Can the chip control the mind too?10 Is Face Book a great invention or the end of privacy?11 Communication in social networks: is it a good invention or the end of good communication?12 Impacts of cell phones on people: its pros and cons.13 Are we too much reliant on technology?14 Has internet brought about more harm than it is good?15 Technology as a thief of creativity.16 Do we need cell phones?17 What impacts has the technology impacted on the community as a whole?18 How some electronics bring about diseases? Politics1 Are politicians corrupt?2 How do politicians gain influence?3 Do some politicians engage in illegal activities?4 Is the government doing enough to curb corruption?5 Is the president supreme?6 Is there anyone above the law?7 Are the physically disabled considered in government?8 Is the government overspending?9 Does the government influence court decisions?10 Is the government right in all its policies?11 Pros of Monarchy.12 Advantages and disadvantages of conservatism.13 Democracy: is it the only option for governing?14 Can the politicians do better?15 Is politics an art?16 Is politics a ‘clean’ game?17 Famous people in the society should not get involved in politics.18 How does the government oppress the taxpayers in the country?19 Is politics considered an art or a talent?20 Why are governors categorized among the corrupt?21 The system has become more corrupted. Dating and Sex1 Is there a right age to start having sex?2 What should be the role of the partners in a relationship?3 Is polygamy or polyandry, a form of relationship?4 Should homosexuality be legalized in every country?5 What should one do if sex is too painful?6 The civil marriage and what it entails?7 Is online dating fruitful?8 Is it proper to join dating sites and dating clubs to get a partner?9 What is the best way to solve issues in a relationship?10 Is it okay to date a younger man?11 What should be the maximum age gap between partners in a relationship?12 After how many dates should sex happen?13 Are phones the chief reason for most relationship issues?14 Is communication the most important element of dating?15 Is it proper to date different races?16 What is incest?17 Are long distance relationships effective?18 Is sex education important?19 How does cheating impact relationship?20 Is it wrong to date your boss?21 Must there be love for sex to happen?22 Long distance relationships.23 Sex and violence: is it acceptable on TV?24 Marriage life: does it lead to a routine?25 The choice between sexual freedom and morality.26 Is there gender equality?27 Are there supposed to be specific roles for each gender?28 Is there a stronger and weaker sex?29 Are there specific jobs and careers for each gender?30 Is there gender discrimination in religion?31 Feminism and its positive and negative impacts on the lives of women.32 Who are more intelligent: men or women?33 Can men and women be friends?34 Military service and gender.35 Is age a limiting factor while dating?36 Polygamy is not that evil.37 How do pedophiles shatter the esteem of children?38 Why is interracial dating encouraged in this new world order?39 Why long distance relationships never make it. Art1 Does art pay?2 What are the challenges faced by artists?3 Is art a profession?4 How can artists market their work?5 Is art gender-specific or age restrictions?6 Is gothic art the best in history?7 Can modern art be considered as art?8 Is graffiti a part of art?9 Graffiti is an illegal art.10 Left-handed individuals are good at art compared to the fellow right-handed individuals.11 Why is gothic art considered as evil art?12 Can you succeed in life with art as a profession? Music and Movies1 Is today’s music educational?2 Are musicians right to sing in both secular and religious genres?3 Why are women used in most songs?4 Why do people like secular more than religious songs?5 How do musicians make money?6 Is music a profession?7 How long should a movie take?8 Is music appropriate for all ages?9 How are psychology and music connected?10 Children tend to learn instruments better than adults.11 All women prefer movies that have romance.12 Do actors survive on only the money that they earn from acting? Internet and Social Media1 Can you get genuine friends online?2 How do social media affect behavior?3 Is online business profitable?4 How does one avoid fraud on the internet?5 Is there online bullying?6 Should parents monitor what their kids are doing online?7 Should parents be on social sites?8 Is online privacy important?9 What are the risks of online transactions?10 Can we trace someone online?11 Is censorship of internet necessary?12 The unfair presentation of facts by mass media and should it be punishable?13 Do firewalls assist in preventing bad content to the users?14 How can you avoid the catfish type of people in the social media?15 Has Whatsapp proven itself as an efficient communicating social media tools?16 Can online friends stick by you even in harsh times?17 How old should the children be allowed to access the social media sites and utilities? International Relations1 Is the U. S being too lenient on Israel?2 What should be done in the case of Syria and ISIS?3 Is Russia supporting the ‘bad guys?’4 How can the problem in Kashmir be solved?5 Is the world turning a blind eye on South Sudan?6 The third world war – is it possible?7 What are the impacts of the contracting Chinese economy?8 Is China a genuine superpower?9 Who is wrong, between North and South Korea?10 Is Iraq a failed state?11 The issue between Israel and Palestine.12 Is Somalia fast becoming a terrorist hub?13 How can the world combat terrorism?14 The war in Iraq and the questions for and against it.15 Is pacifism utopia or the real way to peace?16 Globalizations: its pros and cons.17 The war in the Middle East and America will never end.18 Did the death of Saddam reduce conflict in the world?19 Globalization will be the main reason for the third world war.20 How can ISIS be abolished?21 How was the war in Iraq justified? Law enforcement and Justice System1 Should court proceedings be televised?2 The possibility of eliminating judicial errors.3 Adoption of children by gay couples.4 Punishment of desecration of religious objects.5 The most suitable age for voting.6 Are the police justified to use live ammunition?7 Military service: should be compulsory?8 Is drug testing in the workplace a violation of your rights?9 Is it right for someone to be judged in a foreign country?10 Should the drinking age be increased or reduced?11 Should the driving age be increased or reduced?12 Is the International Criminal Court fair in its judgments?13 What is alimony and who should pay it?14 What should be done to improve the police force?15 Gay marriage: Should it be accepted in all the democratic nations?16 Is it proper to merge the police and the army?17 Laws prohibiting the use of heroin: Should they also be applied to tobacco?18 Generally, is there justice?19 Advertising of alcohol and whether it should be prohibited.20 Should voluntary euthanasia be legalized?21 Should marijuana be legalized?22 Is maintenance of law and order, relative?23 Is capital punishment a thing of the past?24 Use of cell phones while driving: is it acceptable or should it be banned?25 The justice systems are corrupted beyond repair.26 Is the criminal justice system in countries racist?27 Do the police favor law offenders from their race?28 Should live ammunition be used in college students’ strikes?29 Are the law enforcers justified to sacrifice a hostage for the sake of the others? Parenting and Childhood1 What is the right age to give birth?2 Are there any complications with late parenthood?3 Just which is the best way to discipline a kid?4 How should adolescents be handled?5 Should parents go for further training in parenthood?6 Is it right to house your child past the age of 30?7 What should a parent do, if the child is consistently rude?8 Should failed parenting be criminalized?9 Should there be distinction of duties between the parents?10 How should a single parent play both roles of father and mother, to the child?11 Should we reward our children for good conduct?12 Is extreme pampering dangerous for our kids?13 What should a parent do to protect the kid from bad company?14 How can parents nurture talent?15 Motherhood and the most suitable age.16 Small or large families: The best alternative for children.17 How old can you legally become a parent?18 Is Down’s syndrome related to late childbearing?19 What is the most standard number of children that parents can bear?20 Between a father and mother, who has the most roles?21 What is the greatest way of punishing your child? Current Generation1 Is this the most immoral generation in history?2 Are we slowly getting swallowed with our own arrogance?3 How can the current generation be properly managed?4 Is this generation a product of experimental parenting?5 Is there the relation that was there in the past, at present?6 Necessity of school uniform.7 Teen marriages and should they be allowed.8 What is the effect of violent games in real life?9 Does this present generation know how to maintain relationships?10 Has this generation become brainwashed with communication technology?11 The increasing number of teenage mothers.12 Do movies that are violent and immoral have an impact on the behavior of this generation?13 Does this current generation follow any rules? Religion and Spirituality1 Just what is the meaning of the word ‘evil?’2 Relevance of all religions: are they all good?3 Is there anyone righteous in the word at the moment?4 Which religion is right?5 Is there heaven and hell?6 Atheism as a religion.7 Is there God?8 Why are there so many religions in the world now?9 Why did Christianity split into so many distinct religions as there are now?10 Is yoga more spiritual than fasting?11 Are today’s pastors genuine?12 What happens, or where do people go, after they die?13 Is death final? If God is there, why are people suffering so much?14 Why do Christians get divorced at almost the same rate as non-Christians?15 Why do different prophets preach contradictory teachings?16 Why is Islam preaching violence yet it is a religion of peace?17 Does the soul exist?18 Is reincarnation real?19 What is karma?20 Why were we created?21 Why is there too much evil in this world?22 Is the Sabbath controversial?23 Is it a mandatory to go to respective places of worship?24 Is having many religions justified?25 The world would be better if the religions were not there.26 Do alternatives related to evolution exist?27 Can religion be considered as a force of evil?28 Will cloning mean the end of morality in the world? Morality and Responsibility1 Who should be in charge of one’s morality?2 Is there a perfect punishment for immorality?3 Are the current religions guiding people in the right direction?4 What is the meaning of life?5 Did we come from one creator?6 Is black PR acceptable?7 Contraceptives and birth control.8 Are security cameras an infringement of privacy?9 Ethics issues affecting prolonging of people’s lives by scientists.10 Banning of pornography.11 Is mankind losing its morality?12 What is the reason why people don’t live up to their full potential?13 Is peer pressure bad?14 Where did the universe originate from?15 How does one build self – esteem?16 Is personality important in the image of a person?17 Is abortion a form of murder?18 Is Euthanasia a form of mercy killing or a crime?19 Pros and cons of hunting.20 Right to murder and the society.21 How important is the education on patriotism?22 Animal testing: A necessity or savageness.23 Is keeping animals in zoos acceptable?24 The morals behind cloning.25 Necessity of death penalty: is it a vestige of the past?26 Suicide is a brave act of cowardice. Education1 Is education becoming useless?2 Is plagiarism a serious crime as it is put to be?3 Corporal punishment in schools.4 What is worse, exam cheating or boycotting?5 Is the current education system relevant?6 University degree: is it necessary for success?7 Are colleges churning out half-baked professionals?8 Importance of mandatory physical education for students?9 Is homeschooling considered as a basic form of schooling?10 Has education become so much commercialized?11 Is academic grading helpful in performance?12 Should boarding in schools be banned?13 How can a student acquire all-round education?14 Should there be specific dress codes in schools?15 Should education be mandatory?16 Is online education important?17 Should education be privatized?18 Sex education in schools: should it be halted or increased?19 Video games at school.20 Education and its importance in the developing of a country.21 Is sign language equally important as the foreign languages?22 For foreign language to be effective, it should be implemented right from kindergarten.23 Should single-sex education be introduced in colleges and universities?24 Sports should be made a compulsory course in higher learning institutions.25 The examinations results do not necessary reflect the knowledge of the child. Jobs and Careers1 Should a parent choose the career for the child?2 Are some careers better than others?3 Can one do a career he/she has not studied?4 Why are other professions paying than others?5 How long should a person work in a day?6 Should there be a dressing code for each profession?7 What is the best profession?8 Afternoon nap facilities should be introduced in the working places.9 Should all careers overlook tattoos?10 Does experience apply in all types of works?11 Should short dresses be banned from the workplaces?12 Some career opportunities have prestige compared to others. Health and Nutrition1 How much protein should be taken in a day?2 What is the diet of a pregnant woman?3 What is the best way to slim or gain weight?4 What is the ideal amount of water for a healthy person?5 What causes cancer?6 What is the best meal for a diabetic patient?7 Vegetarianism and health?8 Are traditional and alternative medicines reliable?9 Is fast food beneficial or detrimental?10 Can man live without eating meat?11 Stimulants used by sports people.12 Going to hospital and self-treatment.13 Is being broke a habit?14 Heroin should be made compulsory to the terminally ill patients.15 Unhealthy foods should comply with high taxation so as to prevent the processing.16 Access to free health care should be made available to everyone.17 Ancestry knowledge is essential for healthy living.18 Drug addiction is not a disease as it is entirely dependent on the choice of the individual. Science1 Are we alone in the universe?2 How big is the universe?3 Is there a connection between science and religion?4 How can we prove that the earth revolves?5 Is there life on moon?6 Darwinism.7 Different theories to explain the origin of the universe.8 Are there stars that are bigger than the sun?9 What happens when an unstoppable force meets an immovable object?10 How did the continents split?11 Is there some language for animals?12 How did the ancients use science?13 Is there any science behind life?14 Nuclear energy and safety issues.15 Importance of alternative sources of energy.16 Is genetic research improving or destroying the lives of people?17 Is global warming a belief or a real danger?18 Space exploration leads to wastage of money.19 The greatest hoax in history was the NASA moon landing.20 Is Mars considered as the next destination for humans?21 GMOs will be the savior of the hunger problems faced by the world.22 Do animals interact with each or is it just coincidence? Miscellaneous1 What is the best place to go on a date?2 What is the greatest bargain you have ever got?3 Can hiking happen at night?4 Is rock climbing dangerous?5 What should be the appropriate dressing code for church?6 Is the current trend in fashion attractive?7 Should there be a measure of just how far fashion should go?8 Is the present fashion better than the ancient one?9 What is the appropriate manner to prepare for a dinner date?10 Are high heels good for the body?11 Destruction of forests as a crime against the planet.12 The different views of the bombing of Hirosima and Nagasaki.13 Rainforests and why their destruction should be prohibited.14 Wealth and happiness.15 Most suitable age to find friends.16 Possibility of having everyone in the world as rich.17 Our ideas and their influence on the world.18 Pros and cons of living in the city or in the country side.19 People have never been content with what they have in life.20 Can laziness be considered as a bad thing?21 Is social status that important?22 Is the society still a sexist world?23 Are foreign films the main cause of the increasing immorality in the society? Artificial Intelligence1 Artificial intelligence cannot make life convenient.2 Artificial intelligence is not dangerous to humanity.3 Self-preservation and real acquisition is inherent.4 Can artificial intelligence detect human emotions?5 Artificial intelligence can aid in mind reading.6 Robots can educate humans.7 Are the advancements in artificial intelligence viable?8 Robots are not the pioneers to artificial intelligence.9 Automation and artificial intelligence are the same.10 Artificial intelligence is all about technology.11 Everything cannot be solved through artificial intelligence.12 Artificial intelligence can cede control over humanity.13 Artificial intelligence cannot be competent to man.14 Humans have a general purpose intelligence.15 Artificial intelligence is a belief. Space1 Are space explorations worth the time, money and resources?2 Can space exploration save mankind?3 Technologies used in space exploration can help solve earth’s problems.4 Space exploration gives us no direct benefit.5 Is the need to colonize space viable?6 Having not fully explored the earth, is it viable to explore space?7 Unmanned probes are not the best choice for space exploration.8 Is space exploration necessary for understanding the world?9 The scientific knowledge of space has value beyond the measurements of cost.10 Space explorations can lead to physical and environmental hazards.11 Space explorations do not guarantee long term survival.12 Is it necessary to prioritize space exploration programs?13 Space explorations can provide us with new and untested raw materials.14 Are we causing damage to other ecosystems through space explorations? Life in the Future1 Will we be able to feed earth without destroying it?2 We can colonize outer space.3 Will there ever be a cure of AIDS?4 Will global warming pose as a threat to nature?5 Sexual and gender issues can be altered.6 Homo sapiens can survive in the next 300 years.7 Gender equality can be achieved in the sciences.8 Peace can exist worldwide.9 Will natural disasters be predictable with warning times?10 Global warming can be stabilized?11 Can we be able to understand dark matter?12 Robots will be able to perform major labor jobs.13 Will there be satellite controlled cars?14 Extinction can be avoided.15 Can the whole world have adequate health care? Drugs1 Is getting drunk a crime?2 Should marijuana be illegalized?3 A drug test should be mandatory to students.4 Drug abuse is easy to control.5 The use of tobacco should be illegalized.6 Should smoking be allowed among teenagers?7 Smoking zones should be brought down.8 Parents are the main reason why there are rampant cases of drug abuse among teenagers.9 Drug abuse ads are effective.10 Drug abuse is not a problem for teenagers.11 Can universities impede student drinking?12 Is a drug abuse era significant?13 Drug misuse is not effective.14 Can the abuse of prescription drugs risk in addiction?15 Drugs are not harmful to our health. Vegetarianism1 Having more vegetarians will strip off people’s income.2 A meat rich diet is healthier than a vegetarian diet.3 A meat rich diet is expensive than a vegetarian diet.4 Vegetables keep one healthier while meat eating diets are more prone to chronic diseases.5 Meat rich diets are more essential for normal body functions.6 Vegetarianism influences mental ability.7 A vegetarian diet helps in weight loss.8 It is impossible to live without eating meat.9 Does being a vegetarian imply that you have a longer life span?10 Can one survive on a vegetarian diet?11 An increase in the number of vegetarians will put some wild animals at risk.12 Vegetarianism is unhealthy.13 A vegetarian diet is more important to an athlete than a meat rich diet.14 Vegetarians care more about animal suffering than that of humans.15 There is no significant environmental impact that is brought about by a vegetarian lifestyle. Tattoos1 Can tattoos be considered valid art?2 Tattooing and crime are not related.3 Tattooing does not define an individual’s personality.4 Should tattooing be banned on medical grounds?5 Tattooing is still a taboo in the society.6 Tattooing should not be a factor in job recruitment.7 Should tattooing be allowed in the workplace?8 Peer pressure is a major factor which influences one in having a tattoo.9 Tattooing and Paganism are not related.10 Do people who have tattoos look more attractive?11 It is not wrong for a Christian to tattoo.12 Tattooing should be discouraged for teachers.13 Tattooing is a viable method of creating memories.14 Tattooing is an act of rebellion.15 Should tattooing still be considered a delinquent behavior? EDM Music1 EDM music is noise.2 EDM is not the new age hard metal.3 Electronic dance music is not associated with drugs.4 Terrible music is not popular than EDM music.5 EDM music is all about performance.6 EDM music helps in boosting one’s immune system.7 EDM music is a boon.8 EDM music is not chaotic.9 EDM music stimulates the mind.10 EDM music helps in stress reduction. Rap Music1 Rap music brings about gender issues with it.2 Rap music can cause violence and hostile behavior among teenagers.3 Politics and rap music do not correlate.4 Rap music influences sexual behavior among teenagers.5 Rap music is not the best genre for vocal improvisation.6 Rap music can be insulting.7 Rap music is not more popular than other music genres.8 Rap music does not portray one’s cultural background.9 Should rap music be censored?10 Is rap music big enough to be considered a culture? Rock Music1 Rock music does not foster bad behavior among the youth.2 Rock music is not related with Satanism.3 Rock music does not engage negative influence among the youth.4 Rock music is not authentic.5 The rock and roll lifestyle is not fully associated with drugs.6 Rock music does not have deeper emotional content.7 Stupidity is regarded as a virtue in rock music.8 Rock music has a positive influence in the society.9 Does rock music acknowledge religion?10 Rock music is a more popular genre than other music genres. Donald Trump1 Economic success in Trump’s regime is visible2 Donald Trump is perfect at making enemies3 Donald Trump does not support globalization4 America needs Trump to restore honesty5 Donald Trump: Why he will not make America Great Again?6 Donald Trump is not a champion for environment7 Why Donald Trump is the most pathetic President?8 Donald Trump is a direct president9 American People chose Racist Trump instead of President10 Is Donald Trump a Narcissistic President? Blockchain1 Blockchain: A Bitcoin crypto-currency.2 Is Blockchain Secure?3 Is Threat or Opportunity comes first in Blockchain4 Blockchain Use-case: Payment and Insurance5 Blockchain no longer a revolution in banking6 Blockchain improves due to Brexit7 Blockchain impacts positively on Energy8 Blockchain improves Trade Finance9 Blockchain improves developing nations more than developed nations10 Blockchain reverse revolution Cryptocurrencies1 Market demands and authority control crypto-currencies2 Cryptocurrency is a breeding ground for mistrust3 Cryptocurrency is an amusement to the market4 Cryptocurrency enhances confidential transaction5 International co-operation: A sure way to regulate crypto-currencies6 Cryptocurrencies burst due to bitcoin7 Cryptocurrencies enhance transaction security8 Cryptocurrencies promote black market9 Cryptocurrencies: the best investments for future10 Cryptocurrency: the best replacement for economic market Internet Of Things1 End-to-end security challenge brings down internet of things2 Fog computing boosts internet of things3 Sharing in social network taints improve internet of things4 Io T no longer guarantees security and privacy5 Io T improves agricultural productivity6 Io T promote environmental conservation7 Intelligence controls Io T8 Is Io T making us stupid?9 Io T vehicle simulation system does promote accidents10 Io T enhances cybercrimes Machine Learning1 Machine learning helps in fraud detection2 Machine learning enhances stock market prediction3 Machine learning enhances man replacement with machines4 Machine learning makes people zombies5 Machine learning promotes digital exploration6 Chip can control our brain7 Machine learning promotes communication8 Machine learning promote sedentary lifestyle with passive learning9 Robotics replaces human in various activities10 Programming of machines endangers the freedom of choice Facebook1 Are we becoming Facebook zombies?2 We are too advanced for Facebook3 Facebook is responsible for intellectual laziness4 Facebook is responsible for fake news5 We do not need Facebook6 Facebook is responsible for relationship breakups7 Facebook hinders privacy8 Facebook: The home of fraudsters9 Facebook encourages cyber bullying10 Facebook promote censorship A great resource for assignment help for Chinese students is here: https://pandascholar.com/Download All Topics Argumentative Essay Topics in PDFArgumentative Essay Topics in DOCXMore Topics With Clickable Examples Illegal immigration A woman`s place is at home Human trafficking The American dream Teenage pregnancy Should students heave open campus lunch periods Childhood obesity Tablets vs Textbooks Should cigarette smoking be banned Should students take a gap year Cheerleading is a sport Homeschooling vs Public schools Cheating helps students learn Should animals be kept in zoos Animal rights School uniform Fast Food Plastic surgery Organ donation Birth control Domestic violence Right to die Alcohol should be banned Should welfare recipients be drug tested Good manners are not needed in a modern world Healthy people make a heatlhy nation Disadvantages and advantages of reading novels Good mind good find Beauty needs no ornaments Drug abuse Uniforms Mental illness Animal testing Is global climate change man made Euthanasia Structure Of The Argumentative Essay The introduction The introduction is the first part of the argumentative article as it will either capture the attention of the reader or bore at the same time. The introduction should provide general information that will be included in the article. The points can be highlighted in the introduction so as to show the necessity of the title thus the need for an argument. You should also state your argumentative thesis statement in the introduction. The thesis will give you a guideline on how to go about with writing the essay. The thesis should, therefore, be phrased as a general statement of the main idea being discussed. Ensure your thesis is not in the form of a title but rather a general statement that is specific and unified at the same time. Your thesis should be relevant so that the article can use a structure that is flexible so as to fit in the shoes of the readers. Below is an example of a thesis statement: Topic: GMOs will be the savior of the hunger problems faced by the world. Thesis statement: GMOs can greatly assist in the eradication of hunger in the world. Body paragraphs For the body to achieve the intended meaning, ensure the points evolve from being general to specific. This technique is essential as it offers a platform of fully exhausting the points in a systemic manner. Use transition words so as to connect the paragraphs and make the point flow. Start the body paragraph by using a topic sentence followed by the argumentative evidence that will support the claim. Finish up the paragraph by illustrating how that particular point is related to the argumentative thesis in the introduction. Conclusion The conclusion gives the overall verdict of the argument. You can also restate the ideas that you have discussed in the body paragraphs so as to make your point valid. The conclusion should also aim at motivating the reader to do research in the future. The conclusion is related to the argumentative introduction as the topic as well as the thesis statement is restated in a more convincing manner. The conclusion also gives you a platform of illustrating your decision concerning the argument in the article and why you have settled on that particular decision. Try not to introduce new ideas as they will give the readers an ideology that the article is not comprehensive enough. Argumentative Essay Outline (sample)1 of 1View on Slide Share Summarizing: The above-mentioned topic selection can give you a clear understanding of what to write about. All you need to do is to pick the topic you are comfortable with and elaborate on it: develop a thesis and fully open it up. Please remember to write a