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'American Reunion': Jason Biggs Rips Eddie Kaye Thomas' Pants at Premiere (Video)

The stars gathered to celebrate the fourth film in Universal's comedy franchise, with a minor wardrobe malfunction taking place on the red carpet.

The stars of the American Pie movies are used to pranks and shenanigans on set – the cast is infamous for it.

PHOTOS: Hollywood's 10 Highest-Grossing Actors

But what stars Eddie Kaye Thomas and Jason Biggs were probably not expecting was for a little bit of chaos to hit the red carpet at the premiere for American Reunion, the upcoming fourth film in the comedy franchise.

As Thomas, who plays Finch in the films, prepared for an interview with The Hollywood Reporter, he hopped out of the way so Biggs and his wife, Jenny Mollen, could get by.

STORY: Who Got Paid What for the 'American Pie' Reunion

But then, all hell broke loose. Or rather, Thomas’ pants broke loose.

“You just ripped my pants,” Thomas says to Biggs. “Jason Biggs just ripped my pants.”

After inspecting the hole in his pants, Thomas ups the raunchy factor by accusing Biggs' wife of grazing a private part of his body.

Biggs tries to comfort Thomas: “You can’t see it at all because it’s really up in there.”

“I think I might have to not wear pants for the screening and send it off to a tailor and hopefully not be too embarrassed during the party,” Thomas tells THR.

VIDEO: 'American Reunion' Full Trailer Hits the Web

American Reunion, out in theaters on April 6, sees the whole gang from the American Pie movies back together for their 10-year high school reunion. It stars Alyson Hannigan, Seann William Scott, Mena Suvari, Tara Reid, Chris Klein, Thomas Ian Nicholas and Jennifer Coolidge.

Thomas, who plays Finch, the intellectual of the group who has a weakness for Stifler’s mom, tells THR what it’s been like to see this character grow up from an awkward teen to a 30-something man. “He’s grown, he’s gone places, but at the end of the day, he’s the same guy he always was,” he says.

Written and directed by Jon Hurwitz and Hayden Schlossberg, American Reunion is the fourth film in the teen comedy series. The first, American Pie, was released in 1999. Two sequels followed the hit teen comedy: American Pie 2 (2001) and American Wedding (2003).

Thomas was just 16 years old when he got the role of Finch in the bawdy comedy. “The thing I’ve learned shooting this movie is as much as things change, things stay exactly the same,” Thomas adds.

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India Gang-Rape Anniversary Marked By Nationwide Tributes

Singer Sona Mohapatra (center), with lyricist Swanand Kirkire (left), at the start of the memorial procession tracing the fatal route taken by Delhi gang-rape victim Jyoti Singh Pandey last December.
Singer Sona Mohapatra (center), with lyricist Swanand Kirkire (left), at the start of the memorial procession tracing the fatal route taken by Delhi gang-rape victim Jyoti Singh Pandey last December.

Leading artists and Bollywood talent unite for memorial events across India, including a mass procession along the route taken by the gang-rape victim in New Delhi last December.

The horrific gang rape that took place on the night of Dec. 16, 2012, in New Delhi shocked India, unleashing furious protests and a speedy trial against the culprits, who were given the death sentence in September. On Monday, exactly a year after the night that led to the death of 23-year-old medical student Jyoti Singh Pandey, a memorial event was organized in the city. The culmination of a weeklong series of events that began on Dec. 10, the final tribute mapped the route that Pandey took with her friend on the fateful night they were brutally attacked in a moving bus.

The Jurrat ("To Dare") Campaign was co-organized by Swaang, a Mumbai-based theater and protest band whose members include actors, writers, music directors, musicians and producers from the film industry. The campaign also was organized by Majma, an emergent collective of diverse artists and activists. It was supported by various organizations including Oxfam India and Amnesty International India, among others.

STORY: Snoop Dogg Dodges Questions About Indian Gang-Rape Incident

The event started outside the South Delhi mall where Pandey and her male friend came out of a multiplex after seeing Life of Pi and looked for transport to head home. Swaang members were joined at the location by leading music artists, including Sona Mohapatra and Swanand Kirkire, as about 200 activists and students mapped the route carrying posters and banners. The campaign concluded with a memorial concert by the artists. Organizers said they were denied permission by authorities to mount a mobile concert on a trailer along the duo's route.

“This has been a very overwhelming experience for all of us. We’ve tried to cover as many aspects of this gender violence and sexual crime debate,” said Swaang member and actress Swara Bhaskar, who starred in the Bollywood hit Ranjhaana. “Jyoti’s fight last year was an inspiration for us all and Jurrat was an effort to keep alive her spirit,” she added.

“Delhi is coming together to heal its wounds and to take stock as to how much safer women have become here since that dark evening a year ago. I hope I can contribute,” added popular singer Rabbi Shergill, known for blending traditional folk music with contemporary rock. His credits include the hit track “Challa” from last year's Bollywood blockbuster Jab Tak Hai Jaan, featuring superstar Shahrukh Khan.

STORY: India Gang Rape: Bollywood Welcomes Death Sentence

“The meaning of Jurrat is to 'dare,' that's why I am here; we are daring to come out and tell people this is enough,” added well-known lyricist and writer Kirkire.

“Music as a means of original expression and protest has played a huge role in shaping the events in modern history and I have been able to stand for my gender, stake claim for my rightful place in society and demand for an existence without fear, via my songs on stage in the Jurrat concert,” said popular singer Mohapatra. Her credits include tracks featured in films such as Delhi Belly and last year's hugely popular TV show Satyamev Jayate, hosted by superstar Aamir Khan, which tackled various social issues.

Meanwhile, street plays and candlelight vigils were held in cities across India, including Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai and Bangalore. Extensive media coverage in leading newspapers and by top TV networks focused on whether women's security had improved a year after the Delhi incident.

STORY: Photojournalist Gang-Raped in Mumbai

Figures released by Delhi Police revealed a shocking reality: reports quoted Delhi Police's Special Commissioner for Crime Dharmendra Kumar stating that there were 1,472 rapes reported in the capital this year (until Nov. 30), compared with 642 in 2012. The number of complaints of molestation rose to 3,182 from 612 in 2012.

The situation in Mumbai also was alarming: Authorities stated there were 338 cases of rape reported in 2013 compared to 193 last year, while the number of crimes against women increased from 1,390 in 2012 to 2,607 this year.

In August, Mumbai was shocked by the gang rape of a young photojournalist who was assaulted by five men while she was on assignment taking pictures at an abandoned factory. A male colleague who accompanied her also was attacked.

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What's Behind Nashville's Label Shuffle

Luke Lewis (left) and Mike Dungan
Luke Lewis (left) and Mike Dungan
 Getty Images

Capitol's Mike Dungan is named chairman and CEO of Universal Music Nashville Entertainment as Luke Lewis steps aside. Is Music Row bracing for a showdown or a reunion?

When is leaving the presidency of a major record label not really leaving the presidency of that label? Answer: When your past and future labels are due to merge eventually anyway.

At least that’s the expectation with country music kingpin Mike Dungan, who shocked much of the Music Row community by resigning his post in charge of Capitol Nashville to take over Universal’s Nashville operations. After word of the switch got out late last week, the move was officially announced today by UMG chairman Lucian Grainge.

The wrinkle is the proposed merger between EMI and Universal, which could pass through the various international approval processes this fall. Combining the recorded music units may leave Dungan back in charge of his old Capitol roster, on top of the Universal imprints about to be put under his command.

PHOTOS: Scores That Rock: 10 Musicians Who Crossed Over to Movies

That’s what many of the top acts currently signed to Capitol are banking on, since they’re about to lose having the most popular exec in Music City on their side. Indeed, Capitol Nashville has lately been the brightest spot for the struggling EMI, at least when it comes to new, not catalog, product. Among the Capitol acts that could suffer without such a hot leader at the rudder: Lady Antebellum, Darius Rucker, Alan Jackson, Keith Urban, Dierks Bentley, Eric Church, Luke Bryan, and Little Big Town.

“Anything could happen with the merger, but I’m confident we’ll be working with him again by the end of the year,” said one artist manager. “He’s left a good support team in place, so I’m not that worried. But there are those moments when you’re looking to get a hit across and Mike would be the guy to make a few phone calls to push it to the top. I’m a little nervous what we’ll do without his ability to come in and do that.”

But a Universal insider says Capitol staffers and execs shouldn't be all that stressed about the succession, pointing out that the executive plan is to increase investment in Capitol's A&R that will run parallel to those initiatives on the Universal side, not replace one with the other. Where the merger will affect departments on both sides is in back office functions.

PHOTOS: 10 Grammy Greats: The 2012 Nominees Making Waves in the Industry

Dungan, who’s headed up Capitol Nashville since 2000, is staying put through the end of April, then becomes the chairman and CEO at UMG Nashville on May 1. In his new gig, he inherits a larger roster that includes Sugarland, George Strait, Shania Twain, Josh Turner, and Easton Corbin.

