text:
all grown up and nowhere to go

Life as I know it is about to change dramatically. I am twenty years old and leaving the comforting cocoon of education in approximately seven months and three weeks.

My coveted life will not soar out in front of me like a bold eagle; it will not turn up on my doorstep already adventurous and poignant. I have a vague plan that involves a year in South Korea, a  potential exploration of South East Asia and then, a career. I don’t really want a career. I just think that it’s something an adult should obtain. I don’t want to end up like my parents. I don’t want to come home every night and complain about my job, I don’t want my saturday’s to be filled with trips to ikea and deciding whether dark wood flooring would match coffee coloured walls.

I want to be free to be anything and everything. Instead, I am horribly limited. I want to spend the rest of my life travelling, breathing new air and meeting new people. My parents tell me I am daydreaming of an existence that doesn’t stand up to the scrutiny of reality.

This brings me to the point of this blog.

I want to write. I want to spend my days travelling and writing, experience life instead of watching it on television. This blog will be an assortment of stories, photographs, poetry, quotes, and semi-literate ramblings. I don’t want to grow up, I want to taste the sweet complexion of adolescence forever. I don’t want to be serious or responsible, I want to become nature. This blog will track the next few years of my life, my exposure to the world, my anxiety, my refusal to conform to the definition of the word adult.

My friend Bagheera. I met him when I was three years old. He was tiny and lived in my hand. Now; he is fearless, and lives in my soul.


Content-Type: application/http; msgtype=response

WARC-Truncated: length

WARC-Type: response

text:
Scam of the day - Bredos targeting Facebook

Filed Under: Facebook, Malware, Social networks, SophosLabs

Today we have seen a surge in emails pretending to be from the social networking site Facebook.

The message suggests that Facebook has modified the user's password to enhance user safety and that the new password is in a attached document. The message looks like this:

Because of the measures taken to provide safety to our clients, your password has been changed.
You can find your new password in attached document.

The Facebook Team.

Content-Type: application/zip; name=""
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Disposition: attachment; filename=""

The attachment is called "Facebook_details_<some number>.zip". This attachment is malicious and should not be opened.

Sophos detected this file as Troj/BredoZp-AD and the executable inside the zip file as Troj/Bredo-BN.

, ,

You might like

warcinfo:
robots: classic
hostname: ip-10-171-96-226.ec2.internal
software: Nutch 1.6 (CC)/CC WarcExport 1.0
isPartOf: CC-MAIN-2015-35
operator: CommonCrawl Admin
description: Wide crawl of the web for August 2015
publisher: CommonCrawl
format: WARC File Format 1.0
conformsTo: http://bibnum.bnf.fr/WARC/WARC_ISO_28500_version1_latestdraft.pdf


text:
October 5, 2012

Verbal Watch: Erie's Williams ready to decide?

SpartanMag.com has issued a commitment watch for the next 72 hours on Erie (Pa.) Cathedral Prep defensive back recruit Delton Williams, effective for the entire SpartanMag.com viewing area.

Williams, ranked the No. 19 player in Pennsylvania by Rivals.com, has indicated that he plans to make a decision between Michigan State and West Virginia by the end of the week.

Williams told SpartanMag.com's Matt Dorsey via text on Thursday that he plans to make a decision this weekend. He said he would not make the decision until after Friday night's rivalry game against Erie McDowell.

Williams told Dorsey he will not have a formal press conference. He will inform coaches on his own.

Williams took an unofficial visit to Michigan State last weekend for the Ohio State game, along with Terry.

Terry Tweeted late on Thursday night that Michigan State had received great news, and then deleted the Tweet.

As of Thursday night, there were still questions about Michigan State's scholarship availability. Even Williams' high school coach, Mike Mischler, has questions.

"He (Williams) hasn't told them (Michigan State) anything like, 'Hey, I'm committing,'" Mischler said on Thursday night. "So if he (Williams) says, 'Hey, I want to be a Spartan,' it is going to be up to them to say, 'Yeah, we have room.' We'll all know at that point in time. Until then, I don't know."

Michigan State offered a scholarship to Williams during the summer. Michigan State has subsequently grown thin on scholarship slots for the 2013 recruiting class, due to other verbal commitments.

When asked if the Michigan State's scholarship offer is still on the table for Williams, Mischler said: "I don't know. I can't confirm that for sure. At one point, I knew it was. I think they need to clarify with Delton or I so that he has an understanding of what's going on there.

"They (Michigan State) haven't told me that the offer is off the table, so I don't know why it would be."

But Williams apparently came back from Michigan State not completely sure of scholarship availability, according to Mischler's indications.

Meanwhile, Williams is increasingly excited about Michigan State.

"I think he would like to make a decision here," Mischler said. "With the recruiting process moved up so much, a lot of the scholarship positions get taken up by the early commitments and he has to understand as well that he might not be able to go on all these official visits if he waits."

When asked if it's premature to expect a decision from Williams this weekend, Mischler said:

"I'm not sure it's premature," he said. "A lot of things happen in the recruiting process that may interrupt that kind of thinking. I'll be honest; Michigan State has a lot of commits and I think we have to figure out whether or not they still have room for his position and the type of player he is. I think that's the one concern.

"They haven't told me that there isn't room, but I do know it's tight. These are good people at Michigan State and if he wants to do it, I think they would tell him one way or another at that time."

Williams was impressed with his visit to Michigan State last weekend. He also visited in the summer, and Mischler drove Terry and Williams to the MSU-Wisconsin game in East Lansing last year for "The Rocket" Hail Mary game.

"I think it was a great visit for him last weekend," said Mischler, who was not with the players this time. "I think they would have liked to have seen a win, but they (Michigan State) played Ohio State extremely tough.

"They (Williams and Terry) got to spend some time with the coaches before the game, and after the game. But it's game day and the coaches have a lot of things going on so the interaction had to be kind of brief. But they both had a very good visit.

"Damion came back even more convinced that it's the right place for him. Delton came back with a great attitude about the place as well."

As for West Virginia, Mischler said Williams has not visited that school recently.

"If anything, he has been much more interested in the Michigan State thing," Mischler said. "I think he wants to go down to the Oklahoma-West Virginia game, but he won't go there if he commits (to Michigan State). You don't commit and keep looking. That's one thing we make clear to the guys."

Williams has offers from Michigan State, West Virginia, Nebraska, Boston College, Duke, Pitt, Penn State and others.

"He has 18 offers," Mischler said. "He has a ton of people coming after him. I think he is trying to cut it down and just get things settled.

Williams, Terry Shine Friday Night

Williams helped Erie Cathedral Prep to a 41-27 victory over crosstown rival Erie McDowell, Friday night. Williams had a 21-yard TD pass from MSU commitment Damion Terry, and an 85-yard TD run. Erie Cathedral (6-0) is ranked the No. 1 team in the state in AAA.

Terry threw three TD passes.

Heading into Friday's game, Terry had thrown 19 TD passes and only 1 interception, with 1,328 yards. He has also run for 5 TDs while completing 74 percent of his passes.

"I would describe his season so far as unbelievable," Mischler said. "I have sent about 100 kids to college football and I have never had a kid like this at the quarter back just as far as a true quarterback, the field presence, the arm strength, the mobility, the decision making. He is just having a phenomenal season at this point."

Terry has been pulled at or soon after halftime in four games, due to blowouts. Last week he set a school record with TD passes in a game with five, and threw them all in the first half.

"I'm very happy with his commitment to Michigan State but with the way he has developed I think everybody in the country would have offered him if he were still available. But we are real happy with the Spartans, and Coach Dantonio and their staff. I think he fits perfectly there."

Why is he a perfect fit?

"We run a spread, and I think he can do that very efficiently but I think he is a pro-style quarterback," Mischler said. "Coach Warner does a great job. I think Damion is somebody who could develop in a pro style system and really flourish. I think having the experience of having run a spread offense for three years will be very much to his benefit as he gets into a system where he's able to run a little more play-action and do some things we don't do a lot of. It's just going to make him better."

Warner watched Erie Cathedral Prep's 69-0 victory over Athol Springs (N.Y.) St. Francis on Sept. 21.

"He (Warner) texted me afterward and said he's very excited about Damion and that he had a blast," Mischler said. "They are really high on his character, the kind of kid he is. They like him a lot and they think he fits their mold."

