adiabatic cooling Adiabatic cooling is the process of reducing heat through a change in air pressure caused by volume expansion. In data centers and other facilities, adiabatic processes have enabled free cooling methods, which use freely available natural phenomena to regulate temperature. The principle of adiabatic cooling has been harnessed to develop cooling units that can save industry millions of liters of water. In the United States, older cooling towers currently use 1.5 quadrillion liters of water, which they tend to pollute. Adiabatic cooling units can also save more than 40% in electricity. Adiabatic cooling is used in evaporative coolers. An evaporative cooler is basically a large fan that draws warm air through water-moistened pads. As the water in the pads evaporates, the air is chilled and pushed out to the room. The temperature can be controlled by adjusting the airflow of the cooler. In nature, adiabatic cooling is often associated with elevation. As seen with cloud formations, an air mass that is heated expands and becomes less dense. Being less dense, it is lighter and rises above a higher-pressure air mass. Having reached areas with less dense air, it further expands, losing energy that was gained, and cooling as it does so. When the cooling air crosses the dew point, moisture in the air accumulates as clouds. With enough moisture and cooling comes precipitation. The principles of adiabatic cooling are also applied to increase humidity in facilities. Conversely, adiabatic heating results when a cooler, less dense air mass sinks and increases in temperature due to the pressurized molecules becoming agitated, vibrating and increasing in heat. See a video about adiabatic cooling: Frigel Eco Dry System UK - Adiabatic Cooling System Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 3:06This was last updated in July 2014Continue Reading About adiabatic cooling Adiabatic cooling Trends in data centers: Adiabatic cooling, DP humidity control and more Get comfortable with an adiabatic cooling system in the data center Adiabatic processes Incorporating adiabatic humidification into your data center Related Terms Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS)The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) is the primary data storage system used by Hadoop applications. See complete definition Microsoft SCOM (System Center Operations Manager)Microsoft System Center Operations Manager (SCOM) is a component in the Microsoft System Center suite of enterprise management ... See complete definitionvirtual power plant A virtual power plant is the combination of numerous solar-powered, battery-backed homes delivering excess power back into the ... See complete definition 
Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) Adjusted Gross Income (AGI)What it is: Adjusted gross income (AGI) is the figure used by the Internal Revenue Service to determine a taxpayer 's eligibility for certain tax benefits. How it works (Example): AGI is calculated by adding together all qualified income and subtracting all qualified deductions. It is in the taxpayer 's best interest to get their adjusted gross income as low as possible. Lower AGI qualifies the taxpayer for more tax benefits and ultimately results in a smaller tax bill. To calculate your AGI, you must first determine your gross income. This represents the total of all the money you earned during the calendar year. Sources include a person's (or household's) total annual wages, interest, tips, taxable Social Security benefits, income from rental property, dividends, capital gains, royalties, income from retirement accounts, and alimony received. Some income is not included as gross income, such as income on tax exempt local and state bonds. From this total, deduct items such as contributions to deductible retirement accounts, alimony paid, interest on student loans, certain qualified medical expenses, moving expenses, alimony you pay to others, early withdraw penalties on savings accounts, educator expenses, 50% of the self-employment tax, self-employed health insurance premiums, and qualified tuition and fees paid by students. Let's look at an example. Assume Bob and Sally are married and file a joint income tax return. Bob and Sally each earned $90,000 per year, and their investments returned $10,000 in dividends. Bob and Sally's AGI equals $90,000 + $90,000 + $10,000 = $190,000. Why it Matters: Adjusted gross income often is referred to as " net income ", because AGI constitutes the net amount of income that is taxed after all tax payments and credits are factored in. It's logical, then, that the very first page of IRS forms 1040 and 1040A are devoted to calculating AGI. AGI is perhaps one of the most important numbers in a tax return because it determines the taxpayer 's eligibility for certain deductions, tax credits and programs. These include a tax deduction on traditional Individual Retirement Account (IRA) contributions and whether you qualify to contribute to a Roth IRA. All of these considerations have limitations predicated on AGI. Take our hypothetical couple as an example. If Bob and Sally paid a combined $5,000 in student loan interest during the year, they can't deduct it because their AGI is over $140,000. 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Payment There are currently no rates available for the product and/or location you selected. Please try another search. Disclaimer |Rate data provided by  . Home Cockpit Instruments Electronic HSI/ADI (Smart-I)Smart-I is a family of electronic instruments Provides a modern solution to the legacy HSI & ADI. Color LCD based, with internal processing that generate a dynamic, real-time updated display formats The Smart-I instrument interfaces with the legacy or modern systems, converts the input signal into a digital format, and updates the display format accordingly. As the Smart-I is software controlled, it is possible to provide with the same hardware different instruments functionality, and provide a replacement to almost any existing cockpit instrument. Using the same hardware, with software adaptations to the specific instrument better supports long-term maintenance and further decreases Legacy Electro-Mechanical Instruments Astronautics specializes in cockpit instruments such as Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI), Bearing and Distance Heading Indicator (BDHI), Engine Performance Indicator (EPI), Angle Of Attack (AOA) Indicator etc. Astronautics is offering cockpit instruments in a variety of types and sizes: 3", 4", 5" analog and digital for fixed and rotary wing platforms. Astronautics Indicators are installed in a large variety of aircraft and helicopters worldwide, such as: F-5, Bell212, L-39, Bell214, Mirage III , F-15 , F-16 , Mig-21, UH-60A, F-111, MI-8, C-130, A-4, CH-53, MB-339, B-1B, A-6, F-5 and many others (altogether - over 200 types of fixed and rotary wing platforms). The new generation of high reliability instruments (over 20,000 hours MTBF!) is currently the solution for customers that do not wish to upgrade to the electronic instruments. Such program has been successfully conducted for USAF and the Israeli Air Force F-15's. ADIHSISmart-I Cockpit Displays  Acute Interstitial Pneumonia - Diffuse Alveolar Damage Acute Interstitial Pneumonia - Diffuse Alveolar Damage Definition Acute onset lung disease characterized by diffuse hyaline membrane formation followed by organization Alternate/Historical Names Adult respiratory distress syndrome (clinical term for disease with this pattern)Diagnostic Criteria Diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) is a pattern that has many causes including Infection, aspiration, shock, toxins, burns, transfusions and drugs When idiopathic, it is termed acute interstitial pneumonia (AIP)Both idiopathic and secondary DAD share an acute onset and poor prognosis Roughly 50% mortality in six months Clinical Sudden onset of dyspnea, cough over 1-2 weeks Occasionally subacute May occur at any age High resolution computed tomography (HRCT)Consolidation (early phase) developing into bilateral diffuse ground glass opacities Late phase may show cyst formation or diffuse honeycombing Histopathologic features Changes in first week are exudative Necrosis of alveolar lining cells with extravasation of fibrin Prominent, diffuse hyaline membranes in alveolar lumens Intra-alveolar balls of fibrin may be seen in acute fibrinous and organizing pneumonia variant, see below Fibroproliferative organizing phase follows in air spaces and interstitium Loose edematous fibroblastic tissue Little dense collagen deposition Hyaline membranes are resorbed by organization Fragments may remain in lumens and incorporated into interstitium Late scarring phase Scarring may result in diffuse honeycomb change Alveoli lined by reactive alveolar lining cells with hobnail appearance Mitotic figures and marked reactive atypia may be seen Squamous metaplasia of bronchiolar and adjacent air spaces is frequent Mitotic figures and marked reactive atypia may be seen Mild to moderate interstitial infiltrate of plasma cells, lymphocytes and neutrophils Eosinophils infrequent Organizing thrombi may be seen in small to medium sized pulmonary arteries DAD pattern may occur in the setting of acute exacerbation of a chronic interstitial lung disease such as UIPUnderlying architectural changes such as peripheral honeycombing may help identify the diagnosis Clinical or radiographic history of pre-existing pulmonary disease is very helpful Acute Fibrinous and Organizing Pneumonia has been proposed as a variant (Beasley 2002)Patchy involvement of alveoli by balls of fibrin Gerald J Berry MD Robert V Rouse MD rouse@stanford.edu Department of Pathology Stanford University School of Medicine Stanford CA 94305-5342Original posting/updates: 11/20/10Differential Diagnosis Usual interstitial pneumonia Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia Infection and other specific processes Usual Interstitial Pneumonia Acute Interstitial Pneumonia Temporal heterogeneity Temporally uniform Honeycomb change prominent Honeycomb change only in late stage Patchy distribution with subpleural accentuation Diffuse, uniform throughout Hyaline membranes not seen Hyaline membranes prominent in early stage Nonspecific Interstitial Pneumonia Acute Interstitial Pneumonia Predominantly interstitial Prominent intra-alveolar component No hyaline membranes Hyaline membranes prominent in early stage Intra-alveolar organization rare and focal Prominent intra-alveolar organization in intermediate stage Honeycomb change rare Diffuse honeycomb change may be seen in late stage Insidious onset, chronic disease Acute onset Cryptogenic Organizing Pneumonia Acute Interstitial Pneumonia Patchy distribution Diffuse No hyaline membranes Hyaline membranes prominent in early stage and fragments in organizing phase No collagen deposition, architecture preserved Diffuse honeycomb change may be seen in late stage Acute Interstitial Pneumonia / Diffuse Alveolar Damage Acute Eosinophilic Pneumonia Eosinophils infrequent Prominent eosinophils in lavage and biopsy specimens Not steroid responsive, poor prognosis Steroid responsive, no relapses Diffuse alveolar damage pattern may be seen in acute eosinophilic pneumonia Specific causes of DAD pattern must always be ruled out These include infection, aspiration, shock, toxins, burns, transfusions and drugs DAD pattern may be superimposed on a chronic process such as UIP in the setting of an acute exacerbation Defining feature Hyaline membranes, intact or organizing Features that should suggest superimposed AIP/DADSquamous metaplasia of respiratory bronchioles Fibrin thrombi in small arteries Type II pneumocyte hyperplasia Clinical and radiographic history is important Classification / Lists Smoking Related Lung Diseases Carcinoma Emphysema Chronic bronchitis Respiratory bronchiolitis associated interstitial lung disease Desquamative interstitial pneumonia Langerhans cell histiocytosis (histiocytosis X)Usual interstitial pneumonia (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis)Idiopathic Interstitial Lung Diseases Acute interstitial pneumonia (diffuse alveolar damage)Acute fibrinous and organizng pneumonia Cryptogenic organizing pneumonia (BOOP)Desquamative interstitial pneumonia Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia Respiratory bronchiolitis associated interstitial lung disease Usual interstitial pneumonia (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis)Other Diffuse Parenchymal Lung Diseases Alveolar microlithiasis Alveolar proteinosis Eosinophilic pneumonia, acute Eosinophilic pneumonia, chronic Eosinophilic pneumonia, simple Follicular broncholitis/bronchitis Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Langerhans cell histiocytosis (histiocytosis X)Lymphangioleiomyomatosis Pneumoconioses Sarcoidosis Secondary to other known causes Collagen vascular disease Drug reactions Lymphangitic carcinoma Bibliography Travis WD, Colby TV, Koss MN, Rosado-de-Christenson ML, Müller NL, King TE Jr. Non-neoplastic Disorders of the Lower Respiratory Tract, AFIP Atlas of Nontumor Pathology, First Series, Fascicle 2, 2002. American Thoracic Society; European Respiratory Society. ATS/ERS International Multidisciplinary Consensus Classification of the Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias. This joint statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), and the European Respiratory Society (ERS) was adopted by the ATS board of directors, June 2001 and by the ERS Executive Committee, June 2001. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002 Jan 15;165 (2):277-304. Visscher DW, Myers JL. Histologic spectrum of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2006 Jun;3 (4):322-9. Beasley MB, Franks TJ, Galvin JR, Gochuico B, Travis WD. Acute fibrinous and organizing pneumonia: a histological pattern of lung injury and possible variant of diffuse alveolar damage. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2002 Sep;126 (9):1064-70. Olson J, Colby TV, Elliott CG. Hamman-Rich syndrome revisited. Mayo Clin Proc. 1990 Dec;65 (12):1538-48. Katzenstein AL, Myers JL, Mazur MT. Acute interstitial pneumonia. A clinicopathologic, ultrastructural, and cell kinetic study. Am J Surg Pathol. 1986 Apr;10 (4):256-67. Churg A, Wright JL, Tazelaar HD. Acute exacerbations of fibrotic interstitial lung disease. Histopathology. 2010 [Epub ahead of print].  Music Technology Glossary of Terms Music Technology Glossary of Terms Last Updated: November 9, 2017 [This post contains affiliate links. If you buy anything we recommend through Music Repo, we may receive a commission, at no extra cost to you. ]ADAT: A trademark of Alesis Corporation for its modular digital multitrack recording system released in early 1993 and stands for Alesis Digital Audio Tape. It records eight tracks digitally on a standard 1/2″ SVHS video cassette and is currently a 20-bit digital format. The ADAT optical connections for transferring the digital data 8-tracks at a time are used in a wide range of products from many manufacturers. ADAT Lightpipe: A digital interface that allows 8 individual tracks to pass through an optical (Toslink) cable. Lightpipe is used with ADAT machines and is incorporated in numerous soundcards and multiple AD/DA converters. Sonorus STUDI/O is a ADAT Lightpipe soundcard. Additive Synthesis: A method of synthesis that builds complex waveforms by combining sine waves with independently variable frequencies and amplitudes. Envelope shapers and filters can further process these waveforms. Hammond organs and similar instruments make the most use of simple additive synthesis. ADSR: Attack, Decay, Sustain, and Release are the four parameters found on a basic synthesizer envelope generator, and they match the physical attributes of naturally occurring sound. An envelope generator is sometimes called a transient generator. The Attack, Decay, and Release parameters are rate or time controls. Sustain is a level. When a key is pressed, the envelope generator will begin to rise to its full level at the rate set by the attack parameter, upon reaching peak level it will begin to fall at the rate set by the decay parameter to the level set by the sustain control. The envelope will remain at the sustain level as long as the key is held down. When a key is released, it will return to zero at the rate set by the release parameter. Aliasing: Unwanted frequencies produced when harmonic components in the audio signal being sampled by a digital recording device or generated within a digital sound source are above the Nyquist frequency. Aliasing is also sometimes referred to as fold-over. See Nyquist Frequency. Altivec: A programming tool developed by Motorola, Alivec is a short vector architecture technology that accelerates software. (See vector architecture). BIAS’s latest version of Peak implements an altivec-based convolution technology which allows natural reverb impulses to be applied to dry audio signals, giving the impression that a file was actually recorded in a particular environment. Amplitude: A digital audio file’s sound levels or electrical signal levels. It refers to the height of a waveform—the greater a sound wave’s amplitude, the louder it sounds. Most software audio programs allow viewing the amplitude of the waveform for detailed editing. Analog: An analog audio signal is represented by variations such as voltage speed or frequency and the strength of amplitude or volume of an electrical audio signal. The audio outputs from a computer’s soundcard or synthesizer are typically analog outputs even though the file being played is digital through a D/A converter. See D/A.. Analog Synthesis: Electronic synthesis, electronic oscillators, filters, and envelopes are used to directly create and manipulate sound. It does not involve sampling rate, bit depth, or other digital factors. (Such as older Analog Synthesizers/Keyboards used in the 1970s). (A/D) Analog to Digital Conversion: An electronic device that converts analog signals from a microphone or line level source into digital signals (digitizing or sampling them) so they can be stored to any number of storage media like hard drives, ADAT, computer ROM chip, or processed in a sampler, digital signal processor or digital recording device. Audiophile: A person enthusiastic about sound reproduction who is discerning about the quality of the audio. Auto Accompaniment: This generally refers to software such as PG Music’s Band in a Box Software that provides a ready-made back-up band. AUX: An “auxiliary” physical control knob on a mixing console designed to route a portion of the channel or channels signal to the effects or other mix outputs. Bandwidth: A means of specifying the range of frequencies passed by an electronic circuit such as an amplifier, mixer or filter. A system’s bandwidth is the total frequency range of the system. (Example 20Hz-20Khz)Bank: A storage location in a sampler or synthesizer that holds a large number of individual sounds. Typically, any synthesizer that isn’t General MIDI utilizes banks to organize the additional sounds and there can be up to 127 sounds within each bank. Bank Select Message: A MIDI control change message which instructs a receiving synth to switch to a different bank so that another instrument or sound can be accessed within a sequence. Bit: Otherwise known as “Binary Digit,” it is a unit of digital information. A bit represents either an “on” of “off” value represented by a “0” or “1.” A bit is 1/8th of a byte. BNC: Bayonet Nut Connector provides a secure, easy-to-use means of connecting shielded cables to electronic equipment used for high-end video, computer networking and digital audio. Word clock usually uses a BNC connector and is on the Edirol DA-2496, an 8 in, 8 out PCI soundcard. Bouncing: This is the process of mixing two or more recorded tracks and re-recording (the sum of the original tracks on to another track) these on to another track. BPM: Beats per minute. (example: a rap song with 130 bpm has more beats per minute than a classical song at 60 bpm)Breath Controller: (link opens on Amazon) This is a controller that converts breath pressure into MIDI data. Although not common, these controllers are synthesized renditions of acoustic woodwind instruments and are especially beneficial when assigning a wind instrument in a sequence, and also allow wind players to access the world of MIDI. Bulk Dump: Used with synthesizers, a bulk dump transmits a chunk of data commands known as system-exclusive messages. Generally a synth can send and receive bulk dumps to a sequencer, either software or a stand alone synth. Buffering: This is a method for temporarily storing or delaying data samples before processing or conversion. Buss: A common electrical signal path along which signals may travel, a mixer would have several busses carrying the stereo mix, the groups, and the Aux sends. Byte: A unit of digital value which consists of 8 bits, usually in the number of bytes such as kilobytes, megabytes, and gigabytes. Capacitance: Property of an electrical component able to store electrostatic charge, like a battery. Cardioid Microphone/Pattern: A unidirectional microphone with a moderately wide front pickup (131 degrees). To find out everything you need to know about microphones, including the different types, what all the terms in the spec sheets mean, and which mic to use for different recording situations, then refer to our ultimate guide to recording studio microphones for detailed explanations. Channel: A channel is a path for passing data or digital audio. In sequencing, each channel is assigned to a single instrument in any particular instant of time and in General MIDI, channel 10 is reserved for a percussion voice. One MIDI port makes 16 MIDI channels available so one song could have 16 different channels/instruments assigned to one MIDI port. Also, audio channels on a soundboard. Channel Messages: MIDI channel messages refer to data specific to one particular MIDI channel. Data such as note on/off, note number, velocity, program change, pitch bend, after touch, and controller messages are channel messages. Click track: Metronome pulse provided in software which assists musicians in keeping a consistent tempo. Clipping: Distortion occurs when an amplifier is driven to play louder than its power supply allows and the result is clipping. This state can cause loudspeaker damage. It is of particular importance with digital audio recording because the clipped waveform contains an excess of high-frequency energy and the sound becomes hard and edgy. With analog linear recording it is standard to record as hot as possible; with digital non-linear recording, recording too hot will result in disastrous clipping. Codec: A codec (compression/decompression or coder/decoder) is a software component that is used for compressing and decompressing data such as audio (MP3) or video (MPEG). Among others, codecs exist for WMA, Quick Time, Streaming Audio, and Real Audio. Compression: Compression in audio recording means to reduce the dynamic range of a signal. Compressor (Limiter): A compressor provides a form of automatic level control. It attenuates high levels, thereby reducing the dynamic range, making it easier to control signals and set appropriate fader levels. By reducing the dynamic range, recording levels can be set higher to improve the signal-to-noise performance. Limiting is an extreme form of compression, where the output signal is sharply attenuated so that it cannot exceed a particular level. There are software compressors available such as are within Cakewalk’s AFX1, and hardware units also can have this effect, such as Edirol’s USB audio interface, the UA-700. Condenser Microphone: A microphone that generates an electrical signal when sound waves vary the spacing between two charged surfaces, specifically the diaphragm and the backplate. Control Change Message: A group of MIDI channel messages that are used to alter a sound. Examples of control change messages include volume (#7), pan (#10), modulation wheel (#1), and sustain pedal (#64). Some are continuous controllers and utilize hardware such as sliders, wheels, and sweep foot pedals, while others are on-off switch types such as switches or sustain pedals. Controllers: Hardware devices that output MIDI and come in a variety of shapes. Although the typical controller is a keyboard, Contour Designs has cool ergonomic palm-fitting controllers: the Shuttle Pro and Space Shuttle. Crossover (Electronic): An electronic device or circuit that, when inserted between a mixer and amplifier, divides the audio spectrum into individual frequency ranges (low, high, and/or mid) before sending them to specialized amplifier/speaker combinations. In many computer speakers, a crossover routes high-frequency sounds to satellite modules and low frequencies to the bass unit. An advantage of this type of crossover is that it increases efficiency. Crossover Frequency: The frequency in which the audio signal is divided by a crossover. Crossover (Passive): An electronic device that, when inserted after the amplifier, divides the audio spectrum into individual frequency ranges (low, high, and/or mid) before sending them to specialized speakers like tweeters and woofers. Cycle: One complete vibration of a sound source or its electrical equivalent. One cycle per second is 1 Hertz (Hz). Daisy Chain: A group of devices or modules connected to each other in a series, where the first one connects to the computer, the second one connects to the first and so on. This would include SCSI, USB and Fire Wire connectivity. Damping: Damping refers to the ability of an audio component to stop after the signal ends. For example, if a drum is struck with a mallet, the sound will reach a peak level and then decay in a certain amount of time to no sound. An audio component that allows the decay to drag on too long has poor damping and less definition than one wants. An audio component that is over-damped does not allow the initial energy to reach the full peak and cuts the decay short. Boomy or muddy sound is often the result of under-damped systems. Dry or lifeless sound may be the result of an over-damped system. DAO: Disc at Once; a recordable CD method where the session is recorded in one pass without interruption (the laser does not turn off). This is ideal when sending audio recordings to be mastered or pressed as most mastering and/or duplication facilities machines will fail or error out if it detects that the laser was turned off. DAT: Abbreviation for “Digital Audio Tape,” it is a digital tape-recording format using a small cassette that provides up to two hours of 16-bit, linear, PCM digital recording at a sampling rate of 32, 44.1 or 48 k Hz. A significant advantage that a DAT has over most Mini Disc is that most DAT players will have a digital output, useful when transferring the file to the computer for editing, provided that the soundcard has a digital input. The Edirol UA-1D is the perfect device for this digital transfer with both digital ins and outs. DAW: Digital Audio Workstation, such as Cubase (link opens on Amazon). Software that is designed to be a complete recording, sequencing, editing and mixing tool on your computer for digital audio and usually MIDI too.d B (Decibel): A unit used for measuring voltage, current or power. The decibel is often used to measure differences in sound pressure level or relative loudness. Decoding: This is the process whereby information in a compressed digital audio file is read/expanded so that it can be converted from digital to analog to go to speakers so we can hear. There are software MP3 players that both decode and play MP3 files. De-Esser: Device for reducing the effect of sibilance or excessive “esses” in vocal signals. Delay: A common effect in a sampler or synthesizer [or effects] that mimics the time difference between the arrival of a direct sound and its audible first reflection. Detent: Physical click stop in the center of a control surface such as a pan or EQ cut/boost knob. Digital: The phrase “digital audio recording” is contrasted with “analog audio recording.” Long-playing phonograph records are analog recordings and they capture information in a continuously-variable form. Digital, in contrast, involves binary numbers–1’s and 0’s. Digital encoding can “think” only in terms of the binary numbers 1 (on) and 0 (off), therefore a synthesizer produces sounds by performing mathematical manipulations upon a stream of numbers which are then transformed by a digital-to-analog converter to an electrical signal. In analog there is no conversion taking place, but every time you copy or boost there can be added noise or loss of original content with each pass which does not happen with digital. Digital Audio Extraction: A method of retrieving audio samples from an audio CD in order to create a computer audio file. This is also known as ripping. This can be accomplished at “CD” quality or MP3 quality MP3, being a digital compression format, will take up less space than a “CD” quality file on a computer audio file. (D/A) Digital to Analog Conversion: The process by which digital data (0’s and 1’s in binary computer language) is reconverted back to an analog (electrical) audio signal. This is how compact disk players play back CDs, and is the same means by which digital synthesizers and samplers play back their sounds through analog outputs such as speakers or headphones. Dither: This tool is used with high-end audio recording programs and audio converters to improve audio quality. It is a mathematical process where a random noise is added to the least significant bit of a digital word to improve audio fidelity when needed. The ability to dither an audio file is absolutely required for good digital audio recording and audio editors such as Sonic Foundry’s Sound Forge and Steinberg’s Wavelab have excellent dithering capabilities. Dolby Digital: A five-channel audio system with all processing in the digital domain consisting of left, center, right and left rear, and right rear channels and optional subwoofer. This is also referred to as Dolby Digital 5.1. Unlike Dolby Prologic in which the rear effects channel’s frequency is limited to approx. 