An unresolved question is what the future plans are for outgoing Universal Nashville chief Luke Lewis, (pictured below with Mercury Nashville/19 Recordings artist and American Idol runner-up Lauren Alaina) who’s been in charge of major labels for 20 years, far longer than any other exec in town.

One thing that’s certain, though some are loathe to believe it: It’s a friendly transition. “Luke wanted out,” insists one mover-and-shaker who’s been close to Lewis, 64. “He’s done this long enough, and he has two young kids at home. I think he just wants to run an independent label or something now. He wanted Mike as his successor.” Adds another source: "Luke and Mike are friends. It was Luke's idea to bring him in and it came months before Universal was even contemplating a bid to buy EMI."

PHOTOS: Top 10 Highest Paid Music Artists

Although the news came as a shock to most Capitol and Universal staffers, it was known to top insiders around Nashville for a while. A story going around has it that Sony Nashville head Gary Overton was flummoxed recently when both Dungan and Lewis showed up at a wine tasting event at his house, fearful that the two execs would be feuding over the transition-to-be. But the two label chiefs proceeded to surprise everyone in attendance by sitting down together and chatting up a storm.

The country industry will be pleased to see an amicable changing of the guard, since there is some bad blood left over from the last major Music Row transition, when Joe Galante left the long-time leadership of Sony without the company throwing him a farewell party, the sort of oversight that doesn’t go down well in as supposedly chummy  a town as Nashville.

Dungan leaves Capitol at a fairly convenient time, when most of its artists are between albums or on a second or third single off their latest projects – like Urban, whose "You Gonna Fly" is currently No. 1 on the Billboard country chart, and Bentley, whose "Home" is bulleted at No. 4.

The imminent release most in need of the Dungan touch is Alan Jackson’s first album for the label, which is due out in May. Dungan is expected to heavily work Jackson’s new single, “So You Don’t Have to Love Me Anymore,” before he makes the move.

Although Lewis and Galante were long the two titans in town, the most buzz-generating label heads in the last couple of years have been Dungan and Big Machine upstart Scott Borchetta. Dungan is credited with the unlikely success of reintroducing Hootie & the Blowfish’s Rucker as a country star, as well as establishing Urban and Lady Antebellum as superstars and resurrecting Trace Adkins’ career.

“When times were tough for EMI a few years ago and they were pressuring Mike big-time to put out albums earlier than he thought they were ready, he never wavered or caved, ever,” said one former Capitol exec who still admires Dungan. “He fought for his label team and artists against EMI at times, and kept everyone feeling like a family, even in hard times. He’s one of the most-liked guys in this town – and, he can cuss up a storm.”

Dungan may have to put his likeability to the test, though, if he’s forced to make some hard decisions upon getting to Universal. “He’s going to have to make a lot of roster cuts, especially if the merger happens,” says a manager, “and that’s the kind of stuff he really, really hates.”

Twitter: @chriswillman

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Weather Forecast

Find more about Weather in Holyoke, CO
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First-day student count up in Holyoke School District PDF Print E-mail
Written by Brenda Johnson Brandt
School officials are cautiously optimistic about the increased enrollment numbers for the start of the 2009-2010 school year. Enrollment increased by 32, according to first-week attendance in Holyoke School District Re-1J.

Total school enrollment was 592 as of Tuesday, the beginning of the district’s second week of school. That includes 299 in grades K-5, 282 in grades 6-12 and 11 at Holyoke Alternative High School.

The first week of school one year ago, enrollment was reported at 560, including 10 in the new Alternative High School.

For state funding purposes, the actual student count is linked to the Oct. 1 enrollment, not this first-week count. The funded full-time equivalent (FTE) student count covers an average of the student numbers for five years. It also counts kindergartners and special education preschoolers as half students.

First-week counts in the district dropped steadily from 2001-2007, but stayed steady last year and increased this year.

Student count in grades 9-12 at HHS is 163 this year, down six from last year’s first-week count of 169.

Last year’s K-5 enrollment was turned in at 273, while this year there are 299 students, for an increase of 26.

Last year’s fourth grade class was the largest in the district with 53 students, followed closely by the kindergarten and first grade classes with 52 each.

This year, three classes have 55 students enrolled to share largest-class honors. They are the kindergarten, first grade and fifth grade classes.

Smallest classes are the senior class with 32 and third grade, seventh grade and eighth grade, all with 37. Average class size is 45.

Enrollment in individual grades during the first few days of school for 2009-10 follows:

Kindergarten 55, first grade 55, second grade 53, third grade 37, fourth grade 44, fifth grade 55, sixth grade 45, seventh grade 37, eighth grade 37, freshmen 47, sophomores 40, juniors 44, seniors 32 and Alternative High School 11.

Enrollment for the first week of school in past years compares as follows to the 592 count this year: 560 in 2008, 560 in 2007, 572 in 2006, 622 in 2005, 658 in 2004, 658 in 2003, 668 in 2002, 686 in 2001 and 660 in 2000.


text:
How to Mop

Heather says:

Wipe your feet, I just mopped that floor! Everyone has heard this at least once in their life. However, not everyone has had someone take the time to demonstrate how to effectively mop a floor.

First choose a mop based on your floor type. Typically homes have smooth floors: tile, hardwood, or linoleum. Occasionally some homes will have textured floors such as brick. Smooth floors can be mopped with a sponge mop, but textured requires old fashioned string mops. If you have a string mop be sure you either have a wringer on your bucket or the mop is equipped with one. Textured floors will quickly shred a sponge mop creating a huge mess.

When mopping I tend to use heavily diluted vinegar and hot water which does not require rinsing. If the detergent or chemical you choose requires rinsing, simply repeat the steps outlined below with plain water.

Let’s get started!

  1. Gather your supplies: broom & dustpan, mop, bucket filled with cleaning solution, a rag, and a wringer if you need it.
  2. Remove all easily moved furniture. Try to cordon off the room from children and pets.
  3. Sweep, unless you really enjoy creating mud or scratching the floor with grit.
  4. Dip the rag in the cleaning solution and thoroughly wring out. The rag is to wipe any smudges you create on baseboards, cabinetry, or appliances.
  5. Beginning in the corner farthest from your planned exit begin to mop. Dip the mop in the bucket and wring thoroughly. You do not need a soaking wet sponge for mopping. Scrubbing a floor requires more water, but that is a different ball game.
  6. Mentally divide the floor into sections, about four feet square. Mop the floor using short strokes, working with the grain of the floor if you are damp mopping hardwood.
  7. Each time you complete a section return the mop to the bucket, swish it around, and wring thoroughly.
  8. Work your way toward the exit, fixing any smudges as you go.
  9. When you have finished rinse the mop well and wring as thoroughly as possible to speed drying.
  10. Put your supplies away and return the furniture to its proper place.
  11. Try not to flip out when someone spills something ten minutes after completion. I swear, it must be a law.

  1. Paul says

    Hi, I grew up working in a Dairy Queen and I worked and later owened a laundromat. Have to add a couple of “clean” tips. #1. When using a sponge mop, use the two bucket method or the sink. Rinse the mop out in clean water before putting it into the soapy water, you may be amazed at how much cleaner the floor is, looks and feels. #2. My ex-wife and current wife both swear that getting down on hands and knees is the best way to clean a floor. But I have noticed that they don’t get up to rinse or use soapy water as often as someone with a mop. Plus their hands are down there in whatever is being cleaned.

    So I am back to what worked best at DQ, either a sink or two buckets, one mop. Dip into cleaner, mop area, dip into rinse water (preferably rinse in sink so it stays clean), wring it, dip into cleaner and so on and so on.

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Home Brew Forums > Home Brewing Beer > All Grain & Partial Mash Brewing > Small Batch Stovetop All Grain
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Old 10-31-2008, 03:13 PM   #1
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Default Small Batch Stovetop All Grain

Most of the time when you mention the idea of brewing small batches (1-2 gallons) all grain, people tell you that you're crazy and it's a waste of time.

In the French Press thread, there are finally quite a few people that think it's a pretty good idea.

Last winter I started experimenting with small all grain batches on the stovetop using the Brew in a Bag method. I found it to be quick, fun, and it allowed me to brew on weeknights. It produced some award winning beer that also served as starters for a full sized batch.

I've documented my method, and posted it here:
Stovetop All Grain Small Batch Brewing - Lustreking Brewing

My brewing site:
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Old 10-31-2008, 03:20 PM   #2
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I found that you can make a full-size all-grain 5 gallon batch of beer on a stove top with nothing but two pots and a bag. see my sig for easy partial mashing. works just as well for all-grain, up to 12 lbs of grain in a 5 gallon pot.
Easy Partial Mash Brewing - Stovetop All-Grain Brewing

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Considering All Grain, but is it realistic on a stovetop? chrispykid All Grain & Partial Mash Brewing 27 02-05-2009 07:52 PM
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Home Power Magazine - Design & Installation http://www.homepower.com/wind-power/design-installation en 2015 Wind Turbine Buyer’s Guide http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/equipment-products/2015-wind-turbine-buyer%E2%80%99s-guide

Why, Where & How to Do Wind Electricity

Intermediate

By:

Ian Woofenden

Roy Butler

Making electricity with the wind is not easy. As seasoned wind-energy installers with decades of experience, we—as well as thousands of others who live with home-scale wind turbines—tell a challenging tale. And the small wind industry today reflects those challenges, with long-established companies struggling and going under while the cost of reliable solar-electric modules continues to drop. If you think you want a wind-electric system, first think smart, then realistically.

