Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making: An Overview and Future Course
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paper_title: Cognitive Engineering : Human Problem Solving with Tools

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Cognitive engineering is an applied cognitive science that draws on the knowledge and techniques of cognitive psychology and related disciplines to provide the foundation for principle-driven design of person-machine systems. This paper examines the fundamental features that characterize cognitive engineering and reviews some of the major issues faced by this nascent interdisciplinary field.
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paper_title: Joint Cognitive Systems: Foundations of Cognitive Systems Engineering

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PREFACE THE DRIVING FORCES Introduction On Terminology Computerization and Growing Complexity Self-Reinforcing Complexity Cycle Complexity and Unpredictability Conspicuousness of the Human Factor The Constraining Paradigm Input-Output Models The Shannon-Weaver Model Communication Model Prototypical Information Processing From Human-Machine Interaction to Joint Systems The Cognitive Viewpoint The Classical Human-Machine View The Disintegrated View Changing the Paradigm Definition of a Cognitive System The Scope of CSE THE EVOLUTION OF WORK Technological Systems as Amplification 'Examples of Amplification Amplification of Control Effects of Amplification Amplification and Interpretation Tools and Prostheses A Short History of Human-Machine Interaction The Conspicuousness of Cognition Changing Balance Between Doing and Thinking Loss of Work-Specific Information The Law of Requisite Variety Models of the Human as Controller The Joint Cognitive System (JCS) Control and Cognition Disjoint and Joint Systems Amplifying the Ability to Control THE BASICS OF A SCIENCE Model-Classification-Method Requirements to Measurements Theory-Driven Measurements Theory-Begging Measurements The Meaning of Measurements The Elusiveness of Cognition Cognition in the Mind Cognition in the Wild The Focus of CSE Cognition and Context Cognition and Control Modeling Cognition and Context Sequentiality in Reality and in Models The Threads of CSE Coping With Complexity Use of Artifacts Joint Cognitive Systems Merging the Threads COPING WITH COMPLEXITY Introduction About Coping Sources of Complexity Losing Control Lack of Time Lack of Knowledge Lack of Readiness or Preparedness (Competence) Lack of Resources Coping Strategies Information Input Overload Information Input Underload Designing for Simplicity Simplicity-Complexity Trade-Off Information Structuring How Should the Interaction Be Designed? Designing for Complexity Support for Coping Time Predictability Summary USE OF ARTIFACTS Introduction Phenomenology of Coagency Tools and Prostheses Artifacts in CSE Range of Artifacts Cognitive Artifacts The Substitution Myth Consequences of Technology Change Traffic Safety Typical User Responses to New Artifacts Failure Modes of an Artefact The Accidental User User Models and Accidental Users JOINT COGNITIVE SYSTEMS Introduction On the Nature of System Boundaries Automation and Joint Cognitive Systems Degrees of Human-Machine Dependency Automation Philosophies Ironies of Automation Lesons of Automation Function Analysis and Goal Achievement Goals and Means Simple Test-Operate-Test-Exit (TOTE) Recursive Goals-Means Descriptions CONTROL AND COGNITION Introduction Feedback and Control Feedforward and Control The Substance of Modeling Cognition Cognition Without Context Cognition in Context Mental Models and the Law of Requisite Variety COCOM-Contextual Control Model Model Constituents Control Modes ECOM-Extended Control Model Tracking Regulating Monitoring Targeting ECOM Structure and Parameters Interaction Between Loops Modeling the Loss of Control TIME AND CONTROL Orthodoxy in Modeling Model Minimization Two Neglected Issues Modeling Control Predictability Available Time The Modeling of Time Representation of Time in COCOM Time and Control Modes How to Enhance Control Technological and Organizational Solutions Human Solutions Conclusions CSE AND ITS APPLICATIONS What Should CSE Be About? Extensions to Human Factors/Ergonomics Design of Work (Cognitive Task Design) Making Work Easy Making Work Safe Problems in the Design of Work Control Rooms Adaptation Decision Support The Last Words BIBLIOGRAPHY AUTHOR INDEX SUBJECT INDEX
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paper_title: Rapid Decision Making on the Fire Ground

