text:
Emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In addition to the flags of individual Societies and the ICRC, the Movement introduced its own multi-lingual logo in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish in 2016.
The symbols of the movement. The Red Cross and the Red Crescent emblems at the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva. The Red Crystal emblem has recently joined them.
The emblem of the International Committee of the Red Cross (French: Comité international de la croix rouge)
Medical personnel during an armed conflict carry out humanitarian work and are "protected persons" under international humanitarian law. Whether military or civilian, they are considered non-combatants and may not be attacked and not be taken as prisoners of war by parties to a conflict. They use a protective sign such as the red cross, red crescent, or red crystal. Attacking medical personnel, vehicles, or buildings marked with one of these protective signs is a war crime.
The emblems of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, under the Geneva Conventions, are to be placed on humanitarian and medical vehicles and buildings, and to be worn by medical personnel and others carrying out humanitarian work, to protect them from military attack on the battlefield. There are four such emblems, three of which are in use: the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, and the Red Crystal. The Red Lion and Sun is also a recognized emblem, but is no longer in use.
There were also prior disputes concerning the use of a Red Star of David by Magen David Adom (MDA), the Israeli first-aid society; the Red Crystal was created in response to these disputes, thus enabling the admission of MDA to the movement.
In popular culture, the red cross symbol came to be a recognisable generic emblem for medicine, commonly associated with first aid, medical services, products, or professionals; it has been misused in toys, movies, and video games, outside its defined context. After objections from the Movement, derivatives and alternatives are used. Johnson & Johnson had registered the symbol for their medicinal products. The appropriation of the symbol has led to further confusion when first aid teams and ski patrols in the United States reverse the symbol–a white cross on a red background–thus suggesting an affiliation with Switzerland by simply re-applying the original idea of the red cross symbol, namely by reversing the red cross symbol's colors.[1][2][3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Symbols of the movement
1.1 Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems
1.2 Red Cross
1.2.1 Relationship to the flag of Switzerland
1.3 Red Crescent
1.3.1 Relationship to the flag of the Ottoman Empire
1.4 Red Crystal
1.5 Red Lion with Sun
1.6 Red Shield of David
1.7 Other proposed symbols
2 Mottos and mission statements
3 Annual commemoration
4 Museums
5 Use of the emblems
5.1 International protection of images
5.2 Use of the emblems in Canada
5.3 Use of the emblems in Hong Kong
5.4 Use of the emblems in Singapore
5.5 Use of the emblems in the United Kingdom
5.6 Use of the emblems in the United States
5.6.1 Johnson & Johnson v. American Red Cross
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Symbols of the movement[edit]
Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems[edit]
The symbols described below have two distinctively different meanings. On one hand, the visual symbols of the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal serve as protection markings in armed conflicts, a denotation which is derived from and defined in the Geneva Conventions. This is called the protective use of the symbols. On the other hand, these symbols are used as distinctive logos by those organizations which are part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. This is the indicative use of the emblems, a meaning which is defined in the statutes of the International Movement and partly in the third Additional Protocol.
As a protection symbol, they are used in armed conflicts to mark persons and objects (buildings, vehicles, etc.) which are working in compliance with the rules of the Geneva Conventions. In this function, they can also be used by organizations and objects which are not part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for example the medical services of the armed forces, civilian hospitals, and civil defense units. As protection symbols, these emblems should be used without any additional specification (textual or otherwise) and in a prominent manner which makes them as visible and observable as possible, for example by using large white flags bearing the symbol. Four of these symbols, namely the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal, are defined in the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols as symbols for protective use.
When used as an organizational logo, these symbols only indicate that persons, vehicles, buildings, etc. which bear the symbols belong to a specific organization which is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (like the ICRC, the International Federation or the national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies). In this case, they should be used with an additional specification (for example "American Red Cross") and not be displayed as prominently as when used as protection symbols. Three of these symbols, namely the Red Cross, the Red Crescent and the Red Crystal, can be used for indicative purposes by national societies for use in their home country or abroad. In addition to that, the Red Shield of David (Star of David) can be used by the Israel society Magen David Adom for indicative purposes within Israel, and, pending the approval of the respective host country, in combination with the Red Crystal when working abroad.
Red Cross[edit]
The Red Cross symbol
The Red Cross on white background was the original protection symbol declared at the 1864 Geneva Convention. The ideas to introduce a uniform and neutral protection symbol as well as its specific design originally came from Dr. Louis Appia, a Swiss surgeon, and Swiss General Henri Dufour, founding members of the International Committee.
The red cross symbolizes as an identifier for medical personnel during wartime. The Red Cross is defined as a protection symbol in Article 7 of the 1864 Geneva Convention, Chapter VII ("The distinctive emblem") and Article 38 of the 1949 Geneva Convention ("For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field"). There is an unofficial agreement within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement that the shape of the cross should be a cross composed of five squares.[citation needed] However, regardless of the shape, any Red Cross on white background should be valid and must be recognized as a protection symbol in conflict. Of the 190 National Societies which are currently recognized by the ICRC, 154 are using the Red Cross as their official organization emblem.
Relationship to the flag of Switzerland[edit]
The Swiss flag
According to the ICRC, the emblem adopted was formed by reversing the colours of the Swiss flag of Switzerland.[5] This was officially recorded in the 1906 revision of the Convention.[6] However, according to jurist and Red Cross historian Pierre Boissier, no clear evidence of this origin has been found; the concept that the design was chosen to compliment the country in which the convention at which it was adopted was held, was also promoted later to counter the objections of Turkey that the flag was a Christian symbol.[7] Conversely, there is no evidence that the emblem of the Red Cross was not formed by reversing the colours of the Swiss flag.
Red Crescent[edit]
The Red Crescent symbol
During the Russo-Turkish War from 1876 to 1878, the Ottoman Empire used a Red Crescent instead of the Red Cross because its government believed that the cross would alienate its Muslim soldiers. When asked by the ICRC in 1877, Russia committed to fully respect the sanctity of all persons and facilities bearing the Red Crescent symbol, followed by a similar commitment from the Ottoman government to respect the Red Cross. After this de facto assessment of equal validity to both symbols, the ICRC declared in 1878 that it should be possible in principle to adopt an additional official protection symbol for non-Christian countries. The Red Crescent was formally recognized in 1929 when the Geneva Conventions were amended (Article 19).[5] After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the Red Crescent was first used by its successor nation Turkey, followed by Egypt. From its official recognition to today, the Red Crescent became the organizational emblem of nearly every national society in countries with majority Muslim populations. The national societies of some countries such as Pakistan (1974), Malaysia (1975), or Bangladesh (1989) have officially changed their name and emblem from the Red Cross to the Red Crescent. The Red Crescent is used by 33 of the 190 recognized societies worldwide.
Relationship to the flag of the Ottoman Empire[edit]
The Ottoman Empire Flag
The Red Crescent is related to the flag of the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed]
Red Crystal[edit]
The third protocol emblem, also known as the Red Crystal
The introduction of an additional neutral protection symbol had been under discussion for a number of years, with the Red Crystal (previously referred to as the Red Lozenge or Red Diamond) being the most popular proposal. However, amending the Geneva Conventions to add a new protection symbol requires a diplomatic conference of all 192 signatory states to the Conventions. The Swiss government organized such a conference to take place on December 5–6, 2005, to adopt a third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions introducing the Red Crystal as an additional symbol with equal status to the Red Cross or Red Crescent. Following an unplanned extension of the conference until December 7, the protocol was adopted after a vote successfully achieved the required two-thirds majority. From the countries which attended the conference, 98 voted in favour and 27 against the protocol, while 10 countries abstained from voting.
In the third Protocol the new symbol is referred to as "the third Protocol emblem".[8] The rules for the use of this symbol, based on the third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions, are the following:
Within its own national territory, a national society can use either of the recognized symbols alone, or incorporate any of these symbols or a combination of them into the Red Crystal. Furthermore, a national society can choose to display a previously and effectively used symbol, after officially communicating this symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions through Switzerland as the depositary state prior to the adoption of the proposed third additional protocol.
For indicative use on foreign territory, a national society which does not use one of the recognized symbols as its emblem has to incorporate its unique symbol into the Red Crystal, based on the previously mentioned condition about communicating its unique symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions.
For protective use, only the symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions can be used. Specifically, those national societies which do not use one of the recognized symbols as their emblem have to use the Red Crystal without incorporation of any additional symbol.
On 22 June 2006 the ICRC announced that the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement adopted the Red Crystal as an additional emblem for use by the national societies. The ICRC also announced the recognition of the Palestine Red Crescent Society (PRCS) and the Israeli National Society, Magen David Adom (MDA).[9] On 14 January 2007, the third additional protocol entered into force.
Red Lion with Sun[edit]
The Red Lion with Sun symbol
From 1924 to 1980, Iran used a Red Lion with Sun symbol for its national society, the Red Lion and Sun Society, based on the flag and emblem of Iran. The Red Lion with Sun was formally recognized as a protection symbol in 1929, together with the Red Crescent. Despite the country's shift to the Red Crescent in 1980, Iran explicitly maintains the right to use the symbol.
Red Shield of David[edit]
Emblem of Magen David Adom for indicative use within Israel
The emblem for Magen David Adom for indicative use when operating abroad