Done well, residential-scale wind energy can provide clean kilowatt-hours in a very satisfying way. But because of the characteristics of the wind, wind systems have several strikes against them:

Tall towers are required for meaningful production

Reliability and robustness are hard to come by

Compared to solar electricity, the cost per kWh can be high

Qualified local installation and maintenance help is difficult to find

Hype, misinformation, and outright scams are too common

This article will help you sift through the rhetoric and numbers, and make a wise decision about whether or not to tap local wind energy. If you decide that wind is right for your site, we want to help you understand how to make it work for the long term.

Why Wind?

First, we suggest you get a handle on your motivations, needs, and situation. These will help determine whether a residential wind-electric system makes sense for you. People choose wind energy for several reasons, including:

Environmental concerns

Decreased cost of energy

Desire for independence

Fun and interest

Each of these motivations—and combinations of them—will lead to different choices. Be realistic about why you are considering wind energy and make sure the actual results satisfy your expectations and goals.

When installed correctly in the right location, a residential wind-electric system can produce cleaner energy than North America’s utility grid, which is dominated by coal and other dirty energy sources. But a wind system needs to make significant energy (kilowatt-hours) for years or decades to make environmental and financial sense. Otherwise, you could end up spending a pile of money on an unproductive wind energy system—and still be shelling out dollars for that dirty coal energy you’re using now.

Scrutinizing your real cost of wind energy is crucial if your primary goal is to save money. Many wind-electric systems are installed with unrealistic financial and durability projections, and end up generating energy that is more expensive than the local utility grid. A low cost per kWh requires a productive and long-lasting wind-electric system.

If independence is your goal, a reliable, long-lasting system is important. Otherwise, you will end up being dependent on the utility grid or worse—a fuel-fired generator.

Having a wind generator for a hobby and DIY project can be very satisfying—but requires having patience with the potential maintenance and failure in these systems. Some of our wind colleagues don’t really mind when a wind turbine fails because “they get to build another one.” Other people would be quite discouraged at the same situation. A large amount of patience and perseverance may be needed, depending on your budget and design decisions.

Most of these motivations require not only a firm grip on what a wind-electric system will do for you, but a clear idea of how much energy you use, and what form it is in. If your home is heated by gas or oil, you’ll need to switch to electricity (we suggest minisplit heat pumps) to make an impact with your wind generator. Becoming energy literate and analyzing your home or business’s energy use should be an early step in any renewable energy system design.

Whatever your motivation, do all you can to make sure your expectations of the system’s costs, energy generation, longevity, and impacts are realistic. Do your homework, find local mentors and wind energy users, and make wise purchase choices so you end up satisfied—instead of disillusioned.

Where is the Wind?

Getting an honest answer to the question, “Where do wind generators work?” could save a lot of people a lot of disappointment. The obvious answer is, “Where there is wind!” Unfortunately, many people are ignorant of or blind to the details behind this simple answer.

Wind energy is cubic—the energy in the wind increases with the cube of the wind speed. This means that a 20 mph wind has 8 times as much energy as a 10 mph wind. Even a small increase in wind speed yields a significant increase in energy potential. For example, going from 12 mph to 15 mph almost doubles the wind energy potential.

But just like trying to move water in a pipe or a rope through a pulley, friction is wind’s enemy. In the case of wind, it’s the drag imposed by trees, buildings, and landforms that robs the energy in the wind. The reality is that there just is not much wind energy left once it travels close to these obstructions.

“Friction” and turbulence from ground obstructions reduces the annual energy output (AEO; see table) of any wind turbine. The farther above these obstructions your wind turbine is, the more wind energy there is. So wind energy experts frequently recommend taller towers. This is not because they have stock in tower companies, but because they understand wind physics.

There are some devilish details. A turbine on a taller tower will always capture more wind energy, but it’s more important in some situations than others. We would not recommend a tower for any site be shorter than 60 feet, regardless of the terrain. But getting above the obstruction is somewhat less important if that obstruction is smooth, like a wheat field, tundra, or open water. “Wind shear” (the rate of wind increase as you rise above the earth) studies show us that wind speed increases more quickly above cities and forests than above open fields and water.

So what does a good—or bad—wind site look like? One analysis involves getting a view in your mind’s eye from the tower top. At that height, if you can get a very distant and broad view without obstructions, you have one crucial component of a good wind site—access to unobstructed wind. But if you’re “seeing” treetops, buildings, hillsides, and such, you aren’t yet at the optimum height.

So hilltops, ridges, plains, and oceanfront settings top the list of good wind sites. Forests, deep river valleys, cities and suburbs, and other complicated and uneven sites are challenged by their basic topography.

Beyond getting above the obstructions, you need a site that experiences significant wind. While we frequently hear people say things like, “It blows 20 mph constantly,” this is never true—personal observations of how much wind there is are useless in most cases. What’s needed is actual measurement or studied estimation based on measured sites. This information is not always easy to obtain, and many wind turbines are sited without good data. If you decide to go ahead without hard numbers, you need to realize that you’re taking a calculated risk—investing based on an educated guess of your wind resource. You may find wind data from local wind-energy users, meteorological sites, and, possibly, from utility-scale wind siting services.

It’s also crucial to understand the difference between instantaneous and average wind speeds. While knowing the maximum instantaneous wind speed is useful to consider the durability and longevity of a turbine, instantaneous measurements are otherwise unimportant. What we really want to know is the average wind speed, from which we can calculate or determine a wind generator’s energy production potential. Real-world average wind speeds at residential sites range from a barely-adequate-for-off-grid 6 mph to a rare high of about 14 mph on a site that is so windy you might not enjoy living there.

Fully understanding wind physics, and the science and art of wind-system siting, will spare you wasted money and unfulfilled dreams. Don’t apply magical thinking to wind-electric systems—apply (or find an expert to apply) the math of wind to the physics of your site and make a tough-minded decision about whether you have the resource to fulfill your purposes.

Steps to Wind

If you’ve figured out why you want to try to capture wind energy, and you’ve determined that you have good wind potential at your site, what are the next steps to producing energy? Each wind system is different, depending on the site, tower choice, system configuration, installer, and owner, but this general list of steps will give you an idea of what you will need to do:

System design

Tower specification

Permitting

Soil analysis

Excavation for tower base (all towers) and anchors (guyed towers)

Concrete for base and anchors

Tower assembly and installation

Tower “tuning”—tension and plumb (guyed towers)

Transmission and anemometry wiring

Turbine installation

Balance of systems and installation—electronic controls, batteries if needed, monitoring, etc.

Commissioning and testing

Maintenance plan

Utility interconnection application and inspection (grid-tied systems)

Each of these items could be explained in several articles or a short book—though it’s not rocket science, it’s also not as simple as digging a ditch. At each step, someone needs to have a thorough understanding of the goals and challenges; the equipment that’s available; and how to specify, integrate, and install it properly.

Doing this yourself means you need to be a very handy person, willing to learn from the experience of others, and willing to get dirty. Otherwise, you’ll need to hire contractors for the various parts of the task. Finding experienced wind help may be difficult in your area, but worth the effort, because you do not want to work with a company that is experimenting with your money, or worse.

Whether you or a contractor does the job, you’ll need to get your gear from somewhere. We recommend you buy equipment from companies that have been around the block with wind energy, and those with a strong record of customer support. It’s hard to put a value on the ability to make a phone call and get good information, replacement parts in a hurry, or analysis of a pressing problem.

The Good, the Bad…

So what distinguishes good systems from bad systems? It’s not easy to make broad generalizations about the various types and configurations of wind-electric systems. But it’s fairly safe to say that all good installations have these attributes:

Sited where there is sufficient wind resource

Turbine installed well above (30+ feet) all obstructions within 500 feet, minimum

Engineered tower installed to spec

Properly specified components matched to each other

Excellent and user-friendly wind and wind turbine monitoring systems installed

Clear maintenance plan

As a result, these less technical but no less important attributes will follow:

Happy system owners and neighbors

Energy production within owners’ and installers’ expectations/predictions

Modest noise and visual impact

Owners understand system or have easy access to experienced support

The people who are disappointed with their wind systems tend to have short towers, low-budget and mismatched equipment from newer companies or importers, and installation by inexperienced people. Most have unrealistic expectations of the wind resource and wind systems. These installations have high failure rates and low energy production. We’ve seen many systems that rarely generate any energy—and a system that costs even as little as $20,000 to as much as $100,000, but only generates a handful of kWh, is making very expensive electricity.