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The objective of this study was to examine the way decisions are made by highly proficient personnel, under conditions of extreme time pressure, and where the consequences of the decisions could affect lives and property. Fire Ground Commanders (FGCs), who are responsible for allocating personnel and resources at the scene of a fire, were studied using a critical incident protocol analysis. The major finding was that in less than 12% of the decision points was there any evidence of simultaneous comparisons and relative evaluation of two or more options. Instead the FGCs most commonly relied on their experience to directly identify the situation as typical and to identify a course of action as appropriate for that prototype. A Recognition Primed Decision (RPD) model is proposed which emphasizes the use of recognition rather than calculation or analysis for rapid decision making.
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paper_title: Working Minds: A Practitioner's Guide to Cognitive Task Analysis

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Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) helps researchers understand how cognitive skills and strategies make it possible for people to act effectively and get things done. CTA can yield information people need -- employers faced with personnel issues, market researchers who want to understand the thought processes of consumers, trainers and others who design instructional systems, health care professionals who want to apply lessons learned from errors and accidents, systems analysts developing user specifications, and many other professionals. CTA can show what makes the workplace work -- and what keeps it from working as well as it might. Working Minds is a true handbook, offering a set of tools for doing CTA: methods for collecting data about cognitive processes and events, analyzing them, and communicating them effectively. It covers both the "why" and the "how" of CTA methods, providing examples, guidance, and stories from the authors' own experiences as CTA practitioners. Because effective use of CTA depends on some conceptual grounding in cognitive theory and research -- on knowing what a cognitive perspective can offer -- the book also offers an overview of current research on cognition. The book provides detailed guidance for planning and carrying out CTA, with chapters on capturing knowledge and capturing the way people reason. It discusses studying cognition in real-world settings and the challenges of rapidly changing technology. And it describes key issues in applying CTA findings in a variety of fields. Working Minds makes the methodology of CTA accessible and the skills involved attainable.
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paper_title: FORMAL MODELS VS. HUMAN SITUATIONAL UNDERSTANDING: INHERENT LIMITATIONS ON THE MODELING OF BUSINESS EXPERTISE

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Possible limitations on the successful formal modeling of human expertise can only be identified if the evolving thought processes involved in acquiring expertise are understood. This paper presents a 5‐stage description of the human skill‐acquisition process, applies it to the skill of business management, and draws conclusions about potential uses and abuses of formal modeling.
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paper_title: What Computers Can't Do: The Limits of Artificial Intelligence

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An adaptive echo canceller for digital data transmission systems permits full duplex, i.e., simultaneous bidirectional transmission, operation at full bandwidth over two-wire transmission facilities. A transversal filter arrangement digitally synthesizes a cancellation signal for unwanted leakage, i.e., echoes, through hybrid junctions directly from the digital data input symbols, rather than from the analog transmitter output. An error control signal for correlation with tap signals on the transversal filter is derived from the output of the receiver, instead of its input.
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paper_title: The Ecology of Human-Machine Systems I: Introduction

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A symposium entitled, The Ecology of Human-Machine Systems, was held at the Fifth International Conference on Event Perception and Action. This sympo- sium examined the challenges that human-machine systems hold for an ecological approach to perception, cognition, and action and the promises that an ecological approach holds for problems that traditionally have been the domain of human factors psychology. The presenters from this symposium have been invited to submit articles about an applied ecological psychology to Ecological Psychology. Articles that are accepted for publication will be appearing in future issues of this journal. It is hoped that these articles will stimulate productive interaction between ecological and human factors psychology. This correspondence reflects the natural affinity between ecological and human factors psychology. It examines some of the issues that distinguish basic and applied research. It also considers the contribution that ecological physics can make for improving tra...
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paper_title: An Ecological Approach to Human-Machine Systems

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This is the first of three sessions to examine the implications of an ecological approach for interface design. The goal for this session is to consider the broader theoretical implications for an ecological approach to work. In what way is an ecological approach different from classical frameworks for analysis and design of human-machine systems?
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paper_title: Coping with human errors through system design: implications for ecological interface design