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text:
Bible: Daniel 11:36

11:36Then the king 1  will do as he pleases. He will exalt and magnify himself above every deity and he will utter presumptuous things against the God of gods. He will succeed until the time of 2  wrath is completed, for what has been decreed must occur. 3

NET Bible Study Environment


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Community News

Back to the community news list

Download NetBeans IDE 6.5 Milestone 1!

By: Admin, 07 Jul 2008 is proud to announce the availability of NetBeans IDE 6.5 Milestone 1.

This stabilized development build contains the following new & noteworthy features:

  • PHP
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    Watch the NetBeans 6.5 PHP Editor Screencast and see some new features in action!
    Visit the PHP Learning Trails to explore PHP development in the NetBeans IDE.

  • Ajax
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    • New Multithreaded Debugging Support
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  • Additional enhancements have been made to:
    • Web Frameworks (Spring, Hibernate, JSF, JSF CRUD Generator, JPA)
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Note: The UML feature is not available in Milestone 1, but is planned for Beta. The development team is migrating UML to the NetBeans Visual Library, to make UML completely open source. Please see UML Current Projects for additional information.

Get more details about these features and additional New and Noteworthy Features available in the release. The final NetBeans IDE 6.5 release is planned for Fall 2008. We welcome and encourage feedback about your experience using the NetBeans IDE. Visit our mailing lists or post a blog entry!

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text:
June 21, 2010

Hard work pays off for Waseem

Spencer Waseem became the seventh prospect from the Class of 2011 to verbally commit to Washington State this past weekend. The 5-foot-10, 175-pound cornerback from Apopka (Fla.) High chose the Cougars over scholarship offers from Colorado State and Marshall. We caught up with Apopka head coach Rick Darlington to get the scoop on Waseem.

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View Along The Apprentice: Series 8 Episode 3

5 04 2012

The Apprentice - Series 8 - 3. Condiments

Just like a post I did during Series 6 here you can read some notes I made to Episode 3 of Series 8 of The Apprentice. Just click on the above picture and let the fun commence, Enjoy.

00:01; Familiar Music

00:22; Does he have any friends?

00:33; I’ll take 75/25 thank you very much

00:36; What about Drunken Bannatyne

00:41; Well mop it up then

00:53; I was at school with someone who looks like her

01:47; There was someone in series 1 who did something similar

02:01; Don’t blame her

02:11; Yes

02:41; She looks like that Stacy from Hustle

03:14; That’s a bit early isn’t it

03:28; That is not enough time to get ready

03:34; You’re not going to wake the men up?

03:38; Ah

04:15; Isn’t that a Gold Blue Peter Badge

04:22; I wonder if he has changed that car yet, or more to the point, washed it.

04:30; They look cold and bored

04:36; I wonder if he fell in

04:59; I would like to place a Hotel on Chili Powder

05:07; Is he a Bond Villain, look at that smile

05:24; Headmistress Karen

06:03; Do you know who does not get enough credit in this show, the drivers, their names have not been mentioned at all

06:10; She is acting like Katie Hopkins from series 3, I hope it’s not because she was horrible

06:33; It would be interesting if one of the teams accidentally makes poison

07:29; Well seeing as you have lost 2 weeks in a row I think you will have to wait and prove yourself before you can be project manager

07:32; I refer you to my previous quote

08:07; How about Tomato Ketchup and calling it HP………. oh wait

08:19; You could market it as a way to get rid of slugs

08:40; Livin La Vida Loca

08:55; Nick by the looks of him

09:12; Grumpy person

09:39; Stop moaning and be professional

09:55; Well except for the BIG GRUMP

10:05; Phoenix Foods, They are Hot Hot Hot

10:23; Simple Goodness Gracious Me

10:27; Isn’t Infusion the name of a Rollercoaster?

10:35; Take the pen out of your mouth

10:56; I like that, it’s straight to the point, just say what is in it.

11:08; Is the Queen coming

11:27; Well Ricky can knock them out with a Power Bomb

11:53; They look ridiculous in those costumes

12:10; Come on, let me try some, I will say if it is nice or not

12:40; Stop Moaning

12:48; She knows food? What, like those characters in the 2008 Subway Adverts

13:08; Just fire her now, please

13:21; Good shot and an amazing view, I thought that was a space shuttle

13:26; Have a Penguin

14:02; The Next Nick Hewer

15:11; They still have 5 minutes

15:37; Call an Ambulance, remember to Push Hard and Fast to the beat of Stayin Alive

16:37; That looks like Ice-Cream

17:12; Talking like a true chef

17:44; Red Porridge, That’s the brand name

18:40; Would you rather sell poison?

20:02; Sing Poison by Alice Cooper to them

20:34; The bloke in pink is already bored

20:36; Says it all doesn’t it

20:45; There’s a smile

20:47; There’s not

21:14; You FAILED

21:21; He’s excited

21:39; Lord Sugar is not a Vampire

21:50; Where is the army bloke from series 6 when you need him?

22:17; Red Porridge

23:39; Livin La Vida Loca

24:29; Ooh Purple Sign

25:30; So not Poisonous then

25:59; It’s George Lucas

26:30; You Failed

26:38; Bendy Bus

27:23; You’re so funny, NOT

28:19; That clip was incredibly boring

29:31; He is useless

31:13; You did not FAIL

32:45; Spaceship

33:44; 48 Bottles of miss-spelling sauce

34:12; That was not an hour

34:56, Purple Vertical Line

34:59; Yawn

35:39; The Boys Are Back In Town

35:46; No, RUNAWAY

36:49; OH SAUCE not Salt

37:26; that is because you are scared of his Finishing Move

38:24; The Project Manager almost died

39:23; I thought they only had 300 bottles, where did the other 5 come from?

39:28; Not Bad

39:46; They did a Sterling Job, ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha

40:03; Make sure you don’t crash the car or you will be fired on the spot

40:17; Big Hug

40:34; They should have branded it as Red Porridge

40:37; To the Café

41:11; Grump behind the wheel as well

41:17; It should be renamed Apprentice Café

42:09; Livin La Vida Loca

42:46; He does not sound happy

47:40; Livin La Vida Possibly Fired

47:56; Rock and Roll

48:28; Can he win the Boardroom Heavyweight Championship

54:36; There’s the music, who is going to get fired?

56:00; He should say it more like Vince McMahon, YOU’RE FIRED

56:03; When is someone going to be really childish and tell Sugar that he’s fired

57:42; Where is the Giant Kitten?

58:04; Nice Glasses

58:09; She is a Thief, call the Police

58:20; It appears that the Project Manager is going to get fired next week

That was Week 3 and next week it looks like it is going to be a Rubbish Episode.

GENEPOOL (It almost took me 2 Hours to watch that episode)

The Apprentice: 8 Lessons For Series 8

19 03 2012

This Wednesday sees the return of The Apprentice to BBC1, the show where several business hopefuls try to get a Job with Lord Sugar, oh wait I forgot sorry, No where they get a chance to start-up a company with Lord Sugar’s advice. OK it is easy to say the previous one because that was the idea of the original 6 series; it’s going to be a learning curve (not a demand curve).

Now I do consider myself to be an Apprentice Historian mostly because my Big Brain allows me to remember stuff I enjoy, OK I only started watching the Apprentice from the end of Series 2 onwards but still I remember a lot. So I thought with a new series about to start I would share some well learnt lessons from the series and seeing as this is series 8 I thought I would share 8 lessons for the candidates.

  • Avoid Jokes, it is a good idea to avoid jokes, let me explain. This comes from series 6 when project manager Shibby Robati promised to deliver 1000 bread rolls and only delivered 16. Now this is pretty bad but it gets worse. When the chef asked Shibby what he was supposed to say to his customers Shibby replied “Go on the Atkins Diet”. The chef was not pleased. Eventually the chef got about £150 in compensation which meant he made profit for an order he did not have. Shibby was fired by Lord Sugar in this episode.