strong conclusion to your paper. This will help sum everything up. Thank you. Bonus: Examples Of An Argumentative Essay Writing Topic “Euthanasia”1 of 6View on Slide Share Topic “Water Shortage”1 of 6View on Slide Share Topic “Argumentive essay on gmf (genetically modified foods)”1 of 7View on Slide Share1200  What Is Rhetorical Criticism? Rhetorical criticism is the analysis of a broad range of items related to using language to have an impact on an audience. This is often but not always applied to writing, where the author intends to have a certain effect on readers. Rhetoric in general is very broadly defined as any aspect of speech or writing that reaches out to an audience. Criticism, as it is defined for rhetorical criticism, literary criticism, and other types of similar analysis, is the process of examining something for its fundamentals or underlying nature. The criticism observes units of language and other auxiliary products of speakers or writers to examine the intent as well as the context of a piece of an individual communication to an audience. The popularity of rhetorical criticism has grown and diminished over time throughout its history in human civilization. In some ways, the rise of this type of criticism is as old as the common usage of written language. Some date this discipline back to Plato and the societies of ancient Greece. Academics use this type of criticism to understand how communicators use symbols to affect their audiences. These researchers can study text, film, or audio recordings to find rhetorical symbols for analysis. They can utilize specific words or phrases to provide insight into the speaker’s or writer’s intent. Generally, those who study rhetoric will build a collection of symbols, try to work them together into a central thesis, and gradually develop a meta-narrative regarding the ultimate nature of that speech, writing, or rhetoric-based art work. Some experts have built specific categories of rhetorical criticism. For instance, there is a general focus in some academic communities on the “rhetorical effect of spectacle,” where extensive rhetorical techniques are used to produce cathartic reactions in an audience. This type of study examines both the visual and auditory components of rhetoric in search of more information about how communications will be received by a large group of people. The products of rhetorical criticism can take many forms. Research papers may draw a great deal from this kind of study. In some academic departments related to communications, students may be tested on their responses to this kind of analysis. Some academic journals may publish articles related to the study of rhetoric in contemporary societies. All of this adds to the general body of work around the use of rhetoric in diverse scenarios and contexts. Ad  What is a rhetorical analysis thesis all about? Studybay Sign Up Log in How it works Price Calculator What is a rhetorical analysis thesis all about? All students know that the basic purpose of rhetorical analyses is to look at the argument or tone of documents or other forms of papers, and this means they are targeted at ascertaining the style, goal, audience, and other important elements. A rhetorical analysis thesisshould consider the goals of your essay in dissecting the particular work. If you need help with writing it and other gcse coursework help, using our professional services is a good idea because our team of creative writers is skilled and knowledgeable. It’s hard to find the same quality and cheap paper writing services. How it works Student places an order Writers make their offers Student Hires a WRITERTHE WRITER GETS TO WORKPrice calculator We've got the best prices, check out yourself!Deadline Pages Words– +~ 550 words Our Price Competitors' price$ 13 Best Price! $ 79More than 7 000 students trust us to do their work 90% of customers place more than 5 orders with us Place an order Examples of completed orders Definition Essay Communications essay. DUE IN 4 HOURS!ESSAYAssignment title can fit in the space provided Session 3 Internet Research International Relations Inventions of the 19th Century Professional development plan Integrative paper Escaping from the Past in Unity What is a rhetorical analysis thesis all about? Basically, rhetoric is the science of how writers influence readers, and it’s common in colleges and other educational facilities nowadays. Many students are asked to develop their own rhetorical strategies that can persuade others, and that’s because they teachers want them to analyze the rhetoric of specific texts. If you need to write an essay or any other academic paper where it’s necessary to analyze the rhetoric of books or anything else, focus on a rhetorical analysis thesisto make your work a success. The introduction of any academic paper requires a thesis, a 1 or 2-sentence description of your main argument or question. It can be either the first or last sentence of your introduction section, and its basic purpose is to sum up your idea without being too specific or too general. When writing your rhetorical analysis thesis, make sure readers can understand the scope and message of your essay. There are certain steps that will help you, but if you still find it hard to complete this task, we can help write research paper projects. How to specify your thesis As you already know, making a statement is the main key to writing an interesting and successful introduction of your academic paper because it provides readers with a sense of your focus. You can use different methods to write an excellent rhetorical analysis thesis. Start with the best rhetorical techniques and tools used by other writers to move readers toward their desired purposes. Don’t forget to analyze their results to understand how they can help you achieve your goal. Think about narrowing the main focus of your academic paper because this step will help you come up with a great rhetorical analysis thesis. Do your best to make a brilliant argument and ensure your thesis and essay are focused around it. That’s because you need to provide it with enough support throughout the main body paragraphs (mind a politics papers format or any other requirements that should be met too). Use the right language when composing your rhetorical analysis thesis and look for both grammar and spelling mistakes. The basic elements of this essay section It should indicate readers what you will argue in your academic paper, so make sure your statement is related to your main argument and methods that support it. When writing an essay, try to develop a thesis that can tell the audience what you want to say about it. It should not only restate or summarize the idea of someone else, but also reflect your opinion, so that you need to provide readers with the necessary evidence or support. Remember that it should contain the following elements: The clear indication of what your argument is all about. The right direction of how a rhetorical analysis thesis supports it. A brief statement of what your personal ideas are. When writing your thesis, the most important think that should be kept in mind is that it shouldn’t be only descriptive in its nature, but it also must summarize your argument and provide readers with a better understanding of the main content of your essay. A few helpful guidelines When trying to come up with a great rhetorical analysis thesis, define the task given by your tutors, and this means you should know the right length, purpose, structure, and topic of your academic papers in addition to such aspects as a grant proposal format. Stay focused on the main idea that will be developed in your essay and think what you want to tell readers about it. If you don’t have any point, you are not ready to make a statement yet. Determine how you can express your idea in 1 complete sentence (it should be stated in a nutshell). Start with writing your scratch sentence and ensure it includes both a verb and a subject. Your rhetorical analysis thesis can’t be an announcement of your paper or a question, and it should state your point of view rather than an obvious fact. This sentence must include the words relevant to your chosen topic and its arguable point to prove your main idea. It’s advisable to find the right balance between being too specific and vague in your rhetorical analysis thesis, and it should meet the requirements of your advisor. You may have to re-write it after proofreading when needed and ensure it really explains your argument to support your entire essay. Basic instructions to follow Brainstorm about your chosen topic and write down all important factors, such as your argument, approaches, and others. You should answer a few questions to write the best rhetorical analysis thesis. How will it convince the audience? What are your goals? Take into consideration the main argument you are going to make in your essay and compose a solid, powerful, and well-structured rhetorical analysis thesis that reflects it. Write a few examples and try to play with different styles, words, and tones to determine the most beneficial one for your academic paper, because practice will help you make it a success. Finally, revise your statement, look for mistakes, and find out if your thesis represents and reflects the rest of your essay.order now What is Studybay.com15+ years experience in academic paper writing assistance100% original writing97% customer rating24/7 FREE customer support via phone, live chat, email Flexible discount policy VIP services available All subjects available Today’s site activity Preparing orders 1117Completed orders 419Active writers 10684Proofreaders 136Discount programs available for customers 6Customer reviews 253Chat operators online 13Check the price of your assignment FREE features in every orderfree Total Savings: $65Outline $5Amendments * $30Title Page $5Bibliography $15Formatting $10Format All formats are available Our Discounts Special price $5 /pageplace an order Related posts How to Prepare Yourself for Writing a College Thesis In this article you can find some useful tips about college thesis. In case you have difficulties with any type of paper, use our service. Read more How to Write an Interesting Literature Review Thesis Looking for someone to help you deal with literature review thesis? Don't wait and contact us right now!Read more Find Your Best Thesis Synonym You can use any thesis synonym for the statement that should be made when writing an essay or a dissertation. Read more Tips on How to Write a Thesis Introduction You should look for a quality thesis introduction example to state the main idea of your essay properly, or you can contact our professional authors Read more The Best Thesis Examples on Offer to College Students Every college student deserves the best thesis examples to use as a guide for composing theirs and here is all you need to consider Read more Why to Use Helpful Thesis Editing Services There are many benefits offered by thesis editing services, but you should know how to choose the best one. 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Read more How to Write an Interesting Literature Review Thesis Looking for someone to help you deal with literature review thesis? Don't wait and contact us right now!Read more Find Your Best Thesis Synonym You can use any thesis synonym for the statement that should be made when writing an essay or a dissertation. Read more Tips on How to Write a Thesis Introduction You should look for a quality thesis introduction example to state the main idea of your essay properly, or you can contact our professional authors Read more The Best Thesis Examples on Offer to College Students Every college student deserves the best thesis examples to use as a guide for composing theirs and here is all you need to consider Read more Why to Use Helpful Thesis Editing Services There are many benefits offered by thesis editing services, but you should know how to choose the best one. 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Don't wait and contact us right now!Read more12How to Make a Thesis How to Start a Thesis Thesis Generator Thesis Conclusion Thesis Methodology What is a Thesis Thesis Definition Thesis Format Thesis Help Thesis Proposal Thesis Theme Thesis Topics Writing a Thesis Get help with any kind of assignment - from a high school essay to a Ph D dissertation1-855-407-7728support@studybay.com Main Place an order Authors Rating Latest orders Rules Privacy Policy Affiliate program Become a writer Reviews Blog Example works Students MLA Essay College Essays Essay Help Essay Writing Service Write my Essay Paper Writing Service Write my Paper Accounting Paper Business Paper Engineering Paper Homework Help Essay Topics How to start an essay Business plan Argumentative essay topics Persuasive essay topics Compare and contrast essay topics Narrative essay topics Definition essay topics Informative essay topics Persuasive essay topics Argumentative essay topics Expository essay topics© 2011-2018 Studybay all rights reserved We accept: Check the price for your assignment Post your instructions, and you`ll get offers to your email within 10 minutes!Select Assignment Type  Topic In Composition and Speech Humanities ›Languages Topic In Composition and Speech Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms - Definitions and Examples Share Flipboard Email Print"Find a subject you care about and which you in your heart feel others should care about" (American author Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., 1922-2007). (Ulf Andersen/Getty Images)by Richard Nordquist Updated April 03, 2017Definition A topic is a particular issue or idea that serves as the subject of a paragraph, essay, report, or speech. The primary topic of a paragraph may be expressed in a topic sentence. The main topic of an essay, report, or speech may be expressed in a thesis sentence. An essay topic, say Kirszner and Mandell, "should be narrow enough so that you can write about it within your page limit. If your topic is too broad, you will not be able to treat it in enough detail " ( Concise Wadsworth Handbook, 2014). See the examples and observations below. Topic Suggestions400 Writing Topics: Topic Suggestions for Paragraphs and Essays How to Explore and Focus a Topic: 50 Questions250 Topics for Familiar Essays40 Topics for Descriptive Essays50 Topics for Narrative Essays50 Topics for Process Analysis Essays40 Topics for Essays Developed With Examples40 Topics for Comparison and Contrast Essays30 Topics for Analogy Essays50 Topics for Classification Essays40 Topics for Cause and Effect Essays60 Topics for Definition Essays40 Topics for Argument and Persuasion Essays Writing About Literature: Ten Sample Topics for Comparison & Contrast Essays See Also Brainstorming Commonplace Discovery Strategies Focusing Freewriting Invention Listing Topoi Top 10 Worst Student Essay Topics What Is the List Trick? Where Do You Get Your Ideas? Writers on Writing: The Myth of Inspiration Writers on Writing: Overcoming Writer's Block Writing Prompts Etymology From the Greek, "place"Examples and Observations"Whether you are choosing from a list provided by your instructor or selecting your own, you should try to work with a topic that interests you and that you care about." (Robert Di Yanni and Pat C. Hoy II, The Scribner Handbook for Writers. Allyn and Bacon, 2001)Narrowing a Topic" Topics with a limited, or specific, scope are easier to explain carefully and in detail than topics that are vague, amorphous, or very broad. For example, general subjects such as mountains, automobiles, or music sound systems are so broad that it's hard to know where to begin. However, a specific aspect of sound systems, such as compact discs (CDs) is easier. Within the subject of CDs, of course, there are several topics as well (design, manufacturing process, cost, marketing, sound quality, comparison to tape and vinyl recordings, etc.)." (Toby Fulwiler and Alan R. Hayakawa, The Blair Handbook. Prentice Hall, 2003)Questions for Finding a Good Topic"Any topic you choose to write about should pass the following test: - Does this topic interest me? If so, why do I care about it? - Do I know something about it? Do I want to know more? - Can I get involved with some part of it? Is it relevant to my life in some way? - Is it specific enough for a short essay?" (Susan Anker, Real Essays with Readings: Writing Projects for College, Work, and Everyday Life, 3rd ed. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2009)Selecting a Topic for a Speech"To choose the one topic you will speak about, think about the audience and the occasion. There are two more questions you can ask yourself at this point: - What does the audience expect? (audience) - What might the audience expect on the day you speak? (occasion) Knowing who your audience is and why its members are gathered together can help you rule out a number of topics. A speech on the fluctuating gold market could be interesting, but not to a class of seventh-graders at an assembly just before summer vacation. "When you have removed the inappropriate subjects from your list, find the most appropriate of the remainder. Empathize with your audience. What topic do you think would be worth your time to hear?" (Jo Sprague, Douglas Stuart, and David Bodary, The Speaker's Handbook, 9th ed. Wadsworth, 2010)Selecting a Topic for a Research Paper"You choose a topic for the research paper much as you would for any other essay: You browse the library's book collection, surf the Net, or talk to experts, friends, and fellow students. The only difference is that now you need a meatier topic, one that you can cover in eight to ten pages and back up with reference sources. . . . "The writer Sheridan Baker suggests that every good topic has an argumentative edge that needs to be proved or disproved. For example, the topic 'contagious diseases of the past,' admittedly overly broad and bland, can be honed to an argumentative edge by a little rewording: 'the Black Death: reducer of overpopulation in Europe.' This is now a topic with an edge that gives you something to prove. Instead of calling for a summary of major contagious diseases, it hints that they served some useful purpose by controlling the population. This is a controversial outlook that will give your paper the energy of an argumentative edge." (Jo Ray Mc Cuen-Metherell and Anthony C. Winkler, From Idea to Essay: A Rhetoric, Reader, and Handbook, 12th ed. Wadsworth, 2009)Things to Write About"What things there are to write if one could only write them! My mind is full of gleaming thoughts; gay moods and mysterious, moth-like meditations hover in my imagination, fanning their painted wings. They would make my fortune if I could catch them; but always the rarest, those freaked with azure and the deepest crimson, flutter away beyond my reach. "The childish and ever-baffled chase of these filmy nothings often seems, for one of sober years in a sad world, a trifling occupation. But have I not read of the great Kings of Persia who used to ride out to hawk for butterflies, nor deemed this pastime beneath their royal dignity?" (Logan Pearsall Smith, More Trivia, 1921)Pronunciation: TA-pikcite  Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Theories of Rhetoric and Composition Pedagogy)navigation search This article is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (February 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)The field of rhetoric has been a matter of considerable debate for millennia. Derived from the Greek word for public speaking, rhetoric's original concern dealt primarily with the spoken word. Aristotle wrote a philosophical work that still has major scholarly impact, Rhetoric, in which he identifies five canons of the field of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Invention is concerned with the content or idea being expressed, and relates to the rhetorician’s understanding of his goals. Arrangement deals with issues of how to best organize an argument in order to attain the speaker or writer’s goals. It is closely related to style, the third element, which relates to gestures, metaphors, and word choices selected to best influence the audience and reach the desired goal. Memory is the fourth and simplest element of rhetoric in being related specifically to spoken rhetoric, specifically concerned with remembering the words in one’s speech. Finally, delivery concerns tone, word choice, posture and other such bodily signs that influence the effect of one’s words on an audience. Rhetorical theory is the body of thought about human symbol use. The term rhetoric, in its popular usage, typically has negative connotations. Rhetoric is contrasted with action; it is empty words, talk without substance, mere ornament. This contemporary understanding of rhetoric is at odds with a long history of rhetorical theory, dating back in the West to ancient Greece and Rome, that provides a long-standing foundation on which the contemporary discipline of communication is built. From 1870 to 1900, as the American college system moved from small schools to a larger, diverse set of universities with distinct academic disciplines, the field of composition studies grew from traditional rhetorical studies. As pioneers in the field of composition studies, Harvard University enacted a new program in their English department that, for the first time, made “a total commitment to writing,” though the initial focus was on personal writing and did not include rhetoric or literary analysis. [1] However, the field of composition studies soon became paired with the field of rhetoric as the modern university developed, because scholars began to realize that elements of rhetoric and not “systematic grammatical study” were necessary to improve writing and composition abilities. [2] While rhetoric traditionally concerned matters related to verbal orations or speeches, both rhetoric and composition are related to the expression of ideas, often in an attempt to influence one’s audience. In addition, composition is also concerned with the principles of invention, arrangement, style, and delivery traditionally associated with rhetoric; even memory can become an element of composition when one is writing a speech or a scholarly paper to be delivered orally. Thus, rhetoric and composition— colloquially termed “rhet/comp” or “comp/rhet”— became a field of its own and remains a burgeoning discipline in universities today. Contents [ hide ]1 Current-traditional rhetoric2 Moderate expressivism and radical expressivism3 Cognitivism4 Social constructionism5 Critical pedagogy6 Post-structuralism7 Conclusion8 See also9 References Current-traditional rhetoric [ edit]The rhetoric and composition pedagogy developed in the late nineteenth century, and still used in many schools today, is known as current-traditional rhetoric, commonly referred to among field scholars, and hereinafter, as “CTR.” CTR is defined by an emphasis on the final product, usually the five-paragraph, informal essay or short research paper on an objective topic. In addition, CTR centers around the notion that discourse is delivered in a prescribed, mechanical form, leading to its pedagogical focus on grammar, spelling, syntax, and uniform style and arrangement. Further, CTR promotes the idea that the purpose of writing is the product, which is expected to reflect a predefined, stagnant reality without consideration for process, authorial identity, or audience. For example, a CTR pedagogue might instruct his or her students to write an essay on bicycles; the expected outcome is an objective discussion of bicycles organized in a five-paragraph essay, the identity of the audience or the writer is not to be considered, and the goal is the final product—the “essay”— which should have no errors (or even intentional boundary-breakers) in grammar, spelling, or design. James Berlin and Robert Inkster examine typical CTR textbooks and evaluate their limited approach to teaching composition, concluding that CTR limits “discovery procedures,” diminishes the “importance of the writer,” and restricts writer engagement with audience. [3] Likewise, W. Ross Winterowd similarly contends that the pedagogy of CTR is dated and ultimately ineffective in his examination of a number of current-traditional textbooks. [4]CTR as pedagogy has been almost universally employed by schools since its inception in the late nineteenth century, and until the 1960s, its limitations and ineffectiveness received little criticism. However, the 1966 Dartmouth Conference reflected an influx of new scholarly ideas about composition studies that introduced the ideas of process over product and the notion that teachers should serve as guides in the composition process rather than dictatorial authority figures. Since then, the main elements of composition pedagogy have been defined and explored by countless scholars, and the concepts associated with CTR have been replaced by a wealth of pedagogical approaches to the field of rhetoric and composition. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the field of rhetoric and composition saw a process revolution, fueled by two distinct pedagogies: expressivism, both moderate and radical, and cognitivism. Moderate expressivism and radical expressivism [ edit]The composition pedagogy of moderate expressivism is characterized by a focus on language as a tool for personal rather than social expression, based on the process theory of composition, a belief that the process of writing should be more important than the final product. Further, moderate expressivist pedagogy calls for fewer grammatical standards and an increased focus on the writer’s process of discovery and expression. W. E. Coles, Jr. suggests that teaching writing should be approached as teaching art, with the teacher serving as facilitator or guide for the student-writer’s free expression; he also calls for classroom practices such as peer-reviews, class discussions, and the absence of grades, in order to best guide the self-identification he sees as crucial to the writing process. [5] Fellow moderate expressivist Donald Murray maintains that writing is a process of discovery and experimentation, a search for truth in a specious world; his manifesto-like essay provides an apt summation of the arguments against the dated pedagogy of CTR. [6] Likewise, Maxine Hairston recognizes the paradigm shift occurring in rhetoric and composition and calls for a non-prescriptive atmosphere in teaching, including less focus on grammar and syntax and, again, more concern with the process of growth experienced by the writer. [7] Peter Elbow reflects moderate expressivist ideals in his claim that audience should be ignored during the early stages of the writing process, in order to avoid the hindrance of audience expectation and facilitate writer-based rather than reader-based text. Elbow writes, “It’s not that writers should never think about their audience. It’s a question of when.” [8] Simply put, moderate expressivism promotes the notion of process over product, a pedagogy that evolved in the height of the 1960s and in many ways reflects the ideologies of the era in its emphasis on freedom, expression, discovery, and a search for the writer’s authentic self. Radical expressivism evolved from the pedagogical ideals of moderate expressivism, and its primary difference lies in its focus on group, rather than individual, development and expression. For example, In 1966, Susan Sontag published a collection of essays in which she stresses the importance of Happenings, “a cross between art exhibit and theatrical performance,” in order to facilitate a sense of group identity, community, and engagement with audience through a shared, unique artistic experience. [9] Radical expressivists Charles Deemer and William Lutz also suggest that English composition should be taught as and considered a sort of Happening. Deemer locates the problem with the composition course in its lack of subject content and asserts that writing demands inspiration that can be attained from teacher-induced Happenings, as “clear writing and clear thought follow only after clear experiences.” [10] Lutz’ claims are similar to those of Deemer, noting the need for creative inspiration in the classroom, a typically stagnant environment in which he claims nothing creative can be taught; he argues for the employment of Happenings in the English classroom in order to “make the student respond directly to his own experience and not someone else’s.” [11] Other such pedagogues include Marshall Mc Luhan, who presents the idea of using hot, engaging media when teaching rather than cold, sterile media in the classroom, [12] and Geoffrey Sirc, who promotes an avant-garde approach to composition pedagogy by encouraging students’ exuberant, unpolished expressions in writing. Sirc can almost be considered a “post-social turn” theorist; his 1980s research claims that the traditional classroom space is confining and argues that the language of “Main Street” should be encouraged in student writing, attacking the idea of suitable “academic” writing presented by theorists like David Bartholomae. [13] Furthermore, in his own English classroom, Sirc employs the study of rap music and its cultural and racial implications; he views rap music as “loaded with language, desire, style, and humanity” and imbued with poetry he describes as “blunt narratives of the human heart,” teaching students about truth, communication, and reality and effectively strengthening their writing. [14] Thus, while retaining many of the ideals of individuality and uninhibited expression associated with Moderate Expressivism, the composition pedagogy of radical expressivism is distinguished by its focus on group reality and community experience, belief in the art and inspirational potential of the Happening, and view that popular media can potentially be used as a pedagogical tool. Cognitivism [ edit]The pedagogy of cognitivism prevalent in the early 1970s and early 1980s also promotes the idea of process over product, but it is a more scientific approach to composition studies and is opposed to moderate expressivism in many ways. Abstractly speaking, cognitivists believe that thinking exists in the mind apart from language and are concerned with understanding how language—or writing—is developed from mental processes of the mind. Cognitivists are primarily concerned with the goals of a writer, the decisions made during the writing process by the mind. Andrea Lunsford addresses the importance of understanding the cognitive mental faculties involved during composition, claiming that the best way to facilitate the writing process is through workshops and discussion rather than lecture-based instruction. [15] Researchers like cognitivist Sondra Perl conduct extensive studies of the composing process and the stages through which a writer goes in order to better understand how to teach writing. [16] Cognitivists Linda Flower and John Hayes see an exigency in composition studies to understand how and why a writer makes the choices they do during the writing process. Their research led them to claim that writing is a non-linear, hierarchal, goal-driven process. In addition, they concentrate their study of composition on the protocol of the writing process, including planning, translating, embedding, and reviewing. [17] While like expressivists in their greater concern with the process of writing than with the final product, distinguishing them from the essay-driven pedagogy of current-traditional rhetoric, cognitivism proposes a more scientific approach by studying universal cognitive faculties of the mind in order to better understand the composition process. Social constructionism [ edit]Unlike cognitivism, social constructionism, or the “social turn” in composition pedagogy, which evolved the 1980s, is distinguished by the belief that language and the mind are inseparable, as an individual needs language in order to even think. Social constructionist theories also promote the idea that writing is inherently political in nature and that writers are each a part of a particular community of dialogue, or discourse community, with an assumed set of principles and a distinct language of its own. Patricia Bizzell directly attacks the early cognitivist contention that writing can be understood as distinct sets of mental processes, criticizing “inner-directed” theorists like Flowers and Hayes for focusing too much on the individual writer’s language and learning processes and overlooking the importance of society and discourse communities in composition; on the other hand, “outer-directed” theorists like Bizzell recognize the extent to which thinking and language are conditioned by the social context and intended audience being addressed by the writer. Writing, Bizzell claims, “takes place within a community,” and in order to improve composition, teachers should “explain what the community’s conventions are." [18] Social constructionist James Porter notes the “intertextuality” of all writing as interdependent, based on the principle that all speech and writing evolves from presumed meaning and accepted evidence as defined by each “discourse community,” which Porter defines as “a group of individuals bound by a common interest who communicate through approved channels and whose discourse is regulated.” [19] Joseph Harris agrees with Porter, maintaining that writing is community-driven and noting that the purpose in writing is drawn from “being part of some ongoing discourse.” However, Harris qualifies his argument by noting that, while writers act not as isolated individuals but as members of discourse communities with certain language, practices, and beliefs, the notion that academic or other discourse communities are “discursive utopias” existing without conflict is irrational. [20] David Bartholomae suggests that students must be assimilated to a specialized discourse in order to write; he writes that students “have to invent the university by assembling and mimicking its language,” learning the “requirements of [academic] convention,” and understanding the “history of a discipline” in order to successfully write and communicate within that discipline. [21] Suggesting an existing conflict between academics and writers, Peter Elbow argues that writing students should not be exposed to the dialogic discourse of academia, as it can be intimidating and ineffective; instead, Elbow suggests that students read and study each other’s writings in the early stages of composition, in order to facilitate a sense of monologic freedom by focusing on the students’ own unique voices. [22]The social turn in composition pedagogy witnessed a move for community ideology and a newfound acknowledgment of the social, economic, and political forces that affect writers and discourse. James Berlin states, “The question of ideology has never been far from discussions of writing instruction in the modern American college,” and he notes that the writing classroom has always been a place for addressing questions pertaining to ideological subject matter such as class, race, economics, and civil rights. He proposes what is known as a social-epistemic model of writing instruction, in which the socially-constructed nature of knowledge and knowing is recognized. Berlin notes that “social epistemic rhetoric views knowledge as an arena of ideological conflict,” and such a writing pedagogy “offers an explicit critique of economic, political, and social arrangements.” [23] Overall, the social turn in composition pedagogy represented a move for increased recognition of rhetorical discourse communities, the social, cultural, and political forces that influence the classroom, and the ways that ideology affects writers and the writing classroom. Critical pedagogy [ edit]Critical pedagogy was the next phase of pedagogical development in the field of composition studies, and its ideas evolved in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Lisa Delpit explores the way that power works in the classroom, shaped by varied socioeconomic and cultural conditions of students and teachers, results in alienation and miscommunication in the classroom that she terms the “silenced dialogue." Delpit names five specific aspects of the current ‘culture of power’ that defines the conflicting power dynamic in the classrooms. [24] Paulo Freire criticizes the oppressive nature of education and the current educational system’s use of the “banking model” approach to teaching, wherein students serve as depositories for information provided to them by the teacher. While Delpit suggests that the oppressed should be provided with the necessary skills to enable them to enter the culture of power, Freire demands a transformation of the culture of power through revolutionary, practical literary training. Furthermore, Freire posits that human beings are situated in certain temporal and spatial conditions that define who they are, either oppressor or oppressed, and he suggests that dialogue defines humanity. [25] Likewise, Elizabeth Ellsworth discusses the oppressive myths that perpetuate power dynamics in the classroom, including racism on campuses. She calls for a new critical pedagogy “of the unknowable,” suggesting a need to recognize the absence of universal notions of dialogue, rationality, or knowledge, and instead openly acknowledge the many differing social groups and discourse communities in every classroom. [26] Thus, critical pedagogy can be seen as/in an activist pedagogy, taking into account political inequalities and empowering students to take action through their writing. Post-structuralism [ edit]The pedagogy of post-structuralism is marked by an attempt to redefine rhetoric as it relates to composition, drawing on post-modern ideology calling for new ideas in a modern world. For example, Victor Vitanza suggests that writing is an entity of its own, existing apart from institutions, social mores, and even writers. He believes that the intention of writing should be to infect the reader with new ideas that disrupt the rational, controlled world. Vitanza also notes that writing can be seen as a metadiscipline, as rhetoric applies to any field in which the artist attempts to convey a message, including photography and choreography, as writing is a performative and not authoritative act. [27] Sharon Crowley views rhetoric as invention and discovery by identifying the available means of persuasion in making one’s argument. Furthermore, Crowley believes rhetoric has a civic purpose, as it changes the society in which it is engaged; she attests that rhetoric is the art of giving effectiveness to truth, and notes that it is persuasive and always moving. [28]Conclusion [ edit]The fields of composition and rhetoric remain in flux, as scholars continue to debate regarding appropriate pedagogical methods and the best approach to teaching the art of writing. Since the post-structuralism movement in composition pedagogy, there has been an explosion of discussion in the field of composition pedagogy. More recent ideas in composition pedagogy include the notion of rhetoric’s relationship to travel, on which pedagogues such as Gregory Clark [29] and Nedra Reynolds [30] have written. In addition, composition studies is an umbrella term for the considerations of writing pedagogy. In its academic application, it is post-modern or post-structural, working both outside and within other academic disciplines. The national Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCCC) is a national professional association of writing instructors in the United States, the largest organization dedicated to writing research, theory, and teaching pedagogy worldwide. At the annual CCCC convention, pedagogues from around the country deliver their recent research and theories to colleagues. While the goals, methods, and desired results in composition studies are debated and continue to evolve, the importance of writing to the field of education has been indisputably recognized. See also [ edit]Bartholomae, David. “Writing With Teachers: A Conversation with Peter Elbow.” College Composition and Communication 46.1 (1995): 62–71. Print. Bartholomae, David, and Peter Elbow. “Interchanges: Responses to Bartholomae and Elbow.” College Composition and Communication 46.1 (1995): 84–92. Print. Berlin, James A. “Contemporary Composition: The Major Pedagogical Theories.” College English 44.8 (1982): 765–77. Print.– – –. “Into the Classroom.” Rhetorics, Poetics, and Cultures: Refiguring College English Studies. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1996. 115–45. Print. Bizzell, Patricia. “’Contact Zones’ and English Studies.” College English 56.2 (1994): 163–69. Print. Bruffee, Kenneth A. “Collaborative Learning and the ‘Conversation of Mankind’.” College English 46.7 (1984): 635–52. Print. Crowley, Sharon. “The Bourgeois Subject and the Demise of Rhetorical Education.” Composition in the University. Pittsburgh: U of Pittsburgh P, 1998. 30–45. Print. Delpit, Lisa D. “The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in Educating Other People’s Children.” Harvard Educational Review 58.3 (1998): 280–98. Print. Freire, Paulo. “The Adult Literacy Process as Cultural Action for Freedom and Education and Conscientizaçāo.” Harvard Educational Review 40.1 (1970): 205–12. Print. Trimbur, John. “Consensus and Difference in Collaborative Learning.” College English 51.6 (1989): 602–16. Print. Vatz, Richard E.. "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation." "Philosophy and Rhetoric" 6 (1973): 154-161. Print Winterowd, W. Ross. “Discovery-Invention-Creation.” The English Department: A Personal and Institutional History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1998. 32–74. Print. Bitzer, L. F. The rhetorical situation. Philosophy and Rhetoric vol. 1 (1968). pp. 1–14References [ edit]^ Brereton, John C., ed. “Introduction.” The Origins of Composition Studies in the American College, 1875–1925: A Documentary History. Pittsburgh: U of P Press, 1995. Print.^ Winterowd, W. Ross. “Discovery- Invention- Creation.” The English Department: A Personal and Institutional History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1998. 32–74. Print.^ Berlin, James A., and Robert P. Inkster. “Current-Traditional Rhetoric: Paradigm and Practice.” Freshman English News 8.3 (1980): 1–14. Print.^ Winterowd, W. Ross. “Current-Traditional Textbooks: Take in Small Doses and Shake Well Before Using.” The English Department: A Personal and Institutional History. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1998. 75–100. Print.^ Coles, Jr., W. E. “The Teaching of Writing as Writing.” College English 29.2 (1967): 111–16. Print.^ Murray, Donald. “Teach Writing as a Process Not Product.” The Leaflet (Fall 1972): 11–14. Print.^ Hairston, Maxine. “The Winds of Change: Thomas Kuhn and the Revolution in the Teaching of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 33.1 (1982): 76–88. Print.^ Elbow, Peter. “Closing My Eyes As I Speak: An Argument for Ignoring Audience.” College English 49.1 (1987): 50–69. Print.^ Sontag, Susan. “Happenings: An Art of Radical Juxtaposition.” Against Interpretation and Other Essays. New York: Picador, 2001. 263–74. Print.^ Deemer, Charles. “English Composition as a Happening.” College English 29.2 (1967): 121–26. Print.^ Lutz, William D. “Making Freshman English a Happening.” College Composition and Communication 22.1 (1971): 35–8. Print.^ Mc Luhan, Marshall. “Media Hot and Cold.” Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Ed. Terrence W. Gordon. Corte Madera, CA : Gingko Press, 2003. 22–32. Print.^ Sirc, Geoffrey. “Writing Classroom as A & P Parking Lot.” English Composition as a Happening. Logan: Utah State UP, 2002. 185–235. Print.^ Sirc, Geoffrey. “Stagolee as Writing Instructor.” Enculturation 4.2 (2002): n. pag. Web. 24 Nov. 2010. < http://enculturation.gmu.edu/4_2/sirc/ >.^ Lunsford, Andrea. “Cognitive Development and the Basic Writer.” College English 41.1 (1979): 38–46. Print.^ Perl, Sondra. “The Composing Process of Unskilled College Writers.” Research in the Teaching of English 13.4 (1979): 317–36. Print.^ Flower, Linda, and John R. Hayes. “A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 32.4 (1981): 365–87. Print.^ Bizzell, Patricia. “Cognition, Convention, and Certainty: What We Need to Know about Writing.” PRE/TEXT 3.3 (1982): 213–43. Print.^ Porter, James E. “Intertextuality and the Discourse Community.” Rhetoric Review 5.1 (1986): 34–47. Print.^ Harris, Joseph. “The Idea of Community in the Study of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 40.1 (1989): 11–22. Print.^ Bartholomae, David. “Inventing the University.” When a Writer Can’t Write: Studies in Writer’s Block and Other Composing Process Problems. Ed. Mike Rose. New York: Guilford, 1985. 273–85. Print.^ Elbow, Peter. “Being a Writer vs. Being an Academic: A Conflict in Goals.” College Composition and Communication 46.1 (1995): 72–83. Print.^ Berlin, James A. “Rhetoric and Ideology in the Writing Class.” College English 50.5 (1988): 477–93. Print.^ Delpit, Lisa D. “The Silenced Dialogue: Power and Pedagogy in Educating Other People’s Children.” Harvard Educational Review 58.3 (1998): 280–98. Print.^ Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum Books, 1993. Print.^ Ellsworth, Elizabeth. ‘Why Doesn’t This Feel Empowering? : Working Through the Repressive Myths of Critical Pedagogy.” Harvard Educational Review 59.3 (1989): 297–324. Print.^ Vitanza, Victor J. “Abandoned to Writing: Notes Toward Several Provocations.” Enculturation 5.1 (2003): n. pag. Web. 14 Nov. 2010. < http://enculturation.gmu.edu/5_1/vitanza.html >.^ Crowley, Sharon. “Composition is not Rhetoric.” Enculturation 5.1 (2003): n. pag. Web. 14 Nov. 2010. < http://enculturation.gmu.edu/5_1/crowley.html >.^ Clark, Gregory “Writing as Travel, or Rhetoric on the Road.” College Composition and Communication 49.1 (1998): 9–23. Print.^ Reynolds, Nedra. “Who’s Going to Cross this Border? Travel Metaphors, Material Conditions, and Contested Places.” JAC 20.3 (2000): 541–64. Print. Categories: Rhetoric Composition  ZeBRaS Ze BRa SResearch Group of Formal Applied Rhetoric Welcome to the website of Ze BRa S research group founded by Katarzyna Budzynska and Magdalena Kacprzak. Our main goal is to understand and represent structures of persuasive communication typical for natural contexts. In our research, we link together the formal approach, which allows us to describe the mechanisms of language and reasoning, with the practical approach, which allows us to apply the results of our projects to the real communication practice. By coordinating the Arg Dia P initiative, the Ze BRa S group is engaged in popularizing contemporary developments of argumentation theory in the research community in Poland, and in supporting the activities of the emerging Polish School of Argumentation.  Persuasive Essay and Speech Topics Persuasive Essay and Speech Topics101 Persuasive Essay Topics By: Mr. Morton Whether you are a student in need of a persuasive essay topic, or a teacher looking to assign a persuasive essay, this list of 101 persuasive essay topics is a great resource. I taxed my brain to create this huge list of persuasive essay topics relevant to today’s society, but I believe it was worth the effort. Additionally, any of these topics could be applied to a persuasive speech project as well. I appreciate any and all comments or feedback. Download this list in RTF format Download this list in PDF format Should students be allowed to have phones in elementary and high schools? Should students have to wear uniforms? Should college athletes be paid for playing? Should the elderly receive free bus rides? Should state colleges be free to attend? Should all American citizens have to complete a year of community service? Should students be required to take Spanish classes? Should marijuana be legal for medicinal purposes? Should the voting age be lowered to thirteen? Should the driving age be raised to twenty-one? Should students be paid for having good grades? Should illegal immigrants be allowed to get drivers licenses? Should not wearing a seat-belt be illegal? Should student’s textbooks be replaced by notebook computers or tablets? Should students have to pass a basic skills test to graduate high school? Should schools raise money by selling candy and sugary soft drinks to students? Should schools serve french-fries and fried potato products to students at lunch? Should students’ grades in gym affect their grade point averages? Should girls be allowed to play on boys sports teams? Should teens be able to buy violent video games? Should boys and girls be in separate classes? Should teenage girls be allowed to get birth control without the permission of their parents? Should our country have free health care? Should immigration laws be reformed? Should the federal government recognize civil unions? Should people who download music and movies illegally be punished? Should school athletes have to be on the honor roll to play in games? Should music with curse words be allowed at school dances? Should public schools begin the day with a silent prayer time? Should students be able to listen to music on headphones during study hall? Should schools offer fast food options like Mc Donald’s or Taco Bell? Should smoking be allowed at parks and other outdoor public venues? Should cities offer free public Wi-Fi? Should the government place a tax on junk food and fatty snacks? Should the 2 nd amendment give citizens the right to own assault weaponry? Should people traveling in airplanes have to undergo intensive security screenings? Should genetically modified foods be sold with a warning label? Should teachers have to pass a basic skills test every ten years to renew their certification? Should people be allowed to keep exotic animals like chimpanzees or tigers? Should people be allowed to keep pit-bull dogs? Should the city offer a bike sharing program? Should there be an ordinance citing people who fail to recycle $50? Should there be an ordinance citing people who play music too loudly $50? Should prostitution be legalized and regulated by the government? Should celebrities who break the law face stricter penalties? Should the government increase spending on the space program? Should larger passengers have to pay for two plane or movie theater tickets? Should children have to use booster seats in cars? Should people have to get a license to become parents? Should there be tougher federal restrictions for content on the internet? Should people be allowed to curse on daytime television? Should owners be legally accountable for clearing snow from sidewalks on their property? Should sexual education be taught in public schools? Should students be able to get free condoms at school? Should students who commit cyber-bullying be suspended from school? Should corporations be allowed to advertise in schools? Should students be allowed to eat during class? Should more be done to protect and preserve endangered animals? Is it appropriate for students and teachers to be friends on Facebook? Should students have open campus lunch periods? Should abortions be legal? Should abortions be legal in cases of rape and incest? Should the death penalty be used to punish violent criminals? Should students learn about world religions in public schools? Should schools start later in the morning? Should the USA end overseas military operations? Should politicians be allowed to accept campaign contributions from corporate lobbyists? Should people with terminal illnesses have the right to doctor assisted suicides? Should Puerto Rico become a state? Should stem cell researchers be able to use stem cells from aborted babies to cure diseases? Should school athletes have to take drug tests? Should professional athletes have to take drug tests? Should America convert to the metric system? Should high school students have to complete community service hours to graduate? Should teens over 13 years of age be allowed into R rated movies? Should state tests be given in other languages for ESL students? Should scientists be allowed to test products intended for human use on animals? Should unhealthy fast food products be sold with a warning label? Should there be a tariff or tax on products manufactured outside of the country? Should students or teachers receive money for scoring well on standardized tests? Should everyone under the age of 17 have a 9:00 PM curfew? Should schools with low scores on standardized tests be closed? Should minors be allowed to drink alcoholic beverages in their homes with their parents’ consent? Should students be allowed to drop out before they turn 18 years old? Should alcohol manufacturers be allowed to advertise on television? Should students as young as fourteen be allowed to hold jobs? Should American families have a two child max rule to limit population growth? Should children younger than thirteen be allowed to watch MTV or music videos? Should people who are caught driving drunk lose their licenses for a year? Should students who fail their classes be retained and have to repeat the grade? Should large businesses and corporations be required to employ a number of minorities proportionate to the population? Should female construction workers earn the same wages as males? Should children in temporary living situations with a 3.0 GPA earn free college tuition? Should gambling and sports-betting be illegal or should the government regulate it? Should children who commit violent crimes be tried as adults? Should the government be allowed to detain suspected terrorists without trial? Should the government censor internet content deemed inappropriate? Should teachers have to wear uniforms or have a dress code? Should teachers be allowed to have cell phones in the classroom? Should the state execute dogs that have bitten someone? Should talking on a phone without a hands-free device while driving be illegal? These essay topics ought to be enough to get your started. Looking For Something Else? How to Write Persuasive Essays How to Write Narrative Essays Narrative Essay Topics Research Paper Topics Still looking for something? Search here. Click One of the Topics to Browse Reading Skills Ereading Worksheets Figurative Language Skills Language Arts Skills Writing Skills Learn Stuff About By Mr. Morton of Ereading Worksheets 883 Comments  Genre criticism From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Genre criticism is a method within rhetorical criticism for analyzing texts in terms of their genre: the set of generic expectations, conventions, and constraints that guide their production and interpretation. In rhetoric, the theory of genre provides a means to classify and compare artifacts in terms of their formal, substantive and contextual features. By grouping artifacts with others of similar formal features or rhetorical exigencies, rhetorical critics can shed light on how authors use or flout conventions in order to meet their needs. Genre criticism has thus become one of the main methodologies within rhetorical criticism. Genres have been used to classify speeches and works of literature since the time of Aristotle, who named three rhetorical genres, the legal or judicial, the deliberative or political, and the ceremonial or epideictic. Since then, rhetorical approaches to genre and understanding of the term "genre" has evolved in several ways. New genres have been studied for their rhetorical effectiveness, like sermons, letters, and, more recently, non-verbal genres like political cartoons, film, and public monuments. Further contemporary genre criticism has revised our understanding of genre in several ways. The first turn, represented by Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin, among others, focused on the formal features of communication. The second turn, represented by Carolyn Miller, among others, focused on recurring socio-cultural circumstances. In the latest turn, critics have begun applying formalist and socio-cultural concepts to new media artifacts that tend to resist classification in traditional genre categories. Contents [ hide ]1 Emphasis on formal features in speech genres2 Rhetorical approaches to genre3 Socio-cultural approach to genre studies4 Genres studies in new media5 See also6 References7 Sources Emphasis on formal features in speech genres [ edit]The first group of rhetorical critics, following the example of theorists like M. M. Bakhtin, used formal features to analyze texts. For these critics, language is formed through a series of utterances that reflect specific conditions and goals of certain linguistic aspects. These aspects include thematic content, style, and compositional structure which form speech genres. Speech genres are diverse because of the various possibilities of human activity. In "The Problem of Speech Genres" (1986), Mikhail Bakhtin draws attention to the very significant difference between primary (simple) and secondary (complex) speech genres. [1] According to Bahktin, primary speech genres form secondary speech genres and examples of secondary speech genres include novels, dramas, all kinds of scientific research, and major genres of commentary. Since these secondary genres involve complex and comparatively highly developed and organized cultural communication that is artistic and scientific, they absorb and digest various primary genres that have taken form in mediated speech communion. Bakhtin continues to explain that there are three factors of the whole utterance which include semantic exhaustiveness of the theme, the speaker’s plan or speech will, and the typical compositional and generic forms of finalization. [2] The first factor refers to the way utterances are used within speech which is linked to the second factor of how the speaker determines to use the utterance. The third factor explains that all our utterances have definite and stable typical forms of construction, but that these forms can change when needed. As Bahktin writes, "These genres are so diverse because