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Research during recent years has revealed that human errors are not stochastic events which can be removed through improved training programs or optimal interface design. Rather, errors tend to reflect either systematic interference between various models, rules, and schemata, or the effects of the adaptive mechanisms involved in learning. In terms of design implications, these findings suggest that reliable human-system interaction will be achieved by designing interfaces which tend to minimize the potential for control interference and support recovery from errors. In other words, the focus should be on control of the effects of errors rather than on the elimination of errors per se. In this paper, we propose a theoretical framework for interface design that attempts to satisfy these objectives. The goal of our framework, called ecological interface design, is to develop a meaningful representation of the process which is not just optimised for one particular level of cognitive control, but that supports all three levels simultaneously. The paper discusses the necessary requirements for a mapping between the process and the combined action/observation surface, and analyses of the resulting influence on both the interferences causing error and on the opportunity for error recovery left to the operator. There has been a rapidly growing interest in the analysis of human error caused by technological development. The growing complexity of technical installations makes it increasingly difficult for operators to understand the system’s internal functions. At the same time, the large scale of operations necessary for competitive production makes the effects of human errors increasingly unacceptable. Naturally enough, human error analysis has become an essential part of systems design. In order to conduct such an analysis, a taxonomy suited to describe human errors is essential. The structure and dimensions of the error taxonomy, however, will depend on the aim of the analysis. Therefore, different categorisations of human errors are useful during the various stages of systems design. At least two different perspectives can be identified, each with its own unique set of requirements. One point of view is useful for predicting the effects of human error on system performance, i.e. a failure-mode-and-effect analysis. For this purpose, a taxonomy based on a model of human error mechanisms should be adopted. A second perspective for error analysis is required for identifying possible improvements in system design. In order to meet the requirements of such an analysis, an error taxonomy based on cognitive control mechanisms (Rasmussen, 1983) is more appropriate. Both types of analyses are essential to system design. The failure-mode-and-effect analysis allows the designer to identify plausible human
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paper_title: Cognitive Systems Engineering

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Work Domain Analysis. Activity Analysis. Analysis of Work Organization and System Users. User-Work Coupling. At the Periphery of Effective Coupling: Human Error. The Design Process and Its Guidance. Evaluation of Design Concepts and Products. Design of a Library System. BookHouse Design: Data Base and User Dialogue. BookHouse Design: Interface Displays. BookHouse Evaluation. Catalog of Annotated Displays. References. Index.
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paper_title: Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement

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Contents: Preface. Part I: Introduction and Overview. M.R. Endsley, Theoretical Underpinnings of Situation Awareness: A Critical Review. R.W. Pew, The State of Situation Awareness Measurement. Part II: Measurement Approaches. G. Klein, Analysis of Situation Awareness From Critical Incident Reports. M.D. Rodgers, R.H. Mogford, B. Strauch, Post Hoc Assessment of Situation Awareness in Air Traffic Control Incidents and Major Aircraft Accidents. D.G. Jones, Subjective Measures of Situation Awareness. H.H. Bell, D.R. Lyon, Using Observer Ratings to Assess Situation Awareness. M.R. Endsley, Direct Measurement of Situation Awareness: Validity and Use of SAGAT. G.F. Wilson, Strategies for Psychophysiological Assessment of Situation Awareness. A.R. Pritchett, R.J. Hansman, Use of Testable Responses for Performance-Based Measurement of Situation Awareness. C.D. Wickens, The Trade-Off of Design for Routine and Unexpected Performance: Implications of Situation Awareness. M.A. Vidulich, Testing the Sensitivity of Situation Awareness Metrics in Interface Evaluations. Part III: Special Topics in Situation Awareness. L.J. Gugerty, W.C. Tirre, Individual Differences in Situation Awareness. C.A. Bolstad, T.M. Hess, Situation Awareness and Aging. W. Shebilske, B.P. Goettl, D.J. Garland, Situation Awareness, Automaticity, and Training. C. Prince, E. Salas, Team Situation Awareness, Errors, and Crew Resource Management: Research Integration for Training Guidance. M.R. Endsley, M.M. Robertson, Training for Situation Awareness in Individuals and Teams.
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paper_title: Improving Sa: Training Challenges for Infantry Platoon Leaders