  • Avoid un-tested technology. Series 3 featured what has been regarded as one of the worst decisions in Apprentice History when Lieutenant Paul Callaghan decided to sell Wine and Cheese to the French. Along these 2 bad choices they tried to sell sausages and decided to cook them using a Baked Bean tin with holes in it. He gave this responsibility to Adam Hosker who did as he said but despite doing this when he put the sausages in a frying pan on top of the cooker it did not cook the sausages in any way. Along with this and other things included making a loss of £225 Paul was fired in this episode.
  • Be in the background. It is strange to see some people win the Apprentice despite the fact that you don’t think they will win. Throughout the series you can tell who is a favourite to win from episode 3/4/5 onwards but sometimes you don’t spot the other people. In series 3 despite messing up the presentation of a Trampoline Simon Ambrose won The Apprentice when a lot of people thought that Kristina Grimes was going to win it. In series 4 Lee McQueen won and holds a record of not going into the final firing boardroom until the Interview round (so even when he was on the losing team he was not brought back in), he was not much of a standout until people started to notice this. Series 5 Yasmina Siadatan won and even though she was more upfront than most other people everybody thought that Robot Kate Walsh was going to win. OK Kate was a good candidate but Yasmina is by far the best candidate in the history of the Apprentice winning 3 out of 3 projects when she was project manager and eventually winning it (Ok Helen Milligan also got 3 out of 3 in series 7 but she was not hired).
  • Check your orders thoroughly. Another mistake which is regarded as one of the worst in Apprentice History. In series 2 when making Chicken Pizzas Syed Ahmed ordered 100 chickens, for 100 chicken Pizzas. That means he planned to put a chicken on each Pizza, now that does sound like too much chicken. Surprisingly though he was not fired that week, so he is lucky that he managed to stay on.
  • If you are interested in something and it becomes a task for the week, don’t put your hand up to be project leader. This is something that comes up every year in the Apprentice. A good example is from series 4 when Simon Smith who likes photography decided to do it. They lost and made a loss of £73.81p. Sadly Simon was fired that week for being out of his depth, which is sad because overall he was a nice person (unlike most people in the whole history of the Apprentice).
  • Whoever you say you are you are not Ridley Scott (unless you really are in which case no offence meant). During advertisement week you always have the occasion where one person is under the idea that they are a famous Oscar-winning director. When doing something like this, what usually happens is the team that person belongs to loses. In series 4 Raef Bjayou and Michael Sophocles decided to do  Broadway musical/Shakespearean love story instead of an advert. Raef was fired in this episode (despite the fact that both should have been fired for making the advert together and forgetting to show the product in the advert).

  • Do not give exclusivity to everyone. In series 4 while selling Ice Cream Lindi Mngaza and Jennifer Maguire decided to use a unique selling strategy by giving exclusivity to almost all the people they were selling Ice Cream to. One good point to mention is she was not allowed to do this. When someone asks for exclusivity to the product it does not mean they should have it. You don’t sell a certain make of DVD player to someone and tell them that they are the only person who will own it if they buy it (unless they were willing to pay Billions of Pounds for it). Lindi was fired as a result of this (Ice Cream sales not DVD player sales).
  • Stay at the same price. This refers to someone in series 4 who was not a candidate. While trying to sell fish at a solicitors firm one employee won’t budge from his price. The team think they can sell all the fish for around about £100. The employee says £50. The team keeps lowering the price but every time the man says £50, £50, £50, £50. Eventually the food is sold for, that’s right £50. The team lost that round. What I don’t understand is why weren’t all the candidates fired and this non candidate hired.

Well there you have it, while there are many more lessons to be learnt but for now as long as you take notice of these 8 lessons you will do well, possibly. For now let us enjoy all the mistakes (some of which will probably be absolutely hilarious) this year’s bunch will get up to in series 8 of the Apprentice.

The Apprentice starts on Wednesday 21st of March at 9:00pm on BBC One.

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A family business since 1929

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Southern Heat Mix

Our Customers Thought

Very good
, Des Moines, IA
August 14, 2015
I'm a huge fan of spicy stuff. And this really is delicious. I love all the flavors and the mixture of items. This is my new favorite mix!
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Working my way through their menu. Every item better than the last!
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, Abilene, TX
May 15, 2015
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, Southaven, MS
May 15, 2015

Peanuts (peanut oil), Cajun Sesame Sticks (Unbleached wheat flour (contains malted barley flour as a natural enzyme additive), soybean oil,sesame seeds, bulgur wheat, cajun seasoning(salt, spices dehydrated onion, torula yeast, green bell pepper, dehydrated garlic, cocoa powder (treated with alkali), oleoresI paprika (color) salt, beet powder (color), turmeric (color)) Cajun Corn Sticks (Yellow Corn Masa, Soybean Oil, Cajun Seasoning (maltodextrin, salt, spices and herbs, onion powder, tomato powder, garlic powder, natural flavoring, green pepper powder, cornstarch - modified)), Corn Nuts (Corn, corn oil, salt), pepitas, cayenne pepper. Packaged in the same facility as peanuts, tree nuts, wheat, soy, and milk products.

Nutrition Facts

Serving size 30g (~1.1 oz.)

Amount per serving
Calories 125
Calories from Fat 30
Total Fat 3.5g 5%
Saturated Fat 0.5g 3%
Cholesterol 0mg 0%
Sodium 180mg 8%
Total Carbohydrate 21g 7%
Dietary Fiber 2g 8%
Sugars 0g
Protein 4g
Vitamin A 0%
Vitamin C 2%
Calcium 1%
Iron 3%

Store under refrigeration for up to 6 months.

Found In

Salted (127) Hot & Spicy (35)

ID: 8006

Country of origin: United States


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Vitamin D

Fact Sheet for Health Professionals

Woman shopping for dietary supplements

See Consumer for easy-to-read facts about Vitamin D.

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is naturally present in very few foods, added to others, and available as a dietary supplement. It is also produced endogenously when ultraviolet rays from sunlight strike the skin and trigger vitamin D synthesis. Vitamin D obtained from sun exposure, food, and supplements is biologically inert and must undergo two hydroxylations in the body for activation. The first occurs in the liver and converts vitamin D to 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], also known as calcidiol. The second occurs primarily in the kidney and forms the physiologically active 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D], also known as calcitriol [1].

Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains adequate serum calcium and phosphate concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemic tetany. It is also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts [1,2]. Without sufficient vitamin D, bones can become thin, brittle, or misshapen. Vitamin D sufficiency prevents rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults [1]. Together with calcium, vitamin D also helps protect older adults from osteoporosis.

Vitamin D has other roles in the body, including modulation of cell growth, neuromuscular and immune function, and reduction of inflammation [1,3,4]. Many genes encoding proteins that regulate cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis are modulated in part by vitamin D [1]. Many cells have vitamin D receptors, and some convert 25(OH)D to 1,25(OH)2D.

Serum concentration of 25(OH)D is the best indicator of vitamin D status. It reflects vitamin D produced cutaneously and that obtained from food and supplements [1] and has a fairly long circulating half-life of 15 days [5]. 25(OH)D functions as a biomarker of exposure, but it is not clear to what extent 25(OH)D levels also serve as a biomarker of effect (i.e., relating to health status or outcomes) [1]. Serum 25(OH)D levels do not indicate the amount of vitamin D stored in body tissues.

In contrast to 25(OH)D, circulating 1,25(OH)2D is generally not a good indicator of vitamin D status because it has a short half-life of 15 hours and serum concentrations are closely regulated by parathyroid hormone, calcium, and phosphate [5]. Levels of 1,25(OH)2D do not typically decrease until vitamin D deficiency is severe [2,6].

There is considerable discussion of the serum concentrations of 25(OH)D associated with deficiency (e.g., rickets), adequacy for bone health, and optimal overall health, and cut points have not been developed by a scientific consensus process. Based on its review of data of vitamin D needs, a committee of the Institute of Medicine concluded that persons are at risk of vitamin D deficiency at serum 25(OH)D concentrations <30 nmol/L (<12 ng/mL). Some are potentially at risk for inadequacy at levels ranging from 30–50 nmol/L (12–20 ng/mL). Practically all people are sufficient at levels ≥50 nmol/L (≥20 ng/mL); the committee stated that 50 nmol/L is the serum 25(OH)D level that covers the needs of 97.5% of the population. Serum concentrations >125 nmol/L (>50 ng/mL) are associated with potential adverse effects [1] (Table 1).

Table 1: Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] Concentrations and Health* [1]
nmol/L** ng/mL* Health status
<30 <12 Associated with vitamin D deficiency, leading to rickets in infants and children and osteomalacia in adults
30–50 12–20 Generally considered inadequate for bone and overall health in healthy individuals
≥50 ≥20 Generally considered adequate for bone and overall health in healthy individuals
>125 >50 Emerging evidence links potential adverse effects to such high levels, particularly >150 nmol/L (>60 ng/mL)

* Serum concentrations of 25(OH)D are reported in both nanomoles per liter (nmol/L) and nanograms per milliliter (ng/mL).
** 1 nmol/L = 0.4 ng/mL

An additional complication in assessing vitamin D status is in the actual measurement of serum 25(OH)D concentrations. Considerable variability exists among the various assays available (the two most common methods being antibody based and liquid chromatography based) and among laboratories that conduct the analyses [1,7,8]. This means that compared with the actual concentration of 25(OH)D in a sample of blood serum, a falsely low or falsely high value may be obtained depending on the assay or laboratory used [9]. A standard reference material for 25(OH)D became available in July 2009 that permits standardization of values across laboratories and may improve method-related variability [1,10].