100-7000Hz, Dolby Digital rear channels are specified to contain the full 20-20Khz frequency. When an audio file has already been encoded with Dolby Digital, Edirol’s USB audio interface, the UA-3D has the ability to pass through the signal. Driver: Piece of software that handles communications between the operating system and a hardware peripheral such as a soundcard, printer, MIDI card or scanner. Dry: When recording audio, this refers to an audio signal which has had no effects added. The best practice is to record dry so one can audition a variety of effects in post production. DSP Digital Signal Processing: DSP chips are found in sound cards, synthesizers, effects units, playback and speech synthesis, fax machines, modems, cellular phones, high-capacity hard disks and digital TVs. It is possible that the first DSP was used in the Speak & Spell game in the late 1970s from Texas Instruments. Typically, digital signal processing provides reverb or delay effects, loud speaker processing, EQ limiting and compression as well as feedback destroyers. Other audio uses are amplifiers that simulate concert halls and surround-sound effects for music and home theater. See DSP and Merge. DSP Hardware: DSP hardware frees up a computer’s processing power and speed for other tasks. TC Work’s Powercore is an excellent example of a PCI card which offers DSP processing on the hardware itself—a huge selling feature for this high-end soundcard. DSP Software: DSP software allows you to clean up or enhance the sound quality while others allow you to apply effects such as distortion or flange. There are many digital audio recording programs with DSP features, as well as plug-ins that are available such as Wave’s Renaissance Max. Dubbing: Within audio files, this refers to adding further material to an existing recording and is also known as overdubbing. See Overdubbing. Ducking: Ducking is used to automatically reduce signal levels when the level of a source signal exceeds a specified threshold. Often used for voice-over applications, the level of background music is automatically reduced (made to “duck”), allowing an announcer to be heard clearly. DVD-A: DVD audio authoring is DVD encoding software. Minnetonka’s disc Welder STEEL allows formats supported in the DVD-A specification, including non-encoded, uncompressed surround and or high-resolution stereo (two channels of 24-bit, up to 192 KHz audio), in WAV or AIFF file format. Surround and stereo tracks may be used on the same disc, and a disc Welder-burned disc will play on any DVD-A player that supports DVD-R/RW. Dynamic Microphone: A type of microphone that works on the electric generator principle, where a diaphragm moves a coil of wire within a magnetic field and is typically less sensitive than Condenser Microphones where you need more gain. Dynamic Range: This refers to the difference between the loudest (maximum output level) and quietest (residual noise floor) sounds produced in an audio system without distortion or clipping. The dynamic range in a digital system is determined by the data resolution, about 6 d B per digital bit. In speech, the range rarely exceeds 40 d B; in music, it is the highest in orchestral works where a broad number of instruments are used, where the range may be as much as 75 d B. Dynamics: The relative loudness or softness of a piece of music. Effect: Device for treating an audio signal in order to change it in some creative way. Effects often involve the use of delay circuits and include such treatments as reverb and echo. Software plug-ins can provide these effects and they are also available onboard with USB soundcards such as Edirol’s UA-700 and SD-90. Electret Microphone: A condenser microphone that uses an electret (electrical-magnet) to hold a permanent electrical charge, enabling it to function in low-voltage. Enhancer: A device designed to brighten audio material using techniques such as dynamic equalization, phase shifting and harmonic generation. Envelope: In audio recording software this refers to the way in which the level of a sound or signal varies over time, including alterations in a sound’s amplitude, frequency and timbre. In MIDI, an instrument can be altered by manipulating the envelope which contains parameters such as attack, sustain, decay and release. (See ASDR). Using patch editing software the user is able to edit the envelope of a synthesized sound thereby allowing its customization. Envelope Generator: A device or process in a synthesizer or other sound generator that creates a time varying signal used to control some aspect of the sound. Equalizer: Device for selectively cutting or boosting selected parts of the audio spectrum; useful in shaping the vocal or instrument for the desired sound like cutting the high end off of a violin. Event: Because MIDI utilizes commands, most sequencing software has an Event List or an Event Editor where one can scrutinize and change commands such as note on, note off, program change, control change or volume. Event List: Each MIDI track’s content is shown alphanumerically with information such as note, volume and panning, allowing very detailed editing. Exciter: A circuit designed to enhance the presence of an audio signal by synthesizing new high frequency harmonics to make it sound more clear, punchy, bright, or loud, without the use of ordinary EQ or gain. Fade in/out: A feature of most audio editing software that allows the user to apply a gradual amplitude increase or decrease over some segment of the sound. File Types: There are two MIDI file types and although they sound the same upon playback, they are visually different. Type 0 has all of the information on a single track even though the MIDI file may have been a multiple-channel file; typically these are used in a stand alone MIDI file player. A MIDI File Type 1 contains one or more simultaneous tracks which are better for editing. Formant: Frequency component or resonance of an instrument or voice sound that doesn’t change with the pitch of the note being played or sung. For example, the body resonance of an acoustic guitar remains constant, regardless of the note being played. FM Synthesizers: These produce sounds by generating a pure sine wave (carrier) and then mixing it with a second waveform (modulator). When the two waveforms are close in frequency, a complex waveform is produced. By controlling both the carrier and the modulator it is possible to create different timbres, or instruments. FM synthesis is hardly used today being replaced by more realistic forms of synthesis, such as wave table synthesis. Frequency: The rate per second at which an oscillating body vibrates. Usually measured in Hertz (Hz), humans can hear sounds with frequencies in the range of 20 Hz to 20 k Hz. Fundamental Frequency: This is the predominant frequency in a complex waveform and typically provides the sound with its strongest pitch reference. Any sound has a fundamental or basic frequency plus harmonics and partials at a higher frequency. General MIDI (GM): A standard set of rules within MIDI that allows for cross-instrument compatibility. General MIDI instruments all use the same memory areas for sound storage and always use MIDI channel 10 for drum parts. General MIDI files provide access to 128 instruments, are capable of playing at least 16 sounds simultaneously and have at least 24-note polyphony. General MIDI 2 (GM2): An expanded set of parameters for fuller compositions that allow additional controllers, effects and more instruments. MIDI files that are GM2 will be backward compatible to GM, but for these files to be heard utilizing all of the additional accoutrements that GM2 has to offer, they must be played back on a GM2 synth. The Edirol HQ Hyper Canvas for example was a software synthesizer specifically designed for GM2 MIDI files, as were the Edirol modules, the SD-20, SD-80, and SD-90. Global Editing: These are MIDI or audio events which affect an entire file or sequence. Graphic Equalizer: Many audio editing programs such as Cakewalk’s Sonar Software Suites and Steinberg’s Cubase include this helpful tool; it applies a series of band filters to an audio file, each of which works on a certain range of the spectrum. For example, the frequencies that fall within the range, typically one-third octave, can be boosted or cut. Harmonics: A frequency that is a whole-number multiple of the fundamental frequency. For example, if the fundamental frequency of a sound is 440Hz, then the first two harmonics are 880Hz and 1,320Hz (1.32k Hz). See Overtone. Harmonic Distortion: The addition of harmonics that was not present in the original signal. Hertz (Hz): A unit of measurement denoting frequency originally measured as one cycle per second (CPS): 20 Hz = 20 CPS. Kilohertz (k Hz) are Hertz measured in multiples of 1,000. High Pass Filter (HPF): A device which allows higher frequency data to be transmitted, rejecting lower frequencies, as used in Graphic EQ’s. For example, your HPF is set at 100Hz. This means everything below 100Hz to 20 Hz will not be as present in your audio signal. If you had a bass drum mic’d, you would not get any low end thump. See Low Pass Filter. Imaging: This is an audio listening term and refers to the ability of a speaker to position sounds precisely in space. A good stereo system can provide a stereo image that has width, depth and height. The best imaging systems will define a nearly holographic recreation of the original sound. Impedance: A measure of the AC (alternating current) resistance to the flow of electrical or acoustic energy. In electronics it is measured in Ohms. Initialization: Typically used with synthesizers, it is a procedure which places default values or factory settings into some or all parameters. It is especially helpful when clearing out a multitude of previously sent MIDI messages. Interface: An audio interface such as allows the computer to communicate with a microphone or line level device. A MIDI interface such as any USB-MIDI product, allows easy communication between a computer with USB port (or tablet with USB adapter) and a synthesizer or controller keyboard. Loop: To repeat a sequencer pattern or portion of an audio sample repeatedly. The point to which the program returns, whether the beginning or some other point, is usually definable by the user. Low-Pass Filter (LPF): Also called a High Cut Filter. A device which allows lower frequency data to be transmitted, rejecting higher frequencies. Most subwoofers have low-pass filters built in and many surround sound decoders have subwoofer outputs that have been low-pass filtered. See High Pass Filter. Mapping: In sequencing it is the process of identifying patches and keys so that sound files can be played properly. A key map will translate values for MIDI messages so that the correct keys will be played whereas a patch map functions to identify the correct patches or sounds. A typical use would be when a non-General Midi (GM) synth needs to be mapped for a GM file. Marker: In sequencing and audio software, a marker is used to record a position for easy editing navigation. Meta Events: The prefix “Meta” often means above or beyond and in computing, a Meta character conveys information about other characters. In MIDI, a Meta event is illustrated by such things as track name, patch name, tempo, time signature, etc. Meta events are contrasted with data streams. Milli- : An prefix meaning 1/1000. MIDI: An acronym for the Musical Instrument Digital Interface, a standardized digital “language” that allows electronic musical instruments and computers to communicate with one another. MIDI Cable: A special wire used to carry MIDI data; it has three shielded conductors connected to five-pin DIN plugs at both ends. It is not a MIDI interface by itself but some interfaces such as the M-Audio Midisport need MIDI cables to complete the communication between the computer and MIDI hardware. MIDI Controller: This is a hardware device that outputs MIDI data . Other forms of controllers include drum, guitar, or wind controller. Real-time controllers are either continuous controllers (wheels, joysticks, sliders, foot pedals, breath controllers) or switch controllers (footswitches or other on-off devices). Many MIDI controllers do not have sounds but are used specifically to send MIDI data to another device such as a computer or a sound module. MIDI Implementation Chart: This comprehensive document resides within most synthesizer manuals and describes what MIDI messages, such as note number, velocity, aftertouch, bender, control change, program change, and system exclusive messages are transmitted or recognized by the synthesizer. MIDI Filter: Many sequencing and digital audio recording programs utilize filters to assist the user with the editing of their data. A filter is especially useful if you are replacing MIDI data such as changing a violin to a viola. MIDI Messages: The net effect of MIDI is sound: melodies, harmonies, rhythms, but the MIDI message or MIDI event itself is not a sound but a command. MIDI messages transmitted are digital commands and capable of sending about 1,000 events per second. MIDI Ports: Physical connector through which MIDI data enters or leaves, depending upon which kind of port it is as there are three kinds of MIDI ports: In, Out, and Thru. MIDI data enters an instrument at its MIDI In port (often called a MIDI Input) and leaves the instrument from its MIDI Out port (often called a MIDI Output). The MIDI Thru is a more unique port that sends a copy of the data currently being received at the MIDI In port. MIDI Sound Generator: For authentic reproduction of acoustical instruments, it uses samples—instrument sounds stored as digitized audio. This is actually another term for synthesizer—converting MIDI events into real audio sound. MIDI Thru: One of a synthesizer’s three ports (connections): MIDI In, MIDI Out, and MIDI Thru. MIDI In receives information from other equipment; MIDI Out sends information to other equipment. MIDI Thru duplicates the information and sends it to other equipment so a synthesizer can echo messages to other synthesizers. This is particularly useful when daisy chaining MIDI equipment. MIDI Time Code (MTC): A MIDI system realtime message that assigns a unique address to each moment in time (usually each 120th of a second). Similar to SMPTE time code but transmitted via MIDI ports, it is used mainly for the playback synchronization of MIDI files and digital audio. Mini Disc: A compact data storage medium designed to store music. Mini Discs come in two varieties: playback only and recordable. Introduced by Sony in late 1992 and features random access similar to CDs. Modular Digital Multitrack (MDM): A multitrack digital recorder with (usually) 8 tracks that can be run in synchronization with other machines (of the same type) to attain more tracks. ADAT brand recorders are an example. Monophonic: Originally, and still, can refer to only one sound source or signal derived from one sound source. For synthesizers this refers to only one note, pitch or voicing, audio or MIDI, being heard at a time. MP: Multi-processor. MP3: MP3 stands for MPEG 1, Audio Layer 3. It is an encoding format which takes out all the irrelevant data in a recording and compresses the remaining data. An MP3 file can be 1/12 the size of an original recording taking up far less space on a computer’s hard drive, making it feasible to email the audio file, post on the web, make MP3 CDs and use with personal music players such as Apple’s i Pod. MPEG2: Compared to MP3, MPEG2 provides higher quality music compressed to 70% of its original size and accommodates up to 48 audio channels and sample rates up to 96k Hz. Multi-Sample: The creation of several samples, each covering a limited musical range, the idea being to produce a more natural range of sounds across the range of the instrument being sampled. For example, a piano may need to be sampled every two or three semitones in order to sound convincing. Multi-Timbral: In sequencing, a multi-timbral sound module can play several parts on different channels simultaneously. A multi-timbral device is one that is prepared to sound like more than one instrument at a time. Multi-Track: A recording device capable of recording several parallel parts or tracks which may then be mixed or re-recorded independently. Noise Shaping: An audio tool for creating digital dither allowing added noise to be shifted into those parts of the audio spectrum where the human ear is least sensitive. See Dithering. Nonlinear Recording: Describes digital recording systems that allow any parts of the recording to be played back in any order with no gaps. Conventional tape is referred to as linear, because the material can only play back in the order in which it was recorded. Normalization: An automatic process available in most audio software whereby the gain of all program material is adjusted so the peak level will just arrive at 0db. This can sometimes cause noise to enter into the recording if the recording levels are too low. There are many software programs such as BIAS’s Deck for OS X that allow normalization to very quickly correct an audio file that has been recorded at improper levels. Notation Software: A computer program, capable of displaying and printing MIDI information as standard musical notation. Although sequencers can include notation capability, they lack the sophistication of true notation programs which often have scanning capabilities allowing quick input of music for transposing to another key. Nyquist Frequency: The highest frequency that can be reproduced accurately when a signal is digitally encoded at a given sample rate. The theory being, Nyquist frequency is half of the sampling rate. As in, when a digital recording uses a sampling rate of 44.1k Hz, the Nyquist frequency is 22.050k Hz. If a signal being sampled contains frequency components that are above the Nyquist limit, aliasing will be introduced in the digital representation of the signal unless those frequencies are filtered out prior to digital encoding. See Aliasing. Omni-Directional: For microphones is means receiving sound evenly from all directions. For speakers this means an even coverage in all directions. Oscillator: An electronic device capable of generating recurring waveforms at different frequencies for testing purposes, or a digital process used by a synthesizer to generate a waveform. Overdubbing: Enables one or more of previously recorded tracks to be monitored while simultaneously recording one or more signals onto other tracks. This process can be repeated until the song or soundtrack has been built up. If a mistake is made, it is possible to recue the tape to the desired starting point and repeat the process until you have the best take on tape. See Dubbing. Oversampling: A digital filtering technique used in CD components where extra data points are added to the audio read from a disc, creating a signal that is some multiple (usually two, four, or eight times) of the CD format’s standard sampling frequency. This process raises the frequency of any false information, which can then be removed by an analog filter. Using the high sample rate, the digital data may be processed with a very steep slope digital filter. As the filter is in the digital domain, unpleasant side-effects such as phase effects are eliminated. Overtone: A whole-number multiple of the fundamental frequency of a tone. The overtones define the harmonic spectrum of a sound. See Partial. PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation. In the first part of the A/D conversion, pulses occurring at the sampling frequency are modulated by an analog audio signal. See PCM. Pan: To move a signal from the left to the right of a stereo field, or vice versa. Pan pot: Round control knob enabling the user of a mixer to move the signal to any point in the stereo sound stage by varying the relative levels fed to the left and right stereo outputs. On most analog mixers there is a dent at the center between left and right on the pan knob. See Detent. Parameter: A MIDI value seen in the envelope of a particular instrument that alters the integrity of the sound itself. Common parameters include pitch bend, sustain, volume, and reverb. Parametric Equalizer: A specialized type of EQ that makes it possible to change the frequency range, bandwidth and boost or cut. Partial: A single frequency, sinewave component (the fundamental, an overtone, or a tone at some other frequency) of a complex tone. All sounds are composed of a number of partials. See Harmonic. Patch: A sequencer’s patch setting selects an instrument, thereby determining the nature of the sounds. Patch is exactly the same thing as an instrument or voice. Although most patches call up one sound or voice, a drum patch may encompass a large range of percussive instruments. Also when you plug in (or patch) cords between hardware components. Patch Editor Software: A program which allows the editing of sounds by manipulating the envelope. Edirol’s PCR’s controller keyboards have their own editing software, to be used with any sequencer. Other programs, such as Sound Quest’s MIDI Quest allows you to edit, store and organize your patches. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A computer expansion card interface used in PCs and Macs for adding video, networking or audio capabilities. Card D Deluxe, Digital Audio Lab’s soundcard, would be one such card. PCMCIA: This is a memory or I/O (input/output) card for PC and Mac laptop computers. The acronym stands for the Personal Computer Memory Card International Association, a non-profit organization whose mission is to develop PC Card standards and promote adoption of PCMCIA-based products, however a more familiar explanation is “people can’t memorize computer industry acronyms.” Also known as PC cards, they can be found as memory cards on DAW’s, or communications ports on laptops for LAN, fax/modem, ATA disk drives, wireless internet connections and more. There are PCMCIA soundcards available such as Echo Audio’s newest Indigo. PCM (Pulse Code Modulation): Digital audio recording format used since the late 1970s. PCM simultaneously captures all uncompressed bits of a Word (8 to 48-bits) at various standardized sampling frequencies (11k Hz to 192k Hz). The standard CD, co-developed by Philips and Sony, uses a 16-bit word length and a sampling rate of 44.1k Hz. WAV and AIFF are common types of PCM audio files. See Word. Peak: The highest point in the audio waveform on a graph of a sound wave that would look something like a mountain peak. It is the point of greatest voltage or sound pressure in a cycle. Phase: Phase describes the time relationship between two different waveforms. It is expressed in degrees, with 360 degrees representing a full cycle. It is the amount by which one sine wave leads or lags a second wave of the same frequency. The difference is described by the term phase angle. Sine waves in phase reinforce each other; those out of phase cancel. Pitch: A continuous frequency over time. Pitch Bend Wheel: A MIDI controller that can vary the pitch of a sound and allows notes to be bent up or down like when sequencing a sliding trombone sound for instance. Pitch to MIDI Conversion: Many programs have this feature whereby an audio signal is converted to MIDI data. This is especially useful in notation programs where the data can then be customized and printed. The audio signal needs to be monophonic, thereby having only one voice at a time. The best way to sell this feature regardless of the software being used is to state that the user will be able to hone his music theory with the editing of the file, as the conversion is normally far from perfect. Programs such as Make Music’s Finale Guitar have this feature specifically for the guitarist. Plugins: These are accessory programs that add functionality to digital audio software. Ranging from input plugins that allow your player to read different file formats to output plugins that provide visual displays to accompany your music, to software samplers such as Gary Garitan’s Orchestral Strings. Polyphonic: The ability to play many different notes at once. Portamento: A musical term referring to the gliding effect that allows a sound to change pitch at a gradual rate, rather than abruptly. This is an effect that can be assigned using an assignable MIDI controller knob on controller keyboards such as the Edirol PCR-30 or PCR-50. Polyphony: Derivative from the Greek term meaning variety of tones, it is the number of notes which can be played simultaneously. Any synthesizer has a maximum polyphony which cannot be exceeded. If the polyphony is exceeded, MIDI data will drop out from MIDI channels used near the end of the sequence. Port: A hardware location where data is passed in and out. A port on a MIDI interface allows 16 MIDI channels to transmit data. The Edirol USB MIDI interfaces allow a variety of ports for the musician, with the UM-1 (or UM-1S) with 1 port, the UM-550 with 5 ports or the UM-880 with 8 ports. Although impractical within one sequence to utilize 128 channels (using the UM-880) it is beneficial to have a multiple port MIDI interface in the event there are multiple modules or keyboards in the MIDI setup. Preamplifier: This is usually referred to as preamp and is a device that takes a source signal, such as from a turntable, tape deck or CD player, and passes this signal at line level on to a power-amplifier. The preamplifier may have a number of controls such as source selector switches, balance, volume and possibly tone controls. This is typically the largest gain stage in a sound set-up. Pulse Wave: Similar to a square wave but non-symmetrical, pulse waves sound brighter and thinner than square waves, making them useful in the synthesis of reed instruments. The timbre changes according to the mark/space ratio of the waveform. Punch Recording: A feature within audio software that allows automatic on-off recording at specified points…especially nice when you need to rerecord a short phrase in a vocal track to fix an entire vocal session. Quantization: A sequencing editing operation that can be used to correct timing mistakes, quantization forces all notes played to fall on the nearest beat specified. Real-Time: In sequencing software there are generally two types of recording procedures, real-time; and step-time. Real-time is literally recorded in time that has not been adjusted, such as slowed down. Step-time is a recording method of inputting MIDI data that is sequentially laid down note-by-note, chord-by-chord and is particularly helpful for inputting data at one’s own pace. Red book: The formal standard for the audio compact disc (CD), developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. Resolution: This is the accuracy with which an analog signal is represented by a digitized system. Although other factors affect accuracy of recording, the higher bit number used, the more accurately the amplitude of each sample can be measured. Resonant Frequency: Any system has a resonance at some particular frequency and at that frequency, even a slight amount of energy can cause the system to vibrate. A stretched piano string, when plucked, will vibrate for a while at a certain fundamental frequency. Plucked again, it will again vibrate at that same frequency. This is its natural or resonant frequency. While this is the basis of musical instruments, it is usually undesirable in music-reproducing instruments like audio equipment or room acoustics. Reverb: Acoustic ambience created by multiple reflections in a confined space. Also, a type of digital signal processing that produces a continuous wash of echoing sound, simulating an acoustic space such as a concert hall. Reverberation contains the some frequency components as the sound being processed, but no discrete echoes. See Echo, DSP or Delay. Ripping: This is the process of taking audio data from a CD and making it into a sound file on your computer. It is called ripping because in most cases the audio data is digitally “ripped” directly from the CD. This process can be very fast (a four minute song might only take 30 seconds to record). An analog recording process on the other hand records a song by playing the CD and recording the sound output. The analog process can only happen in realtime (a four minute song takes four minutes to record). The digital extraction process is faster because it copies the data instead of recording the sound output. Software applications that rip from CDs create the new audio file in the WAV, AIFF or MP3 formats. Cakewalk’s Pyro is suitable. Sample: A digital recording of a naturally occurring sound. Sampling: Sampling is actually emulating the sound of an acoustical instrument by digitizing (converting to digital sound) the waveforms produced by the instrument. There are hardware samplers and software samplers, such as Tascam’s Gigastudio. Sampling Rate: This is the rate at which samples of a waveform are made and must be twice the highest frequency one wishes to capture. Commercial compact discs use a rate of 44,100 samples per second. (Se Nyquist Theory)Sequencer: A MIDI sequencer, whether it is a software program or a stand-alone sequencer, arranges melodic and harmonic patterns in successive positions, sequentially. Storing MIDI information such as note-on and note-off events in memory and playing them back in the most fundamental task of a sequencer. Slider: An input-device to manipulate audio or MIDI data; a typical use is to increase or decrease volume. Programs will have this as an on-screen image, like a button control that one can move with a mouse. Sibilance: High frequency whistling or lisping sound that affects vocal recordings, due either to poor microphone technique or excessive equalization. SIMD: Programming code, Single Instruction Multiple Data. Sine wave: This is the most basic waveform which is a pure tone with no harmonics and consists of a single partial. The sine wave forms the basis of all complex, periodic sounds. SMPTE: (Society of Motion Pictures and Television Engineers) a.k.a. “Time Code.” Universally used and recognized standard for time and velocity. Digital machine code which contains hours, minutes, seconds and frames. Common formats in the US are 30 frames/second non-drop, and 29.97 frames/second drop-frame. Software Synthesizers (Soft Synths): These have become incredibly popular due to the fact that computers with lots of processing power have become affordable to everyone. Products such as Arturia’s Moog can provide the user with a specific sound set, suitable for a particular composition. Bitheadz has a wide variety of synths such as Harry Sharpe Guitars that can be interfaced as a plug in. See Synthesizer. Sound Module: Another term for MIDI sound generator, this refers to the synthesis component in a device such as a keyboard that produces the sound such as a violin or piano. Spectral Balance: This is the balance across the entire frequency spectrum of the audio range. Square Wave: A symmetrical rectangular waveform which contain a series of odd harmonics. Standard MIDI File: Usually seen as SMF files, this means that the MIDI file utilizes common parameters across different platforms and sequencers, such as the drums always being on MIDI channel 10. The significant advantage to this file format is assured compatibility regardless of what synth is used for playback. Status Byte: In a MIDI message, this announces what kind of message is being sent, such as “note-on” or “note-off.”Streaming Audio: Refers to the process of making a broadcast of audio available on the Internet. Subcode: Hidden data within the CD and DAT format that includes such information as the absolute time location, number of tracks, total running time and so on. Subtractive Synthesis: The process of creating a new sound by filtering and shaping a raw, harmonically complex waveform. Synthesizer: A synthesizer is a device driven by a microprocessor which contains a programmable chip. Originally, a synthesizer produced an audio signal by the direct manipulation of electrical signals. Now MIDI sound-generating circuitry utilizes mathematical functions which alter a stream of digital numbers. System Messages: MIDI data which is not specific to any one channel. System data includes system exclusive messages (an instrument’s internal data, sometimes called bulk dump data), system realtime messages (sequencer start, stop, and continue commands as well as MIDI clock and other timing information) and system common messages (song select, tuning requests, system reset, etc.). SYSEX: System Exclusive Messages or Sysex messages do exactly what is implied – they send commands specific to a particular device in a MIDI setup where global control of all settings is not desired. They are particularly useful if your MIDI modules or keyboards are in a chain and isolated commands are necessary. Tempo: The rate of speed at which a musical composition proceeds (i.e. the beat). Usually uses a quarter note as the timing reference. Timbre: The quality of a sound that distinguishes it from other sounds of the same pitch and volume. It is the distinctive tone color of an instrument or a singing voice. Tone Generator: This is essentially a synthesizer without a keyboard. A keyboard-less device which outputs audio signals in response to MIDI commands. Both the Edirol SD-20 and the SD-80 are tone generators. Track: In audio software, tracks generally contain one audio layer or audio file; there is multi-track software or stereo (2 track) audio software. With MIDI sequencing, tracks are nothing more than an organizing tool commonly confused with MIDI Channels which are necessary for delineating different instruments. Although only one MIDI channel can be used at a time, many tracks can be assigned to this same MIDI channel. This is particularly useful when parts come in or fade out as these tracks can then be easily muted or soloed. Most sequencers allow an unlimited number of tracks within each song. Translator: Software such as Chicken System’s Translator that allows conversion between professional sampler formats such as Akai. Transient: Usually the brief initial (or attack) portion of a waveform. Transients provide important cues that help our ears recognize sounds, but they are often difficult for an audio system to reproduce because of their high amplitudes and short rise times. Transparency: This is a listening term used to describe audio quality where the high frequency detail is clear and individual sounds are easy to identify and separate. The more transparent a sound is… the clearer the auditory picture. Transpose: This allows a musical composition to be played in a different key. Both synthesizers and sequencers can carry out this function. Tuning: 440 Hertz is the normal Western tuning value however, this can be easily be adjusted in a synthesizer to suit the type of music being performed. The pitch can be altered by raising or lowering the value as plus or minus cents. Playing non-Western music may dictate the need to adjust the tuning of a synth. Tweeter: This is the smaller speaker within a speaker cabinet used to reproduce the higher range of frequencies. To form a full-range system, a tweeter needs to be combined with a woofer, (2-way system), or a woofer and midrange, (3-way system). The Edirol MA-20 desktop speakers have a 1” tweeter and a 4-3/4” woofer. USB: USB (Universal Serial Bus) is a “plug-and-play” interface between a computer and add-on devices such as audio devices, joysticks, keyboards, scanners, and printers. With USB, a new device can be added to your computer without having to add an adapter card or even having to reboot your computer. USB supports a data speed of 12 megabits per second and a single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices. It is best to use self-powered USB hubs and to plug devices into the back of your computer and not the keyboard for optimum reliability. USB 2: Also referred to as Hi-Speed USB, USB 2.0 is an external bus that supports data rates up to 480Mbps. USB 2.0 is a revision of USB 1.1. USB 2.0 is fully compatible with USB 1.1 and uses the same cables and connectors. Vector Architecture: Used in computer programming, vector architecture allows the simultaneous processing of many data items in parallel. Velocity: The velocity value determines how hard a note is pressed on the keyboard controller. A velocity value can be set either from the controller keyboard or from software, before or after the data is entered. Vocoder: A digital signal processor that applies a filter on a sound based on the frequency characteristics of a second sound. By taking the spectral content of a human voice and imposing it on a musical instrument, talking instrument effects can be created. There are plug-ins available with this effect, such as Native Instruments Vokator. VCA: Voltage Controlled Amplifier. Used extensively in Arturia’s software synth Moog, this is an amplifier that will change the gain depending upon the level of control voltage sent to it. VU meter: The Volume Unit Meter is designed to visually interpret signal levels in roughly the same way as the human ear, which responds more closely to the average levels of sounds rather than to the peak levels. WAV: This is a PC digital audio file format which is quite large because it is not a compressed format. The computer file extension for a WAV file is “.wav.”Waveform: A representation of a wave’s amplitude over time. Waveform Editors: Software that allows waveforms to be manipulated through edits such as cuts, splices, loops, and redraws. Depending upon