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Novel applications of digital technologies promise to revolutionize the battlefield of the Infantry Warfighter by expanding the information available to all echelons through enhanced acquisition, faster access and wider distribution. The integration of this information into a coherent picture is the essence of the Warfighter's Situation Awareness (SA), which provides the basis for sound decision-making and enhanced performance. This study investigates areas of SA that are considered problematic by the soldiers who train new Infantry Platoon Leaders, identifying strategic target areas for future training efforts. The number and variety of items identified as significant problem areas for SA support the concept of the multidimensional nature of SA within the Infantry arena. This research provides a framework for development of targeted training programs to better equip our fighting forces to establish and maintain superior levels of SA in the challenging environment of Infantry operations.
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paper_title: Engineering Psychology and Human Performance

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1. Introduction to Engineering Psychology and Human Performance 2. Signal Detection, Information Theory and Absolute Judgment 3. Attention in Perception and Display Space 4. Spatial Displays 5. Spatial Cognition, Navigation and Manual Control 6. Language and Communications 7. Memory and Training 8. Decision Making 9. Selection of Action 10. Attention, Time sharing and Workload 11. Mental Workload, Stress, and Individual Differences: Cognitive and Neuroergonomic Perspectives 12. Automation 13. Epilogue
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paper_title: Mental Models in Cognitive Science

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If cognitive science does not exist then it is necessary to invent it. That slogan accommodates any reasonable attitude about the subject. One attitude-an optimistic one-is that cognitive science already exists and is alive and flourishing in academe: we have all in our different ways been doing it for years. The gentleman in Moliere’s play rejoiced to discover that he had been speaking prose for forty years without realizing it: perhaps we are merely celebrating a similar discovery. And, if we just keep going on in the same way, then we are bound to unravel the workings of the mind. Another attitude-my own-is more pessimistic: experimental psychology is not going to succeed unaided in elucidating human mentality; artificial intelligence is not going to succeed unaided in modelling the mind; nor is any other discipline-linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, philosophy-going to have any greater success. If we are ever to understand cognition, then we need a new science dedicated to that aim and based only in part on its contributing disciplines. Yet pessimism should not be confused with cynicism. We should reject the view that cognititie science is merely a clever ruse dreamed up to gain research funds-that it is nothing more than six disciplines in search of a grant-giving agency. Cognitive science does not quite exist: its precursors do, but it lacks a clear identity. Perhaps the major function of this conference should be to concentrate our minds on what that identity might be. At present, there appear to be two distinct ideas wrapped up in it: one topic-oriented, and the other methodological. The topic-oriented idea is that workers from several disciplines have converged upon a number of central problems and explanatory concepts. George Miller and 1 became aware of this convergence when we were caught in the toils
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paper_title: Measurement of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems

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Methodologies for the empirical measurement of situation awareness are reviewed, including a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each method and the potential limitations of the measures from a theoretical and practical viewpoint. Two studies are presented that investigate questions of validity and intrusiveness regarding a query-based technique. This technique requires that a simulation of the operational tasks be momentarily interrupted in order to query operators on their situation awareness. The results of the two studies indicate that the query technique is not intrusive on normal subject behavior during the trial and does not suffer from limitations of human memory, which provides an indication of empirical validity. The results of other validity studies regarding the technique are discussed along with recommendations for its use in measuring situation awareness in varied settings.
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paper_title: Models of Mental Strategies in Process Plant Diagnosis

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It has long been recognised that operators’ misidentification of abnormal system states plays a significant role in major system break-downs (see e.g. Cornell, 1968, Rasmussen 1968) and the problem has been subject to much discussion since the Three Mile Island incident. Consequently, there has been a rapid increase in efforts to design computer-controlled man-system interfaces which are effective in supporting operators’ identification of the actual operating state of the system.
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paper_title: PILOT WORKLOAD, PERFORMANCE AND AIRCRAFT CONTROL AUTOMATION