Wind Turbines Table

It was difficult to choose which wind turbines to include in this article. We start with a set of criteria, and try to apply them responsibly, but with some flexibility. Our goal is to give our readers solid information to make wise buying decisions, while being fair to manufacturers.

Included in our criteria is: sales and support in North America, warranty, certification (if applicable), price, and the company’s longevity. We recommend that you only consider wind turbines with these basic qualifications. It’s surprising how many people get into trouble by falling for hype about new concepts or from product promoters. Watch out for importers of gear not fully supported in North America, and companies that have more marketing than customer service.

We believe that the listed turbines offer the best opportunity to tap your wind energy. Some companies and machines are much newer than others, and are on the edge of our criteria; we encourage you to pay attention to time in business and in production when looking at the specs. The table that follows includes the following fields.

Manufacturer website is your first source of information. Take the time to read through the content thoroughly, including the fine print.

Years in business may tell you about the reliability of the machines and the company behind them, as well as capability of keeping wind turbines and a business support structure alive.

Years model in production tells you how long the model has been manufactured, and may be an indication of its level of development and reliability.

Warranty is an important factor in choosing a machine because it protects you in the case of failure due to design and workmanship, and because it may indicate the manufacturer’s confidence in the machine. Read the fine print to be clear on what is—and is not—covered. Usually it’s parts, but not repair or replacement labor.

Rotor swept area is the collection area of a wind generator—the basis of the quantity of energy it can capture. No other specification has more to do with a wind generator’s production.

Rotor diameter is another way to indicate the swept area, but it’s deceptive because area is proportional to the square of the diameter.

Tower-top weight may give you some indication of a machine’s robustness, since heavier machines may be more durable, and also is important to know for tower specification.

Certification lends credibility to a machine, showing that it has gone through a standardized testing process. Some established manufacturers choose to avoid the expense and time of certification, and certification is not a direct measure of longevity in the field, which is more important than peak performance. The Small Wind Certification Council (SWCC) and Intertek are the primary North American players in the small wind certification field. They assure that the turbines are tested to U.S. and international standards, verify the accuracy of the testing data, and then issue full certification or power curve certification.

AWEA rated power at 11 m/s (25 mph) average wind speed is a standardized power rating that may be handy for comparison, but is not particularly useful beyond that, and can be deceptive.

AWEA rated AEO (annual energy output) at 5 m/s (11 mph) average wind speed is a standardized energy rating, and can be cautiously used to compare turbines—but won’t relate directly to your site unless you also happen to have a 5 m/s average wind speed.

Estimated AEO at 8 through 14 mph is predicted energy production at the average wind speeds most common at residential sites (14 mph and above are rare). These are important specs because they relate to your site. This specification also demonstrates the crucial need for good average wind speed measurement or calculations for your tower top.

AEO source identifies the source of the AEO numbers.

Rpm at rated power identifies the rotational speed of the turbine and is a useful comparative number between machines of about the same rotor diameter. In general, lower rpm machines are longer-lived, with less wear and tear and lower noise levels.

Governing system specifies the method of controlling overspeed, a crucial design factor for all turbines. High winds pack a punch that needs to be avoided—not absorbed. Without a reliable governing system, your turbine will sooner or later break; with one, it will continue to make energy during and after high wind events.

Governing wind speed at which a machine is fully governed—protected from high winds and the overspeed conditions they can cause. A low governing wind speed is more likely to indicate a long-lasting machine.

Cost typically includes turbine and controls, but we recommend looking carefully at exactly what is included in each package—and what else you will need to make a complete system.

Pessimistic—or Realistic?

We, the authors, both love wind power, and have lived with it, written about it, and taught it for many years. At times, we are accused of being negative about our own field. Both of us have lived with failures in our own wind systems and those of clients, friends, and neighbors. We’ve come to our own levels of realism about what wind energy can and can’t do, and how to approach it to get the desired results.

We are definitely skeptical about manufacturer hype; light-duty machines; missing or mis-information; and untested schemes, claims, and machines. We are negative about false claims, deceptive advertising, poor support, and marketing that doesn’t reflect reality. No matter how well the turbine is engineered, it cannot change the physics of the wind.

At the same time, we are exuberantly positive about machines that are well-tested in the field and have realistic ratings and good track records. We’re excited about manufacturers that take care of their customers. And we’re delighted to hear stories from end users that are not horrific, but tell us of energy generated and used, appreciative instead of irritated neighbors, and expected reliability and production.

Take your time approaching wind energy. It’s not a quick fix, and it’s definitely not for everyone. But if you have a good site, an appropriate budget, plenty of knowledge and support, and a good attitude, you can make a wind generator successfully fly over your property. It’s hard to tell you in writing the level of satisfaction that can bring, but you could be the next person to have that wind generator smile.

 Tue, 28 Apr 2015 23:09:31 +0000 Michael Welch 13362 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/equipment-products/2015-wind-turbine-buyer%E2%80%99s-guide#comments Managing Battery Charging Using Diversion Loads http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/managing-battery-charging-using-diversion-loads

Advanced

By:

Jeff Tobe

PVcharge regulation can be relatively simple: When the batteries are full, the controller disconnects the PV array. Adding wind or microhydro to the system makes charge regulation more complicated, since turbines may overspeed if unloaded.

Often, diversion control is the solution. Off-grid “hybrid” combinations of solar, wind, or microhydro have been around for decades. These renewable electricity systems can power buildings and other sites far from the electrical grid. But hybrid systems can present unique design challenges, since multiple sources of generation—for example, a PV array, wind turbine, and a backup generator—increase the complexity of how to control battery charging so your batteries don’t get overcharged, and damaged.

In a PV system, the charge controller is placed between the energy source and the battery. Its job is to regulate the voltage and current coming from the energy source to charge the battery and protect the battery from overcharge (and damage). Modern charge controllers have a three-stage charge cycle. During the “bulk” phase, the voltage rises to the bulk level while the batteries draw maximum current. Once this level is reached, the absorption phase begins: the voltage is maintained at the bulk phase level for a specified time, while the current tapers off as the battery reaches a full charge. Once the battery is fully charged, the voltage drops to the float level and the battery only draws a small current until the next cycle.

Today’s charge controllers mostly use pulse width modulation (PWM) to control current into the battery. Pulses of current in rapid succession are allowed to pass from the energy source to the battery (or from the battery to the diversion load—more on this to follow). The controller cannot limit the size of this current, but instead controls the duration so that it can achieve the correct average current in the circuit. By modulating the width of the pulses, the controller regulates the battery charge rate. The target is to maintain the correct battery voltage for the prevailing stage of the charging cycle.

Some charge controllers also offer maximum power point tracking (MPPT), which no longer chains the input voltage to the output voltage. By doing so, it potentially allows more energy to be harvested from the generating source.

With a PV array, charge control regulation is fairly straightforward. When the batteries are full, the controller throttles the voltage/current accordingly to prevent overcharge, turning off the array in a sophisticated way. Chargers and inverter/chargers connected to generator power control the charge rate in the same way, limiting the load on the generator to regulate the charge rate. But charge control with wind and microhydro turbines is more difficult, since some turbines can overspeed when unloaded (i.e., disconnected from the battery). In an unloaded condition, a turbine will “freewheel,” increasing rpm and voltage. Excessive freewheeling can damage bearings and rotor components, and harm the electronics with the high voltage that’s produced. Turbine output must remain connected to a load at all times, yet not be allowed to overcharge the batteries. And this is most effectively accomplished with a diversion controller.

Diversion-Load Control Options

Diversion controllers are an effective method for managing wind or hydro turbine output and preventing battery overcharge. The turbine output is connected directly to the battery, in parallel with a diversion load controller (usually separate from any PV controller). This device shunts excess energy from the battery to a diversion (aka “dump”) load, usually a large resistor in air or a water-heating element, either of which is sized to enable constant turbine operation at its full output.

Some PV charge controllers can be reconfigured as diversion controllers for managing turbine output. Commonly available models range in size from 35 to 60 A for various nominal (12 V, 24 V, 48 V) battery voltages. These controllers typically allow field-selection of battery voltage; mode of operation (charge, load, or diversion control); and voltage setpoints for battery charging or load management. Often, a combination of dip switches, jumpers, and potentiometers are used to adjust these settings.

Programming the controller diversion setpoints is the same as setting the charging setpoints for a PV system. The goal is to set the bulk- and float-charge parameters to ensure full battery charging—without overcharge. However, if two separate controllers are being used, it may take a little time to adjust these parameters to keep the two units working together properly. It may be helpful to program the diversion controller to slightly higher or lower setpoints than the solar controller so as to encourage or discourage diversion of power to the dump load as desired. For example, a 48 V system with flooded batteries that has the PV bulk charge set to 58.4 V could have the diversion controller set to divert power during the bulk-charging cycle at 58.6 V so as to minimize diversion of PV power. Or vice-versa—for example, if we want to maximize the energy capture into the dump load for water heating. Float- and equalize-charge setpoints would be fine-tuned in a similar manner, but bear in mind that the two units may not agree on the timing of these stages of charge. The default strategy is to set the two devices to the same setpoints that best suit the battery charge regime.