the sophistication of the software, one can edit extremely detailed amounts of data. Steinberg’s Wavelab is an excellent editor for the PC. Wavetable Synthesis: A method of generating waveforms through lookup tables. Many software synthesizers use wavetable synthesis where these digitized waveforms are organized in a bank or table, accessed through a sequencer. Woofer [or Sub Woofer]: A speaker that is used for low-frequency reproduction. Word: One sample of audio data. Word Length: The number of bits per sample that a digital device (such as an A/D converter) uses to convert or store data. The greater the number of bits in a digital sample, the more accurate the digitized description of the instantaneous analog signal value. Also called bit depth, bit rate or bit resolution. Word clock: The metronome that governs sample timing is called the word clock and is important because precise timing of digital audio samples is critical when linking digital audio equipment. XLR: A 3-pin male/female connector originally developed by Canon that is commonly used to carry balanced analog audio signals for microphones. Many audio cards and USB audio interfaces such as those from Focusrite and Lexicon have the XLR connection directly on the front panel for ease of use. Found this helpful? Please share!Filed Under: Create, Record Tagged With: Audio Editing Software, Audio Recording Software, Audio Software, Computers Audio, Digital Audio, Midi, Midi Hardware, Midi Port, Music Sequencer, Recording Audio, Synthesizers, Usb Audio Interface  All About Autonomic Dysreflexia (Autonomic Hyperreflexia) All About Autonomic Dysreflexia (Autonomic Hyperreflexia)How it works Symptoms Triggers Diagnosis Treatment Prevention Outlook What is autonomic dysreflexia (AD)? Autonomic dysreflexia (AD) is a condition in which your involuntary nervous system overreacts to external or bodily stimuli. It’s also known as autonomic hyperreflexia. This reaction causes:a dangerous spike in blood pressurerapid heartbeatconstriction of your peripheral blood vesselsother changes in your body’s autonomic functions The condition is most commonly seen in people with spinal cord injuries above the sixth thoracic vertebra, or T6. It may also affect people who have multiple sclerosis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, and some head or brain injuries. AD can also be a side effect of medication or drug use. AD is a serious condition that’s considered a medical emergency. It can be life-threatening and result in:strokeretinal hemorrhagecardiac arrestpulmonary edema How it works How autonomic dysreflexia happens in the body To understand AD, it’s helpful to understand the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS is the part of the nervous system responsible for maintaining involuntary bodily functions, such as:blood pressureheart and breathing ratesbody temperaturedigestionmetabolismbalance of water and electrolytesproduction of body fluidsurinationdefecationsexual response There are two branches of ANS:sympathetic autonomic nervous system (SANS)parasympathetic autonomic nervous system (PANS)How they typically work The SANS and PANS operate in opposite ways. This maintains the balance of the involuntary functions in your body. In other words, if the SANS overreacts, the PANS can compensate for it. Here’s an example. If you see a bear, your sympathetic nervous system might initiate a fight-or- flight reaction. This would cause your heart to beat faster, your blood pressure to rise, and your blood vessels to get ready to pump more blood. But what if you realize you were mistaken and it wasn’t a bear? You wouldn’t need the stimulation of your SANS, so your parasympathetic nervous system would jump into action. Your PANS would bring your heartbeat and blood pressure back to normal. What happens with ADAD interrupts both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. This means that the body’s SANS overreacts to stimuli, such as a full bladder. What’s more, the PANS can’t effectively stop that reaction. It may actually make it worse. Your lower body still generates a lot of nerve signals after a spinal cord injury. These signals communicate your bodily functions, such as the status of your bladder, bowels, and digestion. The signals can’t get past the spinal injury to your brain. However, the messages still go to the parts of the sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems that operate below the spinal cord injury. Signals can trigger the SANS and PANS, but the brain can’t appropriately respond to them so they no longer work effectively as a team. The result is that the SANS and PANS can get out of control. Symptoms Symptoms The symptoms of AD may include:anxiety and apprehensionirregular or racing heartbeatnasal congestionhigh blood pressure with systolic readings often over 200 mm Hga pounding headacheflushing of the skinprofuse sweating, particularly on the foreheadlightheadednessdizzinessconfusiondilated pupils Triggers Triggers Triggers of AD in people with spinal cord injuries can be anything that generates nerve signals to the SANS and PANS, including:a distended bladdera blocked catheterurinary retentiona urinary tract infectionbladder stonesconstipationa bowel impactionhemorrhoidsskin irritationspressure sorestight clothing Diagnosis How it’s diagnosed AD requires an immediate medical response, so your doctor will usually treat the condition on the spot. Treatment is based on the apparent symptoms, as well as pulse and blood pressure readings. Once the immediate emergency passes, your doctor will probably want to do a thorough examination and run diagnostic tests. These tests can help your doctor determine the exact cause and rule out other possible causes. Treatment Treatment The goal of emergency treatment is to lower your blood pressure and eliminate the stimuli triggering the reaction. Emergency measures may include:moving you into sitting position to cause the blood to flow to your feetremoving tight clothes and sockschecking for a blocked catheterdraining a distended bladder with a catheterremoving any other potential triggers, such as drafts of air blowing on you or objects touching your skintreating you for fecal impactionadministering vasodilators or other drugs to bring your blood pressure under control Prevention Prevention Long-term treatment and prevention should identify and address the underlying issues that trigger AD. A long-term treatment plan might include:changes in medication or diet to improve eliminationimproved management of urinary cathetersmedications for high blood pressuremedications or a pacemaker to stabilize your heartbeatself-management to avoid triggers Outlook What is the long-term outlook? The outlook is more uncertain if your condition is due conditions that are hard to control or unknown causes. Repeated episodes of uncontrolled spikes or drops in blood pressure can result in strokes or cardiac arrest. Work with your doctor to identify your triggers and take precautionary steps. If you can manage the triggers for AD, the outlook is good.  What Is MIDI? MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a protocol developed in the 1980's which allows electronic instruments and other digital musical tools to communicate with each other. MIDI itself does not make sound, it is just a series of messages like "note on," "note off," "note/pitch," "pitchbend," and many more. These messages are interpreted by a MIDI instrument to produce sound. A MIDI instrument can be a piece of hardware (electronic keyboard, synthesizer) or part of a software environment (ableton, garageband, digital performer, logic...). The advantages of MIDI include: compact -an entire song can be stored within a few hundred MIDI messages (compared to audio data which is sampled thousands of times a second) easy to modify/manipulate notes -change pitch, duration, and other parameters without having to rerecord change instruments -remember, MIDI only describes which notes to play, you can send these notes to any instrument to change the overall sound of the composition. Add Tip Ask Question Comment Download Step 1: Note On, Note Off, and Velocity The most common tool used to generate MIDI messages is an electronic keyboard. These messages may be routed to a digital synthesizer inside the keyboard, or they may be patched to some other MIDI instrument, like your computer. When a key is pressed the keyboard creates a " note on " message. This message consists of two pieces of information: which key was pressed (called "note") and how fast it was pressed (called "velocity"). " Note " describes the pitch of the pressed key with a value between 0 and 127. I've copied the table in fig 2 from NYU's website, it lists all the MIDI notes and their standard musical notation equivalents. You can see that MIDI note 60 is middle C (C4). " Velocity " is a number between 0 and 127 that is usually used to describe the volume (gain) of a MIDI note (higher velocity = louder). Sometimes different velocities also create different timbres in an instrument; for example, a MIDI flute may sound more frictional at a higher velocity (as if someone was blowing into it strongly), and more sinusoidal/cleaner sounding at lower velocities. Higher velocity may also shorten the attack of a MIDI instrument. Attack is a measurement of how long it takes for a sound to go from zero to maximum loudness. For example, a violin playing quick, staccato notes has a must faster attack than longer, sustained notes. something to remember- not all keyboards are velocity sensitive, if you hear no difference in the sound produced by a keyboard no matter how hard you hit the keys, then you are not sending variable velocity information from that instrument. Computer keyboards are not velocity sensitive, if you are using your computer's keys to play notes into a software sequencer, all the notes will have the same velocity. When a key is released the keyboard creates another MIDI message, a " note off " message. These messages also contain "note" information to ensure that it is signalling the end of the right MIDI note. This way if you are pressing two keys at once and release once of them, the note off message will not signal the end of both notes, only the one you've released. Sometimes note off messages will also contain velocity information based on how quickly you've released the key. This may tell a MIDI instrument something about how quickly it should dampen the note. Figure 1 shows how these MIDI messages are typically represented in MIDI sequencing software environments (in this case Garage Band). Each of the notes in the sequence are started by a note on message and ended with a note off message. In Garage Band the velocity attached to the note on message is represented by the color of the note. In this image above the high velocity notes are white and the lower velocity notes are grey. Figs 3 and 4 show MIDI notes recorded in Ableton. Again you can see that the velocity associated with the note on message is represented by the color of the MIDI note- more saturated = higher velocity. Also notice that the velocity is indicated by a line with a circle on top on the bottom of the screen. By selecting one of your MIDI notes you can see the velocity associated with it; in fig 4 the D4 note has a velocity of 57. Add Tip Ask Question Comment Download Step 2: Aftertouch, Pitchbend, Channel, and Other Extra MIDI Messages Your MIDI keyboard/controller may also generate these MIDI messages: " Aftertouch " is the force used to press down a key after it has been initially struck, think of it as pressure sensitivity. Like velocity, aftertouch ranges from 0 to 127. Aftertouch may be interpreted by a MIDI instrument in a variety of ways; it may affect the volume, timbre, vibrato... you will have to experiment with your own setup to get a feel for what expression you can achieve with aftertouch. Keep in mind that not all electronic keyboards are capable of producing aftertouch messages and not all MIDI instruments support them. The MIDI instruments inside Garage Band do not support aftertouch, but many of the MIDI instruments in more sophisticated software like Ableton, Reason, etc, do. Like velocity, aftertouch messages always have a note associated with them, this means you can send an individual aftertouch message for each of your keys. Here's a good article on Wikipedia about various types of keyboard expression, including aftertouch and velocity. You may also have a pitchbend wheel/slider attached to your MIDI keyboard, this will shift the pitch of whatever notes you are currently playing up or down by less than a semitone . Your pitchbend wheel/slider probably generates pitchbend values from 0-127 (where 64 = no pitchbend), but some high res devices will generate values from 0-16,383 (where 8192 = no pitchbend). Pitchbend does not have a note associated with it, this means that pitchbend is applied equally to every note you're playing. MIDI messages can be sent on 16 different channels as well. Channels are useful for sending certain notes and messages to one MIDI instrument and other notes/messages to another MIDI instrument. Usually, separate MIDI channels are used for different sounding instruments to create a multitracked song, channel 0 might be a piano-sounding instruments, and channel 1 could be a guitar sound. Here are a few other (less common) types of MIDI messages: patch change - allows you to change the MIDI instrument from your MIDI controller (ie change from a violin sound to a piano sound in the middle of your performance) continuous controller - allows you to assign a continuous controller (like a slider) to some kind of MIDI effect (reverb, vibrato, filter, volume... anything) channel pressure - like aftertouch, but applied to every note in a channel. This is usually used as a cheaper alternative to aftertouch, as it requires only one pressure sensor instead of one for each individual key. Add Tip Ask Question Comment Download Step 3: Editing Recorded MIDIAs I said in the intro, the great thing about recording in MIDI is that it is incredibly easy to edit your recordings after the fact. The images above show how I edited a MIDI sequence in Ableton, most other software environments are set up similarly. Select a MIDI note (fig 1). Drag its associated velocity to change it (figs 2 and 3 change the velocity of a MIDI note from 127 to 41). Drag a MIDI note up or down to change its pitch (fig 4 shifts a note from A to A#). You can drag on the beginning and end of a MIDI note to lengthen or shorten its duration (figs 5 and 6). You can really change the feel of the MIDI recording by changing the MIDI instrument you're using to play it back. In figs 7 and 8 I changed the MIDI instrument from a xylophone to synth pad called "retro rave." You can also change aftertouch, pitchbend, channel, and all the other MIDI data in post, but the interface for these varies from program to program so I won't get into the specifics of it here. Add Tip Ask Question Comment Download Step 4: MIDI Protocol and Microcontrollers This instructable is an introduction to the concepts behind MIDI, for more info on the specifics of MIDI protocol and how to program an Arduino to send and receive MIDI, check out my MIDI and Arduino instructable. Add Tip Ask Question Comment Download Share Did you make this project? Share it with us!I Made It!Recommendations Upcycle a Hard Drive Into a Clockby The Unknown Chef in Technology Desktop CT and 3D Scanner With Arduinoby jbumstead in Arduino GH5 Foot Pedal Shutter Remoteby bekathwia in Photography3D CAM and CNC Class105 Enrolled Add Tip Ask Question Post Comment We have a be nice policy. Please be positive and constructive. Add Images Post20 Comments Dominique B20 1 year ago Reply Does MIDI have any patent royalties associated with it? Jean D51 1 year ago Replyi have a synth and a mac and i wanted to start making some EDM but i dont know at all what i need to do could you please help me?? im using LMMS as a software and i wanted to use my synth but i dont know howto connect it Thanks Elizabeth S147 1 year ago in reply to Jean D51Reply I have just come by an old digital recorder and I'm having similar thoughts...it has a MIDI port in the back, five-pin plug and that anchor thing (square one at the base...) I'm having dreams of just being able to pick up a cord at a music shop and plug it straight into the PC so that I could record synth stuff. I can't be sure... Tim Nicolas001 2 years ago Reply Really clear explanations - you've explained several things I was wondering about. Thanks!caciquemalandra 3 years ago Reply I wonder why Status byte must start with 1, and the other data bytes must start with 0. I mean, I read that this is the way the midi reciever recognize each byte. However, that doesn't make sense to me. Why isn't it possible to use 256 values for each data bytes? What happens in the first 0-127 values of the Status byte?skip.nordenholz 3 years ago in reply to caciquemalandra Replyit makes it easier for device to find the beginning of a message in a stream of bytes. If something goes wrong, and some bytes are dropped, the device doesn't have to know how many bytes were dropped to know which byte is the start of a message.steve.r.collins.378 3 years ago Reply Thank you!의김 3 years ago Reply Now I understood what MIDI is!!! !You did a great job for MIDI newbie like me!! I can go next step for my project now!!Thanks! !amandaghassaei 3 years ago in reply to 의김Replyglad to hear it!darsad 4 years ago Replyhow about the messages for "bank change" and "loop change" in midi foot controllers? I would like to make a midi foot controller that can control an audio switcher for example like thishttp://www.voodoolab.com/manuals/gcx_manual.pdfthanks!More Comments Post Comment  ABI TM-ABISYSTEMProvides Indicators of Peripheral Artery Disease in Just 3 Minutes!Let's Collaborate Diabetic TM-ABIThe Diabetic TM-ABI is the first valuable automated ankle-brachial index measuring device based on oscillometric and pneumo-plethysmography method (Pulse Volume Records). The blood pressure on the upper and lower extremities is measured simultaneously, resulting in the calculation of the anklebrachial index (ABI). The result of the assessment is clear and straight forward, only what is really important – the left ABI and right ABI – are displayed. The measurement is repeatable and can be performed in only three minutes. The Diabetic TM-ABI measures ankle/brachial indices at distal posterior tibial and anterior tibial/dorsalis pedis arteries. Indications The Diabetic TM-ABI system is indicated for use on adult subjects at risk of having or developing peripheral arterial disease (PAD). The system is intended for the rapid measurement of ankle-brachial pressure index (ABPI), or ankle-brachial index (ABI), and pulse volume recording (PVR) / volume plethysmography. The Diabetic TM-ABI system is intended to be used to spot-check patients and provides information regarding patient risk. The physician, based on this information, is responsible for all diagnosis. CPT Codes For Use With This Device93922 – Limited, bilateral, noninvasive, physiologic studies of upper or lower extremity arteries analysis at 1-2 levels. 93923 – Complete bilateral noninvasive physiologic studies of upper or lower extremity arteries, 3 or more levels. System Suitable for Wound Care Assessment Assessing Symptomatic PADScreening Device for PADPatients with Venous or Arterial Ulcers (Prior to application of compression therapy)Use on patients with unilateral lower limb amputation Contents of the TM-ABIAn Electronic Box3 Blood Pressure Cuffs & Tubes TM-ABI Software (Manages, analyzes & displays the measured data)Measurement Procedure Color-coded cuffs simplify the use of the device. The different colors indicate where to place each cuff. The red cuff is positioned on the upper arm, the green cuff on the right ankle and the yellow cuff on the left ankle. Each cuff is clearly labelled and includes a diagram to ensure correct placement, so no training is needed as comprehensive guidelines are provided. During the measurement, patient needs to be in the supine position. Consequently, the Diabetic TM-ABI is placed right next to the examination bed, so portability of the device is enhanced with a long lasting battery (50 measurements), which enables the device to be used wherever it is needed. Clinical Study When comparing ABI measurements obtained by oscillometric method vs. Doppler probe method, it was evident that oscillometric measurements were more precise; 17% vs. 19% respectively. Bland Altman plot showed bias of +0.06 and scatter diagram showed good correlation (slope: 0.75). In oscillometric method analysis percentage error was 0.26. Furthermore, assessment of the concordance index revealed a very good agreement between both methods in terms of clinical relevance: concordance index of 0.88 (95% CI: from 0.76 to 0.97). Oscillometric measurements were completed three times faster than Doppler probe measurements.  Trends in data centers: Adiabatic cooling, DP humidity control and more Evaluate Trends in data centers: Adiabatic cooling, DP humidity control and moreby Robert Mc Farlane Shen Milsom & Wilke LLCCould your data center benefit from free cooling or intelligent power strips, LED lighting or SSD storage? Let's parse the latest data center trends. This Article Covers Data center facilities RELATED TOPICSData center ops Data center servers Networks and storage Data center systems management Looking for something else? Is your data center certification knowledge up to date? Distributed data centers boost resiliency, but IT hurdles remain How do I figure size requirements for a new UPS unit? TECHNOLOGIESAdiabatic humidification Data center cooling Data center design Data center infrastructure mgmt Sections Close-coupled or source-of-heat cooling Higher-temperature operation Free cooling Evaporative or adiabatic cooling Containment cooling Chimney cabinets and ceiling plenums Dew point humidity control Nonintegrated humidification Intelligent, communicating cooling systems Dig Deeper Related Content Hot-aisle vs. cold-aisle containment: Liebert and APC...– Search Data Center The data center humidity conundrum– Search Data Center Data center humidity levels source of debate– Search Data Center While I'm reluctant to call any trends in data centers today fads -- everything has a potential value someplace -- certain technologies are over-hyped, some are proven and others are still shaking out. A great deal of data center improvements focus on cooling and humidity control, many on power, some on workload management and performance, and still others on the data center design and layout. Let's start with the copious cooling and humidity control options available in today's data centers: Close-coupled or source-of-heat cooling Higher-temperature operation Free cooling Evaporative, or adiabatic cooling Containment cooling Chimney cabinets and ceiling plenums Dew point humidity control Non-integrated humidification Intelligent, communicating cooling systems Most of these focus on conserving energy use through higher temperatures, ambient air and targeting cooled air rather than blast-chilling the entire data center. Close-coupled or source-of-heat cooling The closer cooling moves to the heat source, the more effectively and efficiently it works. Which is nothing new -- just ask the old mainframe operators or any laptop designer. While close-coupled cooling is on the verge of "mainstream" for data centers, newer approaches garner interest with aggressive energy efficiency demands. It simply takes too much energy to push large volumes of air through floor plenums or ducts then pull it back to air conditioners. Promising technologies include immersion cooling, which submerges servers in mineral oil for extremely efficient cooling at minimal energy use. But what do technicians think of working on servers covered inside and out with oil? It won't be right for every shop. Overhead cooling, over a decade old, is undergoing an evolution, particularly in-row. We'll continue to improve in-row cooling system designs and implementations until direct liquid cooling takes over. Direct liquid cooling went out of style for a while but is resurgent. Water is 3,500 times more efficient than air in removing heat; liquid cooling is pretty inevitable as more powerful processors hit the market. What's old is new again, so it's just a matter of accepting water in our data centers. The rear door cooler is also seeing greater acceptance, partly because of the renewed interest in water cooling. The data center industry would be much better off if the big computer room air conditioners go away, replaced by near exclusive use of newer cooling methods. Education and a willingness to do something differently can make it happen, but the cost and availability of power will ultimately mandate change. Higher-temperature operation The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE) first published about higher-temperature data centers in 2008, but the message is still unheeded. Servers don't need to be refrigerated. They run very well with inlet air temperatures in the 75 degrees Fahrenheit to 80°F range (25° Celsius to 27°C). Server manufacturers actually developed the expanded thermal envelope and agreed that it would apply to legacy equipment as well as new. The energy savings can be spectacular, but people first need to accept that this works, then accept that the hot aisle is going to be a lot hotter -- think 100°F (38°C). This encourages using rear door coolers. PRO+Content Find more PRO+ content and other member only offers, here. E-Handbook Encryption, speed push the modern mainframe into the future E-Handbook An edge computing architecture upends the data centerehandbook_cover Ensure a load-balancer failover in a virtualized environment But that's just the beginning. The 2011 ASHRAE guidelines allow inlet temperatures up to 104°F (40°C) only for equipment that is just now in development in 2013. We won't see these higher classes of equipment in our data centers for a long time, if ever. And when we do, they are likely to be water-cooled. Free cooling Higher temperature operation usually goes hand in hand with free cooling retrofits. Free cooling is now virtually mandated by the requirements of ASHRAE 90.1 - 2010 to save energy and should become nearly universal. The capital expense of energy-conscious retrofits should be at least partially offset by operating cost savings. But implementing free cooling in renovations or upgrades can be challenging and a financial investment. A new standard should make this more realistic in a couple of years. Water-side free cooling will probably predominate, but we should see more air-side installations, as with the Kyoto Wheel method. Ultimately, data center operators will adopt free cooling in more climates than previously thought possible, thanks in part to higher operating temperatures. Evaporative or adiabatic cooling While evaporation for cooling is real science, it is still a novelty for most data center operators and is catching on slowly. Adiabatic cooling decreases the pressure on a substance as it works within an environment, and it occurs in nature as magma rises to the surface of volcanoes and when winds move over mountain peaks. Adiabatic cooling proves effective in warm, dry climates, greatly extending the number of "free cooling" hours. Its major drawback is water usage, but it still consumes less water for the same amount of cooling than a standard cooling tower. Containment cooling Do not build a new data center without some form of containment cooling. It is one of the easiest and most effective ways to improve cooling effectiveness and energy efficiency ever seen in the data center. Many existing data centers also benefit significantly from a containment retrofit. While containment is impressive, it has been over-hyped as a "be all and end all" solution to every cooling problem, and vendors argue over whether hot aisle or cool aisle containment is better. None of this has helped the end user; both hot aisle and cool aisle solutions are effective if designed and implemented correctly. The choice depends as much on the physical data center as on preference. Containment will not solve over-heating problems caused by improper cooling designs or insufficient air flow or cooling capacity. The newest National Fire Protection Association tandards ( NFPA-75) can make containment cooling more difficult to implement. Revamping sprinkler and/or gas fire suppression systems adds significant costs. Avoid poor practices; be sure to install blanking panels in unused rack spaces, block holes in raised floors, and clean cable blockages out of the under-floor space. Chimney cabinets and ceiling plenums Using the ceiling plenum to convey return air to the computer room air conditioners significantly increases CRAC cooling capacity by ensuring the highest achievable return air temperature to the cooling coils. Combine ceiling plenums with hot aisle containment, of which chimney cabinets are the ultimate form, for the biggest benefit. The hot exhaust air from the servers is exhausted from the backs of the cabinets through chimneys on the tops of the cabinets, directly into the ceiling plenum and back to the air conditioners. Hot and cool air never mix, so it is highly energy efficient. As effective as they are, however, chimney cabinets have not been heavily promoted or widely accepted. This may be because full containment designs allow more cabinet flexibility and accomplish nearly the same thing. Chimney cabinets, however, keep the whole room at the cool aisle temperature, which may be more comfortable to work in. Dew point humidity control Far from a fad, controlling humidity via dew point (DP) rather than relative humidity (RH) has been recommended by ASHRAE TC 9.9 since 2008. But the vast majority of data centers still follow RH rules. Users probably can't explain RH any better than they can explain DP, but they are more familiar with RH and with the numbers that have been historically used: 45% to 50% RH. More data center trends These aren't the only fads in data centers today. Check out the rest of this series, which covers data center trends in cooling, power, design and performance. Hot and not hot design fads Powerful fads in power design Workload optimization trends But RH is meaningless in today's high-density data centers, where temperatures vary widely. Dew point temperature, on the other hand, is essentially the same throughout the room, therefore a more reliable metric to regulate humidity. And since so many source-of-heat cooling devices provide no humidity control but must maintain cooling above the dew point to avoid condensation, DP control is really the only way to go. So I sincerely hope it becomes a data center trend, with everyone wanting to use dew point as the latest style of energy efficiency. Nonintegrated humidification Along with DP humidity control comes greater opportunity to humidify the room separately from the CRACs. Depending on the design, nonintegrated humidification can bring a lot of energy savings. Far from a craze today, this kind of humidity control is in the definite minority of designs. Intelligent, communicating cooling systems Automatic cross-coupling and computer control of all the different cooling and humidifying devices in the room is emerging and growing more sophisticated. The technology is so far limited to certain products of individual manufacturers. Effective, energy efficient cooling is becoming so complicated, with the wide variety of cooling product types and computing devices, that having them self-monitor and self-regulate is the only way to maximize operation. If you choose systems with this kind of control, expect to benefit automatically. Universal controls would cross manufacturers' product lines, and that should become the norm in the future, simply because it is so logical. About the author: Robert Mc Farlane is a principal in charge of data center design at Shen Milsom and Wilke LLC, with more than 35 years of experience. An expert in data center power and cooling, he helped pioneer building cable design and is a corresponding member of ASHRAE TC9.9. Mc Farlane also teaches at Marist College's Institute for Data Center Professionals. This was last published in October 2013Dig Deeper on Data center design and facilities All News Get Started Evaluate Manage Problem Solve Is your data center certification knowledge up to date? Uptime Institute tier classification system faces new rivals Emergency Power Off (EPO) button Edge data centers push to new limits with cell tower deal Load More  Adaptive radiation From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Four of the 14 finch species found on the Galápagos Archipelago, are thought to have evolved by an adaptive radiation that diversified their beak shapes to adapt them to different food sources. Part of a series on Evolutionary biology Diagrammatic representation of the divergence of modern taxonomic groups from their common ancestor Key topics [show]Processes and outcomes [show]Natural history [show]History of evolutionary theory [show]Fields and applications [show]Social implications [show]Evolutionary biology portal Category Book Related topicsv t e In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmental niches. [1] [2] Starting with a recent single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological and physiological traits. An example of adaptive radiation would be the avian species of the Hawaiian honeycreepers. Via natural selection, these birds adapted rapidly and converged based on the different environments of the Hawaiian islands. [3]Contents [ hide ]1 Identification2 Causes2.1 Innovation3 Examples3.1 Darwin's finches3.2 Cichlid fish3.3 Hawaiian honeycreepers3.4 Hawaiian silverswords3.5 Anole lizards4 See also5 References6 Further reading Identification [ edit]Four