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This report reviews conceptual and practical issues related to design, operation and performance of advanced systems and their impact on human operators.
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paper_title: SITUATION AWARENESS AND THE COGNITIVE MANAGEMENT OF COMPLEX SYSTEMS

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The issue of how to support situation awareness among operators of complex systems or vehicles is a growing concern in a number of industries, especially when automation takes the operators partly "out of the loop." Cognitive theory suggests that comprehension of the flow of events is an active process, constrained by the dynamics and modularity of attention and memory. Focusing on issues of commercial aviation, we review the meaning of the term situation awareness both definition ally and by way of examples. We then discuss the cognitive factors involved in achieving and maintaining situation awareness, drawing on recent cognitive theory to clarify their interactions. Finally, having emphasized the need for a more analytic and precise understanding of situation awareness, we discuss strengths and weaknesses of various empirical approaches that might be used toward that end.
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paper_title: Simple cognitive modeling in a complex cognitive architecture

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Cognitive modeling has evolved into a powerful tool for understanding and predicting user behavior. Higher-level modeling frameworks such as GOMS and its variants facilitate fast and easy model development but are sometimes limited in their ability to model detailed user behavior. Lower-level cognitive architectures such as EPIC, ACT-R, and Soar allow for greater precision and direct interaction with real-world systems but require significant modeling training and expertise. In this paper we present a modeling framework, ACT-Simple, that aims to combine the advantages of both approaches to cognitive modeling. ACT-Simple embodies a "compilation" approach in which a simple description language is compiled down to a core lower-level architecture (namely ACT-R). We present theoretical justification and empirical validation of the usefulness of the approach and framework.
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paper_title: The GOMS family of user interface analysis techniques: comparison and contrast

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Sine the publication of The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction , the GOMS model has been one of the most widely known theoretical concepts in HCI. This concept has produced severval GOMS analysis techniques that differ in appearance and form, underlying architectural assumptions, and predictive power. This article compares and contrasts four popular variantsof the GOMS family (the Keystroke-Level Model, the original GOMS formulation, NGOMSL, and CPM-GOMS) by applying them to a single task example.
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paper_title: Unified Theories of Cognition

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Introduction The Nature of Theories What Are Unified Theories of Cognition? Is Psychology Ready for Unified Theories? The Task of the Book Foundations of Cognitive Science Behaving Systems Knowledge Systems Representation Machines and Computation Symbols Architectures Intelligence Search and Problem Spaces Preparation and Deliberation Summary Human Cognitive Architecture The Human Is a Symbol System System Levels The Time Scale of Human Action The Biological Band The Neural Circuit Level The Real-Time Constraint on Cognition The Cognitive Band The Level of Simple Operations The First Level of Composed Operations The Intendedly Rational Band Higher Bands: Social, Historical, and Evolutionary Summary Symbolic Processing for Intelligence The Central Architecture for Performance Chunking The Total Cognitive System RI-Soar: Knowledge-Intensive and Knowledge-Lean Operation Designer-Soar: Difficult Intellectual Tasks Soar as an Intelligent System Mapping Soar onto Human Cognition Soar and the Shape of Human Cognition Summary Immediate Behavior The Scientific Role of Immediate-Response Data Methodological Preliminaries Functional Analysis of Immediate Responses The Simplest Response Task (SRI) The Two-Choice Response Task (2CRT) Stimulus-Response Compatibility (SRC) Discussion of the Three Analyses Item Recognition Typing Summary Memory, Learning, and Skill The Memory and Learning Hypothesis of Soar The Soar Qualitative Theory of Learning The Distinction between Episodic and Semantic Memory Data Chunking Skill Acquisition Short-Term Memory (STM) Summary Intendedly Rational Behavior Ciyptarithmetic Syllogisms Sentence Verification Summary Along the Frontiers Language Development The Biological Band The Social Band The Role of Applications How to Move toward Unified Theories of Cognition References Name Index Subject Index
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paper_title: Flight-deck automation: promises and problems