Reference Intakes

Intake reference values for vitamin D and other nutrients are provided in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) developed by the Food and Nutrition Board (FNB) at the Institute of Medicine of The National Academies (formerly National Academy of Sciences) [1]. DRI is the general term for a set of reference values used to plan and assess nutrient intakes of healthy people. These values, which vary by age and gender, include:

  • Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA): average daily level of intake sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97%–98%) healthy people.
  • Adequate Intake (AI): established when evidence is insufficient to develop an RDA and is set at a level assumed to ensure nutritional adequacy.
  • Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL): maximum daily intake unlikely to cause adverse health effects [1].

The FNB established an RDA for vitamin D representing a daily intake that is sufficient to maintain bone health and normal calcium metabolism in healthy people. RDAs for vitamin D are listed in both International Units (IUs) and micrograms (mcg); the biological activity of 40 IU is equal to 1 mcg (Table 2). Even though sunlight may be a major source of vitamin D for some, the vitamin D RDAs are set on the basis of minimal sun exposure [1].

Table 2: Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for Vitamin D [1]
Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation
0–12 months* 400 IU
(10 mcg)
400 IU
(10 mcg)
1–13 years 600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
14–18 years 600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
19–50 years 600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
51–70 years 600 IU
(15 mcg)
600 IU
(15 mcg)
>70 years 800 IU
(20 mcg)
800 IU
(20 mcg)

* Adequate Intake (AI)

Sources of Vitamin D

Very few foods in nature contain vitamin D. The flesh of fatty fish (such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel) and fish liver oils are among the best sources [1,11]. Small amounts of vitamin D are found in beef liver, cheese, and egg yolks. Vitamin D in these foods is primarily in the form of vitamin D3 and its metabolite 25(OH)D3 [12]. Some mushrooms provide vitamin D2 in variable amounts [13,14]. Mushrooms with enhanced levels of vitamin D2 from being exposed to ultraviolet light under controlled conditions are also available.

Fortified foods provide most of the vitamin D in the American diet [1,14]. For example, almost all of the U.S. milk supply is voluntarily fortified with 100 IU/cup [1]. (In Canada, milk is fortified by law with 35–40 IU/100 mL, as is margarine at ≥530 IU/100 g.) In the 1930s, a milk fortification program was implemented in the United States to combat rickets, then a major public health problem [1]. Other dairy products made from milk, such as cheese and ice cream, are generally not fortified. Ready-to-eat breakfast cereals often contain added vitamin D, as do some brands of orange juice, yogurt, margarine and other food products.

Both the United States and Canada mandate the fortification of infant formula with vitamin D: 40–100 IU/100 kcal in the United States and 40–80 IU/100 kcal in Canada [1].

Several food sources of vitamin D are listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Selected Food Sources of Vitamin D [11]
Food IUs per serving* Percent DV**
Cod liver oil, 1 tablespoon 1,360 340
Swordfish, cooked, 3 ounces 566 142
Salmon (sockeye), cooked, 3 ounces 447 112
Tuna fish, canned in water, drained, 3 ounces 154 39
Orange juice fortified with vitamin D, 1 cup (check product labels, as amount of added vitamin D varies) 137 34
Milk, nonfat, reduced fat, and whole, vitamin D-fortified, 1 cup 115-124 29-31
Yogurt, fortified with 20% of the DV for vitamin D, 6 ounces (more heavily fortified yogurts provide more of the DV) 80 20
Margarine, fortified, 1 tablespoon 60 15
Sardines, canned in oil, drained, 2 sardines 46 12
Liver, beef, cooked, 3 ounces 42 11
Egg, 1 large (vitamin D is found in yolk) 41 10
Ready-to-eat cereal, fortified with 10% of the DV for vitamin D, 0.75-1 cup (more heavily fortified cereals might provide more of the DV) 40 10
Cheese, Swiss, 1 ounce 6 2

* IUs = International Units.
** DV = Daily Value. DVs were developed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to help consumers compare the nutrient contents among products within the context of a total daily diet. The DV for vitamin D is currently set at 400 IU for adults and children age 4 and older. Food labels, however, are not required to list vitamin D content unless a food has been fortified with this nutrient. Foods providing 20% or more of the DV are considered to be high sources of a nutrient, but foods providing lower percentages of the DV also contribute to a healthful diet.

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's (USDA's) Nutrient Databaseexternal link disclaimer Web site lists the nutrient content of many foods and provides a comprehensive list of foods containing vitamin D arranged by nutrient content and by food name. A growing number of foods are being analyzed for vitamin D content. Simpler and faster methods to measure vitamin D in foods are needed, as are food standard reference materials with certified values for vitamin D to ensure accurate measurements [15].

Animal-based foods can provide some vitamin D in the form of 25(OH)D, which appears to be approximately five times more potent than the parent vitamin in raising serum 25(OH)D concentrations [16]. One study finds that taking into account the serum 25(OH)D content of beef, pork, chicken, turkey, and eggs can increase the estimated levels of vitamin D in the food from two to 18 times, depending upon the food [16]. At the present time, the USDA’s Nutrient Database does not include 25(OH)D when reporting the vitamin D content of foods. Actual vitamin D intakes in the U.S. population may be underestimated for this reason.

Sun exposure
Most people meet at least some of their vitamin D needs through exposure to sunlight [1,2]. Ultraviolet (UV) B radiation with a wavelength of 290–320 nanometers penetrates uncovered skin and converts cutaneous 7-dehydrocholesterol to previtamin D3, which in turn becomes vitamin D3 [1]. Season, time of day, length of day, cloud cover, smog, skin melanin content, and sunscreen are among the factors that affect UV radiation exposure and vitamin D synthesis [1]. Perhaps surprisingly, geographic latitude does not consistently predict average serum 25(OH)D levels in a population. Ample opportunities exist to form vitamin D (and store it in the liver and fat) from exposure to sunlight during the spring, summer, and fall months even in the far north latitudes [1].

Complete cloud cover reduces UV energy by 50%; shade (including that produced by severe pollution) reduces it by 60% [17]. UVB radiation does not penetrate glass, so exposure to sunshine indoors through a window does not produce vitamin D [18]. Sunscreens with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 or more appear to block vitamin D-producing UV rays, although in practice people generally do not apply sufficient amounts, cover all sun-exposed skin, or reapply sunscreen regularly [1,19]. Therefore, skin likely synthesizes some vitamin D even when it is protected by sunscreen as typically applied.

The factors that affect UV radiation exposure and research to date on the amount of sun exposure needed to maintain adequate vitamin D levels make it difficult to provide general guidelines. It has been suggested by some vitamin D researchers, for example, that approximately 5–30 minutes of sun exposure between 10 AM and 3 PM at least twice a week to the face, arms, legs, or back without sunscreen usually lead to sufficient vitamin D synthesis and that the moderate use of commercial tanning beds that emit 2%–6% UVB radiation is also effective [6,20]. Individuals with limited sun exposure need to include good sources of vitamin D in their diet or take a supplement to achieve recommended levels of intake.

Despite the importance of the sun for vitamin D synthesis, it is prudent to limit exposure of skin to sunlight [19] and UV radiation from tanning beds [21]. UV radiation is a carcinogen responsible for most of the estimated 1.5 million skin cancers and the 8,000 deaths due to metastatic melanoma that occur annually in the United States [19]. Lifetime cumulative UV damage to skin is also largely responsible for some age-associated dryness and other cosmetic changes. The American Academy of Dermatology advises that photoprotective measures be taken, including the use of sunscreen, whenever one is exposed to the sun [22]. Assessment of vitamin D requirements cannot address the level of sun exposure because of these public health concerns about skin cancer, and there are no studies to determine whether UVB-induced synthesis of vitamin D can occur without increased risk of skin cancer [1].