Using the Aux Output for Turbine Control

Commonly used in PV systems, maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controllers may also offer options for turbine control. MPPT means that the input voltage of the controller is adjusted to maximize the PV array’s productivity. This function is independent of the actual charge control process and offers the advantages of higher-voltage transmission as well as enhanced energy production. On the charge control end of things, most PV charge controllers have at least one auxiliary output feature for diversion control of battery charge rate. Blue Sky Energy, MidNite Solar, OutBack Power, and Schneider Electric all have MPPT models with auxiliary output and programming to support diversion-load applications. This allows for the connection of turbines and/or for maximizing energy usage by diverting excess solar energy to useful heating. Blue Sky Energy offers its Duo Option Diversion Control upgrade component, which converts the auxiliary output for its Solar Boost 3024 controller into a 20 A diversion control. This unique conversion allows simultaneous MPPT operation for the PV array while also diverting up to 20 A through the converted auxiliary output. (Note this controller model is limited to 12 V and 24 V battery systems.) This can be a good solution for a smaller system, since it minimizes the space required for control equipment. Another upgrade option can increase the diversion capability to 40 A.

Dedicated MPPT Controllers for Turbines

MPPT voltage conversion can also be used to maximize turbine output in some cases. Some MPPT controllers can track microhydro turbine output by adjusting a few setpoints. In this application, the turbine’s DC output would be connected directly to the charge controller’s DC input, much like a PV array. MidNite Solar and Morningstar also offer wind turbine MPPT functions in some of their controllers. However, wind turbine output cannot be tracked to find maximum power. The installer must enter values or a “power curve” into the controller’s memory to suit the particular wind turbine.

MidNite Solar’s integrated solution couples its Classic charge controller with the “Clipper” add-on. This unique solution can be used for both wind and microhydro applications. The Clipper provides protected DC input into the charge controller, which in turn performs MPPT-like management of the turbine for maximum power output. Advantages include built-in components, such as diversion load, solid-state relay, and a run/stop breaker. The Clipper is similar to the integrated diversion controls offered with some wind turbines. Units are available in DC and AC options. AC models rectify the turbine’s wild AC output into controlled DC input for the charge controller to process. The resistor bank can be configured to match the turbine’s output, and multiple units can be paralleled for larger turbines.

Morningstar has a variety of controllers designed for MPPT for PV and wind systems, including the MPPT 600 V TriStar controller. This controller has a battery output rating of 60 A and also can be paralleled (up to four units) for larger wind units. However, these controllers do not have auxiliary outputs for diversion control, nor does Morningstar offer DC voltage protection add-ons. OutBack Power’s FLEXmax series (60 and 80 A models) can be used for hydro but not wind. They do have diversion features but no protection add-ons, so it is important to ensure that the turbine output cannot exceed the Voc of these controllers.

Diversion Load Control Approaches

The wind and/or microhydro turbine and the type of charge controller used for the PV array are two main factors in determining an optimal diversion-control strategy. For a PV array and a turbine with DC output, a common scenario is to use an MPPT charge controller for the array with an auxiliary output to control diversion of turbine energy. Used with a relay and an air-heating diversion load, this is one of the most economical, and easiest, approaches. Depending on the voltage and wattage ratings, an air-heating dump load with a wattage range between 1,000 W and 2,100 W can cost between $150 and $250; a suitable DC-rated relay may cost about $50. Mounting a prefabricated air-heating diversion load can often be much easier than retrofitting a DC circuit to a water heater tank.

For larger systems, multiple dump loads may be necessary to handle full output diversion from the turbine. The number of relays and the number of dump loads will depend on their power ratings. Loads can be paralleled to achieve a sufficient capacity. In smaller hybrid systems, or ones that receive only seasonal use, a separate PWM controller for managing the turbine and preventing battery overcharge is common, since these systems may not be able to fully realize the advantages of MPPT charge controllers. This system type could be designed with two separate PWM controllers—one unit manages the PV array, and another manages output from the turbine. Costs depend on the size and model. For a 24 V system with turbine output of 25 A or less, a basic PWM controller rated for 40 A with a 25 A to 40 A diversion load would cost about $300. Adding another PWM controller for the PV array brings the cost to $450—still less than most MPPT controllers, which typically start at $550.

Diversion Load Sizing

Properly sizing the diversion load is fairly straightforward, but important—if too small, it will not divert all of the turbine power, subjecting the battery to overcharge. If the diversion load is too big, it could overload the controller and cause it to disconnect, leading to unregulated battery overcharging. Add up all of your uncontrolled charging sources (i.e., wind turbine and/or microhydro turbine), then include a safety factor—the 2011 National Electrical Code (NEC) suggests adding a safety factor of 150%. (This factor accounts for potential spikes in output and provides longevity of the load component since, under normal turbine operation, the load would only be operating at two-thirds capacity.) Then, choose a diversion controller with a rating equal to or higher than this (see an example in the “Diversion Load Calcs” sidebar). Choose a diversion load equal or higher to this, but not any higher than the controller’s capacity.

Using Your Diverted Energy

Stand-alone renewable energy systems suffer a bit of a disadvantage in relation to grid-tied ones, which is that much of the energy they can produce will be wasted when the battery is full. With grid-tied systems, the excess is always exported; with stand-alone systems, you have to use it, or lose it. True conservationists will tailor their usage habits relative to the battery voltage, effectively acting as human diversion controllers, with a mission to maximize the effective use of precious energy: washing clothes, sawing firewood, running the vacuum cleaner, when the wind is blowing or the sun is blazing.

But not everyone wants to have their lives dictated by battery voltage. How can we automate usage and prevent wasting energy? The obvious answer is to use the surplus as a useful source of heat, which is the secondary function of diversion loads, which create heat energy from surplus electricity. Often, these devices are simple wire-wound resistors, installed in the power shed, that “dispose” of the energy surplus safely and economically. We can harvest some (or all) of this heat and avoid burning fossil fuel to heat water or to keep warm.

Two main types of diversion loads are air-cooled resistors and water heating elements. The advantage of air-cooled resistors is that they are always available (nobody will turn them off). But PWM-driven wire-wound resistors tend to be noisy, and their whining is usually unwelcome in a living space, so this heat is usually just “dumped” into a power shed.

Water heating elements in a water heater tank are another type of diversion load. They can provide water heating and perhaps space heating. If your renewable energy system is adequately sized to maintain the battery at a healthy state of charge, quite a bit of surplus heat energy will be available to divert. The disadvantage is that you cannot readily put a thermostat on these heaters because they must always be available to control battery charge, and they will be working on DC, which may damage the thermostat.

To use the output of the diversion charge controller directly, you will need to obtain special elements designed to work at lower voltage, or put up with much lower power output from heaters designed to work at grid voltage—for example, 120 VAC heaters will only yield one-quarter of the heating capacity if operated at 60 VDC.

The solutions to this problem are many and various. One option is to obtain specialized low-voltage heating elements, or use inverter power to operate grid-voltage elements via a relay. In the low-voltage case, you can use a changeover relay to shift the power to an air-heating element when the water heater thermostat opens, or you can design a water system that copes with the excess heat without the need for a thermostat. In the inverter-powered case, you can prioritize diversion to hot water via the inverter, but program a backup diversion at battery voltage that takes over after the water reaches a certain temperature.

Diversion control of battery charge is more than just a way to deal with renewable energy from turbines. It’s an opportunity to increase the efficiency of your energy system by automatically using any energy surplus. The amount of effort you put into this needs to be commensurate with the gains, but in the case of hydro turbines, for example, there can be a very large amount of surplus and it is well worth doing.

Manufacturers

Apollo Solar • apollosolar.com

APM Hydro • apmhydro.com

Blue Sky Energy • blueskyenergyinc.com

MidNite Solar • midnitesolar.com

Morningstar • morningstarcorp.com

OutBack Power • outbackpower.com

Schneider Electric • solar.schneider-electric.com

Solar Converters • solarconverters.com

 Sun, 01 Mar 2015 02:14:34 +0000 Michael Welch 13269 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/managing-battery-charging-using-diversion-loads#comments ASK THE EXPERTS: Wind is Hard http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-wind-hard

Intermediate

The leading statement in the “2014 Wind Turbine Buyer’s Guide” (HP161) is right on—“Without question, wind is a tough renewable energy resource to tap.”

I love the Home Power cover shots showing people strapped to a 100-foot tower while a crane, probably another 20 feet over their heads, tries to avoid dropping several hundred pounds of metal on them. Why anyone thinks this is glamorous is completely beyond me. Home-scale wind is dangerous, expensive, takes a lot of real estate, and is so much more involved than PV that—for all but the very few with unlimited time and resources—wind is a no-go. That should tell people capable of looking past the glamour to pass by wind energy.