they differ depending on the situation, social position, and personal interrelations of the participants in the communication". [3]Rhetorical approaches to genre [ edit]The word “ genre ” is derived from the Latin term genus, to mean “kind”, “class” or "sort". Aristotle was one of the first scholars to develop a rhetorical approach to genre. He divided the art of rhetoric into three genres: deliberative, forensic, and epideictic. [4] The deliberative genre of rhetoric involves speeches or writing meant to persuade an audience to take action. Deliberative rhetoric thus includes rhetoric that is used for political persuasion, discusses matters of public policy in order to determine what is advantageous or disadvantageous, and is usually concerned with the future. Rhetoric of the forensic genre questions guilt or innocence, is concerned with legalities, and concentrates on events that occurred in the past. The epideictic genre of rhetoric encompasses all rhetoric used for ceremonial and commemorative purposes. Epideictic rhetoric praises and blames, acknowledging that which is noble or shameful, honorable or dishonorable. The rhetorical situation is a concept important for understanding rhetorical approaches to genre and the creation of new genres. [5] Campaign speeches are an example of how rhetorical situations recur, producing sedimented genres. As a result of the institutions that execute the U. S. Constitution, every four years at the time of presidential elections, candidates deliver campaign speeches. Campaign speeches have become a distinct genre because they respond to highly similar situations that recur because of a structural or institutional basis. U. S. rhetoricians Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson refer to genre as a “constellation of elements." [6] They say, “A genre is a group of acts unified by a constellation of forms that recurs in each of its members.” Genres are formed when examined constituents are similar. The metaphors of genres as “constellations” serves to explain how genres, like constellations of stars, are constructed of individual members, but are under the influence of each other and outside elements. As a result they move together and remain in a similar relation to each other despite their ever-changing positions. [6] According to Campbell and Jamieson, “when a generic claim is made, the critical situation alters significantly because the critic is now arguing that a group of discourses has a synthetic core in which certain significant rhetorical elements, e.g., a system of belief, lines of argument, stylistic choices, and the perception of the situation, are fused into an indivisible whole". [6]Many contemporary scholars refer to the fusion of traits from different genres in speeches and texts as a "generic hybrid ". [7] These generic hybrids can be formed from a blend of the three rhetorical genres. [8] This concept can be explained through an example of a generic hybrid of deliberative and epideictic elements, in which a newly elected President delivers an inaugural address. The President is speaking at a formal ceremony recognizing the current state of the nation (characteristic of the epideictic genre), while simultaneously announcing his policy plans for the upcoming four years. U. S. rhetorician Carolyn R. Miller is the author of the article "Genre as Social Action" (1984). She argues, “Rhetorical criticism has not provided firm guidance on what constitutes a genre” and a “rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish.” [9] Miller also argues that new media genres may develop and formalize more quickly than traditional, written genres. She is among other rhetoricians who have expressed concerns about the appropriateness of traditional genre theory for new media communication. They argue that because genre theory originally was developed for describing written texts, the theory should be modified to account for nonlinguistic communication. Miller and colleague Dawn Shepherd illustrate an example of applying socio-cultural theories to genre studies in "Blogging as Social Action: A Genre Analysis of the Weblog". They explain how the weblog may be establishing a new genre because of its integration of current social and cultural trends. [10]Socio-cultural approach to genre studies [ edit]In the 1980s, scholarship in genre theory and criticism has turned towards a socio-cultural approach to the study of genre by actively interrogating the rhetorical situation of a given communication artifact in light of its particular generic form. In this mode of inquiry, the rhetorical artifact is examined as a social response to a set of recurrent rhetorical exigencies rather than a collection of formal, generic elements. In the rhetorical tradition of genre criticism, Carolyn R. Miller's work on the socio-cultural approach to genre theory has been influential. Again in her 1984 journal article, Miller argues that “rhetorical criticism has not provided firm guidance on what constitutes a genre” and that a “rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centered not on the substance or the form of discourse but on the action it is used to accomplish”. [9] Later, when Miller and Shepherd engaged the socio-cultural approach to genre criticism in “Blogging as Social Action: A Genre Analysis of the Weblog” (2004), they exposed some of the difficulties of applying genre theory to new media. In their analysis, Miller and Shepherd examine the extent to which the weblog might constitute a genre in light of its interaction with current social and cultural trends. Genres studies in new media [ edit]Recently scholars and researchers in rhetoric, linguistics, and information sciences have begun to explore the relationships between new media and socio-contextual genre theories (like those of Carolyn Miller, Mikhail Bakhtin, and Charles Bazerman). These researchers have expressed concerns about the appropriateness of traditional genre theory for new media communication. Some scholars have argued that since genre theory was originally developed to describe written texts, the theory needs to be modified to account for nonlinguistic communication. Linguist and semiotician Gunter Kress suggested that much of the vocabulary of generic analysis is ill-equipped to address non-written communication, arguing that “there are no genre terms for describing what [a] drawing is or does…” [11] Similarly, rhetoricians Miller and Shepherd have argued that traditional written genre theory does not appropriately address the visual features of a genre’s format. [10]Rhetoricians and information scientists have also pointed out that new media genres may develop and formalize more quickly than traditional written genres. The authors of the article "Genres and the web" argue that the personal home page is functioning as a new and discrete genre, and they explore the entirely digital nature of home pages, suggesting that home pages “have no obvious paper equivalent”. [12] Additionally recent work in new media genre theory has explored how new communication technologies allows for forms of “genre hybridity .” Spinuzzi, for example, explores what can happen when multiple related genres are remediated into a single new media artifact. [13]See also [ edit]Genre Genre Studies References [ edit]^ Bakhtin, M. M. (1986). "The Problem of Speech Genres". Speech genres and other late essays. Trans. V. W. Mc Gee. University of Texas Press. p. 62.^ Bakhtin, Speech genres and other late essays, p.77.^ Bakhtin, Speech genres and other late essays, p. 79.^ Hill, F. I (1995). "The Rhetoric of Aristotle". A Synoptic History of Classical Rhetoric (2nd rev. ed. ), Davis, CA. Hermagoras Press.^ Bitzer, L. F. (1968). "The rhetorical situation". Philosophy and Rhetoric, vol. 1, pp. 1-14.^ a b c Karlyn Kohrs Campbell and Kathleen Hall Jamieson (1978), Form and Genre: Shaping Rhetorical Action. The Speech Communication Association. Falls Church, VA. p. 21.^ Jamieson, K. M.; Campbell, K. K. (1982). "Rhetorical hybrids: "'Fusion of generic elements'". Quarterly Journal of Speech (68), pp. 146-157.^ Aristotle, Rhetoric, (Trans. W. R. Roberts, 1954), New York: Modern Library.^ a b Miller, C. R. (1984). "Genre as social action." Quarterly Journal of Speech (70), pp. 151-67.^ a b Miller, C. R.; Shepherd, D. (2004). "Blogging as Social Action: A Genre Analysis of the Weblog", Into the Blogosphere. Retrieved 10 April 2005.^ Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T (1996). Multimodal Discourse. London: Routledge. p.110.^ Dillon, Andrew; Gushrowski, Barbara A. (2000). "Genres and the web: Is the personal home page the first uniquely digital genre?" Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51 (2), pp. 202-205.^ Spinuzzi, C. (2003). Tracing genres through organizations: A sociocultural approach to information design. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sources [ edit]Crowston, K. & Williams, M. (2000). Reproduced and Emergent Genres of Communication on the World Wide Web. The Information Society 16, pp. 201-215. Jasinski, J. (2001). Genre: Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge. Prince, M. B. (2003). "Mauvais genres". New Literary History. 34 (3), p. 452. Categories: Rhetoric Methods in sociology  How to Write a Conclusion for a Rhetorical Analysis Home » Classroom How to Write a Conclusion for a Rhetorical Analysis By Benjamin Twist Rereading your analysis can help you conclude it succinctly. The conclusion of a rhetorical analysis is an opportunity to sum up your argument and express the significance of the patterns and techniques you found in the work you analyzed. A well-written conclusion will go beyond simply repeating and summarizing your analysis by showing the point of the technique deployed by the author or speaker. If the body of your rhetorical analysis explains how a rhetorical work achieved a particular effect, the conclusion is where you can step back to articulate why the writer or speaker chose that technique and what the effect accomplishes for his audience. Step 1Summarize what the work you analyzed accomplishes, such as persuading the audience to believe a certain idea or portraying a certain political party in an admirable or absurd light. Step 2Summarize how the work you analyzed accomplished its goal. For example, the author or speaker may have used evidence-based arguments illustrated with emotionally evocative personal anecdotes. If the work did not accomplish its goal, summarize why it failed or what you believe it could have done differently to succeed. Step 3Explain the significance of the work's rhetorical methods or purpose. For example, write about how you as a reader have changed because of a particularly effective technique the work employed. Alternatively, explain that a given technique, such as independent research or appeal to divine authority, was particularly appropriate for the author's time period and audience. Put the writer's argument in context to the rest of her life, for example, by demonstrating that the argument in the work you analyzed was an important statement of a theme that appears throughout her writings. References Texas A&M University Writing Center: Rhetorical Analysis University of British Columbia Writing Centre: Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Purdue Online Writing Lab: Organizing Your Analysis About the Author Benjamin Twist has worked as a writer, editor and consultant since 2007. He writes fiction and nonfiction for online and print publications, as well as offering one-on-one writing consultations and tutoring. Twist holds a Master of Arts in Bible exposition from Columbia International University. Photo Credits Comstock Images/Comstock/Getty Images More Classroom Articles How to Write an Introduction to an Analytical Essay The Effects of 1960 Politics on Fashion How to Construct a Rationale Statement How to Write a Conclusion for a Literary Analysis Essay What Influence Did Sandro Botticelli Have on the Renaissance? How Can I Gain My Boyfriend's Trust Back? Cite this Article  EthnoTopicsAll - List of ethnography topics over three... 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View Full Document List of ethnography topics over three years Domestic Technologies: hygiene, cooking, clothing and hobbies Flush toilet, Sulabh toilet, toilet paper, tooth brush, tooth paste, soap, hand soap,hairdryer, disposable razor blades, tampon, condom, personal massager Dyson vacuum cleaner, water tap, washing machine, refrigerator, electricrefrigerator, cooking stove, microwave, toaster, coffee maker, canned food, fork,chopsticks, wine, beer, cigarettes, chewing gum, Coca Cola, Vinegar, shisha (akahookah – water-pipe technology used as a smoking device)Jeans, brassiere, shoe, running shoe, High Heeled Shoe, winter coat, zipper, shape-wear, underwear, female bathing suit, spandex, lipstick, makeup, eyeliner, hairiron, electric hair straightener Alarm clock, spray paint, stroller, backpack, TV, turntable, speaker, headphones,treadmill, hockey stick, ice skates, hockey goaltender mask, treadmill, clock,watch, lock and key, camera, digital single-lens reflex camera (DSLR), glassmirror, magnifying lense, lighter, pen Energy and Electronic Technologies This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version. View Full Document This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document. TERM Fall '12 PROFESSOR kristontole TAGSSingle-lens reflex camera, birth control pill, personal massager, High Heeled Shoe, disposable razor blades, electric hair straightener Report View Full Document Bookmarked 0Recently viewed SOC 3116Ethno Topics All Viewing now Interested in Ethno Topics All? Bookmark it to view later. 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C. State SOC 202 - Fall 201086731077-The-Filter-Bubble-Eli-Pariser  Aristotle's Rhetorical Situation Aristotle's Rhetorical Situation Summary: This presentation is designed to introduce your students to a variety of factors that contribute to strong, well-organized writing. This presentation is suitable for the beginning of a composition course or the assignment of a writing project in any class. Contributors: Ethan Sproat, Dana Lynn Driscoll, Allen Brizee Last Edited: 2012-04-27 10:29:16Rhetorical Concepts Many people have heard of the rhetorical concepts of logos, ethos, and pathos even if they do not necessarily know what they fully mean. These three terms, along with kairos and telos, were used by Aristotle to help explain how rhetoric functions. In ancient Greece, these terms corresponded with basic components that all rhetorical situations have. Logos Logos is frequently translated as some variation of “logic or reasoning,” but it originally referred to the actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means “text.”Ethos Ethos is frequently translated as some variation of “credibility or trustworthiness,” but it originally referred to the elements of a speech that reflected on the particular character of the speaker or the speech’s author. Today, many people may discuss ethos qualities of a text to refer to how well authors portray themselves. But ethos more closely refers to an author’s perspective more generally. In this resource, ethos means “author.”Pathos Pathos is frequently translated as some variation of “emotional appeal,” but it originally referred to the elements of a speech that appealed to any of an audience’s sensibilities. Today, many people may discuss the pathos qualities of a text to refer to how well an author appeals to an audience’s emotions. Pathos as “emotion” is often contrasted with logos as “reason.” But this is a limited understanding of both pathos and logos; pathos more closely refers to an audience’s perspective more generally. In this resource, pathos means “audience.”Telos Telos is a term Aristotle used to explain the particular purpose or attitude of a speech. Not many people use this term today in reference to rhetorical situations; nonetheless, it is instructive to know that early rhetorical thinkers like Aristotle actually placed much emphasis on speakers having a clear telos. But audiences can also have purposes of their own that differ from a speaker’s purpose. In this resource, telos means “purpose.”Kairos Kairos is a term that refers to the elements of a speech that acknowledge and draw support from the particular setting, time, and place that a speech occurs. Though not as commonly known as logos, ethos, and pathos, the term kairos has been receiving wider renewed attention among teachers of composition since the mid-1980s. Although kairos may be well known among writing instructors, the term “setting” more succinctly and clearly identifies this concept for contemporary readers. In this resource, kairos means “setting.”Current Elements of Rhetorical Situations All of these terms (text, author, audience, purpose, and setting) are fairly loose in their definitions and all of them affect each other. Also, all of these terms have specific qualities that affect the ways that they interact with the other terms. Below, you’ll find basic definitions of each term, a brief discussion of the qualities of each term, and then finally, a series of examples illustrating various rhetorical situations.  rhetorical device rhetorical device Also found in: Thesaurus, Encyclopedia, Wikipedia . Thesaurus Antonyms Related Words Synonyms Legend: Switch to new thesaurus Noun 1. rhetorical device - a use of language that creates a literary effect (but often withoutregard for literal significance)rhetoric - study of the technique and rules for using language effectively (especially in public speaking)device - something in an artistic work designed to achieve a particular effectrhetoric - using language effectively to please or persuadeanacoluthia, anacoluthon - an abrupt change within a sentence from one syntacticstructure to anotherasyndeton - the omission of conjunctions where they would normally be usedrepetition - the repeated use of the same word or word pattern as a rhetorical deviceanastrophe, inversion - the reversal of the normal order of wordsantiphrasis - the use of a word in a sense opposite to its normal sense (especially in irony)antithesis - the juxtaposition of contrasting words or ideas to give a feeling of balanceantinomasia - substitution of a title for a nameapophasis - mentioning something by saying it will not be mentionedaposiopesis - breaking off in the middle of a sentence (as by writers of realisticconversations)apostrophe - address to an absent or imaginary personcatachresis - strained or paradoxical use of words either in error (as `blatant' to mean`flagrant') or deliberately (as in a mixed metaphor: `blind mouths')chiasmus - inversion in the second of two parallel phrasesclimax - arrangement of clauses in ascending order of forcefulnessconversion - interchange of subject and predicate of a propositionecphonesis, exclamation - an exclamatory rhetorical device; "O tempore! O mores"emphasis - special and significant stress by means of position or repetition e.g.enallage - a substitution of part of speech or gender or number or tense etc. (e.g.,editorial `we' for `I')epanorthosis - immediate rephrasing for intensification or justification; "Seems,madam! Nay, it is"epiplexis - a rhetorical device in which the speaker reproaches the audience in order to incite or convince themhendiadys - use of two conjoined nouns instead of a noun and modifierhypallage - reversal of the syntactic relation of two words (as in `her beauty's face')hyperbaton - reversal of normal word order (as in `cheese I love')hypozeugma - use of a series of subjects with a single predicatehypozeuxis - use of a series of parallel clauses (as in `I came, I saw, I conquered')hysteron proteron - reversal of normal order of two words or sentences etc. (as in `bred and born')litotes, meiosis - understatement for rhetorical effect (especially when expressing an affirmative by negating its contrary); "saying `I was not a little upset' when you mean `I was very upset' is an example of litotes"onomatopoeia - using words that imitate the sound they denoteparaleipsis, paralepsis, paralipsis, preterition - suggesting by deliberatelyconcise treatment that much of significance is omittedparegmenon - juxtaposing words having a common derivation (as in `sense andsensibility')polysyndeton - using several conjunctions in close succession, especially wheresome might be omitted (as in `he ran and jumped and laughed for joy')prolepsis - anticipating and answering objections in advancewellerism - a comparison comprising a well-known quotation followed by a facetioussequelfigure of speech, trope, image, figure - language used in a figurative or nonliteralsense Based on Word Net 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us, add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page:<a href="https://www.thefreedictionary.com/rhetorical+device">rhetorical device</a>Facebook Twitter  What does rhetoric mean? Education & Reference Words & Wordplay What does rhetoric mean? What exactly does the word "rhetoric" mean? Follow 3 answers Answers Relevance Rating Newest Oldest Best Answer: 1. (in writing or speech) the undue use of exaggeration or display; bombast. 2. the art or science of all specialized literary uses of language in prose or verse, including the figures of speech. 3. the study of the effective use of language. 4. the ability to use language effectively. 5. the art of prose in general as opposed to verse. 6. the art of making persuasive speeches; oratory. 7. (in classical oratory) the art of influencing the thought and conduct of an audience. 8. (in older use) a work on rhetoric. The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. A treatise or book discussing this art. A style of speaking or writing, especially the language of a particular subject: fiery political rhetoric. Language that is elaborate, pretentious, insincere, or intellectually vacuous: His offers of compromise were mere rhetoric. Skill in using language effectively and persuasively. A style of speaking or writing, especially the language of a particular subject: fiery political rhetoric. Language that is elaborate, pretentious, insincere, or intellectually vacuous: His offers of compromise were mere rhetoric. Verbal communication; discourse. using language effectively to please or persuade 2. high-flown style; excessive use of verbal ornamentation; "the grandiosity of his prose"; "an excessive ornateness of language" [syn: grandiosity] 3. loud and confused and empty talk; "mere rhetoric" [syn: palaver] 4. study of the technique and rules for using language effectively (especially in public speaking) 1. The art of composition; especially, elegant composition in prose. 2. Oratory; the art of speaking with propriety, elegance, and force. --Locke. 3. Hence, artificial eloquence; fine language or declamation without conviction or earnest feeling. 4. Fig. : The power of persuasion or attraction; that which allures or charms. Sweet, silent rhetoric of persuading eyes.cosmogrl307 · 9 years ago3 2 Comment Asker's rating What Does Rhetoric Source (s):https://shrinks.im/a8k6jmidence · 1 year ago0 0 Comment1. 1. The art or study of using language effectively and persuasively. 2. A treatise or book discussing this art. 2. Skill in using language effectively and persuasively. 3. 1. A style of speaking or writing, especially the language of a particular subject: fiery political rhetoric. 2. Language that is elaborate, pretentious, insincere, or intellectually vacuous: His offers of compromise were mere rhetoric. 4. Verbal communication; discourse. [Middle English rethorik, from Old French rethorique, from Latin rhētoricē, rhētorica, from Greek rhētorikē (tekhnē), rhetorical (art), feminine of rhētorikos, rhetorical, from rhētōr, rhetor. See rhetor.] The art of public speaking: declamation, elocution, oratory. Definition: wordiness; long speech Antonyms: conciseness Political Dictionary: rhetoric Rhetoric is the persuasive use of language. Until the eighteenth century its study was one of the central disciplines in European universities alongside theology, natural and moral sciences, and law. Thereafter, empiricist and positivist methods of social inquiry led to its eclipse, on the ground that language, scientifically used, was no more than a transparent medium by which knowledge of the world gained by experience was mediated. Rhetoric, accordingly, came to denote the unnecessary or misleading embellishment and corruption of language—a view which Plato had held of the sophists. Literary Dictionary: rhetoric the deliberate exploitation of eloquence for the most persuasive effect in public speaking or in writing. It was cultivated as an important art and science in antiquity, and was an essential ele‐ment of medieval university education, involving the elaborate categorizing of figures of speech together with the arts of memory, arrangement, and oratorical delivery. The emphasis on sincerity in the culture of Romanticism helped to discredit rhetoric, so that the usual modern sense of the term implies empty and ineffectual grandness in public speech. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: rhetoric Art of speaking or writing effectively. It may entail the study of principles and rules of composition formulated by critics of ancient times, and it can also involve the study of writing or speaking as a means of communication or persuasion. Classical rhetoric probably developed along with democracy in Syracuse (Sicily) in the 5th century BC, when dispossessed landowners argued claims before their fellow citizens. Shrewd speakers sought help from teachers of oratory, called rhetors. This use of language was of interest to philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle because the oratorical arguments called into question the relationships among language, truth, and morality. The Romans recognized separate aspects of the process of composing speeches, a compartmentalization that grew more pronounced with time. Renaissance scholars and poets studied rhetoric closely, and it was a central concern of humanism. In all times and places where rhetoric has been significant, listening and reading and speaking and writing have been the critical skills necessary for effective communication. (more.....)Source (s):http://www.answers.com/rhetoricd_r_siva · 9 years ago0 1 Commentrhet·o·ric rhet·o·ric [réttərik] n 1. persuasive speech or writing: speech or writing that communicates its point persuasively 2. pretentious words: complex or elaborate language that only succeeds in sounding pretentious 3. empty talk: fine-sounding but insincere or empty language 4. skill with language: the ability to use language effectively, especially to persuade or influence people 5. study of writing or speaking effectively: the study of methods employed to write or speak effectively and persuasively [14th century. Via Old French rethorique < Greek rhētorikē (tekhnē) " (art) of public speaking" < rhētor "speaker"]Kitty §ays (mew) · 9 years ago2 0 Comment The art of arguement and speech making. The various tricks and devices were taught as a subject. This site gives a table listing 45 of these, with examples: http://www.uky.edu/AS/Classics/rhetoric.... Mo Fayed · 9 years ago0 0 Comment I got you some definitions....if you need any other definitions go to www.dictionary.com –noun 1. (in writing or speech) the undue use of exaggeration or display; bombast. 2. the art or science of all specialized literary uses of language in prose or verse, including the figures of speech. 3. the study of the effective use of language. 4. the ability to use language effectively. 5. the art of prose in general as opposed to verse. 6. the art of making persuasive speeches; oratory. 