Dietary supplements
In supplements and fortified foods, vitamin D is available in two forms, D2 (ergocalciferol) and D3 (cholecalciferol) that differ chemically only in their side-chain structure. Vitamin D2 is manufactured by the UV irradiation of ergosterol in yeast, and vitamin D3 is manufactured by the irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol from lanolin and the chemical conversion of cholesterol [6]. The two forms have traditionally been regarded as equivalent based on their ability to cure rickets and, indeed, most steps involved in the metabolism and actions of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 are identical. Both forms (as well as vitamin D in foods and from cutaneous synthesis) effectively raise serum 25(OH)D levels [2]. Firm conclusions about any different effects of these two forms of vitamin D cannot be drawn. However, it appears that at nutritional doses vitamins D2 and D3 are equivalent, but at high doses vitamin D2 is less potent.

The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends that exclusively and partially breastfed infants receive supplements of 400 IU/day of vitamin D shortly after birth and continue to receive these supplements until they are weaned and consume ≥1,000 mL/day of vitamin D-fortified formula or whole milk [23]. Similarly, all non-breastfed infants ingesting <1,000 mL/day of vitamin D-fortified formula or milk should receive a vitamin D supplement of 400 IU/day [23]. AAP also recommends that older children and adolescents who do not obtain 400 IU/day through vitamin D-fortified milk and foods should take a 400 IU vitamin D supplement daily. However, this latter recommendation (issued November 2008) needs to be reevaluated in light of the Food and Nutrition Board's vitamin D RDA of 600 IU/day for children and adolescents (issued November 2010 and which previously was an AI of 200 IU/day).

Vitamin D Intakes and Status

The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2005–2006, estimated vitamin D intakes from both food and dietary supplements [4,24]. Average intake levels for males from foods alone ranged from 204 to 288 IU/day depending on life stage group; for females the range was 144 to 276 IU/day. When use of dietary supplements was considered, these mean values were substantially increased (37% of the U.S. population used a dietary supplement containing vitamin D.) The most marked increase was among older women. For women aged 51–70 years, mean intake of vitamin D from foods alone was 156 IU/day, but 404 IU/day with supplements. For women >70 years, the corresponding figures were 180 IU/day to 400 IU/day [1].

Comparing vitamin D intake estimates from foods and dietary supplements to serum 25(OH)D concentrations is problematic. One reason is that comparisons can only be made on group means rather than on data linked to individuals. Another is the fact that sun exposure affects vitamin D status; serum 25(OH)D levels are generally higher than would be predicted on the basis of vitamin D intakes alone [1]. The NHANES 2005–2006 survey found mean 25(OH)D levels exceeding 56 nmol/L (22.4 ng/mL) for all age-gender groups in the U.S. population. (The highest mean was 71.4 nmol/L [28.6 ng/mL] for girls aged 1–3 years, and the lowest mean was 56.5 nmol/L [22.6 ng/mL] for women aged 71 and older. Generally, younger people had higher levels than older people, and males had slightly higher levels than females.) 25(OH)D levels of approximately 50 nmol/L (20 ng/mL) are consistent with an intake of vitamin D from foods and dietary supplements equivalent to the RDA [1].

Over the past 20 years, mean serum 25(OH)D concentrations in the United States have slightly declined among males but not females. This decline is likely due to simultaneous increases in body weight, reduced milk intake, and greater use of sun protection when outside [25].

Vitamin D Deficiency

Nutrient deficiencies are usually the result of dietary inadequacy, impaired absorption and use, increased requirement, or increased excretion. A vitamin D deficiency can occur when usual intake is lower than recommended levels over time, exposure to sunlight is limited, the kidneys cannot convert 25(OH)D to its active form, or absorption of vitamin D from the digestive tract is inadequate. Vitamin D-deficient diets are associated with milk allergy, lactose intolerance, ovo-vegetarianism, and veganism [1].

Rickets and osteomalacia are the classical vitamin D deficiency diseases. In children, vitamin D deficiency causes rickets, a disease characterized by a failure of bone tissue to properly mineralize, resulting in soft bones and skeletal deformities [17]. Rickets was first described in the mid-17th century by British researchers [17,26]. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, German physicians noted that consuming 1–3 teaspoons/day of cod liver oil could reverse rickets [26]. The fortification of milk with vitamin D beginning in the 1930s has made rickets a rare disease in the United States, although it is still reported periodically, particularly among African American infants and children [3,17,22].

Prolonged exclusive breastfeeding without the AAP-recommended vitamin D supplementation is a significant cause of rickets, particularly in dark-skinned infants breastfed by mothers who are not vitamin D replete [27]. Additional causes of rickets include extensive use of sunscreens and placement of children in daycare programs, where they often have less outdoor activity and sun exposure [17,26]. Rickets is also more prevalent among immigrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, possibly because of genetic differences in vitamin D metabolism and behavioral differences that lead to less sun exposure.

In adults, vitamin D deficiency can lead to osteomalacia, resulting in weak bones [1,5]. Symptoms of bone pain and muscle weakness can indicate inadequate vitamin D levels, but such symptoms can be subtle and go undetected in the initial stages.

Groups at Risk of Vitamin D Inadequacy

Obtaining sufficient vitamin D from natural food sources alone is difficult. For many people, consuming vitamin D-fortified foods and, arguably, being exposed to some sunlight are essential for maintaining a healthy vitamin D status. In some groups, dietary supplements might be required to meet the daily need for vitamin D.

Breastfed infants
Vitamin D requirements cannot ordinarily be met by human milk alone [1,28], which provides <25 IU/L to 78 IU/L [23]. (The vitamin D content of human milk is related to the mother's vitamin D status, so mothers who supplement with high doses of vitamin D may have correspondingly high levels of this nutrient in their milk [23].) A review of reports of nutritional rickets found that a majority of cases occurred among young, breastfed African Americans [29]. A survey of Canadian pediatricians found the incidence of rickets in their patients to be 2.9 per 100,000; almost all those with rickets had been breast fed [30]. While the sun is a potential source of vitamin D, the AAP advises keeping infants out of direct sunlight and having them wear protective clothing and sunscreen [31]. As noted earlier, the AAP recommends that exclusively and partially breastfed infants be supplemented with 400 IU of vitamin D per day [23], the RDA for this nutrient during infancy.

Older adults
Older adults are at increased risk of developing vitamin D insufficiency in part because, as they age, skin cannot synthesize vitamin D as efficiently, they are likely to spend more time indoors, and they may have inadequate intakes of the vitamin [1]. As many as half of older adults in the United States with hip fractures could have serum 25(OH)D levels <30 nmol/L (<12 ng/mL) [2].

People with limited sun exposure
Homebound individuals, women who wear long robes and head coverings for religious reasons, and people with occupations that limit sun exposure are unlikely to obtain adequate vitamin D from sunlight [32,33]. Because the extent and frequency of use of sunscreen are unknown, the significance of the role that sunscreen may play in reducing vitamin D synthesis is unclear [1]. Ingesting RDA levels of vitamin D from foods and/or supplements will provide these individuals with adequate amounts of this nutrient.

People with dark skin
Greater amounts of the pigment melanin in the epidermal layer result in darker skin and reduce the skin's ability to produce vitamin D from sunlight [1]. Various reports consistently show lower serum 25(OH)D levels in persons identified as black compared with those identified as white. It is not clear that lower levels of 25(OH)D for persons with dark skin have significant health consequences. Those of African American ancestry, for example, have reduced rates of fracture and osteoporosis compared with Caucasians (see section below on osteoporosis). Ingesting RDA levels of vitamin D from foods and/or supplements will provide these individuals with adequate amounts of this nutrient.

People with inflammatory bowel disease and other conditions causing fat malabsorption
Because vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin, its absorption depends on the gut's ability to absorb dietary fat. Individuals who have a reduced ability to absorb dietary fat might require vitamin D supplementation [34]. Fat malabsorption is associated with a variety of medical conditions, including some forms of liver disease, cystic fibrosis, celiac disease, and Crohn's disease, as well as ulcerative colitis when the terminal ileum is inflamed [1,3,34]. In addition, people with some of these conditions might have lower intakes of certain foods, such as dairy products fortified with vitamin D.

People who are obese or who have undergone gastric bypass surgery
A body mass index ≥30 is associated with lower serum 25(OH)D levels compared with non-obese individuals; people who are obese may need larger than usual intakes of vitamin D to achieve 25(OH)D levels comparable to those of normal weight [1]. Obesity does not affect skin's capacity to synthesize vitamin D, but greater amounts of subcutaneous fat sequester more of the vitamin and alter its release into the circulation. Obese individuals who have undergone gastric bypass surgery may become vitamin D deficient over time without a sufficient intake of this nutrient from food or supplements, since part of the upper small intestine where vitamin D is absorbed is bypassed and vitamin D mobilized into the serum from fat stores may not compensate over time [35,36].