Magen David Adom, the national society of Israel, has used the Red Shield of David as its organization emblem since its foundation. The Red Shield of David was initially proposed as an addition to the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion with Sun in 1931. The proposal was rejected by the ICRC, like the Mehrab-e-Ahmar (Red Archway) symbol of the national aid society of Afghanistan four years later, as well as a wide range of other proposals, due to concerns about symbol proliferation.[10] Israel again tried to establish the emblem as a third protection symbol in the context of the Geneva Conventions, but a respective proposal was narrowly defeated when the Geneva Conventions were adopted by governments in 1949. As the Red Shield of David is not a recognized protection symbol under the Geneva Conventions, Magen David Adom's recognition as a national society by the ICRC was long delayed.
It was not until 2006 that the ICRC officially recognized Magen David Adom.[11] The adoption of the third protocol emblem paved the way for the recognition and admission of Magen David Adom as a full member of the International Federation, as the rules of the third protocol allow it to continue using the Red Shield of David when operating within Israel and provide a solution for its missions abroad. Though the organization only recently gained official recognition, it took part in many international activities, in cooperation with both the ICRC and the Federation, prior to its official recognition.
Other proposed symbols[edit]
Various other countries have also lobbied for alternative symbols, which have been rejected because of concerns of territorialism.[10][12]
Red Flame (Siam) – Proposed by Siamese delegates at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899.[13]
Red Sun (Persia) – Proposed by Persian delegates at the Hague Peace Conference of 1899.[13]
Mehrab-e-Ahmar (Afghanistan) – Archway design submitted in 1935, but rejected.
Red Lamb (Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)) – Used by one of several rival societies in 1963 to 1964.
Red Wheel (India) – Hindu swastika design proposed after the Indian independence movement, but abandoned in favor of the Red Cross.
Hakuai Sha (Japan), based on the Japanese flag – Founded in 1877, but adopted the Red Cross in 1887.
Red Cedar (Lebanon) – Suggested after the Lebanese Civil War, but abandoned in favor of the Red Cross.
Red Rhinoceros (Sudan) – Proposed to unite local branches of the Red Crescent Society of Egypt and the British Red Cross, but abandoned in favor of the Red Crescent.
Red Palm (Syria) – Proposed after World War II, but rejected in favor of the Red Crescent.
Sapa Unalom Daeng (Thailand) – Founded in 1893, but adopted the Red Cross in 1906.
Red Star (Zimbabwe)
Red Triangle (Netherlands)[14] – Suggested at the Hague Peace Conference of 1949, but abandoned in favor of the Red Cross.
In 1922, a Red Swastika Society was formed in China during the Warlord era. The swastika is used in East Asia as a symbol to represent Dharma or Buddhism in general. While the organization has organized philanthropic relief projects (both domestic and international), as a sectarian religious body it is ineligible for recognition from the International Committee. Its headquarters are now in Taiwan.
Mottos and mission statements[edit]
The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was Inter Arma Caritas ("In War, Charity"). This Christian-spirited slogan was amended in 1961 with the neutral motto Per Humanitatem ad Pacem or "With humanity, towards peace". While Inter Arma Caritas is still the primary motto of the ICRC (as per Article 3 of the ICRC statutes), Per Humanitatem ad Pacem is the primary motto of the Federation (Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federation). Both organizations acknowledge the alternative motto, and together both slogans serve as the combined motto of the International Movement.
The mission statement of the International Movement as formulated in the "Strategy 2010" document of the Federation is to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity. From 1999 to 2004, the common slogan for all activities of the International Movement was The Power of Humanity. In December 2003, the 28th International Conference in Geneva adopted the conference motto Protecting Human Dignity as the new Movement slogan.
Annual commemoration[edit]
The 16th International Conference which convened in London in 1938 officially decided to make May 8, the birthday of Henry Dunant, as the official annual commemoration and celebration day of the Movement. Since 1984, the official name of the celebration day has been "World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day".
Museums[edit]
In Solferino, a small museum describes the history of the Battle of Solferino and of the Risorgimento, the long and bloody Italian struggle for independence and unity. In the Ossario di Solferino (Solferino Ossuary) in close proximity to the museum, a moving display shows the horrors of war. Inside the chapel, 1,413 skulls and many more bones from thousands of French and Austrian troops who died during the battle are shown. Solferino is also host to the International Red Cross Memorial inaugurated in 1959 on the centennial of the Battle of Solferino. The memorial contains stone plaques identifying each recognized national society. In Castiglione delle Stiviere, a small town near Solferino, the International Museum of the Red Cross was also opened in 1959. Moreover, another museum, the International Red Cross Museum stands in Geneva in close proximity to the headquarters of the ICRC. Finally, in the Swiss city of Heiden, the Henry Dunant Museum was opened to preserve the memory and legacy of Dunant himself.
Use of the emblems[edit]
Belgian Red Cross volunteers
Example of misuse of the Red Cross symbol, in this case, for an appliance repair company
As specified by the Geneva Conventions, the four recognized emblems are to be used only to denote the following:
facilities for the care of injured and sick armed forces members;
armed forces medical personnel and equipment;
military chaplains;
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement organizations such as the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), and the 190 national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies.
In order to ensure universal respect for the emblems, the Geneva Conventions obliged their signatories to forbid any other use of the names and emblems in wartime and peacetime.
Nevertheless, the misuse of the emblem is widespread and it is often used as a general symbol to indicate first aid, medical supplies and civilian medical services especially in walk-in clinics. Misuses appear in movies (A notable example is The Living Daylights,[15][16] wherein narcotics were disguised as Red Cross care packages, as a plot device), on television, and in computer software and games. Service companies, such as those for car repair or lawn maintenance, tout themselves as service "doctors" and incorporate medical symbols to promote themselves.
Prior to 1973, ambulances in the United States and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere were typically marked with a safety orange cross, differing from the red cross only in its hue. Toys and paintings of ambulances commonly ignored even that nuance, instead using a red cross. After protests from the American Red Cross that the safety orange cross was insufficiently distinguishable from the protected Red Cross symbol, the U.S. Department of Transportation developed the Blue Star of Life as a replacement for the safety orange cross. The blue Star of Life has since been adopted throughout much of the world on ambulances and in other related applications.
In 2006, the Canadian Red Cross issued a press release asking video game makers to stop using the red cross in their games; it is an especially common sight to see first aid kits and other items which restore the player character's health marked with a red cross.[17] In order to avoid this conflict, a green cross is often used as a generic alternative.
Pre-existing trademarks are protected in the implementing legislation of other countries, including Australia,[18] New Zealand,[19] and the United Kingdom and its dependencies.[20] In many countries, it is a violation of the rule of law to seize intellectual property lawfully created prior to a ban without compensating its owner through eminent domain, with limited exceptions for offensive or dangerous uses. (For example, a Red Cross on a building—even a J&J building—conveys a potentially false and dangerous impression of military presence in the area to enemy aircraft, although the building itself would not be attacked; thus the U.S. reservations to the 1949 Geneva Conventions, as noted below, effectively ban that use even by J&J.) In recognition of this fact, Protocol III expressly preserves most pre-2005 trademarks containing the Red Crystal, as long as they cannot be confused with military uses. Of course, once implementing legislation is enacted, new trademarks bearing an emblem named in the law are banned.
International protection of images[edit]
The protected status of these images was established in the First Geneva Convention which states:[21]
Art. 44. With the exception of the cases mentioned in the following paragraphs of the present Article, the emblem of the red cross on a white ground and the words "Red Cross" or " Geneva Cross " may not be employed, either in time of peace or in time of war, except to indicate or to protect the medical units and establishments, the personnel and material protected by the present Convention and other Conventions dealing with similar matters. The same shall apply to the emblems mentioned in Article 38, second paragraph, in respect of the countries which use them. The National Red Cross Societies and other societies designated in Article 26 shall have the right to use the distinctive emblem conferring the protection of the Convention only within the framework of the present paragraph.
Art. 44. (cont.) Furthermore, National Red Cross (Red Crescent, Red Lion and Sun) Societies may, in time of peace, in accordance with their national legislation, make use of the name and emblem of the Red Cross for their other activities which are in conformity with the principles laid down by the International Red Cross Conferences. When those activities are carried out in time of war, the conditions for the use of the emblem shall be such that it cannot be considered as conferring the protection of the Convention; the emblem shall be comparatively small in size and may not be placed on armlets or on the roofs of buildings.
Art. 53 furthermore declares all present and future unapproved usage of said symbols illegal, even when they had been used previously. Signatories of the contract would have had three years after signing to enforce this. As a reference to Switzerland, Article 53 also forbids the use of its flag as a trademark, for advertising or other similar purposes.
Use of the emblems in Canada[edit]
The Red Cross, Red Crescent, Red Crystal, and Red Lion and Sun emblems are protected under the Trade-marks Act, section 9(1), paragraphs f, g, g.1, and h, respectively:[22]
Prohibited marks
9 (1) No person shall adopt in connection with a business, as a trade-mark or otherwise, any mark consisting of, or so nearly resembling as to be likely to be mistaken for,
[...]
(f) the emblem of the Red Cross on a white ground, formed by reversing the federal colours of Switzerland and retained by the Geneva Convention for the Protection of War Victims of 1949 as the emblem and distinctive sign of the Medical Service of armed forces and used by the Canadian Red Cross Society, or the expression “Red Cross” or “Geneva Cross”;
(g) the emblem of the Red Crescent on a white ground adopted for the same purpose as specified in paragraph (f);
(g.1) the third Protocol emblem — commonly known as the “Red Crystal” — referred to in Article 2, paragraph 2 of Schedule VII to the Geneva Conventions Act and composed of a red frame in the shape of a square on edge on a white ground, adopted for the same purpose as specified in paragraph (f);
(h) the equivalent sign of the Red Lion and Sun used by Iran for the same purpose as specified in paragraph (f);
[...]
Use of the emblems in Hong Kong[edit]
The Hong Kong Red Cross Ordinance (Cap. 1129), in Section 3(c) "Unauthorized distribution of badges and products", states:
“ No person shall, except with the authority of the Hong Kong Red Cross, distribute or sell or expose for sale ... any product which contains the emblem of the Geneva Convention, with or without additional words, characters or designs[23] ”
This restriction on the use of the emblem was added in 1995.
Use of the emblems in Singapore[edit]
The use of the emblems in Singapore is governed by Geneva Conventions Act (Cap 117).
Use of the emblems in the United Kingdom[edit]
The use of the emblems in the United Kingdom are governed by Geneva Conventions Act 1957[24] as amended by Geneva Conventions (Amendment) Act 1995 and several Orders as Statutory Instruments. Geneva Conventions and United Nations Personnel (Protocols) Act 2009 extended the protection to the Red Crystal.