7. (in classical oratory) the art of influencing the thought and conduct of an audience. Source (s):http://dictionary.reference.com/Jennyluv · 9 years ago0 1 Comment Bullshit by politicians. Jim · 3 years ago0 0 Commentdictionary.com will tell you all you need to know about "rhetoric"...everybody's got one · 9 years ago0 5 Comment Maybe you would like to learn more about one of these? Time for a Caribbean cruise? Want to buy a domain name? Should you donate your car? Find Moving Container Services  CLASSICAL RHETORICAL THEORY CLASSICAL RHETORICAL THEORYin Interpersonal Communication, Psychology, Behavioral And Social Science INTRODUCTIONThe origin of classical rhetoric theory can be traced back to the times of ancient scholars such as Plato, Aristotle and Socrates. This Theory developed when people began to identify that there is some kind of influence is made to the listeners. Therefore, the ability for public speaking reaped its magnitude in ancient world. THEORYAll kind of usage of language comprises a certain amount of element of persuasion in them. The classic rhetoric theory was to know how this element of persuasion works and how it can be effectively utilized. In simple words classical rhetorical theory developed from the thought how the language works for people. The classical rhetorical theory doesn’t have its universality like other theories, the major reason for that is people just identified this theory. It existed since when men began to speak. Aristotle identified that three elements are needed for an effective communication which are,The Speaker The Speech The Listener And he spotted that some kind of change can be brought to the listener by the speaker through the speech. This is how the first theory of communication took its initiation. Rhetoric is often considered as an art, which studies how the things that we said or wrote made changes in the person who reads or hears it. Thus it studies the effectiveness of language. The rhetoric was an important aspect in ancient western education, especially for the effective oratorical persuasion in fields of politics law etc. The rhetorical education mainly focused on five canons they are Inventio (Invention)Dispositio (Arrangement)Elocutio (Style)Memoria (Memory)Actio (Delivery)In Ancient Greek it was very important to have a good ability for persuasion through speech. They followed a system of democracy and in a democracy it is important that you are possessed with worthy communication ability because you need to talk and impress people for getting our rights. Whoever talks and impress more people will have the support of more people and whoever have the support of more people will be the leader and he can rule over others. Later all the great leaders in of the world are bestowed with ability of rhetoric and they made the people to persuade upon their ideology by knowing how the rhetoric theory works among people. During the Middle Ages rhetoric was taught in universities as one of the liberal arts. By the 16th century people began to identify rhetoric as a field of social or human science. Thus classical rhetorical theory has its story as old as the story of any language that present today in the world. The history of rhetoric itself is the history of classical rhetorical theory. Rhetoric cannot be meaningful without understanding the classical rhetorical theory and to know about classical rhetorical theory we need to know about rhetoric. The reason is that both are more or less the same. EXAMPLEExample for classical rhetorical theory can be seen everywhere around us. When the kids ask “Mom can you buy me an ice cream?” he think of the possibility of getting ice cream by persuading his mother. And the kids think what will be the reaction of his mom, or how will she react against his question, all these things which gone through the mind of the kid are as per the classical rhetorical theory. Jesus, Buddha all these religious icons were made the people pursue and influence through their teaching in the framework of classical rhetorical theory. All the great leaders in history who influenced the masses of people used and uses the classical rhetorical theory.64Tagged as: classical rhetoric theory, element of persuasion, examples of rhetoric, public speaking, rhetoric, rhetorical theory  Proven Rhetorical Essay Topics You Should Use Proven Rhetorical Essay Topics You Should Use The success of writing a proper rhetorical essay lies in choosing a good topic. While it may be difficult to decide on the particular topic, you should follow two major requirements. Firstly, focus on your interests. If the topic you want to discuss is familiar to you, you will have a head start. Secondly, consider urgent topics that will interest your readers. There may be different widely discussed matters, so you may easily hear about them on TV. However, there are a number of topics that will always be productive. If you want to enhance your knowledge and develop your writing skills you should definitely dwell upon them. Rhetorical analysis of the speeches is highly productive. They are immensely rich in rhetoric strategies because the main goal of the speech is to persuade the audience in speaker’s point of view. Inaugural address of John F. Kennedy Richard Nixon’s resignation speech Dwight Eisenhower’s speech “Atoms for Peace”“Pearl Harbor Address to the Nation” of Franklin D. Roosevelt“Shuttle ''Challenger'' Disaster Address” of Ronald Reagan These five speeches were delivered by the presidents of America. They address the important and controversial issues of politics and social life of the twentieth century. The problems of social injustice, war, national tragedies and use of atomic energy will for long remain controversial and worthy of discussion. Martin Luther King’s speech “I Have a Dream”This is probably the most famous speech of all times. American civil right activist M. L. King called to put an end to racism in America. It became a defining stage of the whole American civil rights movement and is the example of a powerful rhetoric since then. Steve Jobs’ commencement speech Commencement speeches are certainly rich material for investigation. And according to the national newspaper “USA Today” Steve Jobs’ speech is one of the best. While analysis of the speeches may be of great personal interest, study of the rhetoric employed in the works of literature could be useful for your education. Choose the piece of literature you have already read and work on them. There are five recommended works for analysis: Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet”Poem “Wild Nights” by Emily Dickinson Sermon “Sinners in the hands of an angry God” by Jonathan Edwards Short story “The Tell-Tale Heart” by Edgar Allan Poe Novel “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee If you want to be more up-to-date and discuss the topic you know well, you can write about current social problems that affect the young. Smoking should be prohibited among the teenagers Tattoos and piercing are the symbols of freedom School uniforms are necessary elements of educational system  Rhetoric From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Rhetorical Strategies)navigation search This article is about the art of rhetoric in general. For the work by Aristotle, see Rhetoric (Aristotle). "Rhetorical Strategies" redirects here. For modes of persuasion, see rhetorical strategies. [ show] This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (April 2015) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Painting depicting a lecture in a knight academy, painted by Pieter Isaacsz or Reinhold Timm for Rosenborg Castle as part of a series of seven paintings depicting the seven independent arts. This painting illustrates rhetoric. Part of a series of articles on Rhetoric Five canons Inventio Dispositio Elocutio Memoria Pronuntiatiov t e Rhetoric is the art of discourse, wherein a writer or speaker strives to inform, persuade or motivate particular audiences in specific situations. It can also be in a visual form; as a subject of formal study and a productive civic practice, rhetoric has played a central role in the European tradition. [1] Its best known definition comes from Aristotle, who considers it a counterpart of both logic and politics, and calls it "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion ." [2] Rhetoric typically provides heuristics for understanding, discovering, and developing arguments for particular situations, such as Aristotle's three persuasive audience appeals, logos, pathos, and ethos. The five canons of rhetoric, which trace the traditional tasks in designing a persuasive speech, were first codified in classical Rome: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Along with grammar and logic (or dialectic —see Martianus Capella ), rhetoric is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. From Ancient Greece to the late 19th century, it was a central part of Western education, filling the need to train public speakers and writers to move audiences to action with arguments. [3] The word is derived from the Greek ῥητορικόςrhētorikós, "oratorical", [4] from ῥήτωρ rhḗtōr, "public speaker", [5] related to ῥῆμα rhêma, "that which is said or spoken, word, saying", [6] and ultimately derived from the verb ἐρῶ erō, "I say, I speak". [7]Contents [ hide ]1 Uses1.1 Scope1.2 As a civic art1.3 As a course of study1.4 Knowledge1.4.1 Eloquentia Perfecta2 History2.1 Sophists2.2 Isocrates2.3 Plato2.4 Aristotle3 Canons3.1 Cicero3.2 Quintilian3.3 Medieval to Enlightenment3.4 Sixteenth century3.5 Seventeenth century3.6 Eighteenth century4 Modern4.1 Notable modern theorists4.2 Methods of analysis4.2.1 Criticism seen as a method4.2.2 Observation on analytic method4.3 Strategies4.4 Criticism4.4.1 Additional theoretical approaches4.4.2 Purpose of criticism5 French6 Animal rhetoric7 See also8 Notes9 References10 Further reading11 External links Uses [ edit]Scope [ edit]Scholars have debated the scope of rhetoric since ancient times. Although some have limited rhetoric to the specific realm of political discourse, many modern scholars liberate it to encompass every aspect of culture. Contemporary studies of rhetoric address a much more diverse range of domains than was the case in ancient times. While classical rhetoric trained speakers to be effective persuaders in public forums and institutions such as courtrooms and assemblies, contemporary rhetoric investigates human discourse writ large. Rhetoricians have studied the discourses of a wide variety of domains, including the natural and social sciences, fine art, religion, journalism, digital media, fiction, history, cartography, and architecture, along with the more traditional domains of politics and the law. [8] Many contemporary approaches treat rhetoric as human communication that includes purposeful and strategic manipulation of symbols. Public relations, lobbying, law, marketing, professional and technical writing, and advertising are modern professions that employ rhetorical practitioners. Because the ancient Greeks highly valued public political participation, rhetoric emerged as a crucial tool to influence politics. Consequently, rhetoric remains associated with its political origins. However, even the original instructors of Western speech—the Sophists —disputed this limited view of rhetoric. According to the Sophists, such as Gorgias, a successful rhetorician could speak convincingly on any topic, regardless of his experience in that field. This method suggested rhetoric could be a means of communicating any expertise, not just politics. In his Encomium to Helen, Gorgias even applied rhetoric to fiction by seeking for his own pleasure to prove the blamelessness of the mythical Helen of Troy in starting the Trojan War. [9]Looking to another key rhetorical theorist, Plato defined the scope of rhetoric according to his negative opinions of the art. He criticized the Sophists for using rhetoric as a means of deceit instead of discovering truth. In "Gorgias," one of his Socratic Dialogues, Plato defines rhetoric as the persuasion of ignorant masses within the courts and assemblies. [10] Rhetoric, in Plato's opinion, is merely a form of flattery and functions similarly to cookery, which masks the undesirability of unhealthy food by making it taste good. Thus, Plato considered any speech of lengthy prose aimed at flattery as within the scope of rhetoric. Aristotle both redeemed rhetoric from his teacher and narrowed its focus by defining three genres of rhetoric— deliberative, forensic or judicial, and epideictic. [11] Yet, even as he provided order to existing rhetorical theories, Aristotle extended the definition of rhetoric, calling it the ability to identify the appropriate means of persuasion in a given situation, thereby making rhetoric applicable to all fields, not just politics. When one considers that rhetoric included torture (in the sense that the practice of torture is a form of persuasion or coercion), it is clear that rhetoric cannot be viewed only in academic terms. However, the enthymeme based upon logic (especially, based upon the syllogism) was viewed as the basis of rhetoric. However, since the time of Aristotle, logic has changed. For example, Modal logic has undergone a major development that also modifies rhetoric. [12] Yet, Aristotle also outlined generic constraints that focused the rhetorical art squarely within the domain of public political practice. He restricted rhetoric to the domain of the contingent or probable: those matters that admit multiple legitimate opinions or arguments. The contemporary neo-Aristotelian and neo-Sophistic positions on rhetoric mirror the division between the Sophists and Aristotle. Neo-Aristotelians generally study rhetoric as political discourse, while the neo-Sophistic view contends that rhetoric cannot be so limited. Rhetorical scholar Michael Leff characterizes the conflict between these positions as viewing rhetoric as a "thing contained" versus a "container." The neo-Aristotelian view threatens the study of rhetoric by restraining it to such a limited field, ignoring many critical applications of rhetorical theory, criticism, and practice. Simultaneously, the neo-Sophists threaten to expand rhetoric beyond a point of coherent theoretical value. Over the past century, people studying rhetoric have tended to enlarge its object domain beyond speech texts. Kenneth Burke asserted humans use rhetoric to resolve conflicts by identifying shared characteristics and interests in symbols. By nature, humans engage in identification, either to identify themselves or another individual with a group. This definition of rhetoric as identification broadened the scope from strategic and overt political persuasion to the more implicit tactics of identification found in an immense range of sources. [13]Among the many scholars who have since pursued Burke's line of thought, James Boyd White sees rhetoric as a broader domain of social experience in his notion of constitutive rhetoric. Influenced by theories of social construction, White argues that culture is "reconstituted" through language. Just as language influences people, people influence language. Language is socially constructed, and depends on the meanings people attach to it. Because language is not rigid and changes depending on the situation, the very usage of language is rhetorical. An author, White would say, is always trying to construct a new world and persuading his or her readers to share that world within the text. [14]Individuals engage in the rhetorical process anytime they speak or produce meaning. Even in the field of science, the practices of which were once viewed as being merely the objective testing and reporting of knowledge, scientists must persuade their audience to accept their findings by sufficiently demonstrating that their study or experiment was conducted reliably and resulted in sufficient evidence to support their conclusions. The vast scope of rhetoric is difficult to define; however, political discourse remains, in many ways, the paradigmatic example for studying and theorizing specific techniques and conceptions of persuasion, considered by many a synonym for "rhetoric." [15]As a civic art [ edit]Throughout European History, rhetoric has concerned itself with persuasion in public and political settings such as assemblies and courts. Because of its associations with democratic institutions, rhetoric is commonly said to flourish in open and democratic societies with rights of free speech, free assembly, and political enfranchisement for some portion of the population. Those who classify rhetoric as a civic art believe that rhetoric has the power to shape communities, form the character of citizens and greatly effect civic life. Rhetoric was viewed as a civic art by several of the ancient philosophers. Aristotle and Isocrates were two of the first to see rhetoric in this light. In his work, Antidosis, Isocrates states, "We have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts; and, generally speaking, there is no institution devised by man which the power of speech has not helped us to establish." With this statement he argues that rhetoric is a fundamental part of civic life in every society and that it has been necessary in the foundation of all aspects of society. He further argues in his piece Against the Sophists that rhetoric, although it cannot be taught to just anyone, is capable of shaping the character of man. He writes, "I do think that the study of political discourse can help more than any other thing to stimulate and form such qualities of character." Aristotle, writing several years after Isocrates, supported many of his arguments and continued to make arguments for rhetoric as a civic art. In the words of Aristotle, in the Rhetoric, rhetoric is "... the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." According to Aristotle, this art of persuasion could be used in public settings in three different ways. He writes in Book I, Chapter III, "A member of the assembly decides about future events, a juryman about past events: while those who merely decide on the orator's skill are observers. From this it follows that there are three divisions of oratory – (1) political, (2) forensic, and (3) the ceremonial oratory of display". Eugene Garver, in his critique of "Aristotle's Rhetoric", confirms that Aristotle viewed rhetoric as a civic art. Garver writes, "Rhetoric articulates a civic art of rhetoric, combining the almost incompatible properties of techne and appropriateness to citizens." [16] Each of Aristotle's divisions plays a role in civic life and can be used in a different way to affect cities. Because rhetoric is a public art capable of shaping opinion, some of the ancients including Plato found fault in it. They claimed that while it could be used to improve civic life, it could be used equally easily to deceive or manipulate with negative effects on the city. The masses were incapable of analyzing or deciding anything on their own and would therefore be swayed by the most persuasive speeches. Thus, civic life could be controlled by the one who could deliver the best speech. Plato explores the problematic moral status of rhetoric twice: in Gorgias, a dialogue named for the famed Sophist, and in The Phaedrus, a dialogue best known for its commentary on love. This concern is still maintained to nowadays. More trusting in the power of rhetoric to support a republic, the Roman orator Cicero argued that art required something more than eloquence. A good orator needed also to be a good man, a person enlightened on a variety of civic topics. He describes the proper training of the orator in his major text on rhetoric, De Oratore, modeled on Plato's dialogues. Modern day works continue to support the claims of the ancients that rhetoric is an art capable of influencing civic life. In his work Political Style, Robert Hariman claims, "Furthermore, questions of freedom, equality, and justice often are raised and addressed through performances ranging from debates to demonstrations without loss of moral content". [17]James Boyd White argues further that rhetoric is capable not only of addressing issues of political interest but that it can influence culture as a whole. In his book, When Words Lose Their Meaning, he argues that words of persuasion and identification define community and civic life. He states that words produce "... the methods by which culture is maintained, criticized, and transformed." [18] Both White and Hariman agree that words and rhetoric have the power to shape culture and civic life. In modern times, rhetoric has consistently remained relevant as a civic art. In speeches, as well as in non-verbal forms, rhetoric continues to be used as a tool to influence communities from local to national levels. As a course of study [ edit]Rhetoric as a course of study has evolved significantly since its ancient beginnings. Through the ages, the study and teaching of rhetoric has adapted to the particular exigencies of the time and venue. [19] The study of rhetoric has conformed to a multitude of different applications, ranging from architecture to literature. [20] Although the curriculum has transformed in a number of ways, it has generally emphasized the study of principles and rules of composition as a means for moving audiences. Generally speaking, the study of rhetoric trains students to speak and/or write effectively, as well as critically understand and analyze discourse. Rhetoric began as a civic art in Ancient Greece where students were trained to develop tactics of oratorical persuasion, especially in legal disputes. Rhetoric originated in a school of pre-Socratic philosophers known as the Sophists circa 600 BC. Demosthenes and Lysias emerged as major orators during this period, and Isocrates and Gorgias as prominent teachers. Rhetorical education focused on five particular canons: inventio (invention), dispositio (arrangement), elocutio (style), memoria (memory), and actio (delivery). Modern teachings continue to reference these rhetorical leaders and their work in discussions of classical rhetoric and persuasion. Rhetoric was later taught in universities during the Middle Ages as one of the three original liberal arts or trivium (along with logic and grammar ). [21] During the medieval period, political rhetoric declined as republican oratory died out and the emperors of Rome garnered increasing authority. With the rise of European monarchs in following centuries, rhetoric shifted into the courtly and religious applications. Augustine exerted strong influence on Christian rhetoric in the Middle Ages, advocating the use of rhetoric to lead audiences to truth and understanding, especially in the church. The study of liberal arts, he believed, contributed to rhetorical study: "In the case of a keen and ardent nature, fine words will come more readily through reading and hearing the eloquent than by pursuing the rules of rhetoric." [22] Poetry and letter writing, for instance, became a central component of rhetorical study during the Middle Ages. [23] After the fall of the Republic in Rome, poetry became a tool for rhetorical training since there were fewer opportunities for political speech. [24] Letter writing was the primary form through which business was conducted both in state and church, so it became an important aspect of rhetorical education. [25]Rhetorical education became more restrained as style and substance separated in 16th-century France with Peter Ramus, and attention turned to the scientific method. That is, influential scholars like Ramus argued that the processes of invention and arrangement should be elevated to the domain of philosophy, while rhetorical instruction should be chiefly concerned with the use of figures and other forms of the ornamentation of language. Scholars such as Francis Bacon developed the study of "scientific rhetoric." [26] This concentration rejected the elaborate style characteristic of the classical oration. This plain language carried over to John Locke 's teaching, which emphasized concrete knowledge and steered away from ornamentation in speech, further alienating rhetorical instruction, which was identified wholly with this ornamentation, from the pursuit of knowledge. In the 18th century, rhetoric assumed a more social role, initiating the creation of new education systems. " Elocution schools" arose (predominantly in England) in which females analyzed classic literature, most notably the works of William Shakespeare, and discussed pronunciation tactics. [27]The study of rhetoric underwent a revival with the rise of democratic institutions during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Scotland's author and theorist Hugh Blair served as a key leader of this movement during the late 18th century. In his most famous work "Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres", he advocates rhetorical study for common citizens as a resource for social success. Many American colleges and secondary schools used Blair's text throughout the 19th century to train students of rhetoric. [28]Political rhetoric also underwent renewal in the wake of the US and French revolutions. The rhetorical studies of ancient Greece and Rome were resurrected in the studies of the era as speakers and teachers looked to Cicero and others to inspire defense of the new republic. Leading rhetorical theorists included John Quincy Adams of Harvard who advocated the democratic advancement of rhetorical art. Harvard's founding of the Boylston Professorship of Rhetoric and Oratory sparked the growth of rhetorical study in colleges across the United States. [25] Harvard's rhetoric program drew inspiration from literary sources to guide organization and style. Recently, there have been studies conducted examining the rhetoric used in political speech acts to illustrate how political figures will persuade audiences for their own purposes. [29] [30]Debate clubs and lyceums also developed as forums in which common citizens could hear speakers and sharpen debate skills. The American lyceum in particular was seen as both an educational and social institution, featuring group discussions and guest lecturers. [31] These programs cultivated democratic values and promoted active participation in political analysis. Throughout the 20th century, rhetoric developed as a concentrated field of study with the establishment of rhetorical courses in high schools and universities. Courses such as public speaking and speech analysis apply fundamental Greek theories (such as the modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos) as well as trace rhetorical development throughout the course of history. Rhetoric has earned a more esteemed reputation as a field of study with the emergence of Communication Studies departments as well as Rhetoric and Composition programs within English departments in universities and in conjunction with the linguistic turn. Rhetorical study has broadened in scope, and is especially utilized by the fields of marketing, politics, and literature. Rhetoric, as an area of study, is concerned with how humans use symbols, especially language, to reach agreement that permits coordinated effort of some sort. [32] Harvard University, the first university in the United States, based on the European model, taught a basic curriculum, including rhetoric. Rhetoric, in this sense, how to properly give speeches, played an important role in their training. Rhetoric was soon taught in departments of English as well. [33]Knowledge [ edit]The relationship between rhetoric and knowledge is an old and interesting philosophical problem, partly because of our different assumptions on the nature of knowledge. But it is fairly clear that while knowledge is primarily concerned with what is commonly known as "truth", rhetoric is primarily concerned with statements and their effects on the audience. The word "rhetoric" may also refer to "empty speak", which reflects an indifference to truth, and in this sense rhetoric is adversarial to knowledge. Plato famously criticized the Sophists for their rhetoric which had persuaded people to sentence his friend Socrates to death regardless of what was true. However, rhetoric is also used in the construction of true arguments, or in identifying what is relevant, the crux of the matter, in a selection of true but otherwise trivial statements. Hence, rhetoric is also closely related to knowledge. Eloquentia Perfecta [ edit]Eloquentia Perfecta is a Jesuit rhetoric that revolves around cultivating a person as a whole, as one learns to speak and write for the common good. History [ edit]Rhetoric has its origins in Mesopotamia. [34] Some of the earliest examples of rhetoric can be found in the Akkadian writings of the princess and priestess Enheduanna (c. 2285–2250 BC, [35] while later examples can be found in the Neo-Assyrian Empire during the time of Sennacherib (704–681 BC). [36] In ancient Egypt, rhetoric had existed since at least the Middle Kingdom period (c. 2080–1640 BC). The Egyptians held eloquent speaking in high esteem, and it was a skill that had a very high value in their society. The "Egyptian rules of rhetoric" also clearly specified that "knowing when not to speak is essential, and very respected, rhetorical knowledge." Their "approach to rhetoric" was thus a "balance between eloquence and wise silence." Their rules of speech also strongly emphasized "adherence to social behaviors that support a conservative status quo" and they held that "skilled speech should support, not question, society." [37] In ancient China, rhetoric dates back to the Chinese philosopher, Confucius (551–479 BC), and continued with later followers. The tradition of Confucianism emphasized the use of eloquence in speaking. [38] The use of rhetoric can also be found in the ancient Biblical tradition. [39]In ancient Greece, the earliest mention of oratorical skill occurs in Homer 's Iliad, where heroes like Achilles, Hector, and Odysseus were honored for their ability to advise and exhort their peers and followers (the Laos or army) in wise and appropriate action. With the rise of the democratic polis, speaking skill was adapted to the needs of the public and political life of cities in ancient Greece, much of which revolved around the use of oratory as the medium through which political and judicial decisions were made, and through