features can be used to identify an adaptive radiation: [2]A common ancestry of component species: specifically a recent ancestry. Note that this is not the same as a monophyly in which all descendants of a common ancestor are included. A phenotype-environment correlation: a significant association between environments and the morphological and physiological traits used to exploit those environments. Trait utility: the performance or fitness advantages of trait values in their corresponding environments. Rapid speciation: presence of one or more bursts in the emergence of new species around the time that ecological and phenotypic divergence is underway. Causes [ edit]Innovation [ edit]The evolution of a novel feature may permit a clade to diversify by making new areas of morphospace accessible. A classic example is the evolution of a fourth cusp in the mammalian tooth. This trait permits a vast increase in the range of foodstuffs which can be fed on. Evolution of this character has thus increased the number of ecological niches available to mammals. The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation. [4] Birds find other ways to provide for each other, i.e. the evolution of flight opened new avenues for evolution to explore, initiating an adaptive radiation. [5] Other examples include placental gestation (for eutherian mammals), or bipedal locomotion (in hominins ). [6]Examples [ edit]Darwin's finches [ edit]One famous example where adaptive radiation is seen is with Darwin's finches. It has been observed by many evolutionary biologists that fragmented landscapes are often a prime location for adaptive radiation to occur. The differences in geography throughout disjointed landscapes such as islands are believed to promote such diversification. Darwin's finches occupy the fragmented landscape of the Galápagos Islands and are diversified into many different species which differ in ecology, song, and morphology, specifically the size and shapes of their beaks. The first obvious explanation for these differences is allopatric speciation, speciation that occurs when populations of the same species become isolated geographically and evolve separately. Because the finches are divided amongst the islands, the birds have been evolving separately for several million years. However, this does not account for the fact that many of the species occur in sympatry, with seven or more species inhabiting the same island. [7] This raises the question as to why these species split when living in the same environment with all the same resources. Petren, Grant, Grant, and Keller proposed that the speciation of the finches occurred in two parts: an initial, easily observable allopatric event followed by a less clear sympatric event. This sympatric event which occurred second was adaptive radiation. [7] This occurred largely to promote specialization upon each island. One major morphological difference among species sharing one island is beak size and shape. Adaptive radiation led to the evolution of different beaks which could access different food and resources. Those with short beaks are better adapted to eating seeds on the ground, those with thin, sharp beaks eat insects, and those with long beaks use their beaks to probe for food inside cacti. With these specializations, seven or more species of finches are able to inhabit the same environments without competition or lack of resources killing several off. In other words, these morphological differences in beak size and shape brought about by adaptive radiation allow the island diversification to persist. Cichlid fish [ edit]Another famous example is the cichlid fishes in lakes of the East African Rift. The lakes in this area are believed to support and sustain about 2,000 different species of these fish, each with different ecological and morphological characteristics such as body size. [8] Like the Galápagos Islands, these lakes form a fragmented landscape that isolates the cichlid fish from one another, allowing them, and many of the organisms they live with, to evolve separately. The diversity of the lakes is in fact quite extraordinary because the adaptive radiations here are sometimes so young. One thing that has interested scientists about the cichlid fish case is the possibility of convergent evolution, or the evolution of analogous structures independently, driven by similar environmental selection pressures. However, quantitative studies on the convergent evolution of the cichlid fish are limited. [8]Hawaiian honeycreepers [ edit]Another example of an adaptive radiation would be an endemic bird species of the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are a large, highly diverse species which have been part of a vast adaptive radiation, that began as the Hawaiian Islands started to form. The honeycreeper species was shaped by island formation and natural selection. The mechanism by which this adaptive radiation occurred can be described as allopatric speciation via the peripheral isolate model. Each time a new island formed, a dispersal event would occur which would result in new community structures on each island. New selection pressures forced the adaptive radiation of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, as they needed to exploit new resources from the different environments of each island. [9] It has been determined that many of the similar morphologies and behaviors of the Hawaiian honeycreepers, located on distant islands, are due to convergence of analogous traits caused by similar environments. [10]Hawaiian silverswords [ edit]Though the most famously recognized cases of adaptive radiation have occurred in animals such as Darwin's finches or the cichlid fish, adaptive radiation certainly occurs in plant species as well. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite possibly the Hawaiian silverswords. The Hawaiian silversword alliance consists of twenty-eight species of Hawaiian plants which range from trees to shrubs to vines. This is exceptional diversification as can be seen through the significant morphological differences between each species of the Hawaiian silverswords. [11] With some species, it is virtually impossible to distinguish visually that they were ever part of one species to begin with. These radiations occurred millions of years ago, but through studies over the past few decades, it has been suggested that the rate of speciation and diversification was extremely high. These high rates, as well as the fragmented landscape of the Hawaiian Islands, are key characteristics which point directly to adaptive radiation. Anole lizards [ edit]Anole lizards have been radiating widely in many different environments, including Central and South America, as well as the West Indies and experience great diversity of species just as the finches, cichlid fish, and silverswords. Studies have been done to determine whether radiations occur similarly for these lizards on the mainland as they do on the Caribbean islands or if differences can be observed in how they speciated. It has been observed that in fact, the radiations are very different, and ecological and morphological characteristics that these lizards developed as part of their speciation on the islands and on the mainland are unique. [12] They have clearly evolved differently to the environments they inhabit. The environmental pressures on the anole lizards are not the same on the mainland as they are on the islands. There are significantly more predators preying on the anole lizards on the mainland. This is but one environmental difference. Other factors play a role in what sort of adaptive radiation will develop. Among the Caribbean islands, a larger perch diameter correlates with longer forelimbs, larger body mass, longer tails, and longer hind limbs. However, on the mainland, a larger perch diameter correlates with shorter tails. This shows that these lizards adapted differently to their environment depending on whether they were located on the mainland or the islands. These differing characteristics reconfirm that most of the adaptive radiation between the mainland and the islands occurred independently. On the islands specifically, species have adapted to certain "microhabitats" in which they require different morphological traits to survive. Irschick (1997) divides these microhabitats into six groups: "trunk–ground, trunk–crown, grass–bush, crown–giant, twig, and trunk." Different groups of lizards would acquire traits for one of these particular areas that made them more specialized for survival in this microhabitat and not so much in others. Adaptive radiation allows species to acquire the traits they need to survive in these microhabitats and reduce competition to allow the survival of a greater number of organisms as seen in many of the examples before. See also [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Adaptive radiation. Cambrian explosion —the most notable evolutionary radiation event Evolutionary radiation —a more general term to describe any radiation List of adaptive radiated Hawaiian honeycreepers by form List of adaptive radiated marsupials by form References [ edit]^ Larsen, Clark S. (2011). Our Origins: Discovering Physical Anthropology (2 ed.). Norton. p. A11.^ a b Schluter, Dolph (2000). The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–11. ISBN 0-19-850523-X.^ Reding, DM; Foster, JT; James, HF; Pratt, D; Fleischer, RC (2009). "Convergent evolution of 'creepers' in the Hawaiian honeycreeper radiation". Biology Letters. 5: 221–224. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2008.0589. PMC 2665804. PMID 19087923.^ Jernvall, J.; Hunter, J. P.; Fortelius, M. (1996). "Molar Tooth Diversity, Disparity, and Ecology in Cenozoic Ungulate Radiations". Science. 274 (5292): 1489–1492. Bibcode: 1996Sci...274.1489J. doi: 10.1126/science.274.5292.1489. PMID 8929401.^ Feduccia, Alan (1999). The Origin and Evolution of Birds.^ Lewin, Roger (2005). Human evolution : an illustrated introduction (5th ed.). p. 21. ISBN 1-4051-0378-7.^ a b Petren, K.; Grant, P. R.; Grant, B. R.; Keller, L. F. (2005). "Comparative landscape genetics and the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches: the role of peripheral isolation". Molecular Ecology. 14 (10): 2943–2957. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x. PMID 16101765.^ a b Losos, Jonathan B (2010). "Adaptive Radiation, Ecological Opportunity, and Evolutionary Determinism". The American Naturalist. 175 (6): 623–39. doi: 10.1086/652433. PMID 20412015.^ Schluter, Dolph (1996). "Ecological causes of adaptive radiation". The American Naturalist. American Society of Naturalists; University of Chicago Press. 148: S40–S64. doi: 10.1086/285901.^ Reding, DM; Foster, JT; James, HF; Pratt, HD; Fleisher, RC (2009). "Convergent evolution of 'creepers' in the Hawaiian honeycreeper radiation". Biology Letters. 5: 221–224. doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2008.0589. PMC 2665804. PMID 19087923.^ Baldwin, Bruce G.; Sanderson, Michael J. (1998). "Age and rate of diversification of the Hawaiian silversword alliance (Compositae)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (16): 9402–9406. Bibcode: 1998PNAS...95.9402B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.16.9402.^ Irschick, Duncan J.; et al. (1997). "A comparison of evolutionary radiations in mainland and Caribbean Anolis lizards". Ecology. 78 (7): 2191–2203. doi: 10.2307/2265955. Further reading [ edit]Wilson, E. et al. Life on Earth, by Wilson, E.; Eisner, T.; Briggs, W.; Dickerson, R.; Metzenberg, R.; O'brien,R. ; Susman, M.; Boggs, W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography, pp 824–877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes Galápagos Islands, Hawaii, and Australia subcontinent, (plus St. Helena Island, etc.). Leakey, Richard. The Origin of Humankind —on adaptive radiation in biology and human evolution, pp. 28–32, 1994, Orion Publishing. Grant, P. R. 1999. The ecology and evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Mayr, Ernst. 2001. What evolution is. Basic Books, New York, NY. Kemp, A. C. (1978). "A review of the hornbills: biology and radiation". The Living Bird. 17: 105–136. Gavrilets, S.; Vose, A. (2005). "Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102: 18040–18045. Bibcode: 2005PNAS..10218040G. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0506330102. Gavrilets, S. and A. Vose. 2009. Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation: evolution of mating preferences. In Butlin, RK, J Bridle, and D *Schluter (eds) Speciation and Patterns of Diversity, Cambridge University Press, page. 102–126. Baldwin, Bruce G.; Sanderson, Michael J. (1998). "Age and rate of diversification of the Hawaiian silversword alliance (Compositae)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (16): 9402–9406. Bibcode: 1998PNAS...95.9402B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.16.9402. Gavrilets, S.; Losos, J. B. (2009). "Adaptive radiation: contrasting theory with data". Science. 323 (5915): 732–737. Bibcode: 2009Sci...323..732G. doi: 10.1126/science.1157966. PMID 19197052. Irschick, Duncan J.; et al. (1997). "A comparison of evolutionary radiations in mainland and Caribbean Anolis lizards". Ecology. 78 (7): 2191–2203. doi: 10.2307/2265955. Losos, Jonathan B (2010). "Adaptive Radiation, Ecological Opportunity, and Evolutionary Determinism". The American Naturalist. 175 (6): 623–39. doi: 10.1086/652433. PMID 20412015. Petren, K.; Grant, P. R.; Grant, B. R.; Keller, L. F. (2005). "Comparative landscape genetics and the adaptive radiation of Darwin's finches: the role of peripheral isolation". Molecular Ecology. 14 (10): 2943–2957. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2005.02632.x. PMID 16101765. Pinto, Gabriel, Luke Mahler, Luke J. Harmon, and Jonathan B. Losos. "Testing the Island Effect in Adaptive Radiation: Rates and Patterns of Morphological Diversification in Caribbean and Mainland Anolis Lizards." NCBI (2008): n. pag. Web. 28 Oct. 2014. Rainey, P. B.; Travisano, M. (1998). "Adaptive radiation in a heterogeneous environment". Nature. 394 (6688): 69–72. Bibcode: 1998Natur.394...69R. doi: 10.1038/27900. Schluter, D (1995). "Adaptive radiation in sticklebacks: trade-offs in feeding performance and growth". Ecology. 76: 82–90. doi: 10.2307/1940633. Schluter, Dolph. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, 2000. Seehausen, O (2004). "Hybridization and adaptive radiation". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 19 (4): 198–207. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2004.01.003. PMID 16701254. Categories: Speciation Evolutionary biology terminology  ADIF Master View, edit and export HAM radio logbooks to other formats, customize program settings, and more using this portable and approachable app ADIF Master is a tiny and portable software application which enables you to open HAM radio logbooks to study information and transfer logs between different logging programs. It comes loaded with several options and configuration parameters that should be easy to figure out. No installation necessary As there is no setup pack involved, you can drop the program files to any part of the hard disk and just click the executable to launch the tool. Another possibility is to save ADIF Master to a pen drive or other removable storage unit, in order to run it on any computer with minimum effort and no previous installers. An important factor worth taking into account is that it does not modify Windows registry settings or create additional files on the disk without your permission, thus leaving it clean after removal. Simple interface and options The GUI is user-friendly, represented by a normal window with a plain and simple structure, where you can import log files using the file browser or drag-and-drop support, as long as they have the CBR, BIN or DAT format. Edit data and configure settings It is possible add or replace serial numbers, insert columns and rows, combine and duplicate columns, use a search function, configure bands and modes, save and reset the window position, use lowercase and a type indicator, skip the verification of required tags, customize the UI colors, and so on. These options can be restored to their factory values. Evaluation and conclusion No error dialogs were shown in our testing, and the tool did not hang or crash. It has a good response time to commands and works well, without triggering the operating system to hang, crash or pop up error messages. All in all, ADIF Master provides a comfortable environment and user-friendly tools for viewing, editing and converting Cabrillo, TR and CT logs into ADIF format.  . ADR is an abbreviation for additional dialogue recorded. Not every location where a film is shot is sound friendly. For example, a scene shot under a highway overpass is going to always be noisey no matter what microphones you use or which sound guy you hire. While this sound might be acceptable for an editor to use for cutting the movie, it won't work with the audience. So we need to have the actor come to the post production house and rerecord some of their lines. Don't Rely on ADR as a Crutch ADR is an expensive and tedious process. You should make every possible effort to avoid having to resort to it. Hire a great sound guy with great equipment. They mean the difference in regards to the quality of the audio. Also try to make every possible effort to clean the sound up in an audio editing program. These options are a lot cheaper then renting a studio, hiring a guy to record the ADR, and paying the actors to come in a rerecord their lines. However, sometimes it's unavoidable. Decide What Needs ADRBefore you start the ADR process you need to decide what parts of the movie need it. Unfortunately ADR is an expensive but necessary part of post production. Try to organize what scenes need ADR in a manner that is cost efficient. Hire a Studio Experienced in ADRYou're going to have a lot less headaches doing ADR if you find an audio post production house that has experience in ADR and staff who can record the session for you. You need a place that has a monitor in the recording booth so that the actor can match their ADR with their original performance. If the studio does not have that then go some where else. The actor needs to be able to see what they're doing otherwise you have a session that is ten times more longer and frustrating than it needs to be. Do It All in One Day For cost reasons you want to have all the actors do their ADR on the same day so that you are only paying for the studio and recording engineer for one day. You need to get the job done right while keeping the costs in control. Sync the ADRIf the session was done properly then your ADR should sync perfectly with the recorded performance. The goal is to not have anyone realize that the audio is ADR. Popular Cameras for High Quality Photos:  adiabatic adiabatic Also found in: Thesaurus, Medical, Encyclopedia, Wikipedia. Related to adiabatic: Adiabatic compression, Adiabatic cooling, Adiabatic expansion, Adiabatic lapse rate, Adiabatic heatingad·i·a·bat·ic (ăd′ē-ə-băt′ĭk, ā′dī-ə-)adj. Of, relating to, or being a reversible thermodynamic process that occurs without gain or loss of heat and without a change in entropy. [From Greek adiabatos, impassable : a-, not; see a- 1 + diabatos, passable ( dia-, dia- + batos, passable, from bainein, to go; see g wā- in Indo-European roots ). ]ad′i·a·bat′i·cal·ly adv. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.adiabatic ( ˌædɪəˈbætɪk; ˌeɪ-) adj (General Physics) (of a thermodynamic process) taking place without loss or gain of heatn (General Physics) a curve or surface on a graph representing the changes in two or morecharacteristics (such as pressure and volume) of a system undergoing an adiabatic process [C19: from Greek adiabatos not to be crossed, impassable (to heat), from a- 1 + diabatos passable,from dia- across + bainein to go]Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © Harper Collins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014ad•i•a•bat•ic (ˌæd i əˈbæt ɪk, ˌeɪ daɪ ə-)adj.occurring without gain or loss of heat: an adiabatic process. [1875–80; < Greek adiábat (os) incapable of being crossed]ad`i•a•bat′i•cal•ly, adv. Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.ad·i·a·bat·ic (ăd′ē-ə-băt′ĭk)Occurring without gain or loss of heat. The passage of sound through air is generallyadiabatic. The American Heritage® Student Science Dictionary, Second Edition. Copyright © 2014 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Thesaurus Antonyms Related Words Synonyms Legend: Switch to new thesaurus Adj. 1. adiabatic - occurring without loss or gain of heat; "adiabatic expansion"natural philosophy, physics - the science of matter and energy and their interactions;"his favorite subject was physics"diabatic - involving a transfer of heat; "a diabatic process"Based on Word Net 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc. Translations Select a language:adiabático Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us, add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Facebook Twitter  Acclimatization From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Not to be confused with Acclamation. Acclimatization or acclimatisation ( also called acclimation or acclimatation) is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity, photoperiod, or p H ), allowing it to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions. Acclimatization occurs in a short period of time (hours to weeks), and within the organism's lifetime (compared to adaptation, which is a development that takes place over many generations). This may be a discrete occurrence (for example, when mountaineers acclimate to high altitude over hours or days) or may instead represent part of a periodic cycle, such as a mammal shedding heavy winter fur in favor of a lighter summer coat. Organisms can adjust their morphological, behavioral, physical, and/or biochemical traits in response to changes in their environment. [1] While the capacity to acclimate to novel environments has been well documented in thousands of species, researchers still know very little about how and why organisms acclimate the way that they do. Contents [ hide ]1 Names2 Methods2.1 Biochemical2.2 Morphological3 Theory4 Examples4.1 Plants4.2 Animals4.2.1 Humans5 See also6 References Names [ edit]The nouns acclimatization and acclimation (and the corresponding verbs acclimatize and acclimate) are widely regarded as synonymous, [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] both in general vocabulary [2] [3] [4] [5] and in medical vocabulary. [6] [7] It has sometimes been asserted that they should be differentiated by reserving acclimatization for a wild/natural process (e.g., shedding heavy winter fur with natural seasonal change) and reserving acclimation for changes occurring in response to an artificial or controlled situation, such as changes in temperature imposed in an experiment. This assertion is not widely known or followed (as the foregoing citations of 6 major dictionaries show), so writers who intend it must explicitly state that it applies within their usage (for example, "in the following discussion, X refers strictly to Y") if they expect their intended meaning to be received by their audience. The synonym acclimatation [4] [6] is less commonly encountered, and fewer dictionaries enter it. Methods [ edit]Biochemical [ edit]In order to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions, there are several strategies organisms use to acclimate. In response to changes in temperature, organisms can change the biochemistry of cell membranes making them more fluid in cold temperatures and less fluid in warm temperatures by increasing the number of membrane proteins. [8] Organisms may also express specific proteins called heat shock proteins that may act as molecular chaperons and help the cell maintain function under periods of extreme stress. It has been shown, that organisms which are acclimated to high or low temperatures display relatively high resting levels of heat shock proteins so that when they are exposed to even more extreme temperatures the proteins are readily available. Expression of heat shock proteins and regulation of membrane fluidity are just two of many biochemical methods organisms use to acclimate to novel environments. Note: acclimation and acclimatization are two very different terms that are not interchangeable. Acclimation is used under laboratory conditions, while acclimatization is "in the field" or in nature. [9]Morphological [ edit]Organisms are able to change several characteristics relating to their morphology in order to maintain performance in novel environments. Examples may include changing of skin color or pattern to allow for efficient thermoregulation, or a change in body size of offspring as a result of low food levels in the ecosystem. Theory [ edit]While the capacity for acclimation has been documented in thousands of species, researchers still know very little about how and why organisms acclimate in the way that they do. Since researchers first began to study acclimation, the overwhelming hypothesis has been that all acclimation serves to enhance the performance of the organism. This idea has come to be known as the beneficial acclimation hypothesis. Despite such widespread support for the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, not all studies show that acclimation always serves to enhance performance ( See beneficial acclimation hypothesis ). One of the major objections to the beneficial acclimation hypothesis is that it assumes that there are no costs associated with acclimation. [10] However, there are likely to be costs associated with acclimation. These include the cost of sensing the environmental conditions and regulating responses, producing structures required for plasticity (such as the energetic costs in expressing heat shock proteins ), and genetic costs (such as linkage of plasticity-related genes with harmful genes). [11]Given the shortcomings of the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, researchers are continuing to search for a theory that will be supported by empirical data. The degree to which organisms are able to acclimate is dictated by their phenotypic plasticity or the ability of an organism to change certain traits. Recent research in the study of acclimation capacity has focused more heavily on the evolution of phenotypic plasticity rather than acclimation responses. Scientists believe that when they understand more about how organisms evolved the capacity to acclimate, they will better understand acclimation. Examples [ edit]Plants [ edit]Many plants, such as maple trees, irises, and tomatoes, can survive freezing temperatures if the temperature gradually drops lower and lower each night over a period of days or weeks. The same drop might kill them if it occurred suddenly. Studies have shown that tomato plants that were acclimated to higher temperature over several days were more efficient at photosynthesis at relatively high temperatures than were plants that were not allowed to acclimate. [12]In the orchid Phalaenopsis, phenylpropanoid enzymes are enhanced in the process of plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux. [13]Animals [ edit]This section's factual accuracy is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on Talk: Acclimatization. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are reliably sourced. (August 2011) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Animals acclimatize in many ways. Sheep grow very thick wool in cold, damp climates. Fish are able to adjust only gradually to changes in water temperature and quality. Tropical fish sold at pet stores are often kept in acclimatization bags until this process is complete. [14] Lowe & Vance (1995) were able to show that lizards acclimated to warm temperatures could maintain a higher running speed at warmer temperatures than lizards that were not acclimated to warm conditions. [15]Humans [ edit]The salt content of sweat and urine decreases as people acclimatize to hot conditions. [16] Plasma volume, heart rate, and capillary activation are also affected. [17]Acclimatization to high altitude continues for months or even years after initial ascent, and ultimately enables humans to survive in an environment that, without acclimatization, would kill them. Humans who migrate permanently to a higher altitude naturally acclimatize to their new environment by developing an increase in the number of red blood cells to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, in order to compensate for lower levels of oxygen intake. [18] [19]See also [ edit]Acclimatisation society Beneficial acclimation hypothesis Heat index Introduced species Phenotypic plasticity Wind chill References [ edit]World Book encyclopedia 1989^ (2009) “Acclimatisation” (n.d.) The Unabridged Hutchinson Encyclopedia Retrieved November 5 2009 from http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/acclimatization^ a b Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford Dictionaries Online, Oxford University Press.^ a b Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.^ a b c Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, Merriam-Webster.^ a b Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.^ a b c Elsevier, Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Elsevier.^ a b Wolters Kluwer, Stedman's Medical Dictionary, Wolters Kluwer.^ Los, D. A.; Murata, N. (2004). "Membrane fluidity and its roles in the perception of environmental signals." Biochimica et Biophysica Acta-biomembranes 0666, 142–157.^ Gatten, Robert E. Jr; Arthur C Echternautch; Mark A. Wilson (July 1988). "Acclimatization versus acclimation of activity metabolism in a lizard". Physiological Zoology. 61 (4): 322–329. JSTOR 30161249.^ Angilletta, M. J. (2009). Thermal Adaptation: A Theoretical and Empirical Synthesis. Oxford University Press, Oxford.^ De Witt, Thomas J.; Sih, Andrew; Wilson, David Sloan (1998-02-01). "Costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 13 (2): 77–81. doi: 10.1016/S0169-5347 (97)01274-3.^ Camejo, D.; Marti, M.; Nicolas, E.; Alarcon, J.; Jimenez, A.; Sevila, F. (2007) Response of superoxide dismutase isoenzymes in tomato plants ( Lycopersicon esculentum) during thermo-acclimation of the photosynthetic apparatus. Physiologia Plantarum 131, 367-377.^ Enhancement of phenylpropanoid enzymes and lignin in Phalaenopsis orchid and their influence on plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux. Mohammad Babar Ali, Serida Khatun, Eun-Joo Hahn and Kee-Yoeup Paek, Plant Growth Regulation, 2006, Volume 49, Numbers 2-3, pages 137-146, doi: 10.1007/s10725-006-9003-z^ http://www.cpp.edu/~jskoga/Aquariums/Acclimation.html^ Lowe, C. H.; Vance, V. J. (1955) Acclimation of the critical thermal maximum of the reptile Urosaurus ornatus. Science122, 73-74.^ "Heat acclimatization guide" (PDF). US Army. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-02. Retrieved 2009-07-02.^ "Heat Acclimatization". www.sportsci.org. Retrieved 2017-12-03.^ Muza, SR; Fulco, CS; Cymerman, A (2004). "Altitude Acclimatization Guide". US Army Research Inst. of Environmental Medicine Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division Technical Report (USARIEM–TN–04–05). Retrieved 2009-03-05.^ Kenneth Baillie; Alistair Simpson. "Altitude oxygen calculator". Apex (Altitude Physiology EXpeditions). Retrieved 2006-08-10. - Altitude physiology model Categories: Physiology  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide Names Other names Diphosphopyridine nucleotide (DPN + ), Coenzyme IIdentifiers CAS Number53-84-958-68-4 (NADH)3D model ( JSmol)Interactive image Ch EBICHEBI:16908Ch EMBLCh EMBL1628272Chem Spider5681Drug Bank DB00157ECHA Info Card 100.000.169IUPHAR/BPS2451KEGGC00003Pub Chem CID925RTECS number UU3450000UNII0U46U6E8UKIn Ch ISMILESProperties Chemical formula C 21 H 27 N 7 O 14 P 2Molar mass 663.43 g/mol Appearance White powder Melting point 160 °C (320 °F; 433 K)Hazards Main hazards Not hazardous NFPA 704 11 0Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 k Pa).verify ( what is ? )Infobox references Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide ( NAD) is a coenzyme found in all living cells. The compound is a dinucleotide, because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adeninebase and the other nicotinamide. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide exists in two forms: an oxidized and reduced form abbreviated as NAD + and NADH respectively. In metabolism, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. The coenzyme is, therefore, found in two forms in cells: NAD + is an oxidizing agent – it accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes reduced. This reaction forms NADH, which can then be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. However, it is also used in other cellular processes, most notably a substrate of enzymes that add or remove chemical groups from proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery. In organisms, NAD can be synthesized from simple building-blocks ( de novo) from the amino acids tryptophan or aspartic acid. In an alternative fashion, more complex components of the coenzymes are taken up from food as niacin. Similar compounds are released by reactions that break down the structure of NAD. These preformed components then pass through a salvage pathway that recycles them back into the active form. Some NAD is converted into nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP); the chemistry of this related coenzyme is similar to that of NAD, but it has different roles in metabolism. Although NAD + is written with a superscript plus sign because of the formal charge on a particular nitrogen atom, at physiological p H for the most part it is actually a singly charged anion (charge of minus 1), while NADH is a doubly charged anion. Contents1 Physical and chemical properties2 Concentration and state in cells3 Biosynthesis3.1 De novo production3.2 Salvage pathways4 Functions4.1 Oxidoreductase binding of NAD4.2 Role in redox metabolism4.3 Non-redox roles4.4 Extracellular actions of NAD +5 Pharmacology and medical uses6 History7 See also8 References9 Further reading9.1 Function9.2 History10 External links Physical and chemical properties [ edit]Further information: Redox Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, like all dinucleotide s, consists of two nucleosides joined by a pair of bridging phosphate groups. The nucleosides each contain a ribose ring, one with adenine attached to the first carbon atom (the 1' position) and the other with nicotinamide at this position. The nicotinamide moiety can be attached in two orientations to this anomeric carbon atom. Because of these two possible structures, the compound exists as two diastereomers. It is the β-nicotinamide diastereomer of NAD + that is found in organisms. These nucleotides are joined together by a bridge of two phosphate groups through the 5' carbons. [1]The redox reactions of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. In metabolism, the compound accepts or donates electrons in redox reactions. [2] Such reactions (summarized in formula below) involve the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the reactant (R), in the form of a hydride ion (H − ), and a proton (H + ). The proton is released into solution, while the reductant RH 2 is oxidized and NAD + reduced to NADH by transfer of the hydride to the nicotinamide ring. RH 2 + NAD + → NADH + H + + R;From the hydride electron pair, one electron is transferred to the positively charged nitrogen of the nicotinamide ring of NAD +, and the second hydrogen atom transferred to the C4 carbon atom opposite this nitrogen. The midpoint potential of the NAD + /NADH redox pair is −0.32 volts, which makes NADH a strong reducing agent. [3] The reaction is easily reversible, when NADH reduces another molecule and is re-oxidized to NAD +. This means the coenzyme can continuously cycle between the NAD + and NADH forms without being consumed. [1]In appearance, all forms of this coenzyme are white amorphous powders that are hygroscopic and highly water-soluble. [4] The solids are stable if stored dry and in the dark. Solutions of NAD + are colorless and stable for about a week at 4 °C and neutral p H, but decompose rapidly in acids or alkalis. Upon decomposition, they form products that are enzyme inhibitors. [5]UV absorption spectra of NAD + and NADH. Both NAD + and NADH strongly absorb ultraviolet light because of the adenine. For example, peak absorption of NAD + is at a wavelength of 259 nanometers (nm), with an extinction coefficient of 16,900 M −1 cm −1. NADH also absorbs at higher wavelengths, with a second peak in UV absorption at 339 nm with an extinction coefficient of 6,220 M −1 cm −1. [6] This difference in the ultraviolet absorption spectra between the oxidized and reduced forms of the coenzymes at higher wavelengths makes it simple to measure the conversion of one to another in enzyme assays – by measuring the amount of UV absorption at 340 nm using a spectrophotometer. [6]NAD + and NADH also differ in their fluorescence. NADH in solution has an emission peak at 460 nm and a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while the oxidized form of the coenzyme does not fluoresce. [7] The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics. [7] [8] These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy. [9]Concentration and state in cells [ edit]In rat liver, the total amount of NAD + and NADH is approximately 1 μmole per gram of wet weight, about 10 times the concentration of NADP + and NADPH in the same cells. [10] The actual concentration of NAD + in cell cytosol is harder to measure, with recent estimates in animal cells ranging around 0.3 m M, [11] [12] and approximately 1.0 to 2.0 m M in yeast. [13] However, more than 80% of NADH fluorescence in mitochondria is from bound form, so the concentration in solution is much lower. [14]Data for other compartments in the cell are limited, although in the mitochondrion the concentration of NAD + is similar to that in the cytosol. [12] This NAD + is carried into the mitochondrion by a specific membrane transport protein, since the coenzyme cannot diffuse across membranes. [15]The balance between the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is called the NAD + /NADH ratio. This ratio is an important component of what is called the redox state of a cell, a measurement that reflects both the metabolic activities and the health of cells. [16] The effects of the NAD + /NADH ratio are complex, controlling the activity of several key enzymes, including glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase. In healthy mammalian tissues, estimates of the ratio between free NAD + and NADH in the cytoplasm typically lie around 700; the ratio is thus favourable for oxidative reactions. [17] [18] The ratio of total NAD + /NADH is much lower, with estimates ranging from 3–10 in mammals. [19] In contrast, the NADP +/NADPH ratio is normally about 0.005, so NADPH is the dominant form of this coenzyme. [20] These different ratios are key to the different metabolic roles of NADH and NADPH. Biosynthesis [ edit]NAD + is synthesized through two metabolic pathways. It is produced either in a de novo pathway from amino acids or in salvage pathways by recycling preformed components such as nicotinamide back to NAD +. De novo production [ edit]Some metabolic pathways that synthesize and consume NAD + in vertebrates. The abbreviations are defined in the text. Most organisms synthesize NAD + from simple components. [2] The specific set of reactions differs among organisms, but a common feature is the generation of quinolinic acid (QA) from an amino acid—either tryptophan (Trp) in animals and some bacteria, or aspartic acid (Asp) in some bacteria and plants. [21] [22] The quinolinic acid is converted to nicotinic acid mononucleotide (Na MN) by transfer of a phosphoribose moiety. An adenylate moiety is then transferred to form nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (Na AD). Finally, the nicotinic acid moiety in Na AD is amidated to a nicotinamide (Nam) moiety, forming nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. [2]In a further step, some NAD + is converted into NADP + by NAD +kinase, which phosphorylates NAD +. [23] In most organisms, this enzyme uses ATP as the source of the phosphate group, although several bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and a hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus horikoshii, use inorganic polyphosphate as an alternative phosphoryl donor. [24] [25]Salvage pathways use three precursors for NAD +. Salvage pathways [ edit]Besides assembling NAD + de novo from simple amino acid precursors, cells also salvage preformed compounds containing a pyridine base. The three vitamin precursors used in these salvage metabolic pathways are nicotinic acid (NA), nicotinamide (Nam) and nicotinamide riboside (NR). [2] These compounds can be taken up from the diet and are termed vitamin B 3 or niacin. However, these compounds are also produced within cells and by digestion of cellular NAD +. Some of the enzymes involved in these salvage pathways appear to be concentrated in the cell nucleus, which may compensate for the high level of reactions that consume NAD + in this organelle. [26] There are some reports that mammalian cells can take up extracellular NAD + from their surroundings. [27]Despite the presence of the de novo pathway, the salvage reactions are essential in humans; a lack of niacin in the diet causes the vitamin deficiency disease pellagra. [28] This high requirement for NAD + results from the constant consumption of the coenzyme in reactions such as posttranslational modifications, since the cycling of NAD + between oxidized and reduced forms in redox reactions does not change the overall levels of the coenzyme. [2]The salvage pathways used in microorganisms differ from those of mammals. [29] Some pathogens, such as the yeast Candida glabrata and the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae are NAD + auxotrophs – they cannot synthesize NAD + – but possess salvage pathways and thus are dependent on external sources of NAD + or its precursors. [30] [31] Even more surprising is the intracellular pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis, which lacks recognizable candidates for any genes involved in the biosynthesis or salvage of both NAD + and NADP +, and must acquire these coenzymes from its host. [32]Functions [ edit]Rossmann fold in part of the lactate dehydrogenase of Cryptosporidium parvum, showing NAD + in red, beta sheets in yellow, and alpha helices in purple. [33]Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide has several essential roles in metabolism. It acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, as a donor of ADP-ribose moieties in ADP-ribosylation reactions, as a precursor of the second messenger molecule cyclic ADP-ribose, as well as acting as a substrate for bacterial DNA ligases and a group of enzymes called sirtuins that use NAD + to remove acetyl groups from proteins. In addition to these metabolic functions, NAD + emerges as an adenine nucleotide that can be released from cells spontaneously and by regulated mechanisms, [34] [35] and can therefore have important extracellular roles. [35]Oxidoreductase binding of NAD [ edit]Further information: Protein structure and Oxidoreductase The main role of NAD + in metabolism is the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Reactions of this type are catalyzed by a large group of enzymes called oxidoreductases. The correct names for these enzymes contain the names of both their substrates: for example NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation of NADH by coenzyme Q. [36] However, these enzymes are also referred to as dehydrogenases or reductases, with NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase commonly being called NADH dehydrogenase or sometimes coenzyme Q reductase. [37]There are many different superfamilies of enzymes that bind NAD + / NADH. One of the most common superfamilies include a structural motif known as the Rossmann fold. [38] [39] The motif is named after Michael Rossmann who was the first scientist to notice how common this structure is within nucleotide-binding proteins. [40]An example of a NAD-binding bacterial enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism that does not have Rossmann fold: . [41]In this diagram, the hydride acceptor C4 carbon is shown at the top. When the nicotinamide ring lies in the plane of the page with the carboxy-amide to the right, as shown, the hydride donor lies either "above" or "below" the plane of the page. If "above" hydride transfer is class A, if "below" hydride transfer is class B. [42]When bound in the active site of an oxidoreductase, the nicotinamide ring of the coenzyme is positioned so that it can accept a hydride from the other substrate. Depending on the enzyme, the hydride donor is positioned either "above" or "below" the plane of the planar C4 carbon, as defined in the figure. Class A oxidoreductases transfer the atom from above; class B enzymes transfer it from below. Since the C4 carbon that accepts the hydrogen is prochiral, this can be exploited in enzyme kinetics to give information about the enzyme's mechanism. This is done by mixing an enzyme with a substrate that has deuterium atoms substituted for the hydrogens, so the enzyme will reduce NAD + by transferring deuterium rather than hydrogen. In this case, an enzyme can produce one of two stereoisomers of NADH. [42]Despite the similarity in how proteins bind the two coenzymes, enzymes almost always show a high level of specificity for either NAD + or NADP +. [43] This specificity reflects the distinct metabolic roles of the respective coenzymes, and is the result of distinct sets of amino acid residues in the two types of coenzyme-binding pocket. For instance, in the active site of NADP-dependent enzymes, an ionic bond is formed between a basic amino acid side-chain and the acidic phosphate group of NADP +. On the converse, in NAD-dependent enzymes the charge in this pocket is reversed, preventing NADP + from binding. However, there are a few exceptions to this general rule, and enzymes such as aldose reductase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase can use both coenzymes in some species. [44]Role in redox metabolism [ edit]A simplified outline of redox metabolism, showing how NAD + and NADH link the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Further information: Cellular respiration and Oxidative phosphorylation The redox reactions catalyzed by oxidoreductases are vital in all parts of metabolism, but one particularly important area where these reactions occur is in the release of energy from nutrients. Here, reduced compounds such as glucose and fatty acids are oxidized, thereby releasing energy. This energy is transferred to NAD + by reduction to NADH, as part of beta oxidation, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle. In eukaryotes the electrons carried by the NADH that is produced in the cytoplasm are transferred into the mitochondrion (to reduce mitochondrial NAD +) by mitochondrial shuttles, such as the malate-aspartate shuttle. [45] The mitochondrial NADH is then oxidized in turn by the electron transport chain, which pumps protons across a membrane and generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. [46] These shuttle systems also have the same transport function in chloroplasts. [47]Since both the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are used in these linked sets of reactions, the cell maintains significant concentrations of both NAD + and NADH, with the high NAD + /NADH ratio allowing this coenzyme to act as both an oxidizing and a reducing agent. [48] In contrast, the main function of NADPH is as a reducing agent in anabolism, with this coenzyme being involved in pathways such as fatty acid synthesis and photosynthesis. Since NADPH is needed to drive redox reactions as a strong reducing agent, the NADP + /NADPH ratio is kept very low. [48]Although it is important in catabolism, NADH is also used in anabolic reactions, such as gluconeogenesis. [49] This need for NADH in anabolism poses a problem for prokaryotes growing on nutrients that release only a small amount of energy. For example, nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which releases sufficient energy to pump protons and generate ATP, but not enough to produce NADH directly. [50] As NADH is still needed for anabolic reactions, these bacteria use a nitrite oxidoreductase to produce enough proton-motive force to run part of the electron transport chain in reverse, generating NADH. [51]Non-redox roles [ edit]The coenzyme NAD + is also consumed in ADP-ribose transfer reactions. For example, enzymes called ADP-ribosyltransferases add the ADP-ribose moiety of this molecule to proteins, in a posttranslational modification called ADP-ribosylation. [52] ADP-ribosylation involves either the addition of a single ADP-ribose moiety, in mono-ADP-ribosylation, or the transferral of ADP-ribose to proteins in long branched chains, which is called poly (ADP-ribosyl)ation. [53] Mono-ADP-ribosylation was first identified as the mechanism of a group of bacterial toxins, notably cholera toxin, but it is also involved in normal cell signaling. [54] [55] Poly (ADP-ribosyl)ation is carried out by the poly (ADP-ribose) polymerases. [53] [56] The poly (ADP-ribose) structure is involved in the regulation of several cellular events and is most important in the cell nucleus, in processes such as DNA repair and telomere maintenance. [56] In addition to these functions within the cell, a group of extracellular ADP-ribosyltransferases has recently been discovered, but their functions remain obscure. [57] NAD + may also be added onto cellular RNA as a 5'-terminal modification. [58]The structure of cyclic ADP-ribose. Another function of this coenzyme in cell signaling is as a precursor of cyclic ADP-ribose, which is produced from NAD + by ADP-ribosyl cyclases, as part of a second messenger system. [59] This molecule acts in calcium signaling by releasing calcium from intracellular stores. [60] It does this by binding to and opening a class of calcium channels called ryanodine receptors, which are located in the membranes of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum. [61]NAD + is also consumed by sirtuins, which are NAD-dependent deacetylases, such as Sir2. [62] These enzymes act by transferring an acetyl group from their substrate protein to the ADP-ribose moiety of NAD +; this cleaves the coenzyme and releases nicotinamide and O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. The sirtuins mainly seem to be involved in regulating transcription through deacetylating histones and altering nucleosome structure. [63] However, non-histone proteins can be deacetylated by sirtuins as well. These activities of sirtuins are particularly interesting because of their importance in the regulation of aging. [64]Other NAD-dependent enzymes include bacterial DNA ligases, which join two DNA ends by using NAD + as a substrate to donate an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) moiety to the 5' phosphate of one DNA end. This intermediate is then attacked by the 3' hydroxyl group of the other DNA end, forming a new phosphodiester bond. [65] This contrasts with eukaryotic DNA ligases, which use ATP to form the DNA-AMP intermediate. [66]Extracellular actions of NAD + [ edit]In recent years, NAD + has also been recognized as an extracellular signaling molecule involved in cell-to-cell communication. [35] [67] [68] NAD + is released from neurons in blood vessels, [34] urinary bladder, [34] [69] large intestine, [70] [71] from neurosecretory cells, [72] and from brain synaptosomes, [73] and is proposed to be a novel neurotransmitter that transmits information from nerves to effector cells in smooth muscle organs. [70] [71] Further studies are needed to determine the underlying mechanisms of its extracellular actions and their importance for human health and diseases. Pharmacology and medical uses [ edit]The enzymes that make and use NAD + and NADH are important in both pharmacology and the research into future treatments for disease. [74] Drug design and drug development exploits NAD + in three ways: as a direct target of drugs, by designing enzyme inhibitors or activators based on its structure that change the activity of NAD-dependent enzymes, and by trying to inhibit NAD + biosynthesis. [75]The coenzyme NAD + is not itself currently used as a treatment for any disease. However, it is being studied for its potential use in the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson disease. [2] Evidence on the benefit of NAD +in neurodegeneration in mice have produced promising results [76] whereas a placebo-controlled clinical trial in humans using NADH failed to show any effect. [77]NAD + is also a direct target of the drug isoniazid, which is used in the treatment of tuberculosis, an infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Isoniazid is a prodrug and once it has entered the bacteria, it is activated by a peroxidase enzyme, which oxidizes the compound into a free radical form. [78] This radical then reacts with NADH, to produce adducts that are very potent inhibitors of the enzymes enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase, [79] and dihydrofolate reductase. [80]Since a large number of oxidoreductases use NAD + and NADH as substrates, and bind them using a highly conserved structural motif, the idea that inhibitors based on NAD + could be specific to one enzyme is surprising. [81] However, this can be possible: for example, inhibitors based on the compounds mycophenolic acid and tiazofurin inhibit IMP dehydrogenase at the NAD + binding site. Because of the importance of this enzyme in purine metabolism, these compounds may be useful as anti-cancer, anti-viral, or immunosuppressive drugs. [81] [82] Other drugs are not enzyme inhibitors, but instead activate enzymes involved in NAD + metabolism. Sirtuins are a particularly interesting target for such drugs, since activation of these NAD-dependent deacetylases extends lifespan. [83] Compounds such as resveratrol increase the activity of these enzymes, which may be important in their ability to delay aging in both vertebrate, [84] and invertebrate model organisms. [85] [86] In one experiment, mice given NAD for one week had improved nuclear-mitochrondrial communication. [87]Because of the differences in the metabolic pathways of NAD + biosynthesis between organisms, such as between bacteria and humans, this area of metabolism is a promising area for the development of new antibiotics. [88] [89] For example, the enzyme nicotinamidase, which converts nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, is a target for drug design, as this enzyme is absent in humans but present in yeast and bacteria. [29]In bacteriology, NAD, sometimes referred to factor V, is used a supplement to culture media for some fastidious bacteria. [90]History [ edit]Further information: History of biochemistry Arthur Harden, co-discoverer of NAD. The coenzyme NAD + was first discovered by the British biochemists Arthur Harden and William John Young in 1906. [91] They noticed that adding boiled and filtered yeast extract greatly accelerated alcoholic fermentation in unboiled yeast extracts. They called the unidentified factor responsible for this effect a coferment. Through a long and difficult purification from yeast extracts, this heat-stable factor was identified as a nucleotide sugar phosphate by Hans von Euler-Chelpin. [92] In 1936, the German scientist Otto Heinrich Warburg showed the function of the nucleotide coenzyme in hydride transfer and identified the nicotinamide portion as the site of redox reactions. [93]Vitamin precursors of NAD + were first identified in 1938, when Conrad Elvehjem showed that liver has an "anti-black tongue" activity in the form of nicotinamide. [94] Then, in 1939, he provided the first strong evidence that niacin is used to synthesize NAD +. [95] In the early 1940s, Arthur Kornberg was the first to detect an enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway. [96] In 1949, the American biochemists Morris Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger proved that NADH linked metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle with the synthesis of ATP in oxidative phosphorylation. [97] In 1958, Jack Preiss and Philip Handler discovered the intermediates and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of NAD +; [98] [99] salvage synthesis from nicotinic acid is termed the Preiss-Handler pathway. In 2004, Charles Brenner and co-workers uncovered the nicotinamide riboside kinase pathway to NAD +. [100]The non-redox roles of NAD (P) were discovered later. [1] The first to be identified was the use of NAD + as the ADP-ribose donor in ADP-ribosylation reactions, observed in the early 1960s. [101] Studies in the 1980s and 1990s revealed the activities of NAD + and NADP + metabolites in cell signaling – such as the action of cyclic ADP-ribose, which was discovered in 1987. [102] The metabolism of NAD + remained an area of intense research into the 21st century, with interest heightened after the discovery of the NAD + -dependent protein deacetylases called sirtuins in 2000, by Shin-ichiro Imai and coworkers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 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PMID 18116985.^ Preiss J, Handler P (1958). "Biosynthesis of diphosphopyridine nucleotide. I. Identification of intermediates". J. Biol. Chem. 233 (2): 488–92. PMID 13563526.^ Preiss J, Handler P (1958). "Biosynthesis of diphosphopyridine nucleotide. II. Enzymatic aspects". J. Biol. Chem. 233 (2): 493–500. PMID 13563527.^ Bieganowski, P; Brenner, C (2004). "Discoveries of Nicotinamide Riboside as a Nutrient and Conserved NRK Genes Establish a Preiss-Handler Independent Route to NAD+ in Fungi and Humans". Cell. 117 (4): 495–502. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674 (04)00416-7. PMID 15137942.^ Chambon P, Weill JD, Mandel P (1963). "Nicotinamide mononucleotide activation of new DNA-dependent polyadenylic acid synthesizing nuclear enzyme". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 11: 39–43. doi: 10.1016/0006-291X (63)90024-X. PMID 14019961.^ Clapper DL, Walseth TF, Dargie PJ, Lee HC (15 July 1987). "Pyridine nucleotide metabolites stimulate calcium release from sea urchin egg microsomes desensitized to inositol trisphosphate". J. Biol. Chem. 262 (20): 9561–8. PMID 3496336.^ Imai S, Armstrong CM, Kaeberlein M, Guarente L (2000). "Transcriptional silencing and longevity protein Sir2 is an NAD-dependent histone deacetylase". Nature. 403 (6771): 795–800. Bibcode: 2000Natur.403..795I. doi: 10.1038/35001622. PMID 10693811. Further reading [ edit]Function [ edit]Nelson DL; Cox MM (2004). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4339-6. Bugg T (2004). Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 1-4051-1452-5. Lee HC (2002). Cyclic ADP-Ribose and NAADP: Structure, Metabolism and Functions. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-7281-3. Levine OS, Schuchat A, Schwartz B, Wenger JD, Elliott J (1997). "Generic protocol for population-based surveillance of Haemophilus influenzae type B" (PDF). World Health Organization. Centers for Disease Control. p. 13. WHO/VRD/GEN/95.05. History [ edit]Cornish-Bowden, Athel (1997). New Beer in an Old Bottle. Eduard Buchner and the Growth of Biochemical Knowledge. Valencia: Universitat de Valencia. ISBN 84-370-3328-4., A history of early enzymology. Williams, Henry Smith (1904). Modern Development of the Chemical and Biological Sciences. A History of Science: in Five Volumes. IV. New York: Harper and Brothers., a textbook from the 19th century. External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide. NAD bound to proteins in the PDBNAD Animation (Flash Required)β-Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD +, oxidized) and NADH (reduced) Chemical data sheet from Sigma-Aldrich NAD +, NADH and NAD synthesis pathway at the Meta Cyc database List of oxidoreductases at the SWISS-PROT databasev t e Enzyme cofactors Active formsvitamins TPP / Th DP (B 1) FMN, FAD (B 2) NAD +, NADH, NADP +, NADPH (B 3) Coenzyme A (B 5) PLP / P5P (B 6) Biotin (B 7) THFA / H 4FA, DHFA / H 2FA, MTHF (B 9) Ado Cbl, Me Cbl (B 12) Ascorbic acid (C)Phylloquinone (K 1), Menaquinone (K 2) Coenzyme F420non-vitamins ATP CTP SAMe PAPS GSH Coenzyme B Cofactor F430 Coenzyme M Coenzyme QHeme / Haem ( A, B, C, O) Lipoic Acid Methanofuran Molybdopterin / Molybdenum cofactor PQQTHB / BH 4 THMPT / H 4MPTmetal ions Ca 2+ Cu 2+ Fe 2+, Fe 3+ Mg 2+ Mn 2+ Mo Ni 2+ Zn 2+Base formsvitamins: see vitamins Categories: Cellular respiration Nucleotides Photosynthesis Coenzymes Anti-aging substances  Chapter 5: Clouds and Stability 53 terms delanam Chapter 5: Clouds and Stability Learn Flashcards Write Spell Test Match Gravity Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Like this study set? Create a free account to save it. Create a free account Maybe later Sortparcel of air small volume of airadiabatic process IF A PARCEL OF AIR EXPANDS AND COOLS, OR COMPRESSES AND WARMS, WITH NO INTERCHANGE OF HEAT WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS. as long as the air remains unsaturated (relative humidity is less than 100), the rate remains constant at 10 C per 1000 mdry adiabatic rate as long as the air remains unsaturated (relative humidity is less than 100), the rate remains constant at 10 C per 1000 mmoist adiabatic rate is the rising air cools to dew point, it reaches 100 percent humidity. cloud forms and latent heat is released. 6C per 1000m.environmental lapse rate rate at which the air temperature will be changing around us if we were to climb up in the atmosphereabsolutely stable atmosphere when the rising air is colder and heavier than the air around it- when the environmental lapse rate is less than moist adiabatic rate (6C)subsidence inversion inversions that form as air slowly sinks over a large areaneutral stability if the environmental lapse rate is exactly equal to the dry adiabatic rate, rising or sinking unsaturated air will cool or warm at the same rate as the air around itabsolutely unstable atmosphere when rising air is warmer and less dense; environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic rateconditionally unstable, potential when rising air is unsaturated, the atmosphere is stable because the parcel is colder than its surroundings; saturated air rising is saturated, the atmosphere is unstable because the parcel is warmer than its surroundings; occurs when environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry ratecondensation level the elevation where the could first formsconvective instability lifting a stable layer with a dry top and moist surface, potential instabilityentrainent mixing of cooling air into a rising cloud, increases the rate at which the rising cloud coolorographic uplift forced lifting along a topographic layerrain shadow warmer air, leeward side of mountain, less precipitationrotor clouds ... What is the adiabatic process? the addition/ subtraction of heat form air without external heating/ cooling Why are moist and dry adiabatic rates of cooling different? Dry adiabatic rate is roughly 10 C/km while the moist adiabatic rate is usually slower (around 6 C/Km) as condensation in the rising air adds latent heat Explain the difference between environmental lapse rate and dry adiabatic rate The environmental lapse rate is the actual decrease of temperature with altitude. This is often meaured by instrumented balloon. The dry adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which air temperature would drop with altitude due to expansion. List and explain several processes by which a stable atmosphere can be made unstable. Any process that creates a steeper lapse rate will cause the air to become less stable. This could be warming near the surface or cooling aloft or both. How does atmospheric stability influence the formation of lake effect snowstorms? Lake effect storms form when cold, stable air passes over a warm, moist surface. The heat added from below causes the lapse rate to increase (become less stable) while the mositure added from below becomes the source of the eventual precipitation. Why do cumulonimbus clouds (thunderstorms) often have flat tops? Cumulonimbus clouds can grow to such a height that they encounter the bottom of the stratosphere, which is extremely stable with rising temperatures with altitude (inversion). The rising cumulonimbus cannot enter the stratosphere and hence spread out Suppose the surface air temperature is 66°F. If the base of a cumulus congestus cloud directly above you is 2000 feet, what would be the approximate temperature at an altitude of 5000 feet above you inside the cloud? 46 FThe vertical motion of air caused by sun heating the ground is called: convection Which of the following is not a way of producing clouds? air motions caused by subsidence In a rising thermal, the dew-point temperature decreases at a slower rate than the parcel temperature Which cloud type below would most likely form in an unstable atmosphere? cumulonimbus If you observe large raindrops hitting the ground, you could probably say that the cloud overhead was ____ and had ____ updrafts. thick, strong Which cloud would most likely produce drizzle? stratus Which condition below could make a layer of air more unstable? mix the air in the layer, life the entire air layer, cool the upper part of the layer A conditionally unstable atmosphere is ____ with respect to unsaturated air and ____ with respect to saturated air. stable, unstable If an air parcel is given a small push upward and it continues to move upward on its own accord, the atmosphere is said to be unstable Which of the following conditions would be described as the most stable? an inversion Which cloud type would most likely form in absolutely stable air? stratus Which set of conditions, working together, will make the atmosphere the most stable? cool the surface and warm the air aloft Most thunderstorms do not extend very far into the stratosphere because the air in the stratosphere is stable The difference between the moist and dry adiabatic rates is due to the fact that latent heat is released by a rising parcel of saturated air The dry adiabatic rate is the rate at which temperature changes in a rising or descending parcel of unsaturated air The rate at which the temperature changes inside a rising (or descending) parcel of saturated air is called the moist adiabatic lapse rate The rate at which the actual air temperature changes with increasing height above the surface is referred to as the environmental lapse rate If an air parcel is given a small push upward and it falls back to its original position, the atmosphere is said to be stable If the environmental lapse rate is 5°C per 1000 m and the temperature at the earth's surface is 25°C, then the air temperature at 2000 m above the ground is 15 CThe temperature of a rising air parcel always cools due to expansion What would be the height of the base of a cumulus cloud when the surface air temperature is 45°C and the dew point is 25°C? 2500Which of the following sets of conditions would produce a cumulus cloud with the lowest base? air temperature 90°F, dew point temperature 60°FIf unsaturated stable air is lifted to a level where it becomes saturated and unstable, this type of instability is called: conditional instability An example of orographic clouds would be: clouds forming on the windward slope of a mountain When the environmental lapse rate decreases more rapidly with height than the dry adiabatic rate, the atmosphere is absolutely unstable In a conditionally unstable atmosphere, the environmental lapse rate will be ____ than the moist adiabatic rate and ____ than the dry adiabatic rate. greater, less Which of the following environmental lapse rates would represent the most unstable atmosphere in a layer of unsaturated air? 11°C per 1000 m The reason that rising saturated air cools at a lesser rate than rising unsaturated air is latent heat is released by rising saturated air What two sets of conditions, working together, will make the atmosphere the most unstable? warm the surface and cool the air aloft If a parcel of unsaturated air with a temperature of 30°C rises from the surface to an altitude of 1000 m, the unsaturated parcel temperature at this altitude would be about: 10°C colder than at the surface  Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis Incontinence-Associated Dermatitis Understanding and treating this painful skin condition By Laura Kuhn Incontinence-associated dermatitis, or IAD, is painful skin condition common among residents with urinary or fecal incontinence. Like many other conditions, however, it can be both treated and prevented with proper skin care. IAD is characterized by irritation and inflammation that develops as a result of prolonged exposure of the skin to urine or stool. 