The unauthorised use of the Red Cross on a pantomime costume in Glasgow in 2011 resulted in a request for its removal.[25]
Use of the emblems in the United States[edit]
A notable exception to this is the United States where, although the United States first ratified the Geneva Conventions in 1882, for 18 years no legislation was passed to enact treaty obligations regarding the protection of the Red Cross symbol.
On 6 June 1900, the bill to charter the American National Red Cross (ARC) was signed into law. Section 4, which ultimately was codified as 18 U.S.C. §706, protected the Greek red cross symbol by making it a misdemeanor for any person or association to use the Red Cross name or emblem without the organization's permission. Penalties included imprisonment not to exceed one year and a fine between $1 and $500, payable to the ARC. There had been seven trademark registrations for Greek red crosses by entities unrelated to the Red Cross at the time the ARC was incorporated. The existence of these users was recognized in congressional discussion of the act. However, lawmakers took no action to prohibit the rights of these earlier users.
In 1905, when Congress was revising the ARC's charter, the issue of pre-existing rights to use the emblem was again raised. Lawmakers reiterated Congress' intent that the prohibitions on use of the Red Cross name and emblem did not make unlawful the use of the Greek red cross by those with otherwise established rights. However, these sentiments were again not reflected in the Red Cross charter revision. At the time of the 1905 revision, the number of trademark registrations with a Greek red cross had grown to 61, including several by Johnson & Johnson. Concerned over potential pre-emption, commercial users lobbied for codification of their existing trademark rights.
In 1910, Congress formally established that lawful use of the Red Cross name and emblem that began prior to 5 January 1905, could continue, but only if that use was "for the same purpose and for the same class of goods." Later, the U.S. ratified the 1949 revisions to the Geneva Conventions with a specific reservation that pre-1905 Red Cross trademarks would not be disturbed as long as the Red Cross is not used on "aircraft, vessels, vehicles, buildings or other structures, or upon the ground", all of which are likely to be confused with military uses.[26]
Until 2007, U.S. law only protected the Red Cross, and only permitted its use by the ARC and U.S. armed forces; though its use by non-U.S. organizations would normally be implied by the ARC's membership in IFRC and the standard protocols of the military and the Red Cross & Red Crescent movement, the ARC's withholding of IFRC dues from 2000 to 2006 over the Magen David Adom (MDA) issue raised concerns. Both to implement Protocol III (which had received advice and consent from the United States Senate in 2006; the U.S. formalized its ratification in March 2007) and to address these concerns, the Geneva Distinctive Emblems Protection Act of 2006 (Public Law 109-481) [4] was signed into law 12 January 2007, two days before Protocol III went into effect. The law, codified as 18 U.S.C. §706a, extended full legal protection to the Red Crescent and Red Crystal (but not the Red Lion and Sun) in the U.S., subject to private uses prior to the signing of Protocol III that cannot be confused with military uses; permitted the use of all appropriate emblems under the Conventions by the ICRC, the IFRC, all national Red Cross & Red Crescent societies (including MDA by this time), and "(t)he sanitary and hospital authorities of the armed forces of State Parties to the Geneva Conventions"; and permitted the United States Attorney General to obtain injunctions against improper use of the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Crystal in the U.S.
U.S. law still does not specifically protect the right of military chaplains to use the emblems under the Geneva Conventions; however, military chaplains that are part of their armed forces' "sanitary and hospital authorities" would have the right to use the emblems in the U.S. The ARC and other Red Cross & Red Crescent entities also employ chaplains; they are entitled to use the emblems through their employment.
Johnson & Johnson v. American Red Cross[edit]
Flag of the Red Cross
On 9 August 2007, in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, Johnson & Johnson (J&J) filed suit against the American Red Cross alleging trademark infringement.[27] The suit seeks to halt the placement of the Red Cross emblem on all first aid, safety and disaster preparedness products not specifically licensed by Johnson & Johnson. The suit also asks for the destruction of all currently existing non-J&J Red Cross emblem-bearing products of this type, and demands the American Red Cross pay punitive damages and J&J's legal fees.
J&J released a statement to the public on 8 August 2007, detailing its decision to file suit,[28] claiming prior rights to the emblem. On the same date, the American Red Cross issued a press release of its own,[29] stating some of the reasons behind its decision to license the Red Cross emblem to first aid and disaster preparedness product manufacturers. It issued a further press release two days later,[30] disputing several of J&J's claims and asserting that "(t)he Red Cross has been selling first aid kits commercially in the United States since 1903."
In a statement, the Red Cross said it has worked since 2004 with several licensing partners to create first aid, preparedness and related products that bear the Red Cross emblem. The charity says that all money it receives from the sale of these products to consumers is reinvested in its humanitarian programs and services. "For a multi-billion dollar drug company to claim that the Red Cross violated a criminal statute that was created to protect the humanitarian mission of the Red Cross—simply so that J&J can make more money—is obscene," said Mark Everson, the chief executive of the charity.[31] Johnson & Johnson responded, stating that the Red Cross's commercial ventures were outside the scope of historically well-agreed usage, and were in direct violation of federal statutes.[32]
The federal court rejected Johnson & Johnson's position and ruled for the American Red Cross, holding that federal law authorizes the American Red Cross to use the Red Cross emblem in the sale of mission-related items like first aid and disaster preparedness kits and to license other firms to use its name and emblem to sell such products. The court noted in particular that the American Red Cross had been doing so for over a century, and that, ironically, Johnson & Johnson had once itself sought to be a licensee of the American Red Cross. After the court rejected the substance of Johnson & Johnson's complaint, the parties ultimately settled their differences, and the American Red Cross remains free to use its emblem in the sale of life-saving, disaster preparedness, and other mission-related products.[33]
See also[edit]
Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)
Henri Dunant, founder of the Red Cross movement
List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
Protective sign
Red Swastika, emblem of Daoist aid movement
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Aspen mountain trail map". Aspen Skiing Company. Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ "Jackson Hole trail map". Jackson Hole Mountain Resort. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ "Whiteface Lake Placid trail map". Regional Office of Sustainable Tourism / Lake Placid CVB. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
Jump up ^ "Breckenridge winter trail map". Vail Resorts Inc. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
^ Jump up to: a b "The history of the emblems" (official site). International Committee of the Red Cross, ICRC. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 2009-04-14. the emblem adopted was formed by reversing the colours of the Swiss flag
Jump up ^ "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armies in the Field. Geneva, 6 July 1906". International Committee of the Red Cross. Art. 18. Out of respect to Switzerland the heraldic emblem of the red cross on a white ground, formed by the reversal of the federal colors, is continued as the emblem and distinctive sign of the sanitary service of armies.
Jump up ^ Pierre Boissier (1985). From Solferino to Tsushima: history of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Henry Dunant Institute. ISBN 978-2-88044-012-1.
Jump up ^ paragraph 2 of Article 2 of AP-3: "This distinctive emblem is referred to in this Protocol as the third Protocol emblem."
Jump up ^ "The 29th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent has amended the Statutes of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement to incorporate the additional emblem of the red crystal, which now has the same status as the red cross and red crescent. [...] the ICRC has now recognized the Palestine Red Crescent Society (PRCS) and the Israeli National Society, Magen David Adom (MDA)" Singapore Red Cross Website - IFRC Press Releases - 22 June 2006 Archived 10 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine., 22-06-2006
^ Jump up to: a b "The Red Cross – an emblem of the world's largest humanitarian organization". Seiyaku.com. 1945-03-10. Retrieved 2009-04-14.
Jump up ^ Israel allowed to join Red Cross, BBC News, June 22, 2006.
Jump up ^ António Martins (1999-03-05). "International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies". Crwflags.com. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Jean S Pictet, Commentaries on the First Geneva Convention of 1949 at p 298-9
Jump up ^ "Historia(s) de la Cruz Roja". Mundocruzroja.org. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Protecting the Emblems in peacetime: the experiences of the British Red Cross Society". Icrc.org. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
Jump up ^ "Protection of the red cross and red crescent emblems and the repression of misuse". International Committee of the Red Cross. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Red Cross Emblem: It may just be fun and games to you, but it means the world to us". Red Cross Canada. Retrieved 25 November 2016.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [2] Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ [3] Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "1st Geneva Convention. Chapter VII. Art 44". ICRC.org (official site). Geneva, Switzerland: International Committee of the Red Cross, ICRC. Retrieved 2014-11-29.
Jump up ^ "Trade-marks Act (R.S.C., 1985, c. T-13)". Justice Laws Website. Government of Canada. 2015-01-01. Archived from the original on 2016-05-18. Retrieved 2016-05-18.
Jump up ^ "Hong Kong Red Cross Ordinance". Hklii.hk. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Geneva Conventions Act 1957". Opsi.gov.uk. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Glasgow pantomime dress broke Geneva Convention 7th Jan 2011". BBC News. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "U.S. reservations to the 1949 Geneva Convention". Icrc.org. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Red Cross Is Sued by J&J Over Signature Emblem". WSJ. 10 August 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
Jump up ^ "Johnson & Johnson Statement on Civil Complaint Against The American National Red Cross and Commercial Licenses" Business Wire 8 August 2007
Jump up ^ "J&J (NYSE: JNJ) Sues Red Cross Over Use of Red Cross Emblem", The American National Red Cross, 8 August 2007
Jump up ^ "American Red Cross Defends Use of Emblem and Mission", The American National Red Cross, 10 August 2007
Jump up ^ Foley, Stephen (2007-08-10). "Johnson & Johnson sues the Red Cross". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 2007-12-30. Retrieved 2010-05-01.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Johnson (2007-08-10). "Johnson & Johnson Statement on Civil Complaint". Business Wire. NY. Retrieved 2010-05-01.
Jump up ^ Claim Over Red Cross Symbol Is Settled, New York Times, June 18, 2008.
External links[edit]
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
International Committee of the Red Cross
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement&oldid=816326296"
Categories:
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
Medical symbols
Red symbols
International humanitarian law
Hidden categories:
Webarchive template wayback links
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2010
Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
Bosanski
Eesti
Ελληνικά
Español
Esperanto
فارسی
Français
한국어
Ido
עברית
Magyar
Nederlands
Português
Русский
Српски / srpski
Suomi
தமிழ்
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 20 December 2017, at 17:20.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