which philosophical ideas were developed and disseminated. For modern students today, it can be difficult to remember that the wide use and availability of written texts is a phenomenon that was just coming into vogue in Classical Greece. In Classical times, many of the great thinkers and political leaders performed their works before an audience, usually in the context of a competition or contest for fame, political influence, and cultural capital; in fact, many of them are known only through the texts that their students, followers, or detractors wrote down. As has already been noted, rhetor was the Greek term for orator: A rhetor was a citizen who regularly addressed juries and political assemblies and who was thus understood to have gained some knowledge about public speaking in the process, though in general facility with language was often referred to as logôn techne, "skill with arguments" or "verbal artistry." [40]Rhetoric thus evolved as an important art, one that provided the orator with the forms, means, and strategies for persuading an audience of the correctness of the orator's arguments. Today the term rhetoric can be used at times to refer only to the form of argumentation, often with the pejorative connotation that rhetoric is a means of obscuring the truth. Classical philosophers believed quite the contrary: the skilled use of rhetoric was essential to the discovery of truths, because it provided the means of ordering and clarifying arguments. Sophists [ edit]Main article: Sophists In Europe, organized thought about public speaking began in ancient Greece. [41] Possibly, the first study about the power of language may be attributed to the philosopher Empedocles (d. c. 444 BC), whose theories on human knowledge would provide a basis for many future rhetoricians. The first written manual is attributed to Corax and his pupil Tisias. Their work, as well as that of many of the early rhetoricians, grew out of the courts of law; Tisias, for example, is believed to have written judicial speeches that others delivered in the courts. Teaching in oratory was popularized in the 5th century BC by itinerant teachers known as sophists, the best known of whom were Protagoras (c. 481–420 BC), Gorgias (c. 483–376 BC), and Isocrates (436–338 BC). The Sophists were a disparate group who travelled from city to city, teaching in public places to attract students and offer them an education. Their central focus was on logos or what we might broadly refer to as discourse, its functions and powers. They defined parts of speech, analyzed poetry, parsed close synonyms, invented argumentation strategies, and debated the nature of reality. They claimed to make their students "better," or, in other words, to teach virtue. They thus claimed that human "excellence" was not an accident of fate or a prerogative of noble birth, but an art or " techne " that could be taught and learned. They were thus among the first humanists. Several sophists also questioned received wisdom about the gods and the Greek culture, which they believed was taken for granted by Greeks of their time, making them among the first agnostics. For example, they argued that cultural practices were a function of convention or nomos rather than blood or birth or phusis. They argued even further that morality or immorality of any action could not be judged outside of the cultural context within which it occurred. The well-known phrase, "Man is the measure of all things" arises from this belief. One of their most famous, and infamous, doctrines has to do with probability and counter arguments. They taught that every argument could be countered with an opposing argument, that an argument's effectiveness derived from how "likely" it appeared to the audience (its probability of seeming true), and that any probability argument could be countered with an inverted probability argument. Thus, if it seemed likely that a strong, poor man were guilty of robbing a rich, weak man, the strong poor man could argue, on the contrary, that this very likelihood (that he would be a suspect) makes it unlikely that he committed the crime, since he would most likely be apprehended for the crime. They also taught and were known for their ability to make the weaker (or worse) argument the stronger (or better). Aristophanes famously parodies the clever inversions that sophists were known for in his play The Clouds. The word "sophistry" developed strong negative connotations in ancient Greece that continue today, but in ancient Greece sophists were nevertheless popular and well-paid professionals, widely respected for their abilities but also widely criticized for their excesses. Isocrates [ edit]Main article: Isocrates Isocrates (436–338 BC), like the sophists, taught public speaking as a means of human improvement, but he worked to distinguish himself from the Sophists, whom he saw as claiming far more than they could deliver. He suggested that while an art of virtue or excellence did exist, it was only one piece, and the least, in a process of self-improvement that relied much more heavily on native talent and desire, constant practice, and the imitation of good models. Isocrates believed that practice in speaking publicly about noble themes and important questions would function to improve the character of both speaker and audience while also offering the best service to a city. In fact, Isocrates was an outspoken champion of rhetoric as a mode of civic engagement. [42] He thus wrote his speeches as "models" for his students to imitate in the same way that poets might imitate Homer or Hesiod, seeking to inspire in them a desire to attain fame through civic leadership. His was the first permanent school in Athens and it is likely that Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum were founded in part as a response to Isocrates. Though he left no handbooks, his speeches ( "Antidosis" and "Against the Sophists" are most relevant to students of rhetoric) became models of oratory (he was one of the canonical " Ten Attic Orators ") and keys to his entire educational program. He had a marked influence on Cicero and Quintilian, and through them, on the entire educational system of the west. Plato [ edit]Main articles: Plato and Platonism Plato (427–347 BC) famously outlined the differences between true and false rhetoric in a number of dialogues; particularly the Gorgias and Phaedrus dialogues wherein Plato disputes the sophistic notion that the art of persuasion (the sophists' art, which he calls "rhetoric"), can exist independent of the art of dialectic. Plato claims that since sophists appeal only to what seems probable, they are not advancing their students and audiences, but simply flattering them with what they want to hear. While Plato's condemnation of rhetoric is clear in the Gorgias, in the Phaedrus he suggests the possibility of a true art wherein rhetoric is based upon the knowledge produced by dialectic, and relies on a dialectically informed rhetoric to appeal to the main character, Phaedrus, to take up philosophy. Thus Plato's rhetoric is actually dialectic (or philosophy) "turned" toward those who are not yet philosophers and are thus unready to pursue dialectic directly. Plato's animosity against rhetoric, and against the sophists, derives not only from their inflated claims to teach virtue and their reliance on appearances, but from the fact that his teacher, Socrates, was sentenced to death after sophists' efforts. Aristotle [ edit]This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2013) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main article: Rhetoric (Aristotle)A marble bust of Aristotle Aristotle (384–322 BC) was a student of Plato who famously set forth an extended treatise on rhetoric that still repays careful study today. In the first sentence of The Art of Rhetoric, Aristotle says that "rhetoric is the counterpart [literally, the antistrophe] of dialectic." [43] As the "antistrophe" of a Greek ode responds to and is patterned after the structure of the " strophe " (they form two sections of the whole and are sung by two parts of the chorus), so the art of rhetoric follows and is structurally patterned after the art of dialectic because both are arts of discourse production. Thus, while dialectical methods are necessary to find truth in theoretical matters, rhetorical methods are required in practical matters such as adjudicating somebody's guilt or innocence when charged in a court of law, or adjudicating a prudent course of action to be taken in a deliberative assembly. The core features of dialectic include the absence of determined subject matter, its elaboration on earlier empirical practice, the explication of its aims, the type of utility and the definition of the proper function. For Plato and Aristotle, dialectic involves persuasion, so when Aristotle says that rhetoric is the antistrophe of dialectic, he means that rhetoric as he uses the term has a domain or scope of application that is parallel to, but different from, the domain or scope of application of dialectic. In Nietzsche Humanist (1998: 129), Claude Pavur explains that " [t]he Greek prefix 'anti' does not merely designate opposition, but it can also mean 'in place of.'" When Aristotle characterizes rhetoric as the antistrophe of dialectic, he no doubt means that rhetoric is used in place of dialectic when we are discussing civic issues in a court of law or in a legislative assembly. The domain of rhetoric is civic affairs and practical decision making in civic affairs, not theoretical considerations of operational definitions of terms and clarification of thought. These, for him, are in the domain of dialectic. Aristotle's treatise on rhetoric systematically describes civic rhetoric as a human art or skill (techne). It is more of an objective theory than it is an interpretive theory with a rhetorical tradition. Aristotle's art of rhetoric emphasizes persuasion as the purpose of rhetoric. His definition of rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion," essentially a mode of discovery, limits the art to the inventional process, and Aristotle heavily emphasizes the logical aspect of this process. In his account, rhetoric is the art of discovering all available means of persuasion. A speaker supports the probability of a message by logical, ethical, and emotional proofs. Some form of logos, ethos, and pathos is present in every possible public presentation that exists. But the treatise in fact also discusses not only elements of style and (briefly) delivery, but also emotional appeals (pathos) and characterological appeals (ethos). Aristotle identifies three steps or "offices" of rhetoric—invention, arrangement, and style—and three different types of rhetorical proof: ethos (Aristotle's theory of character and how the character and credibility of a speaker can influence an audience to consider him/her to be believable—there being three qualities that contribute to a credible ethos: perceived intelligence, virtuous character, and goodwill); [44] pathos (the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification, storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience. ); and, logos (the use of reasoning, either inductive or deductive, to construct an argument). Aristotle emphasized enthymematic reasoning as central to the process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An "enthymeme" would follow today's form of a syllogism; however it would exclude either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience is providing the missing premise. Because the audience is able to provide the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message. Aristotle identified three different types or genres of civic rhetoric. Forensic (also known as judicial), was concerned with determining the truth or falseness of events that took place in the past and issues of guilt. An example of forensic rhetoric would be in a courtroom. Deliberative (also known as political), was concerned with determining whether or not particular actions should or should not be taken in the future. Making laws would be an example of deliberative rhetoric. Epideictic (also known as ceremonial), was concerned with praise and blame, values, right and wrong, demonstrating beauty and skill in the present. Examples of epideictic rhetoric would include a eulogy or a wedding toast. Canons [ edit]The Five Canons of Rhetoric serve as a guide to creating persuasive messages and arguments. These are invention (the process of developing arguments); style (determining how to present the arguments); arrangement (organizing the arguments for extreme effect); delivery (the gestures, pronunciation, tone and pace used when presenting the persuasive arguments); and memory (the process of learning and memorizing the speech and persuasive messages.) [45]In the rhetoric field, there is an intellectual debate about Aristotle's definition of rhetoric. Some believe that Aristotle defines rhetoric in On Rhetoric as the art of persuasion, while others think he defines it as the art of judgment. Rhetoric as the art of judgment would mean the rhetor discerns the available means of persuasion with a choice. Aristotle also says rhetoric is concerned with judgment because the audience judges the rhetor's ethos. One of the most famous of Aristotelian doctrines was the idea of topics (also referred to as common topics or commonplaces). Though the term had a wide range of application (as a memory technique or compositional exercise, for example) it most often referred to the "seats of argument"—the list of categories of thought or modes of reasoning—that a speaker could use to generate arguments or proofs. The topics were thus a heuristic or inventional tool designed to help speakers categorize and thus better retain and apply frequently used types of argument. For example, since we often see effects as "like" their causes, one way to invent an argument (about a future effect) is by discussing the cause (which it will be "like"). This and other rhetorical topics derive from Aristotle's belief that there are certain predictable ways in which humans (particularly non-specialists) draw conclusions from premises. Based upon and adapted from his dialectical Topics, the rhetorical topics became a central feature of later rhetorical theorizing, most famously in Cicero's work of that name. Cicero [ edit]Main articles: Cicero, Asiatic style, De Inventione, De Oratore, Brutus (Cicero), De Optimo Genere Oratorum, and De Partitionibus Oratoriae Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero For the Romans, oration became an important part of public life. Cicero (106–43 BC) was chief among Roman rhetoricians and remains the best known ancient orator and the only orator who both spoke in public and produced treatises on the subject. Rhetorica ad Herennium, formerly attributed to Cicero but now considered to be of unknown authorship, is one of the most significant works on rhetoric and is still widely used as a reference today. It is an extensive reference on the use of rhetoric, and in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, it achieved wide publication as an advanced school text on rhetoric. Cicero is considered one of the most significant rhetoricians of all time, charting a middle path between the competing Attic and Asiatic styles to become considered second only to Demosthenes among history's orators. [46] His works include the early and very influential De Inventione (On Invention, often read alongside the Ad Herennium as the two basic texts of rhetorical theory throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance), De Oratore (a fuller statement of rhetorical principles in dialogue form), Topics (a rhetorical treatment of common topics, highly influential through the Renaissance), Brutus (Cicero) (a discussion of famous orators) and Orator (a defense of Cicero's style). Cicero also left a large body of speeches and letters which would establish the outlines of Latin eloquence and style for generations to come. It was the rediscovery of Cicero's speeches (such as the defense of Archias) and letters (to Atticus) by Italians like Petrarch that, in part, ignited the cultural innovations that we know as the Renaissance. He championed the learning of Greek (and Greek rhetoric), contributed to Roman ethics, linguistics, philosophy, and politics, and emphasized the importance of all forms of appeal (emotion, humor, stylistic range, irony and digression in addition to pure reasoning) in oratory. But perhaps his most significant contribution to subsequent rhetoric, and education in general, was his argument that orators learn not only about the specifics of their case (the hypothesis) but also about the general questions from which they derived (the theses ). Thus, in giving a speech in defense of a poet whose Roman citizenship had been questioned, the orator should examine not only the specifics of that poet's civic status, he should also examine the role and value of poetry and of literature more generally in Roman culture and political life. The orator, said Cicero, needed to be knowledgeable about all areas of human life and culture, including law, politics, history, literature, ethics, warfare, medicine, even arithmetic and geometry. Cicero gave rise to the idea that the "ideal orator" be well-versed in all branches of learning: an idea that was rendered as "liberal humanism," and that lives on today in liberal arts or general education requirements in colleges and universities around the world. Quintilian [ edit]This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Main articles: Quintilian and Byzantine rhetoric Quintilian (35–100 CE) began his career as a pleader in the courts of law; his reputation grew so great that Vespasian created a chair of rhetoric for him in Rome. The culmination of his life's work was the Institutio Oratoria ( Institutes of Oratory, or alternatively, The Orator's Education ), a lengthy treatise on the training of the orator, in which he discusses the training of the "perfect" orator from birth to old age and, in the process, reviews the doctrines and opinions of many influential rhetoricians who preceded him. In the Institutes, Quintilian organizes rhetorical study through the stages of education that an aspiring orator would undergo, beginning with the selection of a nurse. Aspects of elementary education (training in reading and writing, grammar, and literary criticism) are followed by preliminary rhetorical exercises in composition (the progymnasmata) that include maxims and fables, narratives and comparisons, and finally full legal or political speeches. The delivery of speeches within the context of education or for entertainment purposes became widespread and popular under the term "declamation." Rhetorical training proper was categorized under five canons that would persist for centuries in academic circles: Inventio (invention) is the process that leads to the development and refinement of an argument. Once arguments are developed, dispositio (disposition, or arrangement) is used to determine how it should be organized for greatest effect, usually beginning with the exordium. Once the speech content is known and the structure is determined, the next steps involve elocutio (style) and pronuntiatio (presentation). Memoria (memory) comes to play as the speaker recalls each of these elements during the speech. Actio (delivery) is the final step as the speech is presented in a gracious and pleasing way to the audience – the Grand Style. This work was available only in fragments in medieval times, but the discovery of a complete copy at the Abbey of St. Gall in 1416 led to its emergence as one of the most influential works on rhetoric during the Renaissance. Quintilian's work describes not just the art of rhetoric, but the formation of the perfect orator as a politically active, virtuous, publicly minded citizen. His emphasis was on the ethical application of rhetorical training, in part a reaction against the growing tendency in Roman schools toward standardization of themes and techniques. At the same time that rhetoric was becoming divorced from political decision making, rhetoric rose as a culturally vibrant and important mode of entertainment and cultural criticism in a movement known as the "second sophistic," a development that gave rise to the charge (made by Quintilian and others) that teachers were emphasizing style over substance in rhetoric. Medieval to Enlightenment [ edit]After the breakup of the western Roman Empire, the study of rhetoric continued to be central to the study of the verbal arts; but the study of the verbal arts went into decline for several centuries, followed eventually by a gradual rise in formal education, culminating in the rise of medieval universities. But rhetoric transmuted during this period into the arts of letter writing ( ars dictaminis) and sermon writing ( ars praedicandi ). As part of the trivium, rhetoric was secondary to the study of logic, and its study was highly scholastic: students were given repetitive exercises in the creation of discourses on historical subjects ( suasoriae) or on classic legal questions ( controversiae ). Although he is not commonly regarded as a rhetorician, St. Augustine (354–430) was trained in rhetoric and was at one time a professor of Latin rhetoric in Milan. After his conversion to Christianity, he became interested in using these " pagan " arts for spreading his religion. This new use of rhetoric is explored in the Fourth Book of his De Doctrina Christiana, which laid the foundation of what would become homiletics, the rhetoric of the sermon. Augustine begins the book by asking why "the power of eloquence, which is so efficacious in pleading either for the erroneous cause or the right", should not be used for righteous purposes (IV. 3). One early concern of the medieval Christian church was its attitude to classical rhetoric itself. Jerome (d. 420) complained, "What has Horace to do with the Psalms, Virgil with the Gospels, Cicero with the Apostles?" Augustine is also remembered for arguing for the preservation of pagan works and fostering a church tradition that led to conservation of numerous pre-Christian rhetorical writings. Rhetoric would not regain its classical heights until the Renaissance, but new writings did advance rhetorical thought. Boethius (480?–524), in his brief Overview of the Structure of Rhetoric, continues Aristotle's taxonomy by placing rhetoric in subordination to philosophical argument or dialectic. [47] The introduction of Arab scholarship from European relations with the Muslim empire (in particular Al-Andalus) renewed interest in Aristotle and Classical thought in general, leading to what some historians call the 12th century Renaissance. A number of medieval grammars and studies of poetry and rhetoric appeared. Late medieval rhetorical writings include those of St. Thomas Aquinas (1225?–1274), Matthew of Vendome ( Ars Versificatoria, 1175? ), and Geoffrey of Vinsauf ( Poetria Nova, 1200–1216). Pre-modern female rhetoricians, outside of Socrates' friend Aspasia, are rare; but medieval rhetoric produced by women either in religious orders, such as Julian of Norwich (d. 1415), or the very well-connected Christine de Pizan (1364?–1430? ), did occur if not always recorded in writing. In his 1943 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation in English, Canadian Marshall Mc Luhan (1911–1980) surveys the verbal arts from approximately the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe (1567–1600?). [48] His dissertation is still noteworthy for undertaking to study the history of the verbal arts together as the trivium, even though the developments that he surveys have been studied in greater detail since he undertook his study. As noted below, Mc Luhan became one of the most widely publicized thinkers in the 20th century, so it is important to note his scholarly roots in the study of the history of rhetoric and dialectic. Another interesting record of medieval rhetorical thought can be seen in the many animal debate poems popular in England and the continent during the Middle Ages, such as The Owl and the Nightingale (13th century) and Geoffrey Chaucer 's Parliament of Fowls (1382?). Sixteenth century [ edit]Walter J. Ong's article "Humanism" in the 1967 New Catholic Encyclopedia surveys Renaissance humanism, which defined itself broadly as disfavoring medieval scholastic logic and dialectic and as favoring instead the study of classical Latin style and grammar and philology and rhetoric. (Reprinted in Ong's Faith and Contexts (Scholars Press, 1999; 4: 69–91. ))Portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam One influential figure in the rebirth of interest in classical rhetoric was Erasmus (c. 1466–1536). His 1512 work, De Duplici Copia Verborum et Rerum (also known as Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style ), was widely published (it went through more than 150 editions throughout Europe) and became one of the basic school texts on the subject. Its treatment of rhetoric is less comprehensive than the classic works of antiquity, but provides a traditional treatment of res-verba (matter and form): its first book treats the subject of elocutio, showing the student how to use schemes and tropes; the second book covers inventio. Much of the emphasis is on abundance of variation ( copia means "plenty" or "abundance", as in copious or cornucopia), so both books focus on ways to introduce the maximum amount of variety into discourse. For instance, in one section of the De Copia, Erasmus presents two hundred variations of the sentence "Semper, dum vivam, tui meminero." Another of his works, the extremely popular The Praise of Folly, also had considerable influence on the teaching of rhetoric in the later 16th century. Its orations in favour of qualities such as madness spawned a type of exercise popular in Elizabethan grammar schools, later called adoxography, which required pupils to compose passages in praise of useless things. Juan Luis Vives (1492–1540) also helped shape the study of rhetoric in England. A Spaniard, he was appointed in 1523 to the Lectureship of Rhetoric at Oxford by Cardinal Wolsey, and was entrusted by Henry VIII to be one of the tutors of Mary. Vives fell into disfavor when Henry VIII divorced Catherine of Aragon and left England in 1528. His best-known work was a book on education, De Disciplinis, published in 1531, and his writings on rhetoric included Rhetoricae, sive De Ratione Dicendi, Libri Tres (1533), De Consultatione (1533), and a rhetoric on letter writing, De Conscribendis Epistolas (1536). It is likely that many well-known English writers were exposed to the works of Erasmus and Vives (as well as those of the Classical rhetoricians) in their schooling, which was conducted in Latin (not English) and often included some study of Greek and placed considerable emphasis on rhetoric. See, for example, T. W. Baldwin's William Shakspere's Small Latine and Lesse Greeke, 2 vols. (University of Illinois Press, 1944). The mid-16th century saw the rise of vernacular rhetorics—those written in English rather than in the Classical languages; adoption of works in English was slow, however, due to the strong orientation toward Latin and Greek. Leonard Cox 's The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke (c. 1524–1530; second edition published in 1532) is considered to be the earliest text on rhetorics in English; it was, for the most part, a translation of the work of Philipp Melanchthon. [49] A successful early text was Thomas Wilson 's The Arte of Rhetorique (1553), which presents a traditional treatment of rhetoric. For instance, Wilson presents the five canons of rhetoric (Invention, Disposition, Elocutio, Memoria, and Utterance or Actio ). Other notable works included Angel Day's The English Secretorie (1586, 1592), George Puttenham 's The Arte of English Poesie (1589), and Richard Rainholde 's Foundacion of Rhetorike (1563). During this same period, a movement began that would change the organization of the school curriculum in Protestant and especially Puritan circles and led to rhetoric losing its central place. A French scholar, Pierre de la Ramée, in Latin Petrus Ramus (1515–1572), dissatisfied with what he saw as the overly broad and redundant organization of the trivium, proposed a new curriculum. In his scheme of things, the five components of rhetoric no longer lived under the common heading of rhetoric. Instead, invention and disposition were determined to fall exclusively under the heading of dialectic, while style, delivery, and memory were all that remained for rhetoric. See Walter J. Ong, Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue: From the Art of Discourse to the Art of Reason (Harvard University Press, 1958; reissued by the University of Chicago Press, 2004, with a new foreword by Adrian Johns). Ramus was martyred during the French Wars of Religion. His teachings, seen as inimical to Catholicism, were short-lived in France but found a fertile ground