Vitamin D and Health

Optimal serum concentrations of 25(OH)D for bone and general health have not been established; they are likely to vary at each stage of life, depending on the physiological measures selected [1,2,6]. Also, as stated earlier, while serum 25(OH)D functions as a biomarker of exposure to vitamin D (from sun, food, and dietary supplements), the extent to which such levels serve as a biomarker of effect (i.e., health outcomes) is not clearly established [1].

Furthermore, while serum 25(OH)D levels increase in response to increased vitamin D intake, the relationship is non-linear for reasons that are not entirely clear [1]. The increase varies, for example, by baseline serum levels and duration of supplementation. Increasing serum 25(OH)D to >50 nmol/L requires more vitamin D than increasing levels from a baseline <50 nmol/L. There is a steeper rise in serum 25(OH)D when the dose of vitamin D is <1,000 IU/day; a lower, more flattened response is seen at higher daily doses. When the dose is ≥1,000 IU/day, the rise in serum 25(OH)D is approximately 1 nmol/L for each 40 IU of intake. In studies with a dose ≤600 IU/day, the rise is serum 25(OH)D was approximately 2.3 nmol/L for each 40 IU of vitamin D consumed [1].

In 2011, The Endocrine Society issued clinical practice guidelines for vitamin D, stating that the desirable serum concentration of 25(OH)D is >75 nmol/L (>30 ng/ml) to maximize the effect of this vitamin on calcium, bone, and muscle metabolism [37]. It also reported that to consistently raise serum levels of 25(OH)D above 75 nmol/L (30 ng/ml), at least 1,500-2,000 IU/day of supplemental vitamin D might be required in adults, and at least 1,000 IU/day in children and adolescents.

However, the FNB committee that established DRIs for vitamin D extensively reviewed a long list of potential health relationships on which recommendations for vitamin D intake might be based [1]. These health relationships included resistance to chronic diseases (such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases), physiological parameters (such as immune response or levels of parathyroid hormone), and functional measures (such as skeletal health and physical performance and falls). With the exception of measures related to bone health, the health relationships examined were either not supported by adequate evidence to establish cause and effect, or the conflicting nature of the available evidence could not be used to link health benefits to particular levels of intake of vitamin D or serum measures of 25(OH)D with any level of confidence. This overall conclusion was confirmed by a more recent report on vitamin D and calcium from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, which reviewed data from nearly 250 new studies published between 2009 and 2013 [38]. The report concluded that it is still not possible to specify a relationship between vitamin D and health outcomes other than bone health.

More than 40 million adults in the United States have or are at risk of developing osteoporosis, a disease characterized by low bone mass and structural deterioration of bone tissue that increases bone fragility and significantly increases the risk of bone fractures [39]. Osteoporosis is most often associated with inadequate calcium intakes, but insufficient vitamin D contributes to osteoporosis by reducing calcium absorption [40]. Although rickets and osteomalacia are extreme examples of the effects of vitamin D deficiency, osteoporosis is an example of a long-term effect of calcium and vitamin D insufficiency. Adequate storage levels of vitamin D maintain bone strength and might help prevent osteoporosis in older adults, non-ambulatory individuals who have difficulty exercising, postmenopausal women, and individuals on chronic steroid therapy [41].

Normal bone is constantly being remodeled. During menopause, the balance between these processes changes, resulting in more bone being resorbed than rebuilt. Hormone therapy with estrogen and progesterone might be able to delay the onset of osteoporosis. Several medical groups and professional societies support the use of HRT as an option for women who are at increased risk of osteoporosis or fractures [42,43,44]. Such women should discuss this matter with their health care providers.

Most supplementation trials of the effects of vitamin D on bone health also include calcium, so it is difficult to isolate the effects of each nutrient. Among postmenopausal women and older men, supplements of both vitamin D and calcium result in small increases in bone mineral density throughout the skeleton. They also help to reduce fractures in institutionalized older populations, although the benefit is inconsistent in community-dwelling individuals [1,2,45]. Vitamin D supplementation alone appears to have no effect on risk reduction for fractures nor does it appear to reduce falls among the elderly [1,2,45]; one widely-cited meta-analysis suggesting a protective benefit of supplemental vitamin D against falls [46] has been severely critiqued [1]. However, a large study of women aged ≥69 years followed for an average of 4.5 years found both lower (<50 nmol/L [<20 ng/mL]) and higher(≥75 nmol/L [≥30 ng/mL]) 25(OH)D levels at baseline to be associated with a greater risk of frailty [47]. Women should consult their healthcare providers about their needs for vitamin D (and calcium) as part of an overall plan to prevent or treat osteoporosis.

Laboratory and animal evidence as well as epidemiologic data suggest that vitamin D status could affect cancer risk. Strong biological and mechanistic bases indicate that vitamin D plays a role in the prevention of colon, prostate, and breast cancers. Emerging epidemiologic data suggest that vitamin D may have a protective effect against colon cancer, but the data are not as strong for a protective effect against prostate and breast cancer, and are variable for cancers at other sites [1,48,49]. Studies do not consistently show a protective or no effect, however. One study of Finnish smokers, for example, found that subjects in the highest quintile of baseline vitamin D status had a threefold higher risk of developing pancreatic cancer [50]. A recent review found an increased risk of pancreatic cancer associated with high levels of serum 25(OH)D (≥100 nmol/L or ≥40 ng/mL) [51].

Vitamin D emerged as a protective factor in a prospective, cross-sectional study of 3,121 adults aged ≥50 years (96% men) who underwent a colonoscopy. The study found that 10% had at least one advanced cancerous lesion. Those with the highest vitamin D intakes (>645 IU/day) had a significantly lower risk of these lesions [52]. However, the Women's Health Initiative, in which 36,282 postmenopausal women of various races and ethnicities were randomly assigned to receive 400 IU vitamin D plus 1,000 mg calcium daily or a placebo, found no significant differences between the groups in the incidence of colorectal cancers over 7 years [53]. More recently, a clinical trial focused on bone health in 1,179 postmenopausal women residing in rural Nebraska found that subjects supplemented daily with calcium (1,400–1,500 mg) and vitamin D3 (1,100 IU) had a significantly lower incidence of cancer over 4 years compared with women taking a placebo [54]. The small number of cancers (50) precludes generalizing about a protective effect from either or both nutrients or for cancers at different sites. This caution is supported by an analysis of 16,618 participants in NHANES III (1988–1994), in which total cancer mortality was found to be unrelated to baseline vitamin D status [55]. However, colorectal cancer mortality was inversely related to serum 25(OH)D concentrations. A large observational study with participants from 10 western European countries also found a strong inverse association between prediagnostic 25(OH)D concentrations and risk of colorectal cancer [56].

Further research is needed to determine whether vitamin D inadequacy in particular increases cancer risk, whether greater exposure to the nutrient is protective, and whether some individuals could be at increased risk of cancer because of vitamin D exposure [48,57]. Taken together, however, studies to date do not support a role for vitamin D, with or without calcium, in reducing the risk of cancer [1].

Other conditions
A growing body of research suggests that vitamin D might play some role in the prevention and treatment of type 1 [58] and type 2 diabetes [59], hypertension [60], glucose intolerance [61], multiple sclerosis [62], and other medical conditions [63,64]. However, most evidence for these roles comes from in vitro, animal, and epidemiological studies, not the randomized clinical trials considered to be more definitive [1]. Until such trials are conducted, the implications of the available evidence for public health and patient care will be debated. One meta-analysis found use of vitamin D supplements to be associated with a statistically significant reduction in overall mortality from any cause [65,66], but a reanalysis of the data found no association [45]. A systematic review of these and other health outcomes related to vitamin D and calcium intakes, both alone and in combination, was published in August 2009 [45].

Health Risks from Excessive Vitamin D

Vitamin D toxicity can cause non-specific symptoms such as anorexia, weight loss, polyuria, and heart arrhythmias. More seriously, it can also raise blood levels of calcium which leads to vascular and tissue calcification, with subsequent damage to the heart, blood vessels, and kidneys [1]. The use of supplements of both calcium (1,000 mg/day) and vitamin D (400 IU) by postmenopausal women was associated with a 17% increase in the risk of kidney stones over 7 years in the Women's Health Initiative [67]. A serum 25(OH)D concentration consistently >500 nmol/L (>200 ng/mL) is considered to be potentially toxic [5].