key: html

type: local

value: div

attrs: id class

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

value: a

attrs: id class lang

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

value: img

attrs: alt src width height class srcset data-file-width data-file-height

values: Circles with red crosses and crescents inscribed and the words "international movement" written in Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish

attrs: href class

attrs: href class title

attrs: class style

value: b

attrs: href title

values: International Committee of the Red Cross

values:
/wiki/Armed_conflict
mw-redirect
Armed conflict

values: Humanitarianism (international humanitarian law)

values: Edit section: Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems

values:
/wiki/The_Lion_and_Sun
mw-redirect
The Lion and Sun

values:
/wiki/Henri_Dufour
mw-redirect
Henri Dufour

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2010)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

values: Edit section: Relationship to the flag of Switzerland

values:
/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War,_1877-1878
mw-redirect
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878

values: Edit section: Relationship to the flag of the Ottoman Empire

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2017)

values:
/wiki/Warlord_era_(China)
mw-redirect
Warlord era (China)

values: Edit section: Mottos and mission statements

values: Ossario di Solferino (page does not exist)

values: International Red Cross Memorial (page does not exist)

values: International Museum of the Red Cross (page does not exist)

values:
/wiki/International_Red_Cross_Museum
mw-redirect
International Red Cross Museum

values: Edit section: International protection of images

values: Edit section: Use of the emblems in Canada

values: Edit section: Use of the emblems in Hong Kong

values: width: 20px; vertical-align: top; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: left; padding: 10px 10px;

values: vertical-align: top; border: none; padding: 4px 10px;

values: width: 20px; vertical-align: bottom; border: none; color: #B2B7F2; font-size: 40px; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; font-weight: bold; line-height: .6em; text-align: right; padding: 10px 10px;

values: margin:auto; border-collapse: collapse; border: none; background-color: transparent; width: auto;

values: Edit section: Use of the emblems in Singapore

values: Edit section: Use of the emblems in the United Kingdom

values:
/wiki/Statutory_Instruments
mw-redirect
Statutory Instruments

values: Edit section: Use of the emblems in the United States

values: Edit section: Johnson & Johnson v. American Red Cross

values:
/wiki/Hague_Conventions_(1899_and_1907)
mw-redirect
Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)