in the Netherlands, Germany and England. [50]One of Ramus' French followers, Audomarus Talaeus (Omer Talon) published his rhetoric, Institutiones Oratoriae, in 1544. This work provided a simple presentation of rhetoric that emphasized the treatment of style, and became so popular that it was mentioned in John Brinsley 's (1612) Ludus literarius; or The Grammar Schoole as being the "most used in the best schooles." Many other Ramist rhetorics followed in the next half-century, and by the 17th century, their approach became the primary method of teaching rhetoric in Protestant and especially Puritan circles. [51] John Milton (1608–1674) wrote a textbook in logic or dialectic in Latin based on Ramus' work. [52]Ramism could not exert any influence on the established Catholic schools and universities, which remained loyal to Scholasticism, or on the new Catholic schools and universities founded by members of the religious orders known as the Society of Jesus or the Oratorians, as can be seen in the Jesuit curriculum (in use right up to the 19th century, across the Christian world) known as the Ratio Studiorum (that Claude Pavur, S. J., has recently translated into English, with the Latin text in the parallel column on each page (St. Louis: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 2005)). If the influence of Cicero and Quintilian permeates the Ratio Studiorum, it is through the lenses of devotion and the militancy of the Counter-Reformation. The Ratio was indeed imbued with a sense of the divine, of the incarnate logos, that is of rhetoric as an eloquent and humane means to reach further devotion and further action in the Christian city, which was absent from Ramist formalism. The Ratio is, in rhetoric, the answer to St Ignatius Loyola's practice, in devotion, of "spiritual exercises." This complex oratorical-prayer system is absent from Ramism. Seventeenth century [ edit]In New England and at Harvard College (founded 1636), Ramus and his followers dominated, as Perry Miller shows in The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (Harvard University Press, 1939). However, in England, several writers influenced the course of rhetoric during the 17th century, many of them carrying forward the dichotomy that had been set forth by Ramus and his followers during the preceding decades. Of greater importance is that this century saw the development of a modern, vernacular style that looked to English, rather than to Greek, Latin, or French models. Francis Bacon (1561–1626), although not a rhetorician, contributed to the field in his writings. One of the concerns of the age was to find a suitable style for the discussion of scientific topics, which needed above all a clear exposition of facts and arguments, rather than the ornate style favored at the time. Bacon in his The Advancement of Learning criticized those who are preoccupied with style rather than "the weight of matter, worth of subject, soundness of argument, life of invention, or depth of judgment." On matters of style, he proposed that the style conform to the subject matter and to the audience, that simple words be employed whenever possible, and that the style should be agreeable. [53]Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) also wrote on rhetoric. Along with a shortened translation of Aristotle 's Rhetoric, Hobbes also produced a number of other works on the subject. Sharply contrarian on many subjects, Hobbes, like Bacon, also promoted a simpler and more natural style that used figures of speech sparingly. Perhaps the most influential development in English style came out of the work of the Royal Society (founded in 1660), which in 1664 set up a committee to improve the English language. Among the committee's members were John Evelyn (1620–1706), Thomas Sprat (1635–1713), and John Dryden (1631–1700). Sprat regarded "fine speaking" as a disease, and thought that a proper style should "reject all amplifications, digressions, and swellings of style" and instead "return back to a primitive purity and shortness" ( History of the Royal Society, 1667). While the work of this committee never went beyond planning, John Dryden is often credited with creating and exemplifying a new and modern English style. His central tenet was that the style should be proper "to the occasion, the subject, and the persons." As such, he advocated the use of English words whenever possible instead of foreign ones, as well as vernacular, rather than Latinate, syntax. His own prose (and his poetry) became exemplars of this new style. Eighteenth century [ edit]Arguably one of the most influential schools of rhetoric during this time was Scottish Belletristic rhetoric, exemplified by such professors of rhetoric as Hugh Blair whose Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres saw international success in various editions and translations. Modern [ edit]At the turn of the 20th century, there was a revival of rhetorical study manifested in the establishment of departments of rhetoric and speech at academic institutions, as well as the formation of national and international professional organizations. [54] Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew King suggest that the early interest in rhetorical studies was a movement away from elocution as taught in departments of English in the United States, and was an attempt to refocus rhetorical studies away from delivery only to civic engagement. Collectively, they write, twentieth century rhetorical studies offered an understanding of rhetoric that demonstrated a "rich complexity" of how rhetorical scholars understood the nature of rhetoric. [55] Theorists generally agree that by the 1930s a significant reason for the revival of the study of rhetoric was the renewed importance of language and persuasion in the increasingly mediated environment of the 20th century (see Linguistic turn) and through the 21st century, with the media focus on the wide variations and analyses of political rhetoric and its consequences. The rise of advertising and of mass media such as photography, telegraphy, radio, and film brought rhetoric more prominently into people's lives. More recently the term rhetoric has been applied to media forms other than verbal language, e.g. Visual rhetoric. Notable modern theorists [ edit]Chaïm Perelman was a philosopher of law, who studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. He was among the most important argumentation theorists of the 20th century. His chief work is the Traité de l'argumentation – la nouvelle rhétorique (1958), with Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, which was translated into English as The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation, by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver (1969). Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca move rhetoric from the periphery to the center of argumentation theory. Among their most influential concepts are "dissociation," "the universal audience," "quasi-logical argument," and "presence. "Kenneth Burke was a rhetorical theorist, philosopher, and poet. Many of his works are central to modern rhetorical theory: A Rhetoric of Motives (1950), A Grammar of Motives (1945), Language as Symbolic Action (1966), and Counterstatement (1931). Among his influential concepts are "identification," "consubstantiality," and the "dramatistic pentad." He described rhetoric as "the use of language as a symbolic means of inducing cooperation in beings that by nature respond to symbols." [56] In relation to Aristotle's theory, Aristotle was more interested in constructing rhetoric, while Burke was interested in "debunking" it. Edwin Black was a rhetorical critic best known for his book Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method [57] (1965) in which he criticized the dominant "neo-Aristotelian" tradition in American rhetorical criticism as having little in common with Aristotle "besides some recurrent topics of discussion and a vaguely derivative view of rhetorical discourse." Furthermore, he contended, because rhetorical scholars had been focusing primarily on Aristotelian logical forms they often overlooked important, alternative types of discourse. He also published several highly influential essays including: "Secrecy and Disclosure as Rhetorical Forms", [58] "The Second Persona," [59] and "A Note on Theory and Practice in Rhetorical Criticism". [60]Marshall Mc Luhan was a media theorist whose theories and whose choice of objects of study are important to the study of rhetoric. Mc Luhan's famous dictum "the medium is the message" highlights the significance of the medium itself. No other scholar of the history and theory of rhetoric was as widely publicized in the 20th century as Mc Luhan. [61]I. A. Richards was a literary critic and rhetorician. His The Philosophy of Rhetoric is an important text in modern rhetorical theory. In this work, he defined rhetoric as "a study of misunderstandings and its remedies," [62] and introduced the influential concepts tenor and vehicle to describe the components of a metaphor—the main idea and the concept to which it is compared. [63]The Groupe µ. This interdisciplinary team has contributed to the renovation of the elocutio in the context of poetics and modern linguistics, significantly with Rhétorique générale (1970; translated into English as A General Rhetoric, by Paul B. Burrell et Edgar M. Slotkin, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981) and Rhétorique de la poésie (1977). Stephen Toulmin was a philosopher whose models of argumentation have had great influence on modern rhetorical theory. His Uses of Argument is an important text in modern rhetorical theory and argumentation theory. [64]Richard Vatz is a rhetorician responsible for the salience-agenda/meaning-spin conceptualization of rhetoric, later revised (2014) to an "agenda-spin" model, a conceptualization which emphasizes persuader responsibility for the agenda and spin he/she creates. His theory is notable for its agent-focused perspective, articulated in /The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion/ (Kendall Hunt), derived from the Summer, 1973 /Philosophy and Rhetoric/ article, "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation. "Richard M. Weaver was a rhetorical and cultural critic well known for his contributions to the new conservatism. He focused on the ethical implications of rhetoric and his ideas can be seen in "Language is Sermonic" and "The Ethics of Rhetoric." According to Weaver there are four types of argument, and through the argument a person habitually uses the critic can see the rhetorician's worldview. Those who prefer the argument from genus or definition are idealists. Those who argue from similitude see the connectedness between things and are used by poets and religious individuals. The argument from consequence sees a cause and effect relationship. Finally the argument from circumstance considers the particulars of a situation and is an argument preferred by liberals. Gloria Anzaldua was a "Mestiza" and "Borderland" rhetorician, as well as a Mexican-American poet and pioneer in the field of Chicana lesbian feminism. Mestiza and Borderland rhetoric focused on ones' formation of identity, disregarding societal and discourse labels. [65] With "Mestiza" rhetoric, one viewed the world as discovering one's "self" in others and others' "self" in you. Through this process, one accepted living in a world of contradictions and ambiguity. [65] Anzaldua learned to balance cultures, being Mexican in the eyes of the Anglo-majority and Indian in a Mexican culture. [65] Her other notable works include: Sinister Wisdom, [66] Borderlands/La Fronters: The New Mestiza, [67] and La Prieta. [68]Gertrude Buck was one of the prominent female rhetorical theorists who was also a composition educator. Her scholastic contributions such as "The present status of Rhetorical Theory" [69] to inspire the egalitarian status of hearers-speakers to achieve the goal of communication. Another piece that she edited with Newton Scott is "Brief English Grammar" which troubled the common prescriptive grammar. This book received a lot of praise and critiques for descriptive nature of social responsibility from non-mainstream beliefs. [70]Krista Ratcliffe is one of the prominent female rhetorical theorists. She wrote one of her influential models of "Rhetorical Listening: Identification, Gender, Whiteness.” In it, she theorizes many ways in which effect has to navigate the pitfalls of biases, ideological and cultural conditioning, and appropriation. She points out and recommends relentless engagement. In her Book, Ratcliffe seems to recommend [71] when she said that I would suggest that teachers should keep themselves open to hearing diverse layers in their students' texts that both challenge their biases and point to new textual possibilities. Methods of analysis [ edit]Criticism seen as a method [ edit]Rhetoric can be analyzed by a variety of methods and theories. One such method is criticism. When those using criticism analyze instances of rhetoric what they do is called rhetorical criticism (see section below). According to rhetorical critic Jim A. Kuypers, "The use of rhetoric is an art; as such, it does not lend itself well to scientific methods of analysis. Criticism is an art as well; as such, it is particularly well suited for examining rhetorical creations." [72] He asserts that criticism is a method of generating knowledge just as the scientific method is a method for generating knowledge: "The way the Sciences and the Humanities study the phenomena that surround us differ greatly in the amount of researcher personality allowed to influence the results of the study. For example, in the Sciences researchers purposefully adhere to a strict method (the scientific method). All scientific researchers are to use this same basic method, and successful experiments must be 100 percent replicable by others. The application of the scientific method may take numerous forms, but the overall method remains the same—and the personality of the researcher is excised from the actual study. In sharp contrast, criticism (one of many Humanistic methods of generating knowledge) actively involves the personality of the researcher. The very choices of what to study, and how and why to study a rhetorical artifact are heavily influenced by the personal qualities of the researcher. In criticism this is especially important since the personality of the critic considered an integral component of the study. Further personalizing criticism, we find that rhetorical critics use a variety of means when examining a particular rhetorical artifact, with some critics even developing their own unique perspective to better examine a rhetorical artifact." [72]Edwin Black (rhetorician) wrote on this point that, "Methods, then, admit of varying degrees of personality. And criticism, on the whole, is near the indeterminate, contingent, personal end of the methodological scale. In consequence of this placement, it is neither possible nor desirable for criticism to be fixed into a system, for critical techniques to be objectified, for critics to be interchangeable for purposes of [scientific] replication, or for rhetorical criticism to serve as the handmaiden of quasi-scientific theory. [The] idea is that critical method is too personally expressive to be systematized. [73]Jim A. Kuypers sums this idea of criticism as art in the following manner: "In short, criticism is an art, not a science. It is not a scientific method; it uses subjective methods of argument; it exists on its own, not in conjunction with other methods of generating knowledge (i.e., social scientific or scientific). [I]nsight and imagination top statistical applications when studying rhetorical action." [74]Observation on analytic method [ edit]There does not exist an analytic method that is widely recognized as "the" rhetorical method, partly because many in rhetorical study see rhetoric as merely produced by reality (see dissent from that view below). It is important to note that the object of rhetorical analysis is typically discourse, and therefore the principles of "rhetorical analysis" would be difficult to distinguish from those of " discourse analysis ." However, rhetorical analytic methods can also be applied to almost anything, including objects—a car, a castle, a computer, a comportment. Generally speaking, rhetorical analysis makes use of rhetorical concepts (ethos, logos, kairos, mediation, etc.) to describe the social or epistemological functions of the object of study. When the object of study happens to be some type of discourse (a speech, a poem, a joke, a newspaper article), the aim of rhetorical analysis is not simply to describe the claims and arguments advanced within the discourse, but (more important) to identify the specific semiotic strategies employed by the speaker to accomplish specific persuasive goals. Therefore, after a rhetorical analyst discovers a use of language that is particularly important in achieving persuasion, she typically moves onto the question of "How does it work?" That is, what effects does this particular use of rhetoric have on an audience, and how does that effect provide more clues as to the speaker's (or writer's) objectives? There are some scholars who do partial rhetorical analysis and defer judgments about rhetorical success. In other words, some analysts attempt to avoid the question of "Was this use of rhetoric successful [in accomplishing the aims of the speaker]?" To others, however, that is the preeminent point: is the rhetoric strategically effective and what did the rhetoric accomplish? This question allows a shift in focus from the speaker's objectives to the effects and functions of the rhetoric itself. Strategies [ edit]Rhetorical strategies are the efforts made by authors to persuade or inform their readers. Rhetorical strategies are employed by writers and refer to the different ways they can persuade the reader. According to Gray, there are various argument strategies used in writing. He describes four of these as argument from analogy, argument from absurdity, thought experiments, and inference to the best explanation. [75]Criticism [ edit]Modern rhetorical criticism explores the relationship between text and context; that is, how an instance of rhetoric relates to circumstances. Since the aim of rhetoric is to be persuasive, the level to which the rhetoric in question persuades its audience is what must be analyzed, and later criticized. In determining the extent to which a text is persuasive, one may explore the text's relationship with its audience, purpose, ethics, argument, evidence, arrangement, delivery, and style. [76] In his Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method, scholar Edwin Black states, "It is the task of criticism not to measure ... discourses dogmatically against some parochial standard of rationality but, allowing for the immeasurable wide range of human experience, to see them as they really are." [77] While the language "as they really are" is debatable, rhetorical critics explain texts and speeches by investigating their rhetorical situation, typically placing them in a framework of speaker/audience exchange. The antithetical view places the rhetor at the center of creating that which is considered the extant situation; i.e., the agenda and spin. [78]Additional theoretical approaches [ edit]Following the neo-Aristotelian approaches to criticism, scholars began to derive methods from other disciplines, such as history, philosophy, and the social sciences. [79] The importance of critics' personal judgment decreased in explicit coverage while the analytical dimension of criticism began to gain momentum. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, methodological pluralism replaced the singular neo-Aristotelian method. Methodological rhetorical criticism is typically done by deduction, where a broad method is used to examine a specific case of rhetoric. [80] These types include: Ideological criticism – critics engage rhetoric as it suggests the beliefs, values, assumptions, and interpretations held by the rhetor or the larger culture. Ideological criticism also treats ideology as an artifact of discourse, one that is embedded in key terms (called " ideographs ") as well as material resources and discursive embodiment. Cluster criticism – a method developed by Kenneth Burke that seeks to help the critic understand the rhetor's worldview. This means identifying terms that are 'clustered' around key symbols in the rhetorical artifact and the patterns in which they appear. Frame analysis – when used as rhetorical criticism, this theoretical perspective allows critics to look for how rhetors construct an interpretive lens in their discourse. In short, how they make certain facts more noticeable than others. It is particularly useful for analyzing products of the news media. Generic criticism – a method that assumes certain situations call for similar needs and expectations within the audience, therefore calling for certain types of rhetoric. It studies rhetoric in different times and locations, looking at similarities in the rhetorical situation and the rhetoric that responds to them. Examples include eulogies, inaugural addresses, and declarations of war. Narrative criticism – narratives help organize experiences in order to endow meaning to historical events and transformations. Narrative criticism focuses on the story itself and how the construction of the narrative directs the interpretation of the situation. By the mid-1980s, however, the study of rhetorical criticism began to move away from precise methodology towards conceptual issues. Conceptually driven criticism [81] operates more through abduction, according to scholar James Jasinski, who argues that this emerging type of criticism can be thought of as a back-and-forth between the text and the concepts, which are being explored at the same time. The concepts remain "works in progress," and understanding those terms develops through the analysis of a text. [82]Criticism is considered rhetorical when it focuses on the way some types of discourse react to situational exigencies—problems or demands—and constraints. This means that modern rhetorical criticism is based in how the rhetorical case or object persuades, defines, or constructs the audience. In modern terms, what can be considered rhetoric includes, but it is not limited to, speeches, scientific discourse, pamphlets, literary work, works of art, and pictures. Contemporary rhetorical criticism has maintained aspects of early neo-Aristotelian thinking through close reading, which attempts to explore the organization and stylistic structure of a rhetorical object. [83] Using close textual analysis means rhetorical critics use the tools of classical rhetoric and literary analysis to evaluate the style and strategy used to communicate the argument. Purpose of criticism [ edit]Rhetorical criticism serves several purposes or functions. First, rhetorical criticism hopes to help form or improve public taste. It helps educate audiences and develops them into better judges of rhetorical situations by reinforcing ideas of value, morality, and suitability. Rhetorical criticism can thus contribute to the audience's understanding of themselves and society. According to Jim A. Kuypers, a dual purpose for performing criticism should be primarily to enhance our appreciation and understanding. ' [W]e wish to enhance both our own and others' understanding of the rhetorical act; we wish to share our insights with others, and to enhance their appreciation of the rhetorical act. These are not hollow goals, but quality of life issues. By improving understanding and appreciation, the critic can offer new and potentially exciting ways for others to see the world. Through understanding we also produce knowledge about human communication; in theory this should help us to better govern our interactions with others.' Criticism is a humanizing activity in that it explores and highlights qualities that make us human." [84]French [ edit]Rhetoric was part of the curriculum in Jesuit and, to a lesser extent, Oratorian colleges until the French Revolution. For Jesuits, right from the foundation of the Society in France, rhetoric was an integral part of the training of young men toward taking up leadership positions in the Church and in State institutions, as Marc Fumaroli has shown it in his foundational Âge de l'éloquence (1980). The Oratorians, by contrast, reserved it a lesser place, in part due to the stress they placed on modern language acquisition and a more sensualist philosophy (like Bernard Lamy 's La Rhétorique ou l'Art de parler (1675), which is an excellent example of their approach). Nonetheless, in the 18th Century, rhetoric was the structure and crown of secondary education, with works such as Rollin's Treatise of Studies achieving a wide and enduring fame across the Continent. [85] Later, with Nicolas Boileau and François de Malherbe, rhetoric is the instrument of the clarity of the comment and speech ; the literature that ensues from it is named "Sublime". The main representative remains Rivarol. The French Revolution, however, turned this around. Philosophers such as Condorcet, who drafted the French revolutionary chart for a people's education under the rule of reason, dismissed rhetoric as an instrument of oppression in the hands of clerics in particular. The Revolution went as far as to suppress the Bar, arguing that forensic rhetoric did disservice to a rational system of justice, by allowing fallacies and emotions to come into play. Nonetheless, as later historians of the 19th century were keen to explain, the Revolution was a high moment of eloquence and rhetorical prowess, although set against a background of rejecting rhetoric. Under the First Empire and its wide-ranging educational reforms, imposed on or imitated across the Continent, rhetoric regained little ground. In fact, instructions to the newly founded Polytechnic School, tasked with training the scientific and technical elites, made it clear that written reporting was to supersede oral reporting. Rhetoric reentered secondary curriculum in fits and starts, but never regained the prominence it had enjoyed under the ancien régime, although the penultimate year of secondary education was known as the Class of Rhetoric. When manuals were redrafted in the mid-century, in particular after the 1848 Revolution to formulate a national curriculum, care was taken to distance their approach to rhetoric from that of the Church, which was seen as an agent of conservatism and reactionary politics. By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education (the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education). Rhetoric was then relegated to the study of literary figures of speech, a discipline later on taught as Stylistics within the French literature curriculum. More decisively, in 1890, a new standard written exercise superseded the rhetorical exercises of speech writing, letter writing and narration. The new genre, called dissertation, had been invented in 1866, for the purpose of rational argument in the philosophy class. Typically, in a dissertation, a question is asked, such as: "Is history a sign of humanity's freedom?" The structure of a dissertation consists in an introduction that elucidates the basic definitions involved in the question as set, followed by an argument or thesis, a counter-argument or antithesis, and a resolving argument or synthesis that is not a compromise between the former but the production of a new argument, ending with a conclusion that does not sum up the points but opens onto a new problem. Hegelianism influenced the dissertation design. It remains today the standard of writing in French humanities. By the beginning of the 20th century, rhetoric was fast losing the remains of its former importance, and eventually was taken out of the school curriculum altogether at the time of the Separation of State and Churches (1905). Part of the argument was that rhetoric remained the last element of irrationality, driven by religious arguments, in what was perceived as inimical to Republican education. The move, initiated in 1789, found its resolution in 1902 when rhetoric was expunged from all curricula. At the same time, Aristotelian rhetoric, owing to a revival of Thomistic philosophy initiated by Rome, regained ground in what was left of Catholic education in France, in particular at the prestigious Faculty of Theology of Paris, now a private entity. Yet, rhetoric vanished substantially from the French scene, educational or intellectual, for some 60 years.. In the early 1960s a change began to take place, as the word rhetoric and the body of knowledge it covers began to be used again, in a modest and almost secret manner. The new linguistic turn, through the rise of semiotics as well as of structural linguistics, brought to the fore a new interest in figures of speech as signs, the metaphor in particular (in