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Modern microprocessor technology and display systems make it entirely feasible to automate many of the flight-deck functions previously performed manually. There are many benefits to be derived from automation; the question today is not whether a function can be automated, but whether it should be, due to various human factors issues. It is highly questionable whether total system safety is always enhanced by allocating functions to automatic devices rather than human operators, and there is some reason to believe that flight-deck automation may have already passed its optimum point. This is an age-old question in the human factors profession, and there are few guidelines available to the system designer. This paper presents the state-of-the-art in human factors in flight-deck automation, identifies a number of critical problem areas, and offers broad design guidelines. Some automation-related aircraft accidents and incidents are discussed as examples of human factors problems in automated flight.
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paper_title: Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse

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This paper addresses theoretical, empirical, and analytical studies pertaining to human use, misuse, disuse, and abuse of automation technology. Use refers to the voluntary activation or disengagement of automation by human operators. Trust, mental workload, and risk can influence automation use, but interactions between factors and large individual differences make prediction of automation use difficult. Misuse refers to over reliance on automation, which can result in failures of monitoring or decision biases. Factors affecting the monitoring of automation include workload, automation reliability and consistency, and the saliency of automation state indicators. Disuse, or the neglect or underutilization of automation, is commonly caused by alarms that activate falsely. This often occurs because the base rate of the condition to be detected is not considered in setting the trade-off between false alarms and omissions. Automation abuse, or the automation of functions by designers and implementation by man...
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paper_title: Adaptive Automation of a Dynamic Control Task Based on Secondary Task Workload Measurement

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Adaptive automation (AA) has been proposed as a method for regulating human workload and abating out-of-the-loop performance problems in complex systems control. The majority of AA or adaptive manual control studies, to this point, have facilitated control allocations using either preprogrammed schemes based on desired system performance, comparisons of human performance with established goals, or psychophysical variable monitoring to represent workload levels and determine appropriate control allocations for moderating workload. This study further explored the psychophysical assessment approach by using a secondary task measure of workload to facilitate control allocations in a complex primary task. An experiment was conducted in which participants performed a secondary gauge-monitoring task along with a simulated radar monitoring and target elimination task. Differences in single-secondary task performance and performance observed while also functioning in the primary task were used to direct operator-m...
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paper_title: Trust, control strategies and allocation of function in human-machine systems.

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As automated controllers supplant human intervention in controlling complex systems, the operators' role often changes from that of an active controller to that of a supervisory controller. Acting as supervisors, operators can choose between automatic and manual control. Improperly allocating function between automatic and manual control can have negative consequences for the performance of a system. Previous research suggests that the decision to perform the job manually or automatically depends, in part, upon the trust the operators invest in the automatic controllers. This paper reports an experiment to characterize the changes in operators' trust during an interaction with a semi-automatic pasteurization plant, and investigates the relationship between changes in operators' control strategies and trust. A regression model identifies the causes of changes in trust, and a 'trust transfer function' is developed using time series analysis to describe the dynamics of trust. Based on a detailed analysis of operators' strategies in response to system faults we suggest a model for the choice between manual and automatic control, based on trust in automatic controllers and self-confidence in the ability to control the system manually.
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paper_title: The effects of level of automation and adaptive automation on human performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task

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This paper extends previous research on two approaches to human-centred automation: (1) intermediate levels of automation (LOAs) for maintaining operator involvement in complex systems control and facilitating situation awareness; and (2) adaptive automation (AA) for managing operator workload through dynamic control allocations between the human and machine over time. Some empirical research has been conducted to examine LOA and AA independently, with the objective of detailing a theory of human-centred automation. Unfortunately, no previous work has studied the interaction of these two approaches, nor has any research attempted to systematically determine which LOAs should be used in adaptive systems and how certain types of dynamic function allocations should be scheduled over time. The present research briefly reviews the theory of human-centred automation and LOA and AA approaches. Building on this background, an initial study was presented that attempts to address the conjuncture of these two approa...
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paper_title: Level of automation effects on performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task