1 Approximately 20 percent of long-term care residents have IAD, and 73 percent of them are incontinent. 2 IAD is part of a larger set of conditions referred to as "moisture-associated skin damage," or MASD. In general, the term "MASD" is used to describe irritation, inflammation and erosion that is associated with extensive exposure of the skin to perspiration, urine, stool or wound exudate. 1 Other conditions included in the MASD group include intertrigo (inflamed skin folds caused by exposure to perspiration, friction and bacterial or fungal bioburden) and periwound maceration (skin breakdown resulting from exposure to wound exudate). What causes IAD? IAD is sometimes also referred to as "perineal dermatitis." The perineum is the area between the thighs. In females, this extends from the vulva to the anus. In men, it is the area between the scrotum and the anus. 1Prolonged exposure to surface irritants, such as urine and feces, can create an inflammatory response in the skin and increase transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Perineal skin and the skin on the scrotum already have the highest rates of TEWL on the body, and when TEWL is increased, delicate skin is even more susceptible to breakdown. Urine can affect skin in multiple ways. The water in urine decreases skin hardness, which makes it more susceptible to friction and erosion. The ammonia in urine can raise the skin's p H, promote the growth of pathogens, disrupt the skin's acid mantle, activate fecal enzymes and alter the skin's normal flora (the microorganisms that reside on the skin). 2 Moisture can also make skin more susceptible to damage from friction and shear during repositioning. 3 Some studies point to fecal incontinence being a greater threat to skin integrity than urinary incontinence, most likely because of the bile acids and enzymes in feces. 3Risk factors for IAD 4As people age, the barrier function of their perineal skin gradually declines. The skin itself becomes thinner and there is a decrease in collagen and elastin, which provide skin with strength and elasticity. Elderly skin is also prone to increased TEWL. 2Fecal incontinence Frequency of incontinence Poor skin condition Pain Poor skin oxygenation Fever Compromised mobility Double (urinary and fecal) incontinence Tissue tolerance impairments IAD vs. pressure ulcers The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) notes that it can be difficult to differentiate incontinence-related dermatitis from partial-thickness skin loss (pressure ulcers) and advises that "the differentiation should be based on the clinical evidence and review of presenting risk factors." 3 A good rule of thumb to keep in mind is that Stage I pressure ulcers typically present as a localized area of erythema or skin discoloration while IAD usually presents as a more diffuse area of erythema and discoloration where urine or stool has come into contact with the skin. IAD can present as intense erythema, scaling, itching, papules, weeping and eruptions. It commonly occurs in areas where an incontinence brief or underpad has been used. 3Complications of IADTip: Skin damage from IAD starts on the surface and works its way inward, while skin damage from pressure ulcers occurs from the inside out. Residents with IAD are susceptible to developing secondary cutaneous infections, especially candidiasis, which thrives in warm, moist areas. 2 These complications can increase resident discomfort and treatment costs. Residents who develop IAD are also at a higher risk of developing pressure ulcers when other risk factors are present. 1IAD prevention through skin care Studies suggest that a structured skin care regimen is one of the most effective methods for preventing IAD. The three primary components of a skin care regimen are cleansing, moisturizing and protecting. 1Cleanse The use of no-rinse cleansers has been tied to a significantly lower risk of skin tears. One study found that no-rinse cleansers reduced skin tears by 90 percent compared to the use of traditional soap and water. These cleansers also save valuable nursing time. A soap and water bath takes an average of 29 minutes, while a no-rinse bath averages 16 minutes. 5 A number of products on the market contain skin-softening emollients or moisturizers that help to preserve the skin's lipid barrier. 2 There is also evidence to suggest that using a soft, disposable cloth when cleansing residents better protects the moisture barrier of the skin than the use of a traditional washcloth. 1 Pre-moistened, disposable washcloths that contain a barrier product are recommended for cleansing, moisturizing, deodorizing and protecting residents from IAD. 6Moisturize and protect After cleansing the skin, it is crucial to apply a moisturizer. Moisturizers help maximize the skin's lipid barrier, a natural defense against harmful substances. Moisturizers applied to dry skin have been shown to be especially effective in preventing skin breakdown. 6 The final step in perineal skin care is to apply a barrier product. Experts recommend that barrier products be applied to residents who have significant urinary incontinence as well as those with fecal or double incontinence. 2Managing moisture Development of IAD is sometimes associated with the regular use of incontinence management products, which can increase perspiration. 1 Wet skin is softer, breaks down more easily and is more conducive to developing rashes. 6 A number of disposable incontinence management products are made from a breathable, cloth-like material that doesn't trap heat next to the skin like plastic-backed products. Other features, such as super-absorbent polymers, are also being integrated into incontinence management products with the goal of providing better skin care. When choosing an incontinence management product, it's also important to consider the wearer's level of incontinence as well as gender, fit and ease of use. 3 While common, IAD is both manageable and preventable. A combination of education and a carefully thought out skin care protocol can help banish this painful condition from your facility. References Gray M. Incontinence-related skin damage: essential knowledge. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2007 Dec;53 (12):28-32. Gray M. Incontinence associated dermatitis. Available at: http://www.sageproducts.com/documents/pdf/education/studies_articles/iad/sage10212.pdf. Accessed April 7, 2011. State Operations Manual. Appendix PP – Guidance to Surveyors for Long Term Care Facilities. Rev. 70, 01-07-11. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/manuals/Downloads/som107ap_pp_guidelines_ltcf.pdf. Accessed January 25, 2011. Birch S, Coggins T. No-rinse, one-step bed bath: the effects on the occurrence of skin tears in a long-term care setting. Ostomy Wound Manage. 2003 Jan;49 (1):64-7. Gray M, Bliss DZ, Doughty DB, Ermer-Seltun J, Kennedy-Evans KL, Palmer MH. Incontinence-associated dermatitis: a consensus. J Wound Ostomy Continence Nurs. 2007;34 (1):45-54.5 Million Lives Campaign. Getting Started Kit: Prevent Pressure Ulcers How-to Guide. Cambridge, MA: Institute for Healthcare Improvement; 2008.  Definitions &Translations Princeton's Word Net (1.00 / 2 votes)Rate this definition:aerodynamic (adj)of or relating to aerodynamicsstreamlined, aerodynamic, flowing, sleek (adj)designed or arranged to offer the least resistant to fluid flow"a streamlined convertible"Wiktionary (3.00 / 2 votes)Rate this definition:aerodynamic (Adjective)of, or relating to the science of aerodynamicsaerodynamic (Adjective)having a shape that reduces drag when moving through the air Webster Dictionary (1.00 / 1 vote)Rate this definition: Aerodynamic (adj)pertaining to the force of air in motion Freebase (3.00 / 2 votes)Rate this definition: Aerodynamic"Aerodynamic" is an instrumental track by Daft Punk featuring a prominent guitar solo. The track was released on March 28, 2001 as the second single from the Discovery album. Numerology Chaldean Numerology The numerical value of Aerodynamic in Chaldean Numerology is: 7Pythagorean Numerology The numerical value of Aerodynamic in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9Sample Sentences & Example Usage David Manica: We wanted the building to be iconic and sleek, like a luxury sports car, very aerodynamic, in motion, flowing lines from every angle. Hypersonic Test Vehicle 3X: We're now producing a controllable, low-drag, aerodynamic configuration capable of stable operation from take-off, to sub-sonic, trans-sonic, super-sonic, and hypersonic to Mach 6. The Spaniard: If we improve two and a half seconds, we will win next year, it's realistic, but the thing is we need to work very hard with very high discipline all winter, all united, because in this new Formula One everything is a package, it's not anymore an engine, aerodynamic, mechanical side. Achim Anscheidt: We didn't want to create just some kind of fantasy or science fiction project which is quite normal in that category. We wanted the Bugatti way to be an approach that is very technical and very elaborated, and based on our engineering values and our aerodynamic research. And on the functional elements, to portray the design elements really being driven by form follows performance. Images & Illustrations of Aerodynamic  Adiabatic Process Adiabatic Process For an ideal gas consisting of n = moles of gas, consider an adiabatic process which involves expansion from V i = m 3to V f = m 3at initial temperature T i = KNote: If initial volume or temperature are changed, a new value of pressure will be calculated to correspond to the number of moles of gas above. With the initial volume and temperature specified, the initial pressure is determined by the ideal gas law: Using, = k Pa = x10^ Pa (Note: If the initial pressure value is changed, then a new value of moles will be calculated to be consistent with the initial volume and temperature specified above. If you wish to restrict the number of moles to your supplied value, then enter that value plus values for initial volume and temperature - the required pressure will be calculated. )The detailed behavior of the pressure and volume depends upon the specific heats of the gas: Constant pressure = J/mol KConstant volume = J/mol KThe specific heats determine the ratio, =Note that the value of γ is determined by the gases, the most common values being γ air = 1.4 and γ monoatomic gas = 1.66 . The adiabatic condition can be applied to determine the constant K .=The work done by the gas can then be determined. If the final volume is less than the initial, then work is done on the gas and the work will be negative.= J = x10^ JThe final pressure for the process can be determined from the adiabatic condition:= k Pa = x10^ Paand the final temperature can be obtained from the ideal gas law.= KThe specified initial temperature for the work calculation must be in Kelvins, so it must be converted from the other temperature scales.= K = °C = °FDiscussion of adiabatic process  Glossary of Fitness Terms A B C D E F G H IJ K L M N O P Q RS T U V W X Y ZActivities of Daily Living (ADLs)- Physical tasks of everyday living, such as bathing, and walking up the stairs. ADLs are usually factored in to a person's basal metabolic rate, so tracking calories burned for these types of movement isn't recommended when trying to lose weight. Aerobic exercise - Any rhythmic activity that increases the body's need for oxygen by using large muscle groups continuously for at least 10 minutes. The term aerobic means “with oxygen.”Agonist muscle- A muscle that is very effective in causing a certain joint movement. Also called the prime mover. On a biceps curl, the biceps is the agonist muscle that flexes the elbow joint. Amenorrhea- The absence of menstruation, commonly found in women with a very low body fat percentage and/or exercise excessively. Anaerobic exercise - Short lasting, high intensity activity, where the demand for oxygen from the exercise exceeds the oxygen supply. Angina pectoris- Chest pain due to lack of blood flow (oxygen) to the heart. Antagonist muscle - A muscle that causes movement at a joint in a direction opposite to that of the joint’s agonist (prime mover). ...back to top Beta-blockers - Type of medication that reduces heart rate. Exercisers who take beta-blockers will have a lower heart rate at rest and during exercise, so the target heart rate formula cannot be used in this case. Bioelectrical impedance - This method of measuring body composition is based on the fact that the lean tissue of the body is much more conductive due to its higher water content than fat tissue. The more lean tissue present in the body, the greater the conductive potential, measured in ohms. Body composition - Amount of fat vs. lean muscle tissue in the human body. Body Mass Index (BMI)- Measure of the relationship between height and weight; calculated by dividing weight in kilograms by height in centimeters squared. ...back to top Caffeine- A stimulant found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and some soft drinks that increases heart contractions, oxygen consumption, metabolism, and urinary output. Calisthenics - Exercising using one’s own body weight which helps develop muscular tone. Cardiorespiratory fitness- Measure of the heart’s ability to pump oxygen-rich blood to the muscles. Also called cardiovascular or aerobic fitness. Cardiovascular system- A complex system consisting of the heart and blood vessels; transports nutrients, oxygen, and enzymes throughout the body and regulates temperature, water levels of cells, and acidity levels of body components. Circuit training - Takes the participant through a series of exercise stations (which could also include strength training), with relatively brief rest intervals between each station. The purpose is to keep the heart rate elevated near the aerobic level without dropping off. The number of stations may range from 4 to 10. Concentric muscle action- Force produced while the muscle is shortening in length. Continuous training - This is the most common type of sustained aerobic exercise for fitness improvement, slowly adding more time to the workout to increase endurance. Cool down - Lowering of body temperature following vigorous exercise. The practice of cooling down after exercise involves slowing down your level of activity gradually. Core - A muscle group comprised of the abdominals, lower back, obliques, and hips. Cortisol- A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland that makes stored nutrients more readily available to meet energy demands. These hormone levels increase under stress, which can stimulate your appetite, leading to weight gain or difficulty losing weight. Cross-training - An individualized combination of all aerobic-training methods, characterized by a variety of intensities and modes. ...back to top Detraining Principle - This principle says that once consistent exercise stops, you will eventually lose the strength that you built up. Without overload or maintenance, muscles will weaken in two weeks or less. Diastolic blood pressure- The pressure exerted by the blood on the vessel walls during the resting portion of the cardiac cycle, measured in millimeters of mercury. The diastolic number is the bottom of the fraction. 120/80 is an average value for normal blood pressure (80 is the diastolic number). Mild high blood pressure is considered to be between 140/90 and 160/95. High blood pressure is defined by a value greater than 160/95. DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness)- Muscle soreness or discomfort that appears 12 to 48 hours after exercise. It is most likely due to microscopic tears in the muscle tissue, and it usually requires a couple of days for the repair and rebuilding process to be completed. The muscle tissue grows back stronger, leading to increased muscle mass and strength. ...back to top Eccentric contraction- A lengthening of the muscle during its contraction; controls speed of movement caused by another force. Ectomorph - A body shape characterized by a narrow chest, narrow shoulders and long, thin muscles. Electrolytes- Salts (ions) found in bodily fluids. Pertaining to exercise, your body loses electrolytes (sodium, potassium) when you sweat. These electrolytes need to be replaced to keep concentrations constant in the body, which is why many sports drinks include electrolytes. Endomorph - A body shape characterized by a round face, short neck , wide hips, and heavy fat storage. Endorphins- Opiate-like hormones that are manufactured in the body and contribute to natural feelings of well-being. EPOC (Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption)- This explains why your breathing rate remains heavy for a few minutes after finishing a workout. Your body needs more oxygen after a workout in order to restore the oxygen stores in the blood and tissues, and to meet the oxygen requirements of the heart rate, which is still elevated. Epinephrine- Also called adrenaline, a hormone that stimulates body systems in response to stress. Ergogenic aids - A substance, appliance, or procedure that improves athletic performance. Eustress- "Good" stress that presents opportunities for personal growth. (Exercise is an example of this. It puts stress on the body and its systems, but the results of this stress are positive. )Exercise metabolic rate (EMR)- The energy expenditure that occurs during exercise. ...back to top Fast twitch muscle fibers - Fibers that are better-suited for high-force, short duration activities because they contain more stores for anaerobic energy utilization. Fixed resistance - Strength training exercises that provide a constant amount of resistance throughout the full range of motion. Examples include free weights and resistance bands. Flexibility- The measure of the range of motion, or the amount of movement possible, at a particular joint. ...back to top Graded Exercise Test (Incremental Exercise Test)- An exercise test involving a progressive increase in work rate over time. Often graded exercise tests are used to determine the subject’s maximum oxygen consumption or lactic threshold. ...back to top Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) - Difference between resting and maximal heart rate. Heat Cramps- Muscle cramps that occur during or following exercise in warm or hot weather. Heat exhaustion- A heat stress illness caused by significant dehydration resulting from exercise in warm or hot conditions; frequent precursor to heat stroke. Heat stroke- A deadly heat stress illness resulting from dehydration and overexertion in warm or hot conditions; can cause body core temperature to rise from normal to 100 or 105 degrees Fahrenheit in just a few minutes. High-density lipoprotein (HDL)- Retrieves cholesterol from the body’s cells and returns it to the liver to be metabolized. Also referred to as “good” cholesterol. High impact- Activities that place more stress on the bones and joints, where your limbs are actually making contact with the ground or other surface with force. Examples include: walking, running, step aerobics, and sports that involve impact, like basketball or tennis. Hydrostatic (underwater) weighing - This method of measuring body composition is considered the “gold standard” and is based on the assumption that density and specific gravity of lean tissue is greater than that of fat tissue. By comparing test subject’s mass measured underwater and out of the water, body composition may be calculated. Hyperplasia- An increase in the number of cells in a tissue; usually in reference to fat or muscle cells. Hypertrophy- An increase in cell size (girth), usually in reference to fat or muscle cells. Hypothermia- A life-threatening condition in which heat is lost from the body faster than it is produced. ...back to top Incremental Exercise Test (Graded Exercise Test)- An exercise test involving a progressive increase in work rate over time. Often these tests are used to determine the subject’s maximum oxygen consumption or lactic threshold. Interval training - Repeated intervals of exercise interspersed with intervals of relatively light exercise. This type of training provides a means of performing large amounts of high-intensity exercise in a short period of time. Isokinetic exercise- Exercise in which the rate of movement is constantly maintained through a specific range of motion even though maximal force is exerted. Isometric exercise - Any activity in which the muscles exert force but do not visibly change in length. For example, pushing against a wall or carrying a bag of groceries. Isotonic exercise - Any activity in which the muscles exert force and change in length as they lift and lower resistance. For example, bicep curls or leg extensions. ...back to top Karvonen formula - One of the most effective methods used to calculate target heart rate. It factors resting heart rate into the equation. Ketosis- A condition in which the body adapts to prolonged fasting or carbohydrate deprivation by converting body fat to ketones, which can be used as fuel for some brain activity. The real danger in ketosis is that ketones are acidic, and high levels of ketones make the blood abnormally acid....back to top Lactic acid - Once thought of as a waste substance that builds up in the muscles when they are not getting enough oxygen, leading to muscle fatigue and soreness. Now, experts believe that lactic acid is beneficial to the body, acting as a "fuel" to help people continue high-intensity (anaerobic) exercise even when oxygen consumption is low. Lactic threshold - The point at which the level of lactic acid in the blood suddenly increases (during exercise). This is a good indication of the highest sustainable work rate. Also known as anaerobic threshold. Lean mass- Total weight of your muscle, bone, and all other body organs. (Everything in the body besides fat. )Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)- Transports cholesterol and triglycerides from the liver to be used in various cellular processes. Also referred to as “bad” cholesterol. Low impact- Activities that place less stress on the bones and joints. These are better for people with joint pain, and overweight individuals whose weight can hurt their joints. Examples include: swimming, elliptical, cycling, and other activities where your feet (or other body parts) aren’t touching the ground with force or where you are somehow supported. ...back to top Max VO 2 - (V02 Max) Highest amount of oxygen one can consume during exercise. The higher this number, the more you are cardiovascularly fit and capable of increased levels of intensity. Mesomorph - A body shape characterized by a large chest, long torso, solid muscle structure and significant strength. MET- An expression of the energy it takes to sit quietly. It is frequently used as a measure of intensity on cardiovascular machines (treadmill, stationary bike, etc.) For example, moderate intensity activities are those that get you moving fast enough or strenuously enough to burn off three to six times as much energy per minute as you do when you are sitting quietly, measured as 3-6 METs. Moderate intensity - Activities that range from 40-60% of max heart rate. These activities cause a slightly increased rate of breathing, and feel light to somewhat-hard. Individuals doing activity at this intensity can easily carry on a conversation. Muscle fibers - Individual muscle cells that are the functional components of muscles. Muscular endurance - The ability of the muscle to perform repetitive contractions over a prolonged period of time. Muscular strength - The ability of the muscle to generate the maximum amount of force. ...back to top Obesity- A weight disorder generally defined as an accumulation of fat beyond that considered normal for a person based on age, sex, and body type. One-Rep Max (1 RM)- The amount of weight/resistance that can be lifted or moved once, but not twice; a common measure of strength. Opposing muscles - Muscles that work in opposition to the ones you are training. For example, the bicep is the opposing muscle to the triceps; the hamstring is the opposing muscle to the quadriceps. Osteoporosis- A disease characterized by low bone mass and deterioration of bone tissue, which increases risk of fracture. Overload Principle - This principle says that in order to train muscles, they must work harder than they are accustomed to. This “overload” will result in increased strength as the body adapts to the stress placed upon it. Overuse Injuries- Injuries that result from the cumulative effects of repetitive (day-after-day) stresses placed on tendons, muscles, and joints. ...back to top Percent grade- Measure of the elevation of a treadmill. Physical fitness- The ability to perform regular to vigorous physical activity without great fatigue. Pilates- Exercise programs that combine dynamic stretching with movement against resistance. Plateau - Point in an exercise program where no additional progress is being made (gains in strength, weight loss, increased endurance, etc). One way to break through a plateau is to change the kind of activity you are doing or something about your current activity- adding hills, increasing speed, increasing distance, etc. PNF stretching - Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching is a static stretch of a muscle immediately after maximally contracting it. Primary prevention- Actions designed to stop problems before they start. Pronation -To turn or rotate (the foot) so that the inner edge of the sole bears the body's weight. Plyometric training- Exercises that enable a muscle to reach maximal force production in as short a time as possible. For example, jumping from a 3 ft. stool to the ground and immediately springing back up to another stool. ...back to top Rate of perceived exertion (RPE)- Scale of 1-10 that rates how you are feeling (both physically and mentally) as it relates to exercise fatigue. Repetition- The number of times an exercise is repeated within a single exercise “set.”Resistance training- See “Strength training”Resting HR- Rate at which your heart beats at rest (while sitting or being inactive). Low resting heart rates are a good measure of health and fitness. Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)- Number of calories expended to maintain the body during resting conditions. Also referred to as basal metabolic rate. ...back to top Set- A basic unit of a workout containing the number of times (repetitions) a specific exercise is done (e.g. do 3 sets of 5 repetitions with 100 pounds). Shin splint - Generic term used to describe pain in the lower leg, either on the medial (inside) or lateral side (outside) of the shin bone. Sit and reach test- A common fitness test that determines flexibility (of the hamstrings and lower back). Skinfold caliper test- A method of determining body fat whereby folds of skin and fat at various points on the body are grasped between thumb and forefinger and measured with calipers. Skin fold measurements - This method of measuring body composition assumes that substantial fat is proportional to overall body fat, and thus by measuring several sites, total body fat may be calculated. Slow twitch muscle fibers - Fibers that are better-suited for low-force, long duration activities because they possess more endurance enzymes. Specificity of Training Principle - This principle says that only the muscle or muscle group you exercise will respond to the demands placed upon it. By regularly doing curls, for example, the muscles involved (biceps) will become larger and stronger, but curls will have no effect on the muscles that are not being trained. Therefore, when strength training, it is important to strengthen all of the major muscles. Static stretching - A low force, high-duration stretch where the muscle is held at the greatest possible length for up to 30 seconds. Strength training (resistance training)- The process of exercising with progressively heavier resistance for the purpose of strengthening the musculoskeletal system. Systolic blood pressure - The pressure exerted on the vessel walls during ventricular contraction, measured in millimeters of mercury. The systolic number is the top of the fraction. 