values:
/wiki/Henri_Dunant
mw-redirect
Henri Dunant

values: List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies

values:
/wiki/Red_Swastika
mw-redirect
Red Swastika

values:
/wiki/New_York_Times
mw-redirect
New York Times

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
http://www.ifrc.org/
external text

values:
nofollow
http://www.icrc.org/
external text

values: Category:International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement

values: Category:Webarchive template wayback links

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2010

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2017

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

values: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

values: Permanent link to this revision of the page

values: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

values: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

values: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

values:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

values: Simboli Međunarodnog pokreta Crveni krst i Crveni polumjesec – Bosnian

values: Έμβλημα Κόκκινου Κρυστάλλου – Greek

values: نشان‌های سازمان صلیب سرخ جهانی و جنبش هلال احمر – Persian

values: 적십자 표장 – Korean

values: סמל המעוין האדום – Hebrew

values: Красный Кристалл – Russian

values: Симболи Црвеног крста и Црвеног полумесеца – Serbian

values: செஞ்சிலுவை செம்பிறைச் சின்னங்கள் – Tamil

values: ตราสัญลักษณ์ของกาชาด – Thai

values: Uluslararası Kızılhaç ve Kızılay Hareketi – Turkish

values: Червоний Кристал (символ) – Ukrainian

values: 国际红十字与红新月运动的标志 – Chinese

values: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

values: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

values:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement rootpage-Emblems_of_the_International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement skin-vector action-view