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Various levels of automation (LOA) designating the degree of human operator and computer control were explored within the context of a dynamic control task as a means of improving overall human/machine performance. Automated systems have traditionally been explored as binary function allocations; either the human or the machine is assigned to a given task. More recently, intermediary levels of automation have been discussed as a means of maintaining operator involvement in system performance, leading to improvements in situation awareness and reductions in out-of-the-loop performance problems. A LOA taxonomy applicable to a wide range of psychomotor and cognitive tasks is presented here. The taxonomy comprises various schemes of generic control system function allocations. The functions allocated to a human operator and/or computer included monitoring displays, generating processing options, selecting an 'optimal' option and implementing that option. The impact of the LOA taxonomy was assessed within a dynamic and complex cognitive control task by measuring its effect on human/system performance, situation awareness and workload. Thirty subjects performed simulation trials involving various levels of automation. Several automation failures occurred and out-of-the-loop performance decrements were assessed. Results suggest that, in terms of performance, human operators benefit most from automation of the implementation portion of the task, but only under normal operating conditions; in contrast, removal of the operator from task implementation is detrimental to performance recovery if the automated system fails. Joint human/system option generation significantly degraded performance in comparison to human or automated option generation alone. Lower operator workload and higher situation awareness were observed under automation of the decision making portion of the task (i.e. selection of options), although human/system performance was only slightly improved. The implications of these findings for the design of automated systems are discussed.
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paper_title: The Out-of-the-Loop Performance Problem and Level of Control in Automation

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The out-of-the-loop performance problem, a major potential consequence of automation, leaves operators of automated systems handicapped in their ability to take over manual operations in the event of automation failure. This is attributed to a possible loss of skills and of situation awareness (SA) arising from vigilance and complacency problems, a shift from active to passive information processing, and change in feedback provided to the operator. We studied the automation of a navigation task using an expert system and demonstrated that low SA corresponded with out-of-the-loop performance decrements in decision time following a failure of the expert system. Level of operator control in interacting with automation is a major factor in moderating this loss of SA. Results indicated that the shift from active to passive processing was most likely responsible for decreased SA under automated conditions.
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paper_title: Ironies of Automation

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Abstract This paper discusses the ways in which automation of industrial processes may expand rather than eliminate problems with the human operator. Some comments will be made on methods of alleviating these problems within the 'classic' approach of leaving the operator with responsibility for abnormal conditions, and on the potential for continued use of the human operator for on-line decision-making within human-computer collaboration.
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paper_title: HOW IN THE WORLD DID WE EVER GET INTO THAT MODE? MODE ERROR AND AWARENESS IN SUPERVISORY CONTROL

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New technology is flexible in the sense that it provides practitioners with a large number of functions and options for carrying out a given task under different circumstances. However, this flexibility has a price. Because the human supervisor must choose the mode best suited to a particular situation, he or she must know more than before about system operations and the operation of the system as well as satisfy new monitoring and attentional demands to track which mode the automation is in and what it is doing to manage the underlying processes. When designers proliferate modes without supporting these new cognitive demands, new mode-related error forms and failure paths can result. Mode error has been discussed in human-computer interaction for some time; however, the increased capabilities and the high level of autonomy of new automated systems appear to have created new types of mode-related problems. The authors explore these new aspects based on findings from their own and related studies of human-automation interaction. In particular, investigators draw on empirical data from a series of studies of pilot-automation interaction in commercial glass cockpit aircraft to illustrate the nature, circumstances, and potential consequences of mode awareness problems in supervisory control of automated resources. The result is an expanded view of mode error that considers the new demands imposed by more automated systems.
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paper_title: Time, Interaction, and Performance (TIP) A Theory of Groups

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This article presents a theory of groups. The theory takes a more molarperspective on groups than has often been the case in group research. It gives special emphasis to temporal processes in group interaction and task performance. The three main sections of the article present the theory as a series of propositions about the nature of groups, temporal processes in group behavior, and temporal aspects of interaction, respectively. The final section presents brief comments on some implications and potential applications of the theory.
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paper_title: Using Goal Directed Task Analysis with Army Brigade Officer Teams