120/80 is an average value for normal blood pressure (120 is the systolic number). Mild high blood pressure is considered to be between 140/90 and 160/95. High blood pressure is defined by a value greater than 160/95. ...back to top Tai chi- An ancient Chinese form of exercise, widely practiced in the West today, that promotes balance, coordination, stretching, and meditation. Talk test - Method to ensure you are working out at a level where you can answer a question but not comfortably carry on a conversation. This is a good intensity level for weight loss and improved physical fitness. Tapering- The process athletes use to reduce their training load for several days prior to competition. Target heart rate (THR)- The recommended range is 60-85% of your maximum heart rate. It represents a pace that ensures you are training aerobically and can reasonably be maintained. Tension Principle - This principle says that tension is created by resistance, which can come from weights, bands, machines, or body weight. Testosterone- The steroid hormone produced in the testes; involved in growth and development of muscle mass. Since men have more testosterone than women, they are able to gain muscle mass more easily. Thyroid- Endocrine gland located in the neck that secretes T3 and T4 (hormones), which increase metabolic rate. Type I muscle fibers- Fibers that contain large numbers of oxidative enzymes and are highly fatigue resistant (more prevalent in endurance athletes). Type IIA muscle fibers- Fibers that contain biochemical and fatigue characteristics that are between Type IIB and Type I fibers (the best of both worlds). Type IIB muscle fibers- Fibers that have a relatively small number of mitochondria, a limited capacity for aerobic metabolism, and are less resistant to fatigue than slow fibers (more prevalent in sprinters and power lifters)....back to top Variable resistance - Strength training exercises that change the amount of resistance throughout the full range of motion. Vigorous intensity - Activities above 60% of max heart rate. These activities cause an increased rate of breathing, sweating, and feel somewhat-hard to hard. ...back to top Waist to hip ratio- A calculation of the proportion of fat stored on your body around your waist and hips. Formula: waist measurement divided by hip measurement. Women should have a ratio of 0.8 or less; men should have a ratio of .95 or less. Warm up - To prepare for an athletic event (whether a game or a workout session) by exercising, stretching, or practicing for a short time beforehand. ...back to top Yoga- A variety of Indian traditions geared toward self-discipline and the realization of unity; includes forms of exercise widely practiced in the West today that promote balance, coordination, flexibility, and meditation. You will earn 5 Spark Points Like what you read? Get your free account today!Got a story idea? Give us a shout!Member Comments BIKE4HEALTHAppreciated Report LINDAHICKAMI got my husband and I Trikkes (3 wheeled cambering machines - we have T8airs) for our 9th anniversaryand we Trikke 8 - 11 miles a day (in an hour to an hour and a half) along a river greenway. We love it and it is such a good workout and such fun! The calorie count is about the same as running but no impact. Report GAS_SAGFor me working out is usually fun no matter what. I love taking long walks and seeing new scenes. It is even more fun if it is with someone so you can talk while you are walking. But my all time best hike ever was at an African game park. My sister, mom, and me spent 3 days at an African game park where you could take any trail you wanted to and see tons of animals. We went hiking 2 different times for about an hour each time. It was awesome to see all those animals up close and personal. Report YARNWENCHI walked on the Great Wall and a lot of other places in China and i guess that and Trekking in Nepal were both the most fun I ever had. Report HUNNIGURLstrength training with my sister who also happens to be my besti. shout out to krystle702! !Report C0URTNEYRWell, I fell in love with my boxing personal trainer, so that was always fun. We still have a lot of fun exercising together. My favorite is when we do sprints. He takes off and leaves me laughing. Report CHANGINMYLIFEHaving my kids work-out with me!Report LORIKITTYmy 2-yo son jumping on me while I was doing callanetics on the floor, helping me with my not-sit-ups (they're not crunches, it's all stomach and no back, so hard to describe) -- it got harder for me to do them all of a sudden! Plus, bonus bonus, snuggle time with my cutie :)Report MRSBARROWI really love to do DDR (dance dance revolution) I get on that for about 30-45 minutes and when I get done I am pooped... Report LYNNEQUILTSWII Fit i from Nintendo is the a great way to get the excercise when you can't go to the gym or the weather is bad.. Hula Hoops from the "old days", a little dancing, a short run in place through the park. I look forward to my excercise time and am now up to 52 minutes. I actually do the Wii Fit everyday now as my main excercise with an outdoor walk....... Report MJNIXONBelly dance class! The moves aren't as hard as I thought they would be. Better yet, the ladies who attend are adventurous with a great sense of adventure!Report9CHARLOTTEHILLsoccer practice got canceled because of the rain but we were all in our shorts already so we went out and played tackle soccer in the mud anyway :)Report TPEPIONI like to be prepared to exercise. I put on the exercise clothes in the morning and I am ready for anything FUN. My exercise clothes help me stay active. Report DOMINTRINSMOMThe best time or times I ever have is going outside and playing badmitton or some other game with the kids. Report KARISSATXhiking at Enchanted Rock w/hubby -- fun, beautiful, and great workout!Report View All Comments (317) Leave Comment ›  AIDA (marketing) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the marketing term AIDA. For other uses, see Aida (disambiguation). Marketing Marketing Marketing management Key concepts [show]Promotional content [show]Promotional media [show]v t e AIDA is an acronym that stands for A ttention, I nterest, D esire and A ction. The AIDA model is widely used in marketing and advertising to describe the steps or stages that occur from the time when a consumer first becomes aware of a product or brand through to when the consumer trials a product or makes a purchase decision. Given that many consumers become aware of brands via advertising or marketing communications, the AIDA model helps to explain how an advertisement or marketing communications message engages and involves consumers in brand choice. In essence, the AIDA model proposes that advertising messages need to accomplish a number of tasks in order to move the consumer through a series of sequential steps from brand awareness through to action (purchase and consumption). The AIDA model is one of the longest serving models used in advertising, having been developed in the late nineteenth century. Since its first appearance in the marketing and advertising literature, the model has been modified and expanded to account for the advent of new advertising media and communications platforms. A number of modified alternative models are in current use. During the past 100 years, the model has undergone many refinements and extensions, such that today there are many variants in circulation. Thus, the simple AIDA model is now one of a class of models, collectively known as hierachical models or hierarchy of effects models. Contents [ hide ]1 The AIDA model1.1 Criticisms1.2 Variants2 Origins of AIDA3 Theoretical developments in hierarchy of effects models4 Cultural references5 See also5.1 Advertising models6 External sources7 Notes8 References The AIDA model [ edit]Generalised hierarchy of effects sequence The AIDA model is just one of a class of models known as hierarchy of effects models or hierarchical models, all of which imply that consumers move through a series of steps or stages when they make purchase decisions. These models are linear, sequential models built on an assumption that consumers move through a series of cognitive (thinking) and affective (feeling) stages culminating in a behavioural stage (doing e.g. purchase or trial) stage. [1]The steps proposed by the AIDA model are as follows: [2] [3]Attention - The consumer becomes aware of a category, product or brand (usually through advertising)↓Interest - The consumer becomes interested by learning about brand benefits & how the brand fits with lifestyle↓Desire - The consumer develops a favorable disposition towards the brand.↓Action - The consumer forms a purchase intention, shops around, engages in trial or makes a purchase The common thread among all hierarchical models is that advertising operates as a stimulus (S) and the purchase decision is a response (R). In other words, the AIDA model is an applied stimulus-response model. A number of hierarchical models can be found in the literature including Lavidge's hierarchy of effects, DAGMAR and variants of AIDA. Hierarchical models have dominated advertising theory, [4] and, of these models, the AIDA model is one of the most widely applied. [5]As consumers move through the hierarchy of effects they pass through both a cognitive processing stage and an affective processing stage before any action occurs. Thus the hierarchy of effects models all include Cognition (C)- Affect (A)- Behaviour (B) as the core steps in the underlying behavioral sequence. [6] Some texts refer to this sequence as Learning → Feeling → Doing or C-A-B (cognitive -affective-behavioral) models. Cognition (Awareness/learning) → Affect (Feeling/ interest/ desire)→ Behavior (Action e.g. purchase/ trial/ consumption/ usage/ sharing information) [7]The purchase funnel illustrates the relative number of prospective purchasers over time The basic AIDA model is one of the longest serving hierarchical models, having been in use for more than a century. Using a hierarchical system, such as AIDA, provides the marketer with a detailed understanding of how target audiences change over time, and provides insights as to which types of advertising messages are likely to be more effective at different junctures. Moving from step to step, the total number of prospects diminishes. This phenomenon is sometimes described as a " purchase funnel ." A relatively large number of potential purchasers become aware of a product or brand, then a smaller subset becomes interested, with only a relatively small proportion moving through to the actual purchase. This effect is also known as a “customer funnel,” “marketing funnel,” or “sales funnel.” [8]The model is also used extensively in selling and advertising. According to the original model, "the steps to be taken by the seller at each stage are as follows: Stage I. Secure attention. Stage II. Hold attention Through Interest. Stage III. Arouse Desire. Stage IV. Create Confidence and Belief. Stage V. Secure Decision and Action. Stage VI. Create Satisfaction." [9]Criticisms [ edit]A major deficiency of the AIDA model, and other hierarchical models, is the absence of post-purchase effects such as satisfaction, consumption, repeat patronage behaviour and other post-purchase behavioural intentions such as referrals or participating in the preparation of online product reviews. [10] Other criticisms include the model's reliance on a linear nature, hierarchical sequence. In empirical studies, the model has been found to be a poor predictor of actual consumer behaviour. [11] In addition, an extensive review of the literature surrounding advertising effects, carried out by Vakratsas and Ambler found little empirical support for the hierarchical models. [12]Another important criticism of the hierarchical models include their reliance on the concept of a linear, hierarchical response process [13]. Indeed, some research suggests that consumers process promotional information via dual pathways, namely both cognitive (thinking) and affective (feeling) simultaneously. [14] This insight has led to the development of a class of alternative models, known as integrative models. [15]Variants [ edit]In order to redress some of the model's deficiencies, a number of contemporary hierarchical have modified or expanded the basic AIDA model. Some of these include post purchase stages, while other variants feature adaptations designed to accommodate the role of new, digital and interactive media, including social media and brand communities. However, all follow the basic sequence which includes Cognition- Affect- Behaviour. [16]Selected variants of AIDA: Basic AIDA Model: Awareness→ Interest→ Desire→ Action [17]Lavidge et al's Hierarchy of Effects: Awareness→ Knowledge→ Liking→ Preference→ Conviction→ Purchase [18]Mc Guire's model: Presentation → Attention → Comprehension → Yielding → Retention → Behavior. [19]Modified AIDA Model: Awareness→ Interest→ Conviction →Desire→ Action (purchase or consumption) [20]AIDAS Model: Attention → Interest → Desire → Action → Satisfaction [21]AISDALSLove model: Awareness→ Interest→ Search →Desire→ Action → Like/dislike → Share → Love/ Hate [22]Origins of AIDA [ edit]The term, AIDA and the overall approach are commonly attributed to American advertising and sales pioneer, E. St. Elmo Lewis. [23] In one of his publications on advertising, Lewis postulated at least three principles to which an advertisement should conform: The mission of an advertisement is to attract a reader, so that he will look at the advertisement and start to read it; then to interest him, so that he will continue to read it; then to convince him, so that when he has read it he will believe it. If an advertisement contains these three qualities of success, it is a successful advertisement. [24]According to F. G. Coolsen, "Lewis developed his discussion of copy principles on the formula that good copy should attract attention, awaken interest, and create conviction." [25] In fact, the formula with three steps appeared anonymously in the February 9, 1898, issue of Printers' Ink: "The mission of an advertisement is to sell goods. To do this, it must attract attention, of course; but attracting attention is only an auxiliary detail. The announcement should contain matter which will interest and convince after the attention has been attracted" (p. 50). The importance of attracting the attention of the reader as the first step in copy writing was recognized early in the advertising literature as is shown by the Handbook for Advertisers and Guide to Advertising: The first words are always printed in capitals, to catch the eye, and it is important that they should be such as will be likely to arrest the attention of those to whom they are addressed, and induced them to read further. [26]A precursor to Lewis was Joseph Addison Richards (1859–1928), an advertising agent from New York City who succeeded his father in the direction of one of the oldest advertising agencies in the United States. In 1893, Richards wrote an advertisement for his business containing virtually all steps from the AIDA model, but without hierarchically ordering the individual elements: How to attract attention to what is said in your advertisement; how to hold it until the news is told; how to inspire confidence in the truth of what you are saying; how to whet the appetite for further information; how to make that information reinforce the first impression and lead to a purchase; how to do all these, – Ah, that's telling, business news telling, and that's my business. [27]Between December 1899 and February 1900, the Bissell Carpet Sweeper Company organized a contest for the best written advertisement. Fred Macey, chairman of the Fred Macey Co. in Grand Rapids (Michigan), who was considered an advertising expert at that time, was assigned the task to examine the submissions to the company. In arriving at a decision, he considered inter alia each advertisement in the following respect:1st The advertisement must receive "Attention," 2d. Having attention it must create "Interest," 3d. Having the reader's interest it must create "Desire to Buy," 4th. Having created the desire to buy it should help "Decision". [28]The first published instance of the general concept, however, was in an article by Frank Hutchinson Dukesmith (1866–1935) in 1904. Dukesmith's four steps were attention, interest, desire, and conviction. [29] The first instance of the AIDA acronym was in an article by C. P. Russell in 1921 [30] where he wrote: An easy way to remember this formula is to call in the “law of association,” which is the old reliable among memory aids. It is to be noted that, reading downward, the first letters of these words spell the opera “Aida.” When you start a letter, then, say “Aida” to yourself and you won’t go far wrong, at least as far as the form of your letter is concerned. The model's usefulness was not confined solely to advertising. The basic principles of the AIDA model were widely adopted by sales representatives who used the steps to prepare effective sales presentations following the publication, in 1911, of Arthur Sheldon's book, Successful Selling. [31] To the original model, Sheldon added satisfaction to stress the importance of repeat patronage. AIDA is a lynchpin of the Promotional part of the 4Ps of the Marketing mix, the mix itself being a key component of the model connecting customer needs through the organisation to the marketing decisions. [32]Theoretical developments in hierarchy of effects models [ edit]The marketing and advertising literature has spawned a number of hierarchical models. [33] In a survey of more than 250 papers, Vakratsas and Ambler (1999) found little empirical support for any of the hierarchies of effects. [34] In spite of that criticism, some authors have argued that hierarchical models continue to dominate theory, especially in the area of marketing communications and advertising. [35]All hierarchy of effects models exhibit several common characteristics. Firstly, they are all linear, sequential models built on an assumption that consumers move through a series of steps or stages involving cognitive, affective and behavioral responses that culminate in a purchase. [36] Secondly, all hierarchy of effects models can be reduced to three broad stages - Cognitive→ Affective (emotions)→Behavioral (CAB). [37]Three broad stages implicit in all hierarchy of effects models: [38]Cognition (Awareness or learning)↓Affect (Feeling, interest or desire)↓Behavior (Action)Recent modifications of the AIDA model have expanded the number of steps. [39] Some of these modifications have been designed to accommodate theoretical developments, by including customer satisfaction (e.g. the AIDAS model) [40] while other alternative models seek to accommodate changes in the external environment such as the rise of social media (e.g. the AISDALSLove model). [41]In the AISDALSLove model, [42] new phases are 'Search' (after Interest), the phase when consumers actively searching information about brand/ product, 'Like/dislike' (after Action) as one of elements in the post-purchase phase, then continued with 'Share' (consumers will share their experiences about brand to other consumers) and the last is 'Love/hate' (a deep feeling towards branded product, that can become the long-term effect of advertising) which new elements such as Search, Like/dislike (evaluation), Share and Love/hate as long-term effects have also been added. Finally, S – 'Satisfaction' – is added to suggest the likelihood that a customer might become a repeat customer, provide positive referrals or engage in other brand advocacy behaviors following purchase. Other theorists, including Christian Betancur (2014) [43] and Rossiter and Percy (1985) [44] have proposed that need recognition should be included as the initial stage of any hierarchical model. Betancur, for example, has proposed a more complete process: NAITDASE model (in Spanish: NAICDASE). Betancur's model begins with the identification of a Need (the consumer's perception of an opportunity or a problem). Following the Attention and Interest stages, consumers form feelings of Trust (i.e., Confidence). Without trust, customers are unlikely to move forward towards the Desire and Action stages of the process. Purchase is not the end stage in this model, as this is not the goal of the client; therefore, the final two stages are the Satisfaction of previously identified and agreed needs and the Evaluation by the customer about the whole process. If positive, it will repurchase and recommend to others (Customer's loyalty). In Betancur's model, trust is a key element in the purchase process, and must be achieved through important elements including:1. Business and personal image (including superior brand support). 2. Empathy with this customer. 3. Professionalism (knowledge of the product and master of the whole process from the point of view of the customer). 4. Ethics without exceptions. 5. Competitive Superiority (to solve the needs and requirements of this customer). 6. Commitment during the process and toward the customer satisfaction. Trust (or Confidence) is the glue that bonds society and makes solid and reliable relations of each one other. Cultural references [ edit]The character Blake in the film Glengarry Glen Ross by David Mamet makes a reference to the AIDA model. A minor difference between the fictional account of the model and the model as it was original proposed is that the "A" in Blake's motivational talk is defined as attention rather than awareness and the "D" as decision rather than desire. See also [ edit]Advertising - socio-historical account of advertising Advertising campaign Advertising media selection Ad tracking Advertising research Advertising management -advertising as a function of marketing management Attention Tracking Brand awareness Consumer behaviour DAGMAR marketing Integrated marketing communications Marketing Marketing communications Media planning Promotion (marketing)Promotional mix Purchase funnel Sales management Sales promotion Advertising models [ edit]Overview of theories of advertising effects AISDALSLove DAGMAR marketing Elaboration likelihood model (article)Elaboration likelihood model (section)External sources [ edit]AIDA - konzultace při tvorbě www stránek - Czech text about using AIDA in web design Notes [ edit]^ Demetrios Vakratsas and Tim Ambler, "How Advertising Works: What Do We Really Know?" Journal of Marketing Vol. 63, No. 1, 1999, pp. 26-43 DOI: 10.2307/1251999 URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1251999^ Priyanka, R., "AIDA Marketing Communication Model: Stimulating a purchase decision in the minds of the consumers through a linear progression of steps," International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Social Management, Vol. 1 , 2013, pp 37-44.^ E. St Elmo Lewis, Financial Advertising. (The History of Advertising), USA, Levey Brothers, 1908^ O’Shaughnessy, J., Explaining Buyer Behavior, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992^ Diehl, D. and Terlutter, R., "The Role of Lifestyle and Personality in Explaining Attitude to the Ad," in Branding and Advertising, Flemming Hansen, Lars Bech Christensen (eds), p. 307^ Howard, J. A. Marketing Management, Homewood, Ill. 1963^ Howard, J. A." in: P. E. Earl and S. Kemp (eds. ), The Elgar Companion to Consumer Research and Economic Psychology, Cheltenham 1999, pp 310-314.^ Peterson, Arthur F. (1959). Pharmaceutical Selling. Heathcote-Woodbridge.^ Kitson, H. S., Manual for the Study of the Psychology of Advertising and Selling, Philadelphia 1920, p. 21^ Egan, J., Marketing Communications, London, Thomson Learning, pp 42-43^ Bendizlen, M. T., “Advertising Effects and Effectiveness,” European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 27, No. 10, pp 19-32.^ Vakratsas, D. and Ambler, T., "How Advertising Works: What Do We Really Know?" Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan., 1999), pp. 26-43 DOI: 10.2307/1251999 URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1251999^ Huey, B., “Advertising’s Double Helix: A Proposed New Process Model” Journal of Advertising Research, May/June, 1999, pp 43-51; Belch, G. E. and Belch, M. A., "Evaluating The Effectiveness of Elements of Integrated Marketing Communications: A Review of Research," Occassional Paper, <Online: cbaweb.sdsu.edu>^ Yoon,K., Laczniak, R. N., Muehling, D. D. and Reece, B. B., "A Revised Model of Advertising Processing: Extending the Dual Mediation Hypothesis," Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Vol. 17, no. 2, 1995, pp 53-67^ Yoon,K., Laczniak, R. N., Muehling, D. D. and Reece, B. B., "A Revised Model of Advertising Processing: Extending the Dual Mediation Hypothesis," Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, Vol. 17, no. 2, 1995, pp 53-67^ Barry, T. E., "The Development of the Hierarchy of Effects: An Historical Perspective," Current Issues and Research in Advertising, vol. 10, no. 2, 1987, pp. 251–295^ Priyanka, R., "AIDA Marketing Communication Model: Stimulating a Purchase Decision in the Minds of the Consumers through a Linear Progression of Steps," International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research in Social Management, Vol. 1 , 2013, pp 37-44.^ Lavidge,R. J. and Steiner, G. A., "A Model for Predictive Measures of Advertising Effectiveness," Journal of Marketing, October, 1961, pp 59-62^ Mc Guire, W. “An Information Processing Model of Advertising Effectiveness,” in Behavioral and Management Science in Marketing, Harry L. Davis and Alvin J. Silk, eds. New York: John Wiley, 1978, pp 156-80.^ Barry, T. E. and Howard, D. J., "A Review and Critique of the Hierarchy of Effects in Advertising," International Journal of Advertising, vol 9, no.2, 1990, pp. 121–135^ Barry, T. E. and Howard, D. J., "A Review and Critique of the Hierarchy of Effects in Advertising," International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 9, no. 2, 1990, pp 121-135^ Wijaya, Bambang Sukma (2012). “The Development of Hierarchy of Effects Model in Advertising”, International Research Journal of Business Studies, 5 (1), April–July 2012, p. 73-85^ Barry, T. E. , The development of the hierarchy of effects: an historical perspective, USA, 1987^ "Catch-Line and Argument," The Book-Keeper, Vol. 15, February 1903, p. 124. Other writings by E. St. Elmo Lewis on advertising principles include "Side Talks about Advertising," The Western Druggist, Vol. 21, February 1899, p. 65-66; Financial Advertising, published by Levey Bros. in 1908; and, "The Duty and Privilege of Advertising a Bank," The Bankers' Magazine, Vol. 78, April 1909, pp. 710–11.^ "Pioneers in the Development of Advertising," Journal of Marketing 12 (1), 1947, p. 82^ London: Effingham Wilson 1854, Sixth Edition, p. 17^ "Well Told is Half Sold," The United Service. A Monthly Review of Military and Naval Affairs, Vol. 9 (N. S.), 1893, p. 8. An identical ad appeared in The Century of the same year.^ "The Bissell Prize Advertisement Contest," Hardware, March 1900, p. 44.^ "Three Natural Fields of Salesmanship," Salesmanship 2 (1), January 1904, p. 14.^ C. P. Russell, "How to Write a Sales-Making Letter," Printers' Ink, June 2, 1921^ Sheldon, A., Successful Selling, (Part 1), USA, Kessinger Publishing [Rare Reprint Series], 1911^ Jobber, David; Ellis-Chadwick, Fiona (2013). "1, 15". Principles and Practices of Marketing (7 ed.). Maidenhead: Mc Graw-Hill Education. pp. 21, 540. ISBN 9780077140007.^ Diehl, D. and Terlutter, R., "The Role of Lifestyle and Personality in Explaining Attitude to the Ad," in Branding and Advertising, Flemming Hansen, Lars Bech Christensen (eds), p. 307^ Demetrios Vakratsas and Tim Ambler, "How Advertising Works: What Do We Really Know?" Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, No. 1, 1999, pp. 26-43, DOI: 10.2307/1251999 URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1251999^ O’Shaughnessy, J., Explaining Buyer Behavior, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992^ Egan, J., Marketing Communications, London, Thomson Learning, pp 42-43^ Barry, T. E., "The Development of the Hierarchy of Effects: An Historical Perspective," Current Issues and Research in Advertising vol. 10, no. 2, 1987, pp. 251–295^ J. A. Howard, Marketing Management, Homewood 1963; cf. M. B. Holbrook, "Howard, John A." in: P. E. Earl, S. Kemp (eds. ), The Elgar Companion to Consumer Research and Economic Psychology, Cheltenham 1999, pp 310-314.^ Barry, T. E., "The Development of the Hierarchy of Effects: An Historical Perspective," Current Issues and Research in Advertising Vol. 10, no. 2, 1987, pp. 251–295.^ Barry, T. E. and Howard, D. J., "A Review and Critique of the Hierarchy of Effects in Advertising," International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 9, no. 2, 1990, pp 121-135^ Wijaya, Bambang Sukma (2012). “The Development of Hierarchy of Effects Model in Advertising”, International Research Journal of Business Studies, Vol. 5, no 1, 2012, pp 73-85^ Wijaya, Bambang Sukma (2012). “The Development of Hierarchy of Effects Model in Advertising”, International Research Journal of Business Studies, 5 (1), April–July 2012, p. 73-85^ Christian Betancur, El vendedor Halcón: sus estrategias. El poder de la venta consultiva para ganar más clientes satisfechos, Medellín, Colombia, 2nd ed., 2014, ICONTEC International, ISBN 978-958-4643513 www.elvendedorhalcon.com^ Rossiter, J. R. and Percy, L.,"Advertising Communication Models", in: Advances in Consumer Research, Volume 12, Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Moris B. Holbrook (eds), Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, 1985, pp 510-524., Online: http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/6443/volumes/v12/NA-12 or http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx? Id=6443References [ edit]Ferrell, O. C.; Hartline, Michael (2005). Marketing Strategy. Thomson South-Western. ISBN 0-324-20140-0. Geml, Richard and Lauer, Hermann: Marketing- und Verkaufslexikon, 4. Auflage, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-7910-2798-2Categories: Marketing techniques Selling techniques Marketing terminology Promotion and marketing communications  . Compression Compression is simply increasing gas pressure. In molecular terms, increased pressure is caused by molecules hitting the sides of an enclosed space more frequently. This can be achieved by forcing a given volume of molecules to occupy a smaller volume, or by increasing the temperature so that molecular motion is increased Adiabetic compression Definition If no heat is added or taken away during compression, the process is called adiabatic compression. Adiabatic compression in practice In practice, no compressor is truly adiabatic because some heat is always lost to the surroundings. An adiabatic compression process is an approximation of what happens in a single stage of a centrifugal compressor and is generally used to assess the performance of these machines. There is slight heat loss to the air surrounding the compressor, but the compression may be treated as adiabatic. Graph of adiabatic compression The graph shows how pressure and volume change for an adiabatic compression process. The shaded area to the left of the pressure against volume line represents the energy required for compression.  ADI ADIMust Reads in Health Protecting Your Skin During Winter Watch: My Personal Psoriasis Journey Are You Getting The Best Cancer Care? Keeping An Active Lifestyle With COPDLiver Disease? Find a Doc Who Treats PBCAre You Allergic To Your Clothes? Why Psoriasis Treatments Can Fail Introduction: ADIDescription of ADIADI (medical condition): A chronic skin condition where dry, rough skin forms in areas such as... more »See also: Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant : » Introduction: Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant » Symptoms of Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant ADI: Acceptable Daily Intake. ADI as a Disease ADI: Another name for Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant (or close medical condition association). » Introduction: Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant » Symptoms of Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant ADI: Related Diseases ADI: ADI is listed as a type of (or associated with) the following medical conditions in our database: Skin conditions Genetic conditions Symptoms of ADI (Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant)Some of the symptoms of ADI incude: Asymptomatic Skin irritation in cold weather Dry skin Scaly skin Read more about symptoms of ADI (Ichthyosis vulgaris, dominant)ADI: Related Disease Topics These medical disease topics may be related to ADI:acquired icthyosisprickly itchautosomal dominant disorderallergieseczemaatopic dermatitis Interesting Medical Articles: Symptoms of the Silent Killer Diseases Online Diagnosis Self Diagnosis Pitfalls Pitfalls of Online Diagnosis Research Your Symptoms Diseases & Medical Conditions Medical Diagnosis [ Full list of premium articles on symptoms, diseases, and diagnosis ]Medical dictionaries: Medical dictionary ,Medical Acronymns/Abbreviations More Medical Dictionary Topics Sclerosing dysplasia of bone with ichthyosis and premature ovarian failure Sclerosing epithelioid fibrosarcoma Sclerosing hemangioma Sclerosing inflammation Sclerosing keratitis Sclerosing leukoencephalitis Sclerosing mastoiditis Sclerosing mediastinitis Sclerosing midiastinitis Sclerosing osteitis Sclerosing osteomyelitis of Garre Sclerosing pancreatico-cholangitis Find out more Search to find out more about ADI:powered by Search the Web Search rightdiagnosis.com» Next page: Adiadochokinesia Medical Tools & Articles: Tools & Services: Bookmark this page Symptom Search Symptom Checker Medical Dictionary Medical Articles: Disease & Treatments Search Misdiagnosis Center Full list of interesting articles Forums & Message Boards Ask or answer a question at the Boards: I cannot get a diagnosis. Please help. Tell us your medical story. Share your misdiagnosis story. What is the best treatment for my condition? See all the Boards.  