Yes, I know the arguments about how wind complements PV, but at what cost? At a wind velocity of 11 meters per second, the small Kestrel puts out 1 kW, according to your comparison sheet. That’s about three PV modules—which have a fraction of the cost, little or no maintenance, and 30-plus years of output with a 25-year warranty—not a five-year wind machine warranty.

And why are manufacturers publishing an 11 m/s wind speed’s output—who has that kind of wind? It’s unrealistic and a sad commentary on an industry that can’t compete in the renewable energy business outside of large-scale commercial turbines. How is anyone realistically justifying wind?

Sorry, but this confirms my belief that wind has very little place in small-scale energy production.

Robert Dee • via homepower.com

Small wind is not for the faint of heart. I talk most of my clients out of it, especially as the cost of PV modules continues to drop. For a wind-electric system to make sense, it requires a great wind resource; a dark and windy season (in the case of justifying an off-grid system); or a strong desire to just do it. It is a blast (if you like that sort of thing) to install and keep a system running, but it’s not cheap, easy, or reliable.

One of the presenters at the recent Small Wind Conference gave a presentation titled “Go Big or Go Home,” and I think there’s a lot of logic to that. The economics and the equipment quality both improve as machine size increases.

“Wind complements PV” is a reasonable off-grid approach. On-grid, it’s generally wiser to examine your resources and sink your money into generating energy with the most reliable and abundant resource—be that sun, wind, or falling water. With net metering, there’s little need to have your generating source producing evenly all year. PV can make most of your energy in your sunny season (your utility credits the surplus to your account), and then you can draw on the credit during times of lower production.

I agree that the 11 m/s value is a bit high for a rating—but that is an instantaneous wind speed, not an average. And any instantaneous rating is pretty useless for comparison with PV or with other machines, and for energy predictions. What’s really helpful is an energy rating at various average wind speeds, as shown in the article’s table. Then you can (with luck) find the average wind speed at tower-top height at your site and get a prediction of the kilowatt-hours a given machine may provide each year.

A “1 kW” machine and 1 kW of PV are not comparable. A 1 kW PV system rarely produces at full power, but has a fairly predictable energy (kWh) output if you know the peak sun-hours at the location. A wind turbine rated at 1 kW peak is not similarly predictable, since wind is a cubic resource. For example, cutting the wind speed in half yields about one-eighth the potential power. You’ll need to know the actual tower-top average wind speed to make a reasonable energy prediction.

You are wise to point out that the turbine cost is just one part of the system’s cost. Typically, it’s a small portion—in most cases, the tower and balance-of-system components each cost more than the turbine. Potential wind energy users need good pricing on the installed cost of all of the components before deciding to invest in a wind-electric system. Some will go for it regardless of the economics. In all cases, it’s wise to know the costs and the benefits.

Ian Woofenden • Home Power senior editor

 Tue, 30 Dec 2014 20:57:38 +0000 Michael Welch 13176 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-wind-hard#comments MAILBOX: Wind Physics http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/mailbox-wind-physics

Intermediate

I enjoyed David Laino’s article on wind physics (“Wind Energy Physics” in HP161). It has excellent, usable, and applicable physics information that dispels a lot of common mistakes that the inexperienced would make.

I’m a 69-year-old solar enthusiast who’s been into solar since the early 1970s (mostly PV and hot water systems—my latest project is eight solar hot water collectors to heat my greenhouse). My first wind generator attempt would have been to build a funnel for more air through the machine. Multi-bladed machines came to mind, followed by different designs such as some of the illustrations you provided—all mistakes you helped me avoid! Thanks for helping me and others see the errors of our thoughts.

I’ve gotten some bad information in the past, and it just cost me a lot of time and money. I want to compliment you on a well-written article—clear, concise, precise.

Don Tollefson • Venice, California

 Tue, 30 Dec 2014 02:21:34 +0000 Michael Welch 13172 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/mailbox-wind-physics#comments ASK THE EXPERTS: Wind Speed Cubed http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-wind-speed-cubed

Advanced

When I was in fifth grade, I was told that doubling wind speed quadrupled the force of the wind. However, I’ve recently learned that the wind’s power is proportional to the cube of its speed, rather than the square. The first equation in David Laino’s article on wind physics in HP161 says that kinetic energy equals 1/2 times mass times velocity squared, which raises two issues. First, the article doesn’t explain why the velocity is squared, which seems necessary for following the rest of the logic leading to the cube-of-velocity concept.

Second, the coefficient 1/2 presumably requires that specific units be used, such as kilograms and meters. Can you better explain these?

Malcom Drake • via email

What you learned in fifth grade was correct: The force of the wind is a function of the wind speed squared. However, force and pressure are static measures, whereas power and energy are dynamic measures. It is important not to confuse them. Static does not consider motion and dynamic does. Thus, it makes sense that the addition of motion—velocity—to a static value that already has a squared dependency on velocity yields a cubic dependency on velocity.

A presentation of the concepts in the article required accepting the laws of physics at some level. The details of the derivation of the kinetic energy equation were outside the scope of the article, but if we accept Newton’s second law of motion—that force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma), and the definition that energy (E) is the integration of force acting over a distance (s)—then we get this calculus equation:

E = ∫F × ds = ∫m × a × ds = m∫ (dv/dt) ×  ds = m∫ (ds/dt) ×  dv = m∫ (v) ×  dv,

which leads to 1/2mv2

If you are familiar with integral calculus, you’ll recognize that both the 1/2 and the squared terms are the result of integration, with the result that E = 1/2mv2. Thus the 1/2 term is not a coefficient for specific units—you are free to use any units you choose. If you use SI units (kg, m, and sec) you will get an answer for energy directly in watt-seconds.

The velocity-cubed function of kinetic energy is unique to continuous fluid flow. It also applies to water flow because the mass of the fluid passing through an area depends directly on how much fluid—and how fast that fluid—is flowing through the area. This is not true for the kinetic energy of a solid mass, such as a baseball. The baseball’s mass is a constant and thus its energy is only a function of the velocity squared. So take advantage of the power of the cubic by choosing wind power over baseball power!

David Laino • Cofounder, Endurance Wind Power

 Fri, 31 Oct 2014 19:11:46 +0000 Michael Welch 12845 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-wind-speed-cubed#comments NEC Calculations http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/nec-calculations

Advanced

By:

Ryan Mayfield

“Code Corner” in HP159 and HP161 detailed the requirements for circuit sizing and overcurrent protection under the 2014 National Electrical Code (NEC). Here are some example calculations to bring that Code language to life. For those who use the 2011 NEC, don’t worry—the calculations are the same.

If you’re rusty on the “whys” behind the calculations, consider reviewing those previous “Code Corner” articles to understand the background information. The calculation examples use:

72-cell, 310 W module; 45.4 Voc, 9.28 A Isc, and 15 A maximum series fuse rating

Four PV source circuits connected to a single string inverter

The location is Sacramento, California, with an ASHRAE 2% average high temperature of 38°C

Exposed rooftop conduit is 2 inches above the roof surface
 The effective temperature inside raceway [from Table 310.15(B)(3)(c)] = 38°C + 22°C = 60°C
 The 90°C conductor insulation correction factor for 60°C from Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) is 0.71

The temperature of conductors that run through the attic space is estimated at 55°C
 The 90°C conductor insulation correction factor for 55°C from Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) is 0.76

All terminals located in junction and combiner boxes are rated for 75°C

All exposed conductors are PV wire and rated at 90°C; all conductors within raceways are THWN-2 and rated at 90°C

With four source circuits, there are eight current-carrying conductors in the raceway, and the correction factor is 70% from Table 310.15(B)(3)(a).

Independent Source Circuits

For our first example, all PV source circuits run independently from the modules to a rooftop junction box (no combining on the roof) and then continue down to the inverter. The raceway is on the rooftop and exposed to sunlight, and runs through the attic before terminating at an inverter inside the building that contains an integrated combiner and DC disconnect. This scenario—keeping the source circuits independent from the array to the inverter—is common in residential applications.

We can jump straight into the circuit-sizing section of the NEC. First, find the maximum circuit current:

From Section 690.8(A): Imax = Isc × 1.25 = 9.28 A x 1.25 = 11.6 A

Next, determine the minimum conductor size required:

Under 690.8(B)(1): Icont. = 11.6 A Imax x 1.25 = 14.5 A

            From Table 310.15(B)(16): Under the 75°C column, 14 AWG copper is the smallest conductor that exceeds the 14.5 A requirement (see “Code Corner” in HP159 for discussion of the terminal limitations and 75°C lookup).