Excessive sun exposure does not result in vitamin D toxicity because the sustained heat on the skin is thought to photodegrade previtamin D3 and vitamin D3 as it is formed [6]. In addition, thermal activation of previtamin D3 in the skin gives rise to various non-vitamin D forms that limit formation of vitamin D3 itself. Some vitamin D3 is also converted to nonactive forms [1]. Intakes of vitamin D from food that are high enough to cause toxicity are very unlikely. Toxicity is much more likely to occur from high intakes of dietary supplements containing vitamin D.

Long-term intakes above the UL increase the risk of adverse health effects [1] (Table 4). Most reports suggest a toxicity threshold for vitamin D of 10,000 to 40,000 IU/day and serum 25(OH)D levels of 500–600 nmol/L (200–240 ng/mL). While symptoms of toxicity are unlikely at daily intakes below 10,000 IU/day, the FNB pointed to emerging science from national survey data, observational studies, and clinical trials suggesting that even lower vitamin D intakes and serum 25(OH)D levels might have adverse health effects over time. The FNB concluded that serum 25(OH)D levels above approximately 125–150 nmol/L (50–60 ng/mL) should be avoided, as even lower serum levels (approximately 75–120 nmol/L or 30–48 ng/mL) are associated with increases in all-cause mortality, greater risk of cancer at some sites like the pancreas, greater risk of cardiovascular events, and more falls and fractures among the elderly. The FNB committee cited research which found that vitamin D intakes of 5,000 IU/day achieved serum 25(OH)D concentrations between 100–150 nmol/L (40–60 ng/mL), but no greater. Applying an uncertainty factor of 20% to this intake value gave a UL of 4,000 IU which the FNB applied to children aged 9 and older, with corresponding lower amounts for younger children.

Table 4: Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs) for Vitamin D [1]
Age Male Female Pregnancy Lactation
0–6 months 1,000 IU
(25 mcg)
1,000 IU
(25 mcg)
7–12 months 1,500 IU
(38 mcg)
1,500 IU
(38 mcg)
1–3 years 2,500 IU
(63 mcg)
2,500 IU
(63 mcg)
4–8 years 3,000 IU
(75 mcg)
3,000 IU
(75 mcg)
≥9 years 4,000 IU
(100 mcg)
4,000 IU
(100 mcg)
4,000 IU
(100 mcg)
4,000 IU
(100 mcg)

Interactions with Medications

Vitamin D supplements have the potential to interact with several types of medications. A few examples are provided below. Individuals taking these medications on a regular basis should discuss vitamin D intakes with their healthcare providers.

Corticosteroid medications such as prednisone, often prescribed to reduce inflammation, can reduce calcium absorption [68,69,70] and impair vitamin D metabolism. These effects can further contribute to the loss of bone and the development of osteoporosis associated with their long-term use [69,70].

Other medications
Both the weight-loss drug orlistat (brand names Xenical® and alliTM) and the cholesterol-lowering drug cholestyramine (brand names Questran®, LoCholest®, and Prevalite®) can reduce the absorption of vitamin D and other fat-soluble vitamins [71,72]. Both phenobarbital and phenytoin (brand name Dilantin®), used to prevent and control epileptic seizures, increase the hepatic metabolism of vitamin D to inactive compounds and reduce calcium absorption [73].

Vitamin D and Healthful Diets

The federal government's 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans notes that "nutrients should come primarily from foods. Foods in nutrient-dense, mostly intact forms contain not only the essential vitamins and minerals that are often contained in nutrient supplements, but also dietary fiber and other naturally occurring substances that may have positive health effects. ...Dietary supplements…may be advantageous in specific situations to increase intake of a specific vitamin or mineral."

For more information about building a healthful diet, refer to the Dietary Guidelines for Americansexternal link disclaimer and the U.S. Department of Agriculture's food guidance system, MyPlateexternal link disclaimer.

The Dietary Guidelines for Americans describes a healthy diet as one that:

  • Emphasizes a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and fat-free or low-fat milk and milk products.
    Milk is fortified with vitamin D, as are many ready-to-eat cereals and some brands of yogurt and orange juice. Cheese naturally contains small amounts of vitamin D.
  • Includes lean meats, poultry, fish, beans, eggs, and nuts.
    Fatty fish such as salmon, tuna, and mackerel are very good sources of vitamin D. Small amounts of vitamin D are also found in beef liver and egg yolks.
  • Is low in saturated fats, trans fats, cholesterol, salt (sodium), and added sugars.
    Vitamin D is added to some margarines.
  • Stays within your daily calorie needs.

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  2. Cranney C, Horsely T, O'Donnell S, Weiler H, Ooi D, Atkinson S, et al. Effectiveness and safety of vitamin D. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 158 prepared by the University of Ottawa Evidence-based Practice Center under Contract No. 290-02.0021. AHRQ Publication No. 07-E013. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2007. [PubMed abstract]
  3. Holick MF. Vitamin D. In: Shils ME, Shike M, Ross AC, Caballero B, Cousins RJ, eds. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 10th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.
  4. Norman AW, Henry HH. Vitamin D. In: Bowman BA, Russell RM, eds. Present Knowledge in Nutrition, 9th ed. Washington DC: ILSI Press, 2006.
  5. Jones G. Pharmacokinetics of vitamin D toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 2008;88:582S-6S. [PubMed abstract]
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  46. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Staehelin HB, Orav JE, Stuck AE, Theiler R, et al. Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2009;339:b3692. [PubMed abstract]
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  50. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Vieth R, Azad A, Pietinen P, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, et al. A prospective nested case-control study of vitamin D status and pancreatic cancer risk in male smokers. Cancer Res 2006;66:10213-9. [PubMed abstract]
  51. Kathy J. Helzlsouer for the VDPP Steering Committee. Overview of the Cohort Consortium Vitamin D Pooling Project of Rarer Cancers. Am J Epidemiol 2010;172:4-9. [PubMed abstract]
  52. Lieberman DA, Prindiville S, Weiss DG, Willett W. Risk factors for advanced colonic neoplasia and hyperplastic polyps in asymptomatic individuals. JAMA 2003;290:2959-67. [PubMed abstract]
  53. Wactawski-Wende J, Kotchen JM, Anderson GL, Assaf AR, Brunner RL, O'Sullivan MJ, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of colorectal cancer. N Engl J Med 2006;354:684-96. [PubMed abstract]
  54. Parfitt AM. Osteomalacia and related disorders. In: Avioli LV, Krane SM, eds. Metabolic bone disease and clinically related disorders. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1990:329-96.
  55. Freedman DM, Looker AC, Chang S-C, Graubard BI. Prospective study of serum vitamin D and cancer mortality in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:1594-602. [PubMed abstract]
  56. Jenab M, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Ferrari P, van Duijnhoven FJB, Norat T, Pischon T, et al. Association between pre-diagnostic circulating vitamin D concentration and risk of colorectal cancer in European populations: a nested case-control study. BMJ 2010;340:b5500. [PubMed abstract]
  57. Davis CD, Dwyer JT. The 'sunshine vitamin': benefits beyond bone? J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:1563-5. [PubMed abstract]
  58. Hyppönen E, Läärä E, Reunanen A, Järvelin MR, Virtanen SM. Intake of vitamin D and risk of type 1 diabetes: a birth-cohort study. Lancet 2001;358:1500-3. [PubMed abstract]
  59. Pittas AG, Dawson-Hughes B, Li T, Van Dam RM, Willett WC, Manson JE, et al. Vitamin D and calcium intake in relation to type 2 diabetes in women. Diabetes Care 2006;29:650-6. [PubMed abstract]
  60. Krause R, Bühring M, Hopfenmüller W, Holick MF, Sharma AM. Ultraviolet B and blood pressure. Lancet 1998;352:709-10. [PubMed abstract]
  61. Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF. Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:820-5. [PubMed abstract]
  62. Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA 2006;296:2832-8. [PubMed abstract]
  63. Merlino LA, Curtis J, Mikuls TR, Cerhan JR, Criswell LA, Saag K. Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Iowa Women's Health Study. Arthritis Rheum 2004;50:72-7. [PubMed abstract]
  64. Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R. Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83:754-9. [PubMed abstract]
  65. Autier P, Gandini S. Vitamin D supplementation and total mortality: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1730-7. [PubMed abstract]
  66. Giovannucci E. Can vitamin D reduce total mortality? Arch Intern Med 2007;167:1709-10. [PubMed abstract]
  67. Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M, Wallace RB, Robbins J, Lewis CE, et al. Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 2006;354:669-83. [PubMed abstract]
  68. Buckley LM, Leib ES, Cartularo KS, Vacek PM, Cooper SM. Calcium and vitamin D3 supplementation prevents bone loss in the spine secondary to low-dose corticosteroids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1996;125:961-8. [PubMed abstract]
  69. Lukert BP, Raisz LG. Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis: pathogenesis and management. Ann Intern Med 1990;112:352-64. [PubMed abstract]
  70. de Sevaux RGL, Hoitsma AJ, Corstens FHM, Wetzels JFM. Treatment with vitamin D and calcium reduces bone loss after renal transplantation: a randomized study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002;13:1608-14. [PubMed abstract]
  71. McDuffie JR, Calis KA, Booth SL, Uwaifo GI, Yanovski JA. Effects of orlistat on fat-soluble vitamins in obese adolescents. Pharmacotherapy 2002;22:814-22. [PubMed abstract]
  72. Compston JE, Horton LW. Oral 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in treatment of osteomalacia associated with ileal resection and cholestyramine therapy. Gastroenterology 1978;74:900-2. [PubMed abstract]
  73. Gough H, Goggin T, Bissessar A, Baker M, Crowley M, Callaghan N. A comparative study of the relative influence of different anticonvulsant drugs, UV exposure and diet on vitamin D and calcium metabolism in outpatients with epilepsy. Q J Med 1986;59:569-77. [PubMed abstract]