text:
Dark Ages (historiography)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Dark Ages.
Petrarch, who conceived the idea of a European "Dark Age". From Cycle of Famous Men and Women, Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla, c. 1450
The "Dark Ages" is a historical periodization, traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, that asserts that a demographic, cultural and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire.[1][2]
The term employs traditional light-versus-darkness imagery to contrast the era's "darkness" with earlier and later periods of "light".[3] The concept of a "Dark Age" originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark" compared to the light of classical antiquity.[3][4] The phrase "Dark Age" itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum, originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries.[5] The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance; this became especially popular during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment.[3]
As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 19th and 20th centuries, scholars began restricting the "Dark Ages" appellation to the Early Middle Ages (c. 5th–10th century).[6][7][8] Many modern scholars avoid the term altogether due to its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate.[9][10][11] The original definition remains in popular use,[1][2][12] and popular culture often employs it as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope.[13]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Petrarch
1.2 Reformation
1.3 Baronius
1.4 Enlightenment
1.5 Romanticism
2 Modern academic use
3 Modern popular use
4 See also
5 Notes
6 External links
History[edit]
Further information: Late antiquity, Fall of the Roman Empire, Migration period, and Early Middle Ages
See also: Medievalism
The term was originally intended to denote the entire period between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance, similarly to 'Middle Ages' and implying an intermediate period between Classical Antiquity and the Modern era. In the 19th century scholars began to recognize the accomplishments of the period, which challenged the image of a time exclusively of darkness and decay.[12] Nowadays the term is not used by scholars to refer to the entire medieval period;[10] when used, it is generally restricted to the Early Middle Ages.[1]
The rise of archaeology in the 20th century has shed light on the period, offering a more nuanced understanding of its achievements.[13] Other terms of periodization have come to the fore: Late Antiquity, the Early Middle Ages, and the Great Migrations, depending on which aspects of culture are being emphasized. Today, on the rare occasions when the term is used by historians, it is intended to be neutral and express the idea that the period often seems 'dark' from the scarcity of historical record, and artistic and cultural output.[10][14]
Petrarch[edit]
Triumph of Christianity by Tommaso Laureti (1530–1602), ceiling painting in the Sala di Constantino, Vatican Palace. Images like this one celebrate the triumph of Christianity over the paganism of Antiquity.
The idea of a Dark Age originated with the Tuscan scholar Petrarch in the 1330s.[15][12] Writing of the past, he said: "Amidst the errors there shone forth men of genius; no less keen were their eyes, although they were surrounded by darkness and dense gloom".[16] Christian writers, including Petrarch himself,[15] had long used traditional metaphors of 'light versus darkness' to describe 'good versus evil'. Petrarch was the first to give the metaphor secular meaning by reversing its application. He now saw Classical Antiquity, so long considered a 'dark' age for its lack of Christianity, in the 'light' of its cultural achievements, while Petrarch's own time, allegedly lacking such cultural achievements, was seen as the age of darkness.[15]
From his perspective on the Italian peninsula, Petrarch saw the Roman and classical period as an expression of greatness.[15] He spent much of his time travelling through Europe, rediscovering and republishing classic Latin and Greek texts. He wanted to restore the Latin language to its former purity. Renaissance humanists saw the preceding 900 years as a time of stagnation, with history unfolding not along the religious outline of Saint Augustine's Six Ages of the World, but in cultural (or secular) terms through progressive development of classical ideals, literature, and art.
Petrarch wrote that history had two periods: the classic period of Greeks and Romans, followed by a time of darkness in which he saw himself living. In around 1343, in the conclusion of his epic Africa, he wrote: "My fate is to live among varied and confusing storms. But for you perhaps, if as I hope and wish you will live long after me, there will follow a better age. This sleep of forgetfulness will not last for ever. When the darkness has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the former pure radiance."[17] In the 15th century, historians Leonardo Bruni and Flavio Biondo developed a three-tier outline of history. They used Petrarch's two ages, plus a modern, 'better age', which they believed the world had entered. Later the term 'Middle Ages' - Latin media tempestas (1469) or medium aevum (1604) - was used to describe the period of supposed decline.[18]
Reformation[edit]
During the Reformations of the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestants generally had a similar view to Renaissance Humanists such as Petrarch, but also added an Anti-Catholic perspective. They saw classical antiquity as a golden time, not only because of its Latin literature, but also because it witnessed the beginnings of Christianity. They promoted the idea that the 'Middle Age' was a time of darkness also because of corruption within the Roman Catholic Church, such as: Popes ruling as kings, veneration of saints' relics, a celibate priesthood, and institutionalized moral hypocrisy.[19]
Baronius[edit]
In response to the Protestants, Catholics developed a counter-image to depict the High Middle Ages in particular as a period of social and religious harmony, and not 'dark' at all.[20] The most important Catholic reply to the Magdeburg Centuries was the Annales Ecclesiastici by Cardinal Caesar Baronius. Baronius was a trained historian who produced a work that the Encyclopædia Britannica in 1911 described as "far surpassing anything before"[21] and that Acton regarded as "the greatest history of the Church ever written".[22] The Annales covered the first twelve centuries of Christianity to 1198, and was published in twelve volumes between 1588 and 1607. It was in Volume X that Baronius coined the term "dark age" for the period between the end of the Carolingian Empire in 888[23] and the first stirrings of Gregorian Reform under Pope Clement II in 1046:
Volumes of Patrologia Latina per century[24]
Century
Migne Volume Nos
Volumes
7th 80–88 9
8th 89–96 8
9th 97–130 34
10th 131–138 8
11th 139–151 13
12th 152–191 40
13th 192–217 26
"The new age (saeculum) which was beginning, for its harshness and barrenness of good could well be called iron, for its baseness and abounding evil leaden, and moreover for its lack of writers (inopia scriptorum) dark (obscurum)".[25]
Significantly, Baronius termed the age 'dark' because of the paucity of written records. The "lack of writers" he referred to may be illustrated by comparing the number of volumes in Migne's Patrologia Latina containing the work of Latin writers from the 10th century (the heart of the age he called 'dark') with the number containing the work of writers from the preceding and succeeding centuries. A minority of these writers were historians.
Medieval production of manuscripts.[26] The beginning of the Middle Ages was also a period of low activity in copying.
There is a sharp drop from 34 volumes in the 9th century to just 8 in the 10th. The 11th century, with 13, evidences a certain recovery, and the 12th century, with 40, surpasses the 9th, something the 13th, with just 26, fails to do. There was indeed a 'dark age', in Baronius's sense of a "lack of writers", between the Carolingian Renaissance in the 9th century and the beginnings, some time in the 11th, of what has been called the Renaissance of the 12th century. Furthermore, there was an earlier period of "lack of writers" during the 7th and 8th centuries. So, in Western Europe, two 'dark ages' can be identified, separated by the brilliant but brief Carolingian Renaissance.
Baronius's 'dark age' seems to have struck historians, for it was in the 17th century that the term started to proliferate in various European languages, with his original Latin term saeculum obscurum being reserved for the period he had applied it to. But while some, following Baronius, used 'dark age' neutrally to refer to a dearth of written records, others used it pejoratively, lapsing into that lack of objectivity that has discredited the term for many modern historians.
The first British historian to use the term was most likely Gilbert Burnet, in the form 'darker ages' which appears several times in his work during the later 17th century. The earliest reference seems to be in the "Epistle Dedicatory" to Volume I of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England of 1679, where he writes: "The design of the reformation was to restore Christianity to what it was at first, and to purge it of those corruptions, with which it was overrun in the later and darker ages."[27] He uses it again in the 1682 Volume II, where he dismisses the story of "St George's fighting with the dragon" as "a legend formed in the darker ages to support the humour of chivalry".[28] Burnet was a bishop chronicling how England became Protestant, and his use of the term is invariably pejorative.
Enlightenment[edit]
During the Age of Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries, many critical thinkers saw religion as antithetical to reason. For them the Middle Ages, or "Age of Faith", was therefore the opposite of the Age of Reason.[29] Kant and Voltaire were vocal in attacking the Middle Ages as a period of social regress dominated by religion, while Gibbon in The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire expressed contempt for the "rubbish of the Dark Ages".[30] Yet just as Petrarch, seeing himself at the cusp of a "new age", was criticising the centuries before his own time, so too were Enlightenment writers.
Consequently, an evolution had occurred in at least three ways. Petrarch's original metaphor of light versus dark has expanded over time, implicitly at least. Even if later humanists no longer saw themselves living in a dark age, their times were still not light enough for 18th-century writers who saw themselves as living in the real Age of Enlightenment, while the period to be condemned stretched to include what we now call Early Modern times. Additionally, Petrarch's metaphor of darkness, which he used mainly to deplore what he saw as a lack of secular achievement, was sharpened to take on a more explicitly anti-religious and anti-clerical meaning.
Nevertheless, the term 'Middle Ages', used by Biondo and other early humanists after Petrarch, was in general use before the 18th century to denote the period before the Renaissance. The earliest recorded use of the English word "medieval" was in 1827. The concept of the Dark Ages was also in use, but by the 18th century it tended to be confined to the earlier part of this period. The earliest entry for a capitalized "Dark Ages" in the Oxford English Dictionary is a reference in Henry Thomas Buckle's History of Civilization in England in 1857.[1] Starting and ending dates varied: the Dark Ages were considered by some to start in 410, by others in 476 when there was no longer an emperor in Rome, and to end about 800, at the time of the Carolingian Renaissance under Charlemagne, or alternatively to extend through to the end of the 1st millennium.
Romanticism[edit]
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the Romantics reversed the negative assessment of Enlightenment critics with a vogue for medievalism.[31] The word "Gothic" had been a term of opprobrium akin to "Vandal" until a few self-confident mid-18th-century English "Goths" like Horace Walpole initiated the Gothic Revival in the arts. This stimulated interest in the Middle Ages, which for the following generation began to take on the idyllic image of an "Age of Faith". This, reacting to a world dominated by Enlightenment rationalism, expressed a romantic view of a Golden Age of chivalry. The Middle Ages were seen with nostalgia as a period of social and environmental harmony and spiritual inspiration, in contrast to the excesses of the French Revolution and, most of all, to the environmental and social upheavals and utilitarianism of the developing industrial revolution.[32] The Romantics' view is still represented in modern-day fairs and festivals celebrating the period with 'merrie' costumes and events.
Just as Petrarch had twisted the meaning of light versus darkness, so the Romantics had twisted the judgment of the Enlightenment. However, the period they idealized was largely the High Middle Ages, extending into Early Modern times. In one respect, this negated the religious aspect of Petrarch's judgment, since these later centuries were those when the power and prestige of the Church were at their height. To many, the scope of the Dark Ages was becoming divorced from this period, denoting mainly the centuries immediately following the fall of Rome.
Modern academic use[edit]
See also: Medieval studies
The term was widely used by 19th-century historians. In 1860, in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, Jacob Burckhardt delineated the contrast between the medieval 'dark ages' and the more enlightened Renaissance, which had revived the cultural and intellectual achievements of antiquity.[33] However, the early 20th century saw a radical re-evaluation of the Middle Ages, which called into question the terminology of darkness,[10] or at least its more pejorative use. The historian Denys Hay spoke ironically of "the lively centuries which we call dark".[34] More forcefully, a book about the history of German literature published in 2007 describes "the dark ages" as "a popular if ignorant manner of speaking".[35]
When the term is used by historians today, therefore, it is intended to be neutral, expressing the idea that the events of the period seem 'dark' to us because of the paucity of historical record.[10] The term is used in this sense (often in the singular) to reference the Bronze Age collapse and the subsequent Greek Dark Ages,[1] the dark ages of Cambodia (c. 1450-1863), and also a hypothetical Digital Dark Age which would ensue if the electronic documents produced in the current period were to become unreadable at some point in the future.[36] Some Byzantinists have used the term "Byzantine Dark Ages" to refer to the period from the earliest Muslim conquests to about 800,[37] because there are no extant historical texts in Greek from this period, and thus the history of the Byzantine Empire and its territories that were conquered by the Muslims is poorly understood and must be reconstructed from other contemporaneous sources, such as religious texts.[38] Very few Greek manuscripts were copied in this period, indicating that the 7th and 8th centuries, which were a period of crisis for the Byzantines because of Muslim conquest, were also less intellectually active.[39] The term "dark age" is not restricted to the discipline of history. Since the archaeological evidence for some periods is abundant and for others scanty, there are also archaeological dark ages.[40]
Since the Late Middle Ages significantly overlap with the Renaissance, the term 'Dark Ages' has become restricted to distinct times and places in medieval Europe. Thus the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, at the height of the Saxon invasions, have been called "the darkest of the Dark Ages",[41] in view of the societal collapse of the period and the consequent lack of historical records. Further south and east, the same was true in the formerly Roman province of Dacia, where history after the Roman withdrawal went unrecorded for centuries as Slavs, Avars, Bulgars, and others struggled for supremacy in the Danube basin, and events there are still disputed. However, at this time the Arab Empire is often considered to have experienced its Golden Age rather than Dark Age; consequently, usage of the term must also specify a geography. While Petrarch's concept of a Dark Age corresponded to a mostly Christian period following pre-Christian Rome, today the term mainly applies to the cultures and periods in Europe that were least Christianized, and thus most sparsely covered by chronicles and other contemporary sources, at the time mostly written by Catholic clergy.[citation needed]