The second half of 690.8(B) is required to confirm the conductor chosen in (B)(1) has enough ampacity when exposed to the conditions of use for that circuit. The conditions of use will be the temperature the conductors are exposed to, as well as the number of conductors in the raceway. There are three different temperature conditions the circuit is exposed to: rooftop, attic, and building interior. Section 310.15(A)(2) requires that “where more than one ampacity applies for a given circuit length, the lowest value shall be used.” This means, based on the general rule, we are required to use the circuit section exposed to the highest temperature to determine the proper conductor sizing.

Reading 310.15(A)(2) in its entirety reveals an interesting exception when two different ampacities apply to adjacent portions of a circuit. If the condition that results in the conductor’s lowest ampacity is no greater than 10 feet and not more than 10% of the total circuit length, we are allowed to use the higher ampacity (lower temperature) calculation. This is due to the ability of the circuit to dissipate the heat for the relative short run through the higher-temperature location.

This exception affects the example if the rooftop raceway is run for a length less than 10 feet and that distance is also less than 10% of the total circuit. Our example total circuit length is 55 feet, and the exposed rooftop raceway is 9 feet, so we cannot apply the exception. Our lowest ampacity condition will be in the rooftop raceway section.

To confirm that the conductor has the appropriate ampacity under conditions of use per 690.8(B)(2), apply the correction factors (listed above) to the conductor’s actual ampacity from the 90°C column:

25 A 90°C ampacity × 0.71 Table 310.15(B)(2)(A) correction factor × 0.7 Table 310.15(B)(3)(a) factor = 12.4 A

Using 14 AWG is permitted because the ampacity with conditions of use applied is greater than the Imax value. The final step is to consider the overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs) and verify that the conductors will be properly protected. Since there are more than two source circuits, the exception in 690.9(A) won’t apply; OCPDs will be required. The minimum size will be calculated as:

690.9(B): Imax × 1.25 = 14.5 A; so the OCPD size will be 15 A.

But will the 14 AWG conductors be properly protected by a 15 A fuse? Article 240, as referenced by 690.9, provides allowances for an OCPD rating greater than the conductor’s ampacity. In this case, the conditions of 240.4 are met, so a 15 A OCPD is allowed. Even with relatively strict applications of correction factors, a 14 AWG conductor would still be considered Code-compliant for this installation.

Rooftop Combiner

For this example, a rooftop combiner box is installed in place of the junction box. NEC requirements such as fuse servicing and disconnecting requirements make this less common in residential applications; but it’s more common in commercial installations. We size the two current-carrying conductors leaving the rooftop combiner and running into the inverter’s DC disconnect.

690.8(A)(2): Imax = 4 x 9.28 x 1.25 = 46.4 A

690.8(B)(1): Icont. = 46.4 A x 1.25 = 58 A; means 6 AWG copper

690.8(B)(2): 75 A x 0.71 x 1.00 = 53.25 A; which is greater than 46.4 so 6 AWG works.

Finally, if an OCPD is used in the output circuit, confirm the required size and verify the conductor’s ability to carry the current:

690.9: 46.4 A x 1.25 = 58 A; so a 60 A OCPD required

Per 240.4, a conductor with 53.25 A of ampacity is properly protected by a 60 A OCPD; again, 6 AWG is OK.

With practice and patience, understanding the rationale behind the calculations and the calculations themselves will become easier.

 Sat, 30 Aug 2014 21:09:34 +0000 Michael Welch 12800 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/nec-calculations#comments Inverter & Battery Cables http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/inverter-battery-cables

Make the Right Connections for Best System Performance

Intermediate

By:

Carol Weis

Christopher Freitas

Poor-quality and improperly installed battery and inverter cables can cause problems in the function and safety of a battery-based system. Here’s how to select the right cables and install them correctly, for optimal system performance.

There is a perception that battery and inverter cables are expensive—and it is a tempting place to cut costs—but buying cheap cables can result in significantly reduced performance of the battery bank and inverter(s). It’s a lot like putting cheap tires on a high-performance car—you save some money, but you don’t get the performance and safety you might need. The common problems seen with cabling in battery-based renewable energy (RE) systems are typically due to low-quality cables and hardware, in combination with poorly made crimps and connections.

You can purchase preassembled cables or have them made to order, but you can also build them yourself. The details are important—battery cables and their ring terminal connectors (also called “lugs”) carry high current and are used in harsh environments where they can be exposed to sulfuric acid, hydrogen gas, high temperatures, and dissimilar metals.

Cable Ampacity

For battery/inverter RE systems, the largest conductors in the system are usually the ones connecting all of the batteries together and then exiting the battery box to connect to the inverter. Since nearly all battery-based inverters operate at 48 VDC or lower, the cables need be large to handle high currents without significant losses. Sizing of these cables is based on the battery voltage, the inverter’s continuous amperage rating, and the length of the cable. Commonly, these cables are either 2/0 AWG (acceptable for use with a maximum of 175 A breaker or fuse) or 4/0 AWG (acceptable for use with a maximum of 250 amp breaker or fuse), but will need to be individually calculated. For example, the installation manual for OutBack Power Systems’ VFX3524 (3,500 watts; 24 VDC) inverter recommends 4/0 AWG for a battery-to-inverter cable length of 10 feet or less. This size cable would result in a voltage drop of less than 1% at full rated output of the inverter, resulting in 34 watts of losses in the 10-foot-long positive and negative conductors. Shorter cables would reduce the losses proportionally.

Cable Types

High-quality battery/inverter cables are made of fine-strand copper conductors with a flexible insulation covering and are available from manufacturers such as Polar Wire Products or Cobra Wire & Cable. Although finely stranded cables are not required, they make installing and servicing the system easier and reduce stress on the battery and inverter terminals. All high-quality battery cables are made with UL-listed wire and include a National Electrical Code (NEC)-required designation, such as RHW, THW, or THHW.

Lower-quality battery cables are often made from automotive or welding conductor cable. This type of cable is cheaper and easier to obtain—but is not acceptable by the NEC since it is not UL-listed or marked with the NEC wire type. While some types of welding cable have a UL listing, they have been approved using a different set of UL standards and tests, and are not marked with the required NEC wire-type designation.

Lugs

There are many different types of battery cable lugs to choose from if you’re making your own cables. The following are things to consider:

Material. Lugs can be made from many different materials, including copper, steel, or aluminum. To establish high-quality, long-lasting connections, only copper lugs are recommended. Steel or aluminum lugs will corrode over time from environmental conditions or from galvanic corrosion that occurs when dissimilar metals come into contact.

Bare or tin-plated. Copper lugs come in two varieties: bare or tin-plated. The tin-plated copper lugs are usually a dull gray color, and are preferred, especially for use at battery connections, since the plating reduces corrosion that can occur between the copper lug and the battery’s lead terminals, especially when there is battery acid involved.

Open- or closed-ended. To prevent corrosion from entering the conductor strands, use closed-ended lugs at the battery. Open-ended lugs are less expensive and more commonly available, and can be used when making inverter and breaker connections, but should not be used for the battery connections.

Listing. A lug needs to be tested and approved to UL standards, and rated for the system’s maximum voltage, current, temperature, and conditions of use. When using a fine-strand cable, you’ll also need to select lugs that are listed for the wire type (for example, fine strand wire is typically Class K). This can be difficult to determine or verify from the information available from the lug markings and manufacturer’s datasheets.

Sizing. All crimp-type lugs are rated to fit a specific conductor size, so matching the lug to the conductor is required by the NEC to ensure a good connection.

Bolt-hole diameter. It is also important to choose the correct bolt-hole diameter for the lug and terminal hardware combination. Drilling out the lug’s hole to accommodate a larger bolt is not acceptable as it may reduce the lug’s current rating; it also can result in higher resistance and excessive heat buildup that could potentially result in melted battery terminals or a fire.

Ring terminal size & shape. The “flag” or “ring” of the lug that attaches to a terminal comes in a variety of shapes and sizes. Lugs that provide a large surface area reduce resistance and the possibility of digging into soft lead battery terminals. Some breakers and inverters may need a smaller-size ring to fit on their terminals.

Avoid using set-screw-type compression lugs with finely stranded cable. Under pressure, the fine strands can twist and break off. The high number of strands makes the flexible cable’s connection “soft,” resulting in a connection that will be difficult to get tight and could potentially become loose over time.

Tight Lug & Cable Connections

Crimping. When lugs are not securely crimped on a cable, the loose connection causes higher resistance to the flow of electrons during charging and discharging. This can devastate the performance of a battery string or entire bank and could possibly result in melted battery terminals and even fire—but those aren’t the only problems. Additionally, this is a hazard to someone maintaining the battery bank. During a routine inspection—for example, when the electrolyte level is being checked—a cable could accidentally be bumped loose from a lug and touch something else, causing a short-circuit or shock. If there is hydrogen gas present, a resulting spark could be very dangerous. Safety concerns, as well as possible performance degradation, can be eliminated by well-made cable crimp connections.

A low-quality crimping tool used to compress the lug onto the cable can result in a loose connection, with only a portion of the cable’s strands of wire making electrical contact. These cheap crimpers often use a single “pin” to press on the lug’s barrel and press the other side into a V-shaped groove, leaving voids inside of the lug. Over time, this poorly crimped lug will become loose, often overheating and failing. The lug  may even come off the cable entirely if pulled.