This fact sheet by the Office of Dietary Supplements provides information that should not take the place of medical advice. We encourage you to talk to your healthcare providers (doctor, registered dietitian, pharmacist, etc.) about your interest in, questions about, or use of dietary supplements and what may be best for your overall health. Any mention in this publication of a specific brand name is not an endorsement of the product.

Reviewed: November 10, 2014


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November 14, 2012

Jones pleased to see UVa winning

The last time CavsCorner spoke with Oscar Smith receiver Zack Jones he said he was 100 percent solid in his commitment to UVa. Now that the Cavaliers are playing much better and winning games, Jones is even more excited about the future.

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the tragedy of the fabios

For most of my years as an academic, I’ve been lucky in terms of time management. While I felt stress, it was not be because I was out of time, except for those times when I had a baby at home. Then, this semester it really, really hit – professor overload. Every month, I’d get four to five reviews for journals. Just in the last semester, I’d get about one book manuscript review a month. Then, book review requests, letters of recommendations, and oodles of other stuff. I haven’t even gotten to my regular committee work, teaching, research, or mentoring graduate students. Of course, this is a blessing. It means that people value my input on various issues. But it’s also imposing a cost.

I mentioned this to a colleague, who said it was a tragedy of the commons issue. Professors are a free resource. The university pays our salary, but we work for others for free. Journal reviews are free (in soc, at least). Book reviews (for presses and journals) are free or very low cost. We don’t charge for our time on committees. Students who ask for a paper regrade do so for free. The solution is obvious – charge by the hour! So the next time someone asks you to do committee work, be ready with your rate and the requests will be more considerate.

Adverts: From Black Power/Grad Skool Rulz

Written by fabiorojas

January 13, 2013 at 4:08 am

Posted in academia, fabio

13 Responses

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  1. Students c. 18th century ish used to pay their professors directly.

    Graham Peterson

    January 13, 2013 at 4:32 am

  2. Graham, you owe me $5.

    January 13, 2013 at 4:33 am

  3. Dig it.

    Graham Peterson

    January 13, 2013 at 4:41 am

  4. I totally sympathize with the problem, and recognize that your proposal is at least partially tongue in cheek. However I feel I should point out that in medical schools everything is charged for, and down to the 1% effort. People are often on numerous grants and projects for 1%, 2%, 5% effort — which means, in effect, that there is no surplus time for use in the various public-good services you outline. Manuscript reviews happen on personal time, other stuff doesn’t happen at all unless deans cough up percent effort. I think that has really sucked the intellectual spirit out of academic medicine, to overgeneralize.

    January 13, 2013 at 9:38 pm

  5. Fabio,

    I’m a member of the AJS book review committee and have personally seen you being recommended for a book review. In fact, I’ve put you on a short list of book reviewers myself. In our minds, we’re not asking you to give up your valuable time to provide enlightened feedback on a book we feel is worth pointing out to our readers. We are asking you as someone who is particularly knowledgeable and trustworthy about an area of expertise to comment and frame a book that we have determined to be an unquestionable contribution to the theory and methods of sociology. We feel like your review of a book is a stamp on its sociological merit and we publish whatever good or bad you have to say. We ask you your thoughts because we believe others care what you think and you can adjudicate the main point of a what we feel is an undeniable sociological book. I don’t pretend to speak for other publications and I know we’re at the bottom of your list of priorities, but we seek you out because we believe you can help us referee what is important sociology.

    We always appreciate your time,
    AJS book reviewer

    Book Reviewer

    January 14, 2013 at 6:39 am

  6. Book Reviewer,

    It’s a polite comment and its sentiment would be flattering to any academic, but don’t you think there’s something to the argument that many presses, particularly the for-profit houses that publish some academic books and an increasing number of academic journals, are making out like bandits with the profits they pull in that are largely achieved by exploiting the free labor of referees? A recent Chronicle editorial suggested that referees should continue to review pro bono for non-profit houses and university presses, but begin charging hourly rates for reviews solicited by the likes of Wiley-Blackwell, Taylor & Francis, etc.

    I think a balance can and should be found between service to the discipline and profiteering.

    January 15, 2013 at 2:33 am

  7. Frederik Marain

    January 15, 2013 at 8:15 am

  8. Fabio,

    As someone awaiting doctoral admissions decisions, I’m curious: what are the professional consequences of refusing such requests? Does your post imply the hierarchy of importance for your work? For example, would you rank journal reviews first, book manuscript reviews second, book review requests third, and so on for their order of appearance in your post? Could be a revealing survey for professors…

    Nicholas Poggioli

    January 18, 2013 at 2:29 am

  9. Frederik, that story about James Buchanan is quite inspiring.

    Nicholas Poggioli

    January 18, 2013 at 2:33 am

  10. Nicholas:

    In my experience, refusing these requests seems to carry very little consequence. If a journal takes in 200-300 papers a year, like a major social science journal, then editors won’t remember if you turned down a request. Perhaps book editors may notice, but a press may only ask for a review from an author every few years. For example, I published with Johns Hopkins, but I have only been asked to review one book for them. In fact, this is what probably explains the problems journals often have in processing papers. There is a huge reward for getting published but little reward for helping others and no punishing for free riding. When I was working for AJS, I often used the data base of review requests to find reviewers and found that many successful academics simply refused all requests for reviews. Also, you noticed an obvious pattern – pre-tenure folks often accepted requested, then there a sharp drop off after tenure.

    In terms of rank, I have no strong preference on type of request (book review vs. journal article review), but I do have preference in terms of topic. I’ll often demure a paper if it is fairly generic. For example, some journals will ask me to review any paper that is about organizations. So if I am overloaded, I’ll only do it if they give me a long deadline. But if it is a topic where reviewers are scarce, I’ll always do it without exception. For example, I always review papers on black politics and higher education. I am the expert, so I have a duty and interest in seeing the paper get a fair and speedy review. And finally, if the source offers to pay – even only $50 for a book review – I am happy to help!

    January 18, 2013 at 3:19 am

  11. Can’t you just solve this with heuristics? E.g. “I will only review 1 paper every 2 months.” Then it’s easy to know if you’ve already done enough.

    Well, knowing how many X’s to set for the quota is an issue, but that’s a good one to ask colleagues about, right?

    January 18, 2013 at 5:45 am

  12. Erica, that is exactly what I do now. In the last two or three months, I only accept a paper a month. That has helped enormously.

    January 18, 2013 at 5:47 am

  13. Thanks for your reply, Fabio.

    Nicholas Poggioli

    January 18, 2013 at 4:46 pm

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It begins with prayer, reflection and conversion. Hope and longing are finally fulfilled in joyful celebration. With Christmas on the horizon, it is hard sometimes to focus less on the hustle and bustle and more on faith during this exciting season, but Our Sunday Visitor offers a variety of resources for preparing your heart for Christ’s coming during Advent and welcoming him at Christmas. From spiritual aids for adults to a collection of customs and traditions for children, you’ll be able to help prepare the way of the Lord!


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