However, in the later 20th century other historians became critical even of this nonjudgmental use of the term, for two main reasons.[10] Firstly, it is questionable whether it is ever possible to use the term in a neutral way: scholars may intend this, but ordinary readers may not so understand it. Secondly, 20th-century scholarship has increased understanding of the history and culture of the period,[42] and so no longer as 'dark' to us.[10] To avoid the value judgment implied by the expression, many historians now avoid it altogether.[43]
Modern popular use[edit]
Medieval artistic illustration of the spherical Earth in a 14th-century copy of L'Image du monde (c. 1246)
The medieval period is frequently caricatured as supposedly a "time of ignorance and superstition" which placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity."[44] However, rationality was increasingly held in high regard as the Middle Ages progressed. The historian of science Edward Grant writes that "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities".[45] Furthermore, David Lindberg says that, contrary to common belief, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".[46] Lindberg recognizes, however, that the late medieval rejuvenation of science and scholarship was due in large part to the new availability of Latin translations of Aristotle during the eleventh and twelfth centuries.[47]
The caricature of the period is also reflected by more specific notions, such as the mistaken claim first propagated in the 19th century,[48][49] and still common in popular culture, that everyone in the Middle Ages thought the world was flat.[49][50] In fact, lecturers in medieval universities commonly advanced the idea that the Earth was a sphere.[51] Lindberg and Ronald Numbers write: "There was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference".[52] Other misconceptions such as: "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", and "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are cited by Numbers as examples of myths that still pass as historical truth, although unsupported by current research.[53]
See also[edit]
Barbarian kingdoms
Conflict thesis and Continuity thesis
Crisis of the Late Middle Ages
Early Muslim conquests
European science in the Middle Ages
Fall of the Western Roman Empire
Great Apostasy
Islamic Golden Age
Late antiquity
Little Ice Age
Medieval demography
Medieval renaissances
Migration Period
Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture
Plague of Justinian
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989. a term sometimes applied to the period of the Middle Ages to mark the intellectual darkness characteristic of the time; often restricted to the early period of the Middle Ages, between the time of the fall of Rome and the appearance of vernacular written documents.
^ Jump up to: a b "Dark age" in Merriam-Webster
^ Jump up to: a b c Mommsen, Theodore (1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". Speculum. Cambridge MA: Medieval Academy of America. 17 (2): 227–228. JSTOR 2856364. doi:10.2307/2856364.
Jump up ^ Thompson, Bard (1996). Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: Erdmans. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-8028-6348-5. Petrarch was the very first to speak of the Middle Ages as a 'dark age', one that separated him from the riches and pleasures of classical antiquity and that broke the connection between his own age and the civilization of the Greeks and the Romans.
Jump up ^ Dwyer, John C., Church history: twenty centuries of Catholic Christianity, (1998) p. 155.
Baronius, Caesar. Annales Ecclesiastici, Vol. X. Roma, 1602, p. 647
Jump up ^ Mommsen, Theodore (1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". Speculum. Cambridge MA: Medieval Academy of America. 17 (2): 226–227. JSTOR 2856364. doi:10.2307/2856364.
Jump up ^ Ker, W. P. (1904). The dark ages. New York: C. Scribner's Sons, p. 1. "The Dark Ages and the Middle Ages — or the Middle Age — used to be the same; two names for the same period. But they have come to be distinguished, and the Dark Ages are now no more than the first part of the Middle Age, while the term mediaeval is often restricted to the later centuries, about 1100 to 1500, the age of chivalry, the time between the first Crusade and the Renaissance. This was not the old view, and it does not agree with the proper meaning of the name."
Jump up ^ Syed Ziaur Rahman, Were the "Dark Ages" Really Dark? In: Grey Matter. The Co-curricular Journal of Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 2003: 7-10.
Jump up ^ Snyder, Christopher A. (1998). An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. xiii–xiv. ISBN 0-271-01780-5. . In explaining his approach to writing the work, Snyder refers to the "so-called Dark Ages", noting that "Historians and archaeologists have never liked the label Dark Ages ... there are numerous indicators that these centuries were neither 'dark' nor 'barbarous' in comparison with other eras."
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Jordan, Chester William (2004). Dictionary of the Middle Ages, Supplement 1. Verdun, Kathleen, "Medievalism" pp. 389–397. Sections 'Victorian Medievalism', 'Nineteenth-Century Europe', 'Medievalism in America 1500–1900', 'The 20th Century'. Same volume, Freedman, Paul, "Medieval Studies", pp. 383–389.
Jump up ^ Raico, Ralph. "The European Miracle". Retrieved 14 August 2011. "The stereotype of the Middle Ages as 'the Dark Ages' fostered by Renaissance humanists and Enlightenment philosophes has, of course, long since been abandoned by scholars."
^ Jump up to: a b c Franklin, James (1982). "The Renaissance Myth". Quadrant. 26 (11): 51–60.
^ Jump up to: a b Tainter, Joseph A. (1999). "Post Collapse Societies". In Barker, Graeme. Companion Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 988. ISBN 0-415-06448-1.
Jump up ^ Clark, Kenneth (1969), Civilisation (BBC Books)
^ Jump up to: a b c d Mommsen, Theodore (1942). "Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages'". Speculum. Cambridge MA: Medieval Academy of America. 17 (2): 226–242. JSTOR 2856364. doi:10.2307/2856364.
Jump up ^ Petrarch (1367). Apologia cuiusdam anonymi Galli calumnias (Defence against the calumnies of an anonymous Frenchman), in Petrarch, Opera Omnia, Basel, 1554, p. 1195. This quotation comes from the English translation of Mommsen's article, where the source is given in a footnote. Cf. also Marsh, D, ed., (2003), Invectives, Harvard University Press, p. 457.
Jump up ^ Petrarch (1343). Africa, IX, 451-7. This quotation comes from the English translation of Mommsen's article.
Jump up ^ Albrow, Martin, The global age: state and society beyond modernity (1997), p. 205.
Jump up ^ F. Oakley, The medieval experience: foundations of Western cultural singularity (University of Toronto Press, 1988), pp. 1-4.
Jump up ^ Daileader, Philip (2001). The High Middle Ages. The Teaching Company. ISBN 1-56585-827-1. "Catholics living during the Protestant Reformation were not going to take this assault lying down. They, too, turned to the study of the Middle Ages, going back to prove that, far from being a period of religious corruption, the Middle Ages were superior to the era of the Protestant Reformation, because the Middle Ages were free of the religious schisms and religious wars that were plaguing the 16th and 17th centuries."
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911: "History"
Jump up ^ Lord Acton (1906). Lectures on Modern History, p. 121.
Jump up ^ Baronius's actual starting-point for the "dark age" was 900 (annus Redemptoris nongentesimus), but that was an arbitrary rounding off due mainly to his strictly annalistic approach. Later historians, e.g. Marco Porri in his Catholic History of the Church (Storia della Chiesa) or the Lutheran Christian Cyclopedia ("Saeculum Obscurum"), have tended to amend it to the more historically significant date of 888, often rounding it down further to 880. The first weeks of 888 witnessed both the final break-up of the Carolingian Empire and the death of its deposed ruler Charles the Fat. Unlike the end of the Carolingian Empire, however, the end of the Carolingian Renaissance cannot be precisely dated, and it was the latter development that was responsible for the "lack of writers" that Baronius, as a historian, found so irksome.
Jump up ^ Schaff, Philip (1882). History of the Christian Church, Vol. IV: Mediaeval Christianity, A.D. 570–1073, Ch. XIII, §138. "Prevailing Ignorance in the Western Church"
Jump up ^ Baronius, Caesar (1602). Annales Ecclesiastici, Vol. X. Roma, p. 647. "Novum incohatur saeculum quod, sua asperitate ac boni sterilitate ferreum, malique exudantis deformitate plumbeum, atque inopia scriptorum, appellari consuevit obscurum."
Jump up ^ Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the "Rise of the West": Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)
Jump up ^ Burnet, Gilbert (1679). The History of the Reformation of the Church of England, Vol. I. Oxford, 1929, p. ii.
Jump up ^ Burnet, Gilbert (1682). The History of the Reformation of the Church of England, Vol. II. Oxford, 1829, p. 423. Burnet also uses the term in 1682 in The Abridgement of the History of the Reformation of the Church of England (2nd Edition, London, 1683, p. 52) and in 1687 in Travels through France, Italy, Germany and Switzerland (London, 1750, p. 257). The Oxford English Dictionary erroneously cites the last of these as the earliest recorded use of the term in English.
Jump up ^ Bartlett, Robert (2001). "Introduction: Perspectives on the Medieval World", in Medieval Panorama. ISBN 0-89236-642-7. "Disdain about the medieval past was especially forthright amongst the critical and rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment. For them the Middle Ages epitomized the barbaric, priest-ridden world they were attempting to transform."
Jump up ^ Gibbon, Edward (1788). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 6, Ch. XXXVII, paragraph 619.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Michael (2007). Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Modern England. Yale University Press.
Jump up ^ Chandler, Alice K. (1971). A Dream of Order: The Medieval Ideal in Nineteenth-Century English Literature. University of Nebraska Press, p. 4.
Jump up ^ Barber, John (2008). The Road from Eden: Studies in Christianity and Culture. Palo Alto, CA: Academica Press, p. 148, fn 3.
Jump up ^ Hay, Denys (1977). Annalists and Historians. London: Methuen, p. 50.
Jump up ^ Dunphy, Graeme (2007). "Literary Transitions, 1300–1500: From Late Mediaeval to Early Modern" in: The Camden House History of German Literature vol IV: "Early Modern German Literature". The chapter opens: "A popular if uninformed manner of speaking refers to the medieval period as "the dark ages." If there is a dark age in the literary history of Germany, however, it is the one that follows: the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, the time between the Middle High German Blütezeit and the full blossoming of the Renaissance. it may be called a dark age, not because literary production waned in these decades, but because nineteenth-century aesthetics and twentieth-century university curricula allowed the achievements of that time to fade into obscurity."
Jump up ^ 'Digital Dark Age' May Doom Some Data, Science Daily, October 29, 2008.
Jump up ^ Lemerle, Paul (1986). Byzantine Humanism, translated by Helen Lindsay and Ann Moffat. Canberra, pp. 81–82.
Jump up ^ Whitby, Michael (1992). "Greek historical writing after Procopius" in Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, ed. Averil Cameron and Lawrence I. Conrad, Princeton, pp. 25–80.
Jump up ^ Lemerle, Paul (1986). Byzantine Humanism, translated by Helen Lindsay and Ann Moffat. Canberra, p. 81-84.
Jump up ^ Project: Exploring the Early Holocene Occupation of North-Central Anatolia: New Approaches for Studying Archaeological Dark Ages Period of Project: 09/2007-09/2011
Jump up ^ Cannon, John and Griffiths, Ralph (2000). The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Monarchy (Oxford Illustrated Histories), 2nd Revised edition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, p. 1. The first chapter opens with the sentence: "In the darkest of the Dark Ages, the fifth and sixth centuries, there were many kings in Britain but no kingdoms."
Jump up ^ Welch, Martin (1993). Discovering Anglo-Saxon England. University Park, PA: Penn State Press.
Jump up ^ Encyclopædia Britannica "It is now rarely used by historians because of the value judgment it implies. Though sometimes taken to derive its meaning from the fact that little was then known about the period, the term's more usual and pejorative sense is of a period of intellectual darkness and barbarity."
Jump up ^ David C. Lindberg, "The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor", in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, ed. When Science & Christianity Meet, (Chicago: University of Chicago Pr., 2003), p.8
Jump up ^ Edward Grant. God and Reason in the Middle Ages, Cambridge 2001, p. 9.
Jump up ^ quoted in the essay of Ted Peters about Science and Religion at "Lindsay Jones (editor in chief). Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition. Thomson Gale. 2005. p.8182"
Jump up ^ Lindberg, D. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science Chicago. University of Chicago Press. p.204.
Jump up ^ Historian Jeffrey Burton Russell, in his book Inventing the Flat Earth "... shows how nineteenth-century anti-Christians invented and spread the falsehood that educated people in the Middle Ages believed that the earth was flat" Russell's summary of his book
^ Jump up to: a b Russell, Jeffey Burton (1991). Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 49–58. ISBN 0-275-95904-X.
Jump up ^ A recent study of medieval concepts of the sphericity of the Earth notes that "since the eighth century, no cosmographer worthy of note has called into question the sphericity of the Earth." Klaus Anselm Vogel, "Sphaera terrae - das mittelalterliche Bild der Erde und die kosmographische Revolution", PhD dissertation, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, 1995, p. 19
Jump up ^ E. Grant, Planets. Stars, & Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos, 1200-1687, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1994), pp. 626-630.
Jump up ^ Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986). "Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science". Church History. Cambridge University Press. 55 (3): 338–354. JSTOR 3166822. doi:10.2307/3166822.
Jump up ^ Ronald Numbers (Lecturer) (May 11, 2006). Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective (Video Lecture). University of Cambridge (Howard Building, Downing College): The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion.
External links[edit]
"Dark Ages" in Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
"Decline and fall of the Roman myth" by Terry Jones.
"Why the Middle Ages are called the Dark Ages".
"Learning about Dark Ages by Kru Interactive".
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dark_Ages_(historiography)&oldid=804800411"
Categories:
Historiography of the Middle Ages
Philosophy of history
Early Middle Ages
Historical eras
Urban decay
Hidden categories:
Articles containing Latin-language text
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikiquote
Languages
العربية
বাংলা
Bân-lâm-gú
Català
Čeština
Cymraeg
Dansk
Deutsch
Diné bizaad
Eesti
Español
Esperanto
Français
Gaeilge
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano
Latviešu
Lietuvių
മലയാളം
مصرى
Bahasa Melayu
မြန်မာဘာသာ
日本語
Norsk
Polski
Português
Română
Русский
Српски / srpski
Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
ไทย
Türkçe
Українська
Tiếng Việt
Zazaki
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 11 October 2017, at 07:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view