Weather Terms 718 terms Devianz Weather Terms Ablation The process of being removed. Snow ablation usually refers to removal by melting. Absolute Humidity The density of water vapor. It is the mass of the water vapor divided by the volume that it occupies. Accretion Growth of precipitation particles by collision of ice crystals with supercooled liquid droplets which freeze on impact Accessory Clouds Clouds that are dependent on a larger cloud system for development and continuance. Accessory clouds associated with the thunderstorm include roll, shelf, mammatus, and wall clouds. Acid Rain Cloud or rain droplets containing pollutants, such as oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, to make them acidic (e.g. p H < 5.6). Additive data A group of coded remarks in a weather observation that includes pressure tendency, amount of precipitation, and maximum/minimum temperature during specified periods of time. Adiabatic changes in temperature caused by the expansion (cooling) or compression (warming) of a body of air as it rises or descends in the atmosphere. Adiabatic Process The change of temperature of air without transferring heat. In an adiabatic process compression results in warming, and expansion results in cooling. Advection The horizontal transport of air, moisture or other atmospheric properties. Commonly used with temperatures, i.e., "warm air advection". Advection Fog a type of fog that results from the advection of moist air over a cold surface and the cooling of the air to its dew point that follows; this type of fog is most common in coastal regions. Advisory Advisories are issued for weather situations that cause significant inconveniences but do not meet warning criteria and, if caution is not exercised, could lead to life-threatening situations. Advisories are issued for significant events that are occurring, are imminent, or have a very high probability of occurrence. Aerosol Particles of matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere (up to 100? m diameter). Natural origins include salt particles from sea spray and clay particles as a result of weathering of rocks. Aerosols can also originate as a result of man's activities and in this case are often considered pollutants. Aerovane Aerovanes are commonly used at many weather stations and airports to measure both wind direction and speed. They are similar to wind vanes and cup anemometers except have three-bladed propellers attached to the end of the vane. AFOS the Automation of Field Operations and Services; AFOS is the computer system that links National Weather Service offices and other computer networks, such as the NOAA Weather Wire, to transmit weather information. AGL above ground level. Air the mixture of gases that make-up the earth's atmosphere. Air Mass A large body of air that has similar horizontal temperature and moisture characteristics. Air-mass Thunderstorm Generally, a thunderstorm not associated with a front or other type of synoptic-scale forcing mechanism. Air mass thunderstorms typically are associated with warm, humid air in the summer months; they develop during the afternoon in response to insolation, and dissipate rather quickly after sunset. Air Parcel An imaginary small body of air that is used to explain the behavior of air. A parcel is large enough to contain a very great number of molecules, but small enough so that the properties assigned to it are approximately uniform throughout. Air Pollution The existence in the air of substances in concentrations that are determined unacceptable. Contaminants in the air we breathe come mainly from manufacturing industries, electric power plants, automobiles, buses, and trucks. Air Pressure (atmospheric pressure) air pressure is the force exerted on a surface by the weight of the air above it. The internationally recognized unit for measuring this pressure is the kilopascal. Airstream A significant body of air flowing in the same general circulation. Albedo The percentage of light reflected by an object. Snow covered areas have a high albedo (0.9 or 90%) due to their white color. Alberta Clipper A small, fast-moving low-pressure system that forms in western Canada and travels southeastward into the United States. These storms, which generally bring little precipitation, generally precede an Arctic air mass. Altimeter An active instrument (see active system) used to measure the altitude of an object above a fixed level. Altimeter setting That pressure value to which an aircraft altimeter scale is set so that it will indicate the altitude above mean sea-level of an aircraft on the ground at the location for which the value was determined. Altitude Height expressed as the distance above a reference point, which is normally sea level or ground level. Altocumulus Mid-altitude clouds with a cumuliform shape. Altostratus Mid-altitude clouds with a flat sheet-like shape. Anabatic wind flowing up an incline, such as up a hillside upslope wind. Anafront A front at which the warm is ascending the frontal surface up to high altitudes. Anemometer An instrument that measures wind speed. Aneroid barometer An instrument built around a metal structure that bends with changing air pressure. These changes are recorded on a pointer that moves back and forth across a printed scale. Angular Momentum the energy of motion of a spinning body or mass of air or water. Angular Velocity the rate at which a spinning body rotates. Anomaly The deviation of (usually) temperature or precipitation in a given region over a specified period from the normal value for the same region. Anticyclone A large body of air in which the atmospheric pressure is higher than the pressure in the surrounding air. The winds blow clockwise around an anticyclone in in the Northern Hemisphere. Anticyclonic describes the movement of air around a high pressure, and rotation about the local vertical opposite the earth's rotation. This is clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. Anvil Cloud The flat, spreading top of a Cb (cumulonimbus), often shaped like an anvil. Thunderstorm anvils may spread hundreds of miles downwind from the thunderstorm itself, and sometimes may spread upwind (see back-sheared anvil). Anvil Crawler A lightning discharge occurring within the anvil of a thunderstorm, characterized by one or more channels that appear to crawl along the underside of the anvil. They typically appear during the weakening or dissipating stage of the parent thunderstorm, or during an active MCS. Anvil Dome A large overshooting top or penetrating top. Anvil Rollover A circular or semicircular lip of clouds along the underside of the upwind part of a back-sheared anvil, indicating rapid expansion of the anvil. See cumuliform anvil, knuckles, mushroom. Anvil Zits Frequent (often continuous or nearly continuous), localized lightning discharges occurring from within a thunderstorm anvil. Arctic Air a mass of very cold, dry air that usually originates over the Arctic Ocean north of Canada and Alaska. Arctic High a very cold high pressure that originates over the Arctic Ocean. Arcus A low, horizontal cloud formation associated with the leading edge of thunderstorm outflow (i.e., the gust front). Roll clouds and shelf clouds both are types of arcus clouds. Aridity A general term used to describe areas suffering from lack of rain or drought. More specifically, a condition in which evaporation exceeds precipitation. ASOS Automated Surface Observing System. This system observes sky conditions, temperature and dewpoint, wind direction and speed, and barometric pressure, and precipitation. Atmosphere The mass of air surrounding the earth and bound to it more or less permanently by the earth's gravitational attraction. Atmospheric Pressure (also called air pressure or barometric pressure) The pressure asserted by the mass of the column of air directly above any specific point. Atmospheric Stability An indication of how easily a parcel of air is lifted. If the air is very stable it is difficult to make the parcel rise. If the air is very unstable the parcel may rise on its own once started. Aurora Borealis Also known as the northern lights {* The luminous, radiant emission from the upper atmosphere over middle and high latitudes, and centered around the earth's magnetic poles. These silent fireworks are often seen on clear winter nights in a variety of shapes and colors. Automated Weather Station An unmanned station with various sensors that measure weather elements such as temperature/wind/pressure and transmit these readings for use by meteorologists. AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. Main sensor on U. S. polar orbiting satellites. Avalanche a large mass of rapidly moving snow down a steep mountain slope. AVN Aviation Model generated every 12 hours by NCEP. AWIPS Advanced Weather Information Processing System. New NWS computer system integrating graphics, satellite and radar imagery. The successor to AFOS. Back Door Cold Front A front that moves east to west in direction rather than the normal west to east movement. For instance, one that enters Southern New England from the Gulf of Maine. Back-building Thunderstorm A thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Back-sheared Anvil A thunderstorm anvil which spreads upwind, against the flow aloft. A back-sheared anvil often implies a very strong updraft and a high severe weather potential. Backing Wind Wind which shifts in a counterclockwise direction with time at a given location (e.g. from southerly to southeasterly), or change direction in a counterclockwise sense with height (e.g. westerly at the surface but becoming more southerly aloft). Backing winds with height are indicative of cold air advection (CAA). The opposite of veering winds. Ball lightning A relatively rarely seen form of lightning, generally consisting of an orange or reddish ball of the order of a few cm to 30 cm in diameter and of moderate luminosity, which may move up to 1 m/s horizontally with a lifetime of a second or two. Barber Pole A thunderstorm updraft with a visual appearance including cloud striations that are curved in a manner similar to the stripes of a barber pole. The structure typically is most pronounced on the leading edge of the updraft, while drier air from the rear flank downdraft often erodes the clouds on the trailing side of the updraft. Baroclinic Zone A region in which a temperature gradient exists on a constant pressure surface. Baroclinic zones are favored areas for strengthening and weakening systems. Barogram The graphic record of pressure produced by a barograph. Barograph An instrument that provides a continuous record of atmospheric pressure. Barometer An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure. Barometric pressure The actual pressure value indicated by a pressure sensor. Barometric Tendency The amount and direction of change in barometer readings over a three-hour period. Barotropic System A weather system in which temperature and pressure surfaces are coincident, i.e., temperature is uniform (no temperature gradient) on a constant pressure surface. Barotropic systems are characterized by a lack of wind shear, and thus are generally unfavorable areas for severe thunderstorm development. Bear's Cage A region of storm-scale rotation, in a thunderstorm, which is wrapped in heavy precipitation. This area often coincides with a radar hook echo and/or mesocyclone, especially one associated with an HP storm. The term reflects the danger involved in observing such an area visually, which must be done at close range in low visibility. Beaufort Scale A scale that indicates the wind speed using the effect wind has on certain familiar objects. Beaver ('s) Tail A particular type of inflow band with a relatively broad, flat appearance suggestive of a beaver's tail. It is attached to a supercell's general updraft and is oriented roughly parallel to the pseudo-warm front, i.e., usually east to west or southeast to northwest. Black Ice thin, new ice that forms on fresh water or dew covered surfaces; it is common on roadways during the fall and early winter and appears "black" because of its transparency. Blizzard Includes winter storm conditions of sustained winds or frequent gusts of 35 mph or more that cause major blowing and drifting of snow, reducing visibility to less than one-quarter mile for 3 or more hours. Extremely cold temperatures often are associated with dangerous blizzard conditions. Blizzard warning Issued when blizzard condition are expected or are occurring. Blocking High A high pressure area (anticyclone), often aloft, that remains nearly stationary or moves slowly compared to west-to-east motion. It blocks the movement eastward movement of low pressure areas (cyclones) at its latitude.. Blowing Dust dust that is raised by the wind to moderate heights above the ground to a degree that horizontal visibility decreases to less than seven miles. Visibilities of 1/8 mile or less over a widespread area are criteria for a Blowing Dust Advisory. Blowing Sand Sand particles picked up from the surface of the earth by the wind to moderate heights above the ground, reducing the reported horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles. Blowing Snow Wind driven snow that reduces visibility to six miles or less causing significant drifting. Blowing snow may be snow that is falling and/or loose snow on the ground picked up by the wind. Blowing spray Water droplets torn by the wind from a body of water, generally from the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that they reduce the reported horizontal visibility to less than 7 statute miles. Blustery Descriptive term for gusty winds that accompany cold weather. Bomb Cyclone An extratropical area of low pressure in which the central pressure drops at least 24 millibars in 24 hours. Boundary Layer In general, a layer of air adjacent to a bounding surface. Specifically, the term most often refers to the planetary boundary layer, which is the layer within which the effects of friction are significant. For the earth, this layer is considered to be roughly the lowest one or two kilometers of the atmosphere. Bow echo { A radar echo which is linear but bent outward in a bow shape. Damaging straight-line winds often occur near the "crest" or center of a bow echo. Areas of circulation also can develop at either end of a bow echo, which sometimes can lead to tornado formation { especially in the left (usually northern) end, where the circulation exhibits cyclonic rotation. Box (or Watch Box) A severe thunderstorm or tornado watch. Breezy Wind in the range of 15 mph to 25 mph with mild or warm temperatures. Brisk Wind in the range of 15 to 25 mph when the temperature is cold. Broken Clouds Clouds which cover between 5/8ths and 7/8ths of the sky. Buoyancy That property of an object that enables it to float on the surface of a liquid, or as in the case with air parcels, to ascend and remain freely suspended in the atmosphere. Bubble High A mesoscale area of high pressure, typically associated with cooler air from the rainy downdraft area of a thunderstorm or a complex of thunderstorms. A gust front or outflow boundary separates a bubble high from the surrounding air. Bulk Richardson Number (or BRN) A non-dimensional number relating vertical stability and vertical shear (generally, stability divided by shear). High values indicate unstable and/or weakly-sheared environments low values indicate weak instability and/or strong vertical shear. Generally, values in the range of around 50 to 100 suggest environmental conditions favorable for supercell development. Bust An inaccurate forecast, usually a situation in which significant weather is expected, but does not occur. BWER Bounded Weak Echo Region. (Also known as a vault.) Radar signature within a thunderstorm characterized by a local minimum in radar reflectivity at low levels which extends upward into, and is surrounded by, higher reflectivities aloft. This feature is associated with a strong updraft and is almost always found in the inflow region of a thunderstorm. It cannot be seen visually. CAA Cold Air Advection Calm the absence of apparent motion in the air. Cap (or Capping Inversion) A layer of relatively warm air aloft (usually several thousand feet above the ground) which suppresses or delays the development of thunderstorms. Air parcels rising into this layer become cooler than the surrounding air, which inhibits their ability to rise further. As such, the cap often prevents or delays thunderstorm development even in the presence of extreme instability. CAPE Convective Available Potential Energy. A measure of the amount of energy available for convection. CAPE is directly related to the maximum potential vertical speed within an updraft thus, higher values indicate greater potential for severe weather. Observed values in thunderstorm environments often may exceed 1,000 joules per kilogram (j/kg), and in extreme cases may exceed 5,000 j/kg. However, as with other indices or indicators, there are no threshold values above which severe weather becomes imminent. Cb Cumulonimbus cloud Ceiling The height of the lowest layer of broken or overcast clouds. Ceilometer A device used to evaluate the height of clouds or the vertical visibility into a surface-based obscuration. Cell Convection in the form of a single updraft, downdraft, or updraft/downdraft couplet, typically seen as a vertical dome or tower as in a cumulus or towering cumulus cloud. A typical thunderstorm consists of several cells Celsius a temperature scale in which zero is the freezing point of water and one hundred is the boiling point. Chance A 30, 40 or 50 percent chance of occurrence of measurable precipitation. Chinook Wind A strong downslope wind that causes the air to warm rapidly as a result of compressive heating called a foehn wind in Europe. Circulation The pattern of the movement of air. General circulation is the flow of air of large, semi-permanent weather systems, while secondary circulation is the flow of air of more temporary weather systems. Cirriform High altitude ice clouds with a very thin wispy appearance. Cirrocumulus Cirrus clouds with vertical development. Cirrostratus Cirrus clouds with a flat sheetlike appearance. Cirrus High clouds, usually above 18,000 feet, composed of ice crystals and appearing in the form of white, delicate filaments or white or mostly white patches or narrow bands. Clear Sky condition of less than 1/10 cloud coverage. Clear Slot A local region of clearing skies or reduced cloud cover, indicating an intrusion of drier air often seen as a bright area with higher cloud bases on the west or southwest side of a wall cloud. Climate The prevalent long term weather conditions in a particular area. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine and wind velocity and phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms. Climate cannot be considered a satisfactory indicator of actual conditions since it is based upon a vast number of elements taken as an average. Climate change This strictly refers to all forms of climatic inconsistency. But it is often used in a more restricted sense to imply a significant change. Within the media, climate change has been used synonymously with global warming. Scientists, however, use the term in a wider sense to include past climate changes also. Climate Normals Averages of temperatures, precipitation, snowfall, etc. made over standard 30 year periods. These normals span across 3 decades and are rederived every 10 years. Climatology the scientific study of climate. Closed Low A low pressure area with a distinct center of cyclonic circulation which can be completely encircled by one or more isobars or height contour lines. The term usually is used to distinguish a low pressure area aloft from a low-pressure trough. Closed lows aloft typically are partially or completely detached from the main westerly current, and thus move relatively slowly. Cloud A visible cluster of tiny water and/or ice particles in the atmosphere. Cloud Base For a given cloud or cloud layer, it is the lowest level in the atmosphere where cloud particles are visible. Cloud Condensation Nuclei small particles in the air on which water vapor condenses and forms cloud droplets. Cloud Streets Rows of cumulus or cumulus-type clouds aligned parallel to the low-level flow. Cloud streets sometimes can be seen from the ground, but are seen best on satellite photographs. Cloud Tags Ragged, detached cloud fragments fractus or scud. Cloudburst A sudden, intense rainfall that is normally of short duration. Cloudy the state of the sky when 7/10ths or more of the sky is covered by clouds. Coastal Flood Warning Issued when there is widespread coastal flooding expected within 12 hours, more than just typical overwash. Coastal Flooding The inundation of land areas along the coast caused by sea water above normal tidal actions. This is often caused by prolonged strong onshore flow of wind and/or high astronomical tides. Coastal Forecast A forecast of wind, wave and weather conditions between the coastline and 25 miles offshore. Coastal Waters include the area from a line approximating the mean high water along the mainland or island as far out as 25 miles including the bays, harbors and sounds. Cold Advection (CAA) Transport of cold air into a region by horizontal winds. Cold Air Damming Cold air damming occurs when a cold dome of high pressure settles over northeastern New England. The clockwise circulation around the high pressure center brings northeasterly winds to the mid Atlantic region. The northeasterly winds bank cold air against the eastern slopes of the Appalachian Mountains. Warmer air from the west or southwest is lifted above the cold air as it moves instead of warming the surface. Cold-air Funnel A funnel cloud or (rarely) a small, relatively weak tornado that can develop from a small shower or thunderstorm when the air aloft is unusually cold (hence the name). They are much less violent than other types of tornadoes. Cold Front A narrow transition zone separating advancing colder air from retreating warmer air. The air behind a cold front is cooler and typically drier than the air it is replacing. Cold Low a low pressure system with cold air mass from near the surface to all vertical levels (also called a cold core low). Cold Pool A region of relatively cold air, represented on a weather map analysis as a relative minimum in temperature surrounded by closed isotherms. Cold pools aloft represent regions of relatively low stability, while surface-based cold pools are regions of relatively stable air. Collar Cloud Frequently used as a synonym for wall cloud, although it actually is a generally circular ring of cloud surrounding the upper portion of a wall cloud. Comma Cloud A synoptic scale cloud pattern with a characteristic comma-like shape, often seen on satellite photographs associated with large and intense low-pressure systems. Condensation The process by which water vapor becomes a liquid the opposite of evaporation, which is the conversion of liquid to vapor. Condensation Nuclei Small particles in the air around which water vapor condenses. Conduction The transfer of heat by molecular action between bodies that are in contact. Confluence A pattern of wind flow in which air flows inward toward an axis oriented parallel to the general direction of flow. It is the opposite of difluence. Confluence is not the same as convergence. Winds often accelerate as they enter a confluent zone, resulting in speed divergence which offsets the (apparent) converging effect of the confluent flow. Congestus (or Cumulus Congestus) A large cumulus cloud with great vertical development, usually with a cauliflower-like appearance, but lacking the characteristic anvil shaped top of a Cb. Continental Air Mass A dry air mass originating over a large land area. Contrail A cloud-like stream formed in cold, clear air behind the engines of an airplane. Convection The transfer of heat within a the air by its movement. The term is used specifically to describe vertical transport of heat and moisture, especially by updrafts and downdrafts in an unstable atmosphere. Convective Outlook A forecast containing the area (s) of expected thunderstorm occurrence and expected severity over the contiguous United States, issued several times daily by the SPC. Convective Temperature The approximate temperature that the air near the ground must warm to in order for surface-based convection to develop, based on analysis of a sounding. Convergence An atmospheric condition that exists when the winds cause a horizontal net inflow of air into a specified region. Divergence is the opposite, where winds cause a horizontal net outflow of air from a specified region. Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) The time in the zero degree meridian time zone. Combined Seas The combined height of swell and wind waves. Cooling Degree Day A form of degree day used to estimate the required energy for cooling. one cooling degree day occurs for each degree the daily mean temperature is above 65 degrees Fahrenheit. Coriolis Force An apparent force caused by the rotation of the Earth. In the Northern Hemisphere winds are deflected to the right, and in the Southern Hemisphere to the left. In synoptic scale weather systems (hurricanes and large mid-latitude storms), the Coriolis force causes the air to rotate around a low pressure center in a cyclonic direction. The air flowing around a hurricane spins counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads  . AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDERADF (Automatic Direction Finder) is the radio signals in the low to medium frequency band of 190 Khz. to 1750 Khz. It was widely used today. It has the major advantage over VOR navigation in the reception is not limited to line of sight distance. The ADF signals follow the curvature of the earth. The maximum of distance is depend on the power of the beacon. The ADF can receives on both AM radio station and NDB (Non-Directional Beacon). Commercial AM radio stations broadcast on 540 to 1620 Khz. Non-Directional Beacon operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 Khz. ADF COMPONENTSADF Receiver : pilot can tune the station desired and to select the mode of operation. The signal is received, amplified, and converted to audible voice or morse code transmission and powers the bearing indicator. Control Box (Digital Readout Type) : Most modern aircraft has this type of control in the cockpit . In this equipment the frequency tuned is displayed as digital readout. ADF automatically determines bearing to selected station and it on the RMI. Antenna : The aircraft consist of two antennas. The two antennas are called LOOP antenna and SENSE antenna. The ADF receives signals on both loop and sense antennas. The loop antenna in common use today is a small flat antenna without moving parts. Within the antenna are several coils spaced at various angles. The loop antenna sense the direction of the station by the strength of the signal on each coil but cannot determine whether the bearing is TO or FROM the station. The sense antenna provides this latter information. Bearing Indicator : displays the bearing to station relative to the nose of the aircraft. Relative Bearing is the angle formed by the line drawn through the center line of the aircraft and a line drawn from the aircraft to the radio station. Magnetic Bearing is the angle formed by a line drawn from aircraft to the radio station and a line drawn from the aircraft to magnetic north (Bearing to station). Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing. TYPE OF ADF INDICATOR Four types of ADF indicators are in use today. In every case, the needle points to the navigation beacon. Those four types are: Fixed Compass Card : It is fixed to the face of instrument and cannot rotate. 0 degree is always straight up as the nose of aircraft. The relationship of the aircraft to the station is refered to as " bearing to the station " MB or aircraft to magnetic north. This type of indicator, pilot must calculate for the bearing by formular MB = RB + MHRotatable Compass Card : The dial face of the instrument can be rotated by a knob. By rotating the card such that the Magnetic Heading (MH) of the aircraft is adjusted to be under the pointer at the top of the card. The bearing to station (MB) can be read directly from the compass card without calculation and make it easy for pilot. Today , they designed automatically rotate the compass card of the instrument to agree with the magnetic heading (MH) of the aircraft . Thus MB to station can be read at any time without manually rotating the compass card on the ADF face. Single-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator : Radio Magnetic Indicator is an instrument that combines radio and magnetic information to provide continuous heading , bearing , and radial information. The face of the single needle RMI is similar to that of the rotatable card ADF. Dual-Needle Radio Magnetic Indicator : The dual needle RMI is similar to single needle RMI except that it has a second needle. The first needle indicated just like single needle. inthe picture , the yellow needle is a single which indicate the Magnetic Bearing to the NDB station . The second needle is the green needle in the picture. The second needle (green) is point to VOR station . The dual needle indicator is useful in locate the location of an aircraft. OPERATIONADF operate in the low and medium frequency bands. By tuning to NDB station or commercial AM radio stations. NDB frequency and identification information may be obtained from aeronautical charts and Airport Facility Directory. The ADF has automatic direction seeking qualities which result in the bearing indicator always pointing to the station to which it is tuned. The easiest and perhaps the most common method of using ADF , is to " home " to the station . Since the ADF pointer always points to the station , the pilot can simply head the airplane so that the pointer is on the 0 (zero) degree or nose position when using a fixed card ADF . The station will be directly ahead of the airplane. Since there is almost always some wind at altitude and you will be allowing for drif, meaning that your heading will be different from your track. Off track , if the aircraft is left of track, the head of the needle will point right of the nose. If the aircraft is right of track , the head of the needle will point left of the nose. For fixed compass card , if you are not fly Homing and you want to fly heading at some degrees. You must use the formular MB = MH + RB to find out what degree the ADF pointer should be on. Today , the fixed card indicator is very unsatisfactory for every day use which can still be found on aircraft panels but not many planes that pilot actually uses it due to it has easier type of indicator. For rotatable compass card, it was a big step over the fixed card indicator. The pilot can rotate the compass card with the heading knob to display the aircraft MH " straight up " . Then the ADF needle will directly indicate the magnetic bearing to the NDB station. For Single needle Radio Magnetic Indicator , the compasscard is a directional gyro and it rotates automatically as the aircraft turns and provide continuous heading . It is accurately indicates the magnetic heading and the magnetic bearing to the beacon. This instrument is a " hands off " instrument. For dual needle Radio Magnetic Indicator, it is give the pilot information the same as the single needle such as aircraft heading and magnetic bearing to the NDB . The seacond indicator will point to VOR station . This help pilot to check the location of the aircraft at that time .© 2001-2007 Thai Technics. Com All Rights Reserved Contact Webmaster  . WHAT ARE SAIFI, SAIDI AND MAIFI? ON RELIABILITY ISSUES? SAIFI, SAIDI, MAIFI are some of the indices used to measure distribution system reliability. Before explaining them a little on the subject of reliability. Reliability can be defined as the ability of the power system components to deliver electricity to all points of consumption, in the quantity & with the quality demanded by the consumer. Reliability is often measured by the outage indices defined in one international standard called IEEE 1366. (IEEE is the Institution of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, the biggest professional body of Electrical & Electronics Engineers. IEEE has its head office in the USA & has presence in most countries). These outage indices are based on the duration of each power supply interruption & the frequency of interruption. It is clear that all three major functional components of the power system – generation, transmission & distribution contribute to reliability. As far as the consumer is concerned, transmission & distribution outages are important. In fact, surveys (in developed countries) show that 80-90% of the outages experienced by consumers are caused by distribution outages. A power supply outage is an unplanned event & can be described in terms of the frequency, duration & amount of load (or consumers) affected. A momentary outage is defined as an outage lasting less than 5 minutes, corresponding to the time taken by automatic re-closure schemes to restore temporary faults; a sustained outage lasts longer than 5 minutes (NERC 1996). IEEE standard 1366 gives the definition for outage indices. These indices are calculated using details of consumer interruptions collected from past year’s or several year’s data. Definitions of few of the indices are given below: System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI)SAIFI is the average number of sustained interruptions per consumer during the year. It is the ratio of the annual number of interruptions to the number of consumers. SAIFI = (Total number of sustained interruptions in a year) / (Total number of consumers)System Average Interruption Duration Index (SAIDI)SAIDI is the average duration of interruptions per consumers during the year. It is the ratio of the annual duration of interruptions (sustained) to the number of consumers. If duration is specified in minutes, SAIDI is given as consumer minutes. SAIDI = Total duration of sustained interruptions in a year / total number of consumers SAIFI & SAIDI are the most used pair of reliability indices. A North American survey showed SAIFI figure of 1.1 (indicating 1.1 interruption/year/consumer) & SAIDI of 1.5 hours. Singapore is reported to have a SAIDI of 3 minutes. For comparison, the NDPL tariff submission for 2005-06 gives SAIDI figure of 38 hours for 2003-04 & a target of 30 hours for 2004-05 (23)Consumer Average Interruption Frequency Index (CAIFI)CAIFI is the average number of interruptions for consumers who experience interruptions during the year. It is the ratio of the annual number of interruptions to the number of consumers affected by interruptions during the year. Consumer is counted only once regardless of the number of interruptions. CAIFI = Total number of sustained interruptions in a year/Total number of consumers affected. Consumer Average Interruption Duration Index (CAIDI)CAIDI is the average duration of an interruption, calculated based on the total number of sustained interruptions in a year. It is the ratio of the total duration of interruptions to the total number of interruptions during the year. CAIDI = Total duration of sustained interruptions in a year/total number of interruptions. It can also be seen that CAIDI = SAIDI/SAIFIMomentary Average Interruption Frequency Index (MAIFI)MAIFI is the average number of momentary (less than 5 minutes) interruptions per consumer during the year. It is the ratio of the annual number of momentary interruptions to the number of consumers. MAIFI = (Total number of momentary interruptions in a year ) / (Total number of consumers)The AP regulation suggests using 3 supply reliability indices SAIFI (System Average Interruption Frequency Index), SAIDI (System Average Interruption Duration Index) & MAIFI (Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index). These are typical reliability indices related to consumer supply, calculated using annual field data. The AP regulation (and as seen subsequently, all other State regulations) use these indices in the feeder context, with some change in the formula for calculations. Thus SAIFI, SAIDI & MAIFI refer to 11 k V feeder interruptions (not consumer interruptions) & the index is calculated using one month data (not annual data). The interruption is also given a weight age, based on the connected load on the respective feeder. To illustrate using the case of SAIFI. SAIFI = SUM (Connected load of feeder X Number of sustained interruptions of this feeder in the month) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Total connected load on all feeders)It can be seen that this is not an average value, since the total number of interruptions is not used in the calculation. SAIFI as calculated here is the weighted total number of feeder interruptions, i.e the sum of individual feeder interruption weighted by the proportion of load it carries. Thus, it cannot be used to compare reliability figures of two utilities which have different number of feeders. Indices for rural & urban feeders are to be calculated separately. Feeders serving predominantly agriculture loads are excluded from the calculation & indices for those are also to be separately calculated. Since these calculations are now, the regulation does not suggest any target values for these indices. Considering the lack of reliable data on consumer interruptions, it is a good idea the So P regulation suggests using feeder interruption data to calculate reliability. But then, it was perhaps not necessary to employ jargon like SAIFI, SAIDI etc, especially since the formula suggested are not as per the standard. Calculating the average duration & frequency of 11 k V feeder interruptions, calculating the per km interruption of 11 k V feeders etc would have been easier & sufficient to assess system reliability. 