the works of Roman Jakobson, Groupe µ, Michel Charles, Gérard Genette) while famed Structuralist Roland Barthes, a classicist by training, perceived how some basic elements of rhetoric could be of use in the study of narratives, fashion and ideology. Knowledge of rhetoric was so dim in the early 1970s that his short memoir on rhetoric was seen as highly innovative. Basic as it was, it did help rhetoric regain some currency in avant-garde circles. Psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, his contemporary, makes references to rhetoric, in particular to the Pre-Socratics. Philosopher Jacques Derrida wrote on Voice. At the same time, more profound work was taking place that eventually gave rise to the French school of rhetoric as it exists today. [86]This rhetorical revival took place on two fronts. [87] First, in 17th-century French studies, the mainstay of French literary education, awareness grew that rhetoric was necessary to push the limits of knowledge further, and also to provide an antidote to Structuralism and its denial of historicism in culture. This was the pioneering work of Marc Fumaroli who, building on the work of classicist and Neo-Latinist Alain Michel and French scholars such as Roger Zuber, published his famed Age de l'Eloquence (1980), was one of the founders of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric and was eventually elevated to a chair in rhetoric at the prestigious College de France. He is the editor in chief of a monumental History of Rhetoric in Modern Europe. [88] His disciples form the second generation, [89] with rhetoricians such as Françoise Waquet and Delphine Denis, both of the Sorbonne, or Philippe-Joseph Salazar ( fr: Philippe-Joseph Salazar on the French Wikipedia), until recently at Derrida's College international de philosophie, laureate of the Harry Oppenheimer prize and whose recent book on Hyperpolitique has attracted the French media's attention on a "re-appropriation of the means of production of persuasion". [90]Second, in the area of Classical studies, in the wake of Alain Michel, Latin scholars fostered a renewal in Cicero studies. They broke away from a pure literary reading of his orations, in an attempt to embed Cicero in European ethics. Meanwhile, among Greek scholars, the literary historian and philologist Jacques Bompaire, the philologist and philosopher E. Dupréel, and later the literature historian Jacqueline de Romilly pioneered new studies in the Sophists and the Second Sophistic. The second generation of Classicists, often trained in philosophy as well (following Heidegger and Derrida, mainly), built on their work, with authors such as Marcel Detienne (now at Johns Hopkins), Nicole Loraux, Medievalist and logician Alain De Libera (Geneva), [91] Ciceronian scholar Carlos Lévy (Sorbonne, Paris) and Barbara Cassin (Collége international de philosophie, Paris). [92] Sociologist of science Bruno Latour and economist Romain Laufer may also be considered part of, or close to this group. Also French philosophers specialized in Arabic commentaries on Aristotle's Rhetoric. [93]Links between the two strands—literary and philosophical—of the French school of rhetoric are strong and collaborative, and bear witness to the revival of rhetoric in France. [94] A recent issue of Philosophy & Rhetoric presents current writing in the field. [95]Animal rhetoric [ edit]Rhetoric is practiced by social animals in a variety of ways. For example, birds use song, various animals warn members of their species of danger, chimpanzees have the capacity to deceive through communicative keyboard systems, and deer stags compete for the attention of mates. While these might be understood as rhetorical actions (attempts at persuading through meaningful actions and utterances ), they can also be seen as rhetorical fundamentals shared by humans and animals. [96] The study of animal rhetoric has been described as biorhetorics. [97]The self-awareness required to practice rhetoric might be difficult to notice and acknowledge in some animals. However, some animals are capable of acknowledging themselves in a mirror, and therefore, they might be understood to be self-aware and engaged in rhetoric when practicing some form of language, and therefore, rhetoric. [98]Anthropocentrism plays a significant role in human-animal relationships, reflecting and perpetuating binaries in which humans are assumed to be beings that "have" extraordinary qualities while animals are regarded as beings that "lack" those qualities. This dualism is manifested through other forms as well, such as reason and sense, mind and body, ideal and phenomenon in which the first category of each pair ( reason, mind, and ideal) represents and belongs to only humans. By becoming aware of and overcoming these dualistic conceptions including the one between humans and animals, human knowledge of themselves and the world is expected to become more complete and holistic. [99] The relationship between humans and animals (as well as the rest of the natural world) is often defined by the human rhetorical act of naming and categorizing animals through scientific and folk labeling. The act of naming partially defines the rhetorical relationships between humans and animals, though both may be understood to engage in rhetoric beyond human naming and categorizing. [100]Contrary to the binary assumptions deriving from anthropocentrism, which regarded animals as creatures without extraordinarily qualities, it does exist some specific animals with a sort of phrónēsis which confers them capabilities to "learn and receive instruction" with rudimentary understanding of some significant signs. Those animals do practice deliberative, judicial, and epideictic rhetoric deploying ethos, logos, and pathos with gesture and preen, sing and growl. [101] Since animals offer models of rhetorical behavior and interaction that are physical, even instinctual, but perhaps no less artful, getting rid of our accustomed focus on verbal language and consciousness concepts will help people interested in rhetoric and communication matters promote human-animals' rhetoric. [102]See also [ edit]Artes liberales Casuistry Civic humanism Chironomia Composition studies Conversation theory Critical thinking Demagogy Digital rhetoric Discourse analysis Formal fallacy Figure of thought Glossary of rhetorical terms Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)Language and thought Multimodality New rhetoric Pedagogy Persuasion technology Phenomenology Psychological manipulation Propaganda Rhetoric of science Rhetoric of health and medicine Rhetorical operations Rhetorical reason Rogerian argument Rule of three Semiology Speechwriter Technical communication Miscellaneous terms Ad captandum Allusion Antimetabole Aphesis Apologue Aposiopesis Archaism Atticism Brachyology Cacophony Catachresis Chiasmus Circumlocution Climax Conceit Dynamic and formal equivalence Eloquence Enthymeme Euphemism Figure of speech Hendiadys Hysteron proteron Idiom Innuendo Ipse dixit Kenning Literary topos Mediation Merism Metanoia Negation Parable Paraphrase Paraprosdokian Pericope Period Perissologia Praeteritio Proverb Representation Rhetorical device Rhetorical stance Rhetorical velocity Soundbite Synchysis Synesis Synonymia Tautology Tertium comparationis Truism Word play Rhetoric portal Philosophy portal Psychology portal Political speech resources List of political slogans List of speeches Notes [ edit]^ See, e.g., Thomas Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition ( University of Chicago, 1991).^ "... rhetoric is a combination of the science of logic and of the ethical branch of politics ..." Aristotle. Rhetoric. (trans. W. Rhys Roberts). I:4:1359. Archived 16 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine . ; Aristotle, Rhetoric 1.2.1, "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2011.^ The definition of rhetoric is a controversial subject within the field and has given rise to philological battles over its meaning in Ancient Greece. See, for instance, Johnstone, Henry W. Jr. (1995). "On Schiappa versus Poulakos." Rhetoric Review. 14:2. (Spring), 438–40.^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhetorikos, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhetor, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Rhema, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ Perseus. Tufts.edu, Ero, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus^ John S. Nelson, Allan Megill, and Donald N. Mc Closkey The Rhetoric of Human Sciences: Language and Argument in Scholarship and Public Affairs, London: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987. ; "In the last ten years, many scholars have investigated exactly how rhetoric works within a particular field." Theodora Polito, " Educational Theory as Theory of Culture: A Vichian perspective on the educational theories of John Dewey and Kieran Egan " Educational Philosophy and Theory, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2005, doi: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2005.00136.x; Deirdre N. Mc Closkey (1985) " The Rhetoric of Economics "; JSTOR 2724987 (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press ); Nelson, J. S. (1998) Tropes of Politics (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press); Brown, R. H. (1987) Society as Text (Chicago, University of Chicago Press ).^ Rosamond Kent Sprague, ed., "The Older Sophists: A Complete Translations by Several Hands of the Fragments" in Die Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, Edited by Diels-Kranz (Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press, 1972), 50–54^ Plato, "Gorgias," The Classical Library^ Rapp, Christof. " Aristotle's Rhetoric – The Agenda of the Rhetoric ", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy^ George A. Kennedy, Aristotle, On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).^ Kenneth Burke, A Rhetoric of Motives, (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969).^ James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984).^ Michael Leff, "The Habitation of Rhetoric" in Contemporary Rhetorical Theory: A Reader, ed. John Louis Lucaites, et al. (New York: Guilford Press, 1993).^ Garver, Eugene. Aristotle's Rhetoric. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1994. Print.^ Hariman, Robert. Political Style: The Artistry of Power. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1995. Print.^ White, James B. When Words Lose Their Meaning. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1984. Print.^ Kennedy, George A. Classical Rhetoric & Its Christian and Secular Tradition. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1999.^ Vickers, Brian. "Deconstruction's Designs on Rhetoric." Rhetoric and Pedagogy: Its History, Philosophy, and Practice. Ed. Winifred Bryan Horner and Michael Leff. 295–315.^ cf. Conley, T. M. (1990) Rhetoric in the European Tradition. (University of Chicago Press. ; Kennedy, G. A., 1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press.^ "Rhetoric." Augnet. n.p., 2010. Web. 12 April 2010. Augnet.org Archived 12 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine.^ Prill, Paul E. "Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages." Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 129–47. doi: 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129. JSTOR 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129.^ Prill, Paul E. "Rhetoric and Poetics in the Early Middle Ages." Rhetorica 5.2 (1987): 131. doi: 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129. JSTOR 10.1525/rh.1987.5.2.129.^ a b "A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition." The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine.^ Zappen, James P. "Francis Bacon and the Historiography of Scientific Rhetoric." Rhetoric Review 8.1 (1989): 74–88. JSTOR 465682.^ Edwards, Paul C. "Elocution and Shakespeare: An Episode in the History of Literary Taste." Shakespeare Quarterly 35.3 (1984): 305–14. doi: 10.2307/2870367. JSTOR 2870367.^ "A Brief History of Rhetoric and Composition." The Bedford Bibliography for Teachers of Writing. Bedford/St. Martin's, n.d. Web. 12 April 2010. Bedfordstmartins.com Archived 16 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine.^ Roffee, J. A. (2016). "Rhetoric, Aboriginal Australians and the Northern Territory intervention: A socio‐legal investigation into pre‐legislative argumentation" (PDF). International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy. 5 (1): 131–47. doi: 10.5204/ijcjsd.v5i1.285.^ Roffee, J. A. (2014). "Synthetic Necessary Truth Behind New Labour's Criminalisation of Incest". Social & Legal Studies. 23: 113–30. doi: 10.1177/0964663913502068.^ Ray, Angela G. The Lyceum and Public Culture in the Nineteenth-Century United States. (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2005), 14–15.^ Hauser, Gerard (2002). Introduction to Rhetorical Theory. Illinois: Waveland Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-57766-221-1.^ Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical Theory: An Introduction (with Info Trac). Canada: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 21. ISBN 0-534-63918-6.^ William W. Hallo (2004), "The Birth of Rhetoric", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 25–46, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ Roberta Binkley (2004), "The Rhetoric of Origins and the Other: Reading the Ancient Figure of Enheduanna", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 47–64, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ Paul Y. Hoskisson & Grant M. Boswell (2004), "Neo-Assyrian Rhetoric: The Example of the Third Campaign of Sennacherib (704–681 BC)", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 65–78, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ David Hutto (Summer 2002), "Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric in the Old and Middle Kingdoms", Rhetorica, University of California Press, 20 (3): 213–33, doi: 10.1525/rh.2002.20.3.213^ George Q. Xu (2004), "The Use of Eloquence: The Confucian Perspective", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 115–30, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ David Metzger (2004), "Pentateuchal Rhetoric and the Voice of the Aaronides", in Carol S. Lipson & Roberta A. Binkley, Rhetoric before and beyond the Greeks, State University of New York Press, pp. 165–82, ISBN 0-7914-6099-1^ cf. Mogens Herman Hansen The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes (Blackwell, 1991); Josiah Ober Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens (Princeton UP, 1989); Jeffrey Walker, "Rhetoric and Poetics in Antiquity;" (Oxford UP, 2000).^ cf. Kennedy, G. A. (1994). A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press. p. 3.^ Isocrates. "Against the Sophists." In Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph D, LL. D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980.; Isocrates. "Antidosis." In Isocrates with an English Translation in three volumes, by George Norlin, Ph D, LL. D. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1980.^ Aristotle's Rhetoric Book I Chapter 1 [1354a] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 28 October 2014.^ Note: This could be any position in which the speaker—whether an acknowledged expert on the subject, or an acquaintance of a person who experienced the matter in question—knows about the topic. For instance, when a magazine claims that An MIT professor predicts that the robotic era is coming in 2050, the use of big-name "MIT" (a world-renowned American university for the advanced research in mathematics, science, and technology) establishes the "strong" credibility.^ Note: Memory was added much later to the original four canons.^ Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129ff^ Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present, Boston: Bedford / St. Martins, 2nd ed., 2001, p. 486.^ Mc Luhan's dissertation was scheduled to be published in a critical edition by Gingko Press in April 2006 with the title The Classical Trivium: The Place of Thomas Nashe in the Learning of His Time.^ Frederic Ives Carpenter, "Leonard Cox and the First English Rhetoric," Modern Language Notes, Vol. 13, No. 5 (May 1898), pp. 146–47. doi: 10.2307/2917751. JSTOR 2917751 – subscription required).^ See Marc Fumaroli, Age de l'Éloquence, 1980, for an extensive presentation of the intricate political and religious debates concerning rhetoric in France and Italy at the time^ See Walter J. Ong, Ramus and Talon Inventory (Harvard University Press, 1958); Joseph S. Freedman, Philosophy and the Art Europe, 1500–1700: Teaching and Texts at Schools and Universities (Ashgate, 1999).^ Which has now been translated into English by Walter J. Ong and Charles J. Ermatinger in The Complete Prose Works of John Milton (Yale University Press, 1982; 8: 206–407), with a lengthy introduction by Ong (144–205). The introduction is reprinted in Ong's Faith and Contexts (Scholars Press, 1999; 4: 111–141).^ See Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of Discourse ( Cambridge University Press, 1975).^ Histories of the emergence of rhetorical studies in 20th-century America can be found in Cohen, H. (1994). The history of speech communication: The emergence of a discipline, 1914–1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association; and Gehrke, P. J. (2009). The ethics and politics of speech: Communication and rhetoric in the twentieth century. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.^ Jim A. Kuypers and Andrew King, Twentieth-Century Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westpost, CT: Praeger, 2001).^ Borchers, Timothy A. (2006). Rhetorical theory: an introduction. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-63918-6.^ Black, Edwin. (1965) Rhetorical Criticism a Study in Method. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.^ Black, Edwin (1988). "Secrecy and Disclosure as Rhetorical Forms". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 74 (2): 133. doi: 10.1080/00335638809383833.^ Black, Edwin (1970). "The Second Persona". Quarterly Journal of Speech. 56 (2): 109. doi: 10.1080/00335637009382992.^ Black, Edwin (1980). "A Note on Theory and Practice in Rhetorical Criticism". Western Journal of Speech Communication: WJSC. 44 (4): 331–36. doi: 10.1080/10570318009374018.^ When Mc Luhan was working on his 1943 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation on the verbal arts and Nashe, he was also preparing the materials for his book The Mechanical Bride: The Folklore of Industrial Man (Vanguard Press, 1951). This was a compilation of exhibits of ads and other materials from popular culture with short essays involving rhetorical analyses of the ways in which the material in an item aims to persuade and comment on the persuasive strategies in each item. Mc Luhan later shifted the focus of his rhetorical analysis and began to consider how communication media themselves affect us as persuasive devices. Mc Luhan expresses this insight when he says " The medium is the message ". This shift in focus from his 1951 book led to his two most widely known books, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (University of Toronto Press, 1962) and Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (Mc Graw-Hill, 1964)'; these books represent an inward turn to attending to one's consciousness in contrast to the more outward orientation of other rhetoricians toward sociological considerations and symbolic interaction.^ Richards, I. A. (1965) The Philosophy of Rhetoric New York: Oxford.^ Richards, I. A. (1965) The Philosophy of Rhetoric New York: Oxford. p. 97^ Toulmin, Stephen (2003). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53483-3.^ a b c Lunsford, Andrea A. (1998). "Toward a Mestiza rhetoric: Gloria Anzaldua on composition and postcoloniality". JAC. 18: 1–27. JSTOR 20866168.^ Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2000). The rhetorical tradition: Readings from classical times to the present. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 1585–1588. ISBN 978-0-312-14839-3.^ Bizzell, Patricia; Herzberg, Bruce (2000). The rhetorical tradition: Readings from classical times to the present. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 1584–1585. ISBN 978-0-312-14839-3.^ Camp, Jessica Rae (2010). Radical rhetoric: Excavating Gloria Anzaldua's "La Prieta". Ann Harbor, MI: Dissertation. p. 45.^ Getrude, Buck (1900). "The Present Status of Rhetorical Theory". Modern Language Notes. 15: 84–87. JSTOR 2917917.^ Campbell, Joann (1996). Toward a feminist rhetoric: The writing of Gertrude Buck. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.^ "Krista Ratcliffe".^ a b Jim A. Kuypers, "Rhetorical Criticism as Art," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).^ Edwin Black, Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method (Madison, Wi: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), x–xi.^ Jim A. Kuypers, "Rhetorical Criticism as Art," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009). See also, Jim A. Kuypers, "Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Constraints in Rhetorical Criticism," in Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).^ Gray, J. W. "Four Argument Strategies". Retrieved 19 February 2016.^ Ryan, David (2007). The Speaking/Writing Connection. Berkeley, CA: Parthenon West Books. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-9765684-9-0.^ Black, Edwin. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 131.^ Bitzer, Lloyd F. "The Rhetorical Situation." Philosophy & Rhetoric, Winter (1968). 1–14. JSTOR 40236733. cf. Vatz, Richard E. "The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation." Philosophy & Rhetoric, Summer (1973) JSTOR 40236848 and The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion, (Kendall Hunt, 2012, 2013)^ Jansinski, James. " The Status of Theory and Method in Rhetorical Criticism ." Western Journal of Communication 65, No. 3 (Summer 2001): 249. doi: 10.1080/1057031010937470.^ Foss, Sonja. 1989. Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, Inc.^ Stephanie Houston Grey, "Conceptually-Oriented Criticism," in Rhetorical Criticism: Perspectives in Action, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2009).^ Jasinski, "Status," 256.^ Leff Michael (2001). "Lincoln at Cooper Union: Neo-Classical Criticism Revisited". Western Journal of Communication. 65 (3): 232–48. doi: 10.1080/10570310109374704.^ Jim A. Kuypers, "Artistry, Purpose, and Academic Constraints in Rhetorical Criticism," in Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism, Jim A. Kuypers, ed. (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014).^ See Thomas M. Conley, Rhetoric in the European Tradition, University of Chicago Press, 1990 for insights on French pre-1789 rhetoricians; for a fuller historical review with excerpts, Philippe-Joseph Salazar, L'art de parler, Paris, Klincksieck, 2003.^ See also article on Rhétorique in the French Wikipedia^ See Philippe-Joseph Salazar's overview, "Rhetoric Achieves Nature. A View from Old Europe", Philosophy & Rhetoric 40 (1), 2007, 71–88^ Histoire de la rhétorique dans l'Europe moderne 1450–1950, Marc Fumaroli ed., Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1999. ISBN 2-13-049526-5^ Refer to " De l'éloquence à la rhétoricité, trente années fastes ", Dix-Septième Siècle 236, LIX (3), 2007, 421–26 ISBN 978-2-13-056096-8^ idee-jour.fr Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine.^ L'art des Généralités, Paris, 1999.^ Barbara Cassin, L'effet sophistique, Paris, Gallimard, 1995^ Maroun Aouad, Le Livre De la Rhétorique d'Ibn Tumlus. Paris: Vrin. 2006. Le Commentaire Moyen d' Averroes à la Rhétorique d'Aristote. Paris: Vrin. 3 Vol. 2002.^ Alongside the French school, the work of Belgians Chaim Perelman and his disciple Michel Meyer is noteworthy, although Perelman's foundational work remained generally unknown in France until the 1990s.^ "Project MUSE – Philosophy and Rhetoric-Volume 42, Number 4, 2009".^ Kennedy, George A. (1998). Comparative Rhetoric: An Historical and Cross-Cultural Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 11–28. ISBN 0-19-510932-5.^ Kull, Kalevi 2001. A note on biorhetorics. Sign Systems Studies 29 (2): 693–704.^ Davis, Diane (2011). "Creaturely Rhetorics". Philosophy and Rhetoric. 44 (1): 88–94. doi: 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0088. JSTOR 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0088.^ Segeerdahl, Pär (2015). "The rhetoric and prose of the human/animal contrast". Language & Communication. 42: 36–49. doi: 10.1016/j.langcom.2015.03.001.^ Melzow, Candice Chovanec (Spring 2012). "Identification, Naming, and Rhetoric in The Sky, the Stars, the Wilderness and The Maine Woods". Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment. 19.2 (2): 356–374. doi: 10.1093/isle/iss084.^ Kennedy, George (1992). "A Hoot in the Dark The evolution of general rhetoric". Philosophy & Rhetoric. 25 (1): 1–21. JSTOR i40009015.^ Hawhee, D. (2011). "Toward a Bestial Rhetoric". Philosophy and rhetoric. 44 (1): 81–87. doi: 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0081. JSTOR 10.5325/philrhet.44.1.0081. References [ edit]Primary sources The locus classicus for Greek and Latin primary texts on rhetoric is the Loeb Classical Library of the Harvard University Press, published with an English translation on the facing page. Aristotle. Rhetoric. Cicero. De Inventione. Latin only.—. De Oratore. Latin only. Demosthenes. Orations. Greek. English. Cornificius. De Ratione Dicendi. Latin only. Isocrates. Against the Sophists. Henry Peacham. The Garden of Eloquence. George Puttenham. The Arte of Poesie. [ dead link] at Representative Poetry Online Quintilian. Institutio oratoria. Johannes Susenbrotus. Epitome troporum. Thomas Wilson. The Arte of Rhetorique. Secondary sources Ralf van Bühren: Die Werke der Barmherzigkeit in der Kunst des 12.–18. Jahrhunderts. Zum Wandel eines Bildmotivs vor dem Hintergrund neuzeitlicher Rhetorikrezeption (Studien zur Kunstgeschichte, vol. 115), Hildesheim / Zürich / New York: Verlag Georg Olms 1998. ISBN 3-487-10319-2Bernard K. Duffy and Martin Jacobi: The Politics of Rhetoric: Richard Weaver and the Conservative Tradition (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993). ISBN 0-313-25713-2Eugene Garver, Aristotle's Rhetoric: An Art of Character (University of Chicago Press, 1994) ISBN 978-0-226-28425-5. Lisa Jardine, Francis Bacon: Discovery and the Art of Discourse ( Cambridge University Press, 1975)Charles U. Larson, Persuasion Reception and Responsibility Twelfth Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning (2012)Jacqueline de Romilly, The Great Sophists in Periclean Athens (French orig. 1988; English trans. Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1992). William Safire, Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History (2004) ISBN 978-0-393-05931-1. Amelie Oksenberg Rorty, Aristotle's Rhetoric Los Angeles, United States of America (1996)Further reading [ edit]Andresen, Volker. Speak Well in Public – 10 Steps to Succeed. ISBN 1-4563-1026-7. Duffy, Bernard K. and Richard Leeman. eds. American Voices: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Orators (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005). ISBN 0-313-32790-4Cox, Leonard. The Art or Crafte of Rhetoryke at Project Gutenberg. Garver, Eugene. Aristotle's Rhetoric: On Art of Character. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0-226-28425-5Jansinski, James. Sourcebook on Rhetoric. Sage Publications, Inc. 2001. [ ISBN missing]Kennedy, George A. Aristotle, On Rhetoric. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991. [ ISBN missing]Kuypers, Jim A. ed. Purpose, Practice, and Pedagogy in Rhetorical Criticism (Lanham, MD: Lexington Press, 2014). ISBN 978-0-7391-8018-1Kuypers, Jim A. and Andrew King. Twentieth-Century Roots of Rhetorical Studies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001). ISBN 0-275-96420-5Rainolde (or Rainholde), Richard. A booke called the Foundacion of Rhetorike at Project Gutenberg. Rorty, Amélie Oksenberg (ed.). Essays on Aristotle's Rhetoric. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0-520-20228-3External links [ edit]Wikiquote has quotations related to: Rhetoric Look up rhetoric or wordcraft in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. American Rhetoric: The Power of Oratory in the United States. Brian Vickers on Rhetoric in the Cambridge Companion to English Poetry Wikibooks: Rhetoric and Composition Mitchell, Anthony. A Primer for Business Rhetoric. Discusses how messages are dumbed down to make them acceptable to wide audiences. Newall, Paul. An introduction to Rhetoric and Rhetorical Figures. Aimed at beginners. [ show]v t e Philosophy of language [ show]v t e Philosophical logic [ show]v t e Communication studies [ show]v t e Narrative Authority control GND: 4076704-8 NDL: 00572475Categories: Rhetoric Applied linguistics Narratology Critical thinking skills Communication studies 