values: mw-page-base noprint

values: mw-head-base noprint

attrs: id class style

values: firstHeading firstHeading en

values: siteSub noprint

values: jump-to-nav mw-jump

values:
/wiki/Dark_Ages_(disambiguation)
mw-redirect mw-disambig
Dark Ages (disambiguation)

attrs: role class

values:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

value: i

values:
/wiki/Andrea_di_Bartolo_di_Bargilla
mw-redirect
Andrea di Bartolo di Bargilla

values:
/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire
mw-redirect
Decline of the Roman Empire

values:
/wiki/Light_versus_darkness
mw-redirect
Light versus darkness

values:
/wiki/Fall_of_the_Roman_Empire
mw-redirect
Fall of the Roman Empire

values:
/wiki/Migration_period
mw-redirect
Migration period

values:
/wiki/Classical_Antiquity
mw-redirect
Classical Antiquity

values:
/wiki/Late_Antiquity
mw-redirect
Late Antiquity

values:
/wiki/Protestant_Reformation
mw-redirect
Protestant Reformation

values: float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; clear:right;

values:
/wiki/Age_of_Reason
mw-redirect
Age of Reason

values:
/wiki/Early_Modern
mw-redirect
Early Modern

values:
/wiki/Gothic_Revival
mw-redirect
Gothic Revival

values:
/wiki/Utilitarianism_(architecture)
mw-redirect
Utilitarianism (architecture)

values:
/wiki/Industrial_revolution
mw-redirect
Industrial revolution

values:
/wiki/History_of_German_literature
mw-redirect
History of German literature

values:
/wiki/Bronze_Age_collapse
mw-redirect
Bronze Age collapse

values:
/wiki/Digital_Dark_Age
mw-redirect
Digital Dark Age

values:
/wiki/Muslim_conquests
mw-redirect
Muslim conquests

values:
/wiki/Saxon_people
mw-redirect
Saxon people

values:
/wiki/Avars_(Carpathians)
mw-redirect
Avars (Carpathians)

values: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2008)

values:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

attrs: alt src width height class data-file-width data-file-height

values:
/wiki/Medieval_universities
mw-redirect
Medieval universities

values: div-col columns column-count column-count-3

values: -moz-column-count: 3; -webkit-column-count: 3; column-count: 3;

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/2856364

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F2856364

values: Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Aligarh

values:
nofollow
external text
https://mises.org/daily/2404

values:
nofollow
external text
http://www.1911encyclopedia.com/History

values:
/wiki/Ronald_L._Numbers
mw-redirect
Ronald L. Numbers

values:
nofollow
external text
//www.jstor.org/stable/3166822

values:
nofollow
external text
//doi.org/10.2307%2F3166822

values: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

values:
nofollow
external text
https://darkages.xyz

values: Category:Historiography of the Middle Ages

values: Category:Articles containing Latin-language text

values: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

values: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2008

values: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

values: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

values: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

values: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

values:
/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

values: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

values: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

values:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

values: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

values: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

values:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

values:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

values:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

values: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

values: Find background information on current events

values:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

values: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

values: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

values: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

values: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

values: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

values: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

values: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

values: عصور مظلمة – Arabic

values: অন্ধকার যুগ – Bangla

values:
https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_Ages
Dark Ages – Navajo
nv
nv
interlanguage-link-target

values: अंधकार युग – Hindi

values: അന്ധകാരയുഗം – Malayalam

values: အမှောင်ခေတ် – Burmese

values: Тёмные века европейской истории – Russian

values: Мрачно доба – Serbian

values: ยุคมืด – Thai

values: Темні століття середньовіччя – Ukrainian

values: 歐洲黑暗時代 – Chinese

values: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Dark_Ages_historiography rootpage-Dark_Ages_historiography vector-nav-directionality skin-vector action-view