High-quality crimpers use specific jaws to accommodate different-sized cables and compress the lug’s barrel from multiple angles, either into a square or even a hexagonal shape. This produces a much tighter connection without any voids—making sure all of the cable’s outer wire strands make contact with the lug. These types of tools are more expensive but necessary for making proper connections.

Soldering is an additional means of sealing the connection, so even if you’re using solder-type lugs they first must be crimped on properly and then soldered. Few installers have the equipment to properly solder a cable connection without damaging the insulation; therefore, it is rarely done. Soldered connections are acceptable under the NEC, but may require additional scrutiny by an inspector to verify what lugs and processes were used.

Protecting the cable. To further protect the battery cable strands from corrosion, seal the crimped connection with adhesive-filled heat-shrink tubing. This is available in a variety of sizes and colors from battery suppliers. It usually is made from a thick-walled plastic material and gives additional support to the delicate, fine-stranded wire where it connects to the cable lug. Don’t be tempted to use electrical tape—it is not as effective.

Terminal Connections

Making a secure, low-resistance connection to the battery or the inverter terminal is just as important as properly securing the cable to the lug. Use the right type and size of stainless steel hardware when attaching to the lead post which is quite soft and can be easily damaged. The correct washer, lock washer, and nut placement is critical to the connection staying tight. Thoroughly clean the lead battery terminal with a wire brush before attaching the lug to achieve a good connection. Then tighten the terminal’s hardware to the battery manufacturer’s specifications and add an anticorrosion coating. Do not put any anticorrosion coating between the terminal and the cable lug.

Be diligent about placing the hardware in the correct order. A hazardous condition can be created if a washer is placed between a cable lug and the inverter or battery terminal. In this scenario, the high current that is drawn by the inverter would have to pass through the washer, causing the connection to overheat—which can damage the battery or inverter terminal and even cause a fire.

Cable Protection

In most battery–inverter systems, the battery cables are routed from the battery enclosure into a DC disconnect enclosure, through a breaker, and then to the inverter. The NEC requires that exposed conductors be protected. A common solution is to route the cables through conduit, which comes in many different sizes and types, including flexible or rigid, and metallic or nonmetallic.

The cables leaving the battery bank are usually not protected from overcurrent until they are connected to the DC disconnect enclosure, making them a substantial hazard if they are not well-protected. It is recommended to use nonmetallic conduit for these circuits to eliminate the potential for ground faults. The conduit should be attached to the battery and DC disconnect enclosures using a threaded male adapter; use plastic bushings on these sharp threads to protect the cable insulation. The conduit also needs to be well-supported and attached to walls or supports to prevent it from breaking and pulling on the conductors.

 Sat, 30 Aug 2014 20:15:43 +0000 Michael Welch 12798 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/inverter-battery-cables#comments ASK THE EXPERTS: Average Wind Speed http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-average-wind-speed

Advanced

It’s common to read about “average wind speed” when deciding whether or not it is worth installing a wind generator at a given site. But it seems unrealistic to talk about average wind speeds, as such. Obviously, if you had winds of, say, 25 mph for half a given amount of time, and 5 mph the other half, the power output would not be the same as if the wind were a constant 15 mph—there would be 125 times as much (theoretical) power generated during the time the wind was at 25 mph than during the time it was blowing at only 5 mph. So shouldn’t this be taken into account when analyzing a potential wind site?

Furthermore, does it make sense to you that a wind system at my home could theoretically generate as much power in one or two days of 40 to 50 mph winds than could be generated over the rest of the year’s average winds of less than 5 mph? After all, a 50 mph wind would generate (again, theoretically) 1,000 times the power that a 5 mph wind would generate over the same time span.

Malcom Drake • via email

You are absolutely correct that average wind speed alone does not provide enough information to determine energy potential. What is required is the distribution, which specifies the fraction of the time the wind speed spends in a particular range. Because it takes years of recorded data to provide an accurate distribution for a site, assumptions are often made. The typical assumption (based on much experience and measurement) is that the wind speed follows a predictable distribution—a common one that is fairly accurate for most sites is the Rayleigh distribution. For small wind turbines, a Rayleigh distribution is what the Small Wind Certification Council uses for the certified annual energy production curve based on the certified power curve. If an average wind speed is provided with no other context, the assumption is most likely a Rayleigh distribution.

As for building a turbine for rare, high winds—the economics are likely unworkable. The unit would have to be very stout—and hence prohibitively expensive—and it would sit idle most of the time, as the startup speed would be high due to its mass and inefficiency in light wind. When the winds did blow fast enough, it would indeed produce a lot of power, but then you’d have to find a way to store the energy. Energy is power multiplied by time: a large amount of power for a small period of time could be equal to small amounts of power for longer periods of time, and a wind turbine designed for the latter scenario would be much cheaper.

David Laino • Cofounder, Endurance Wind Power

 Thu, 28 Aug 2014 21:50:02 +0000 Michael Welch 12771 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/ask-experts-average-wind-speed#comments MAILBOX: Utility Policy http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/mailbox-utility-policy

Beginner

I would like to see an article comparing the major utilities’ policies toward renewable energy (RE). I am motivated out of disgust about the attitude of my own provider (Mississippi Power), which requires paying fees for a net usage meter of $0.53 per day! I find this outrageous—some simple arithmetic will show that about 1 kW of additional PV capacity would be required to offset that cost. For example, to install a grid-connected PV system on my home, I would have to size it first to my anticipated usage, and then add another 1 kW of capacity just to offset the cost of meter rental!

My state has absolutely no incentives for RE installations, and although Mississippi Power is a member of the TVA Network, they choose not to participate in any of TVA’s incentive programs. A particular kicker is that I live in southwest Mississippi, only about 5 miles from the Louisiana border, and Louisiana has some of the nation’s best incentives. I guess I’m curious whether other utilities around the nation have similar policies, and if they do, what might be done about it. I realize that there are hundreds of power suppliers and an article encompassing all of them would be enormous, but a study of the major providers and their policies would certainly be well-received, particularly by those of us who are adversely affected by their utilities’ greedy policies.

Frederick Smallwood • via email

 Thu, 28 Aug 2014 20:35:57 +0000 Michael Welch 12767 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/solar-electricity/design-installation/mailbox-utility-policy#comments Assessing Wind: Determining Your Wind Resource http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/assessing-wind-determining-your-wind-resource

Intermediate

By:

Mick Sagrillo

You want a wind system, and have researched turbine, tower, and installation companies. But one critical question remains: Will it generate the energy (kWh) that you need? To answer, you need to know the average wind speed at the tower height required for your site.

Arriving at a wind speed number is not easy, and getting it wrong can have serious ramifications, since a wind turbine’s output is related to the cube of the wind speed. For example, an 8 mph wind will yield only half the energy that a 10 mph wind will. You need a good idea of how much “fuel” you might have.

A wind site assessor will be able to best estimate the average wind speed at your site. Expect to pay $200 to $600 for a boots-on-the-ground visit followed by an in-depth report. While this might seem like a lot of money, consider the risk of putting up a $30,000 to $80,000 wind system without full knowledge of the resource. Even those who decided against a wind system concur that a site assessment is money well spent.

Online site assessments for comparable prices are available, but they are less reliable than a personal on-site visit. Some manufacturers offer online wind estimates based on your address, but with a financial stake in your decision to purchase, most of these “assessments” are too optimistic.

Before you hire an assessor, there is a do-it-yourself method to get a ballpark wind speed. This will help you determine if you should even consider a wind system, or if hiring an assessor is justifiable. First, consult the up-to-date wind resource maps at Wind Powering America (bit.ly/WindMaps). Click on your state and view a model of the average wind resource for your “area.”

These maps not site-specific, but rather a two- by two-kilometer resolution interpolation. The map cannot give the wind speed at your required tower height (at least 30 feet above anything within 500 feet and the mature tree heights in your area). To fine-tune this number, you’d also need to know your tower site’s surface-friction coefficient, turbulence intensity, prevailing wind direction, and displacement height. These are the four critical factors you need to understand to optimize your site’s wind speed.

To better understand all of this and why it’s relevant, visit smallwindtraining.org. The “Site Assessor” tab is a resource for site assessor training workshops. There’s a lot to read, after which you’ll have a good idea of where and how to site your system. Finally, ask nearby wind system owners about their experiences—and what they might do differently.

—Mick Sagrillo

 Sun, 27 Apr 2014 00:09:40 +0000 Doug Puffer 12415 at http://www.homepower.com http://www.homepower.com/articles/wind-power/design-installation/assessing-wind-determining-your-wind-resource#comments


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Dear sir,

I cannot conceive how any marriage between same sex couples in any way affects my 50-year marriage or marriage in general.

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Vote against this amendment and keep our constitution out of the hands of zealots.

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