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A greater understanding of team cognitive processes can be facilitated by identifying the individual goals of the team members and their situation awareness (SA) requirements. In some environments, such as military operations, the shear complexity, size, and composition of the team make this research quite challenging. Using a form of cognitive task analysis, we have developed an approach to address some of these team issues. In this paper we discuss the use of goal directed cognitive task analysis (GDTA) to obtain an accurate depiction of the SA requirements and key goals for several brigade officers. We further discuss how this information is being used to address team issues such as designing systems for enhancing team performance and decision making with Army brigade officers.
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paper_title: Team Coordination and Breakdowns in a Real-Life Stressful Environment:

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This paper describes a study of team coordination and its breakdowns in a complex and dynamic work environment. Sixteen videotaped cases of real-life trauma patient resuscitation in a trauma center's patient admitting areas were analyzed. The findings from the study suggest that highly skilled work teams used a variety of ways to coordinate, many of which were non-verbal and implicit. Breakdowns in coordination occurred in several stressful situations, and the lack of explicit, verbal communications could be a major contributing factor. The paper characterizes the situations where coordination breakdowns were observed, and recommends that the team training be targeted at those situations where verbal communications are essential yet team coordination is prone to breakdowns.
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paper_title: Virtual team interaction styles: assessment and effects

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The virtual team is an increasingly common strategic work unit of many organizations. The virtual team, via various computer-based media (e.g. email, groupware) and noncomputer-based media (e.g. telephone), can interact and collaborate though separated by distance and time. One approach to their study is determining whether factors that drive conventional team performance also exist in the virtual environment. Interaction style has been shown to have a great effect on conventional teams' ability to achieve solution quality and solution acceptance on collaborative decision tasks (Hirokawa, 1985; Watson & Michaelsen 1988; Hirokawa & Gouran, 1989; Cooke & Szumal, 1994). Group interaction styles affect communication and thus team performance by facilitating or hindering the exchange of information among group members. These styles reflect an aggregation of behavioral traits of individual team members, rooted in their individual personalities. The interaction style of conventional teams can be reliably assessed, and from that assessment, performance on collaborative decision tasks can be predicted. This study investigated whether or not virtual teams who collaborate via computer-mediated communication also exhibit similar interaction styles, and whether the styles have the same effects on their decision performance and process outcomes as they do with conventional teams. Members of 42 virtual teams completed an intellective decision first individually and then collaboratively. Post-task measures captured individual and team performance data (e.g. solution quality) as well as process perceptions (individual acceptance of the team solution). An additional post-task tool was able to accurately capture the teams' interaction style. Results show that the interaction styles of virtual teams affect both performance and process outcomes in ways that are directionally consistent with those exhibited by conventional face-to-face teams. Implications include recommending the methodology for virtual team management, and suggestions for future research are offered.
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paper_title: Telerobotics, Automation, and Human Supervisory Control

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Theory and models of supervisory control - frameworks and fragments supervisory control of anthropomorphic teleoperators for space, undersea, and other applications supervisory control in transportation, process, and other automated systems social implications of telerobotics, automation, and supervisory control.
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paper_title: Using Work-Centered Specifications to Integrate Cognitive Requirements into Software Development

paper_content:

As Cognitive Engineering (CE) becomes mainstream, methods are needed to better integrate the unique cognitive requirements of the target users of a Human Computer Interface (HCI) into software development requirements and testing. This paper discusses a preliminary work-centered specification describing the key cognitive HCI elements of a complex work system that enhance situation awareness (SA) and decision making. The specification provides traceability from the cognitive requirements obtained during knowledge acquisition to specific display elements in the final design. This specification approach can be applied to any CE methodology. We are applying it to a working prototype currently being integrated into an operational system. We have elicited feedback from developers of the operational system regarding the content and usefulness of the specification as it applies to their software development processes. This paper highlights critical aspects of our inaugural work-centered specification.
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Title: Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making: An Overview and Future Course

Section 1: Cognitive Systems Engineering
Description 1: This section discusses the origins, principles, and methodologies of Cognitive Systems Engineering (CSE), emphasizing its systems perspective and the joint cognitive system concept.

Section 2: Naturalistic Decision Making
Description 2: This section covers the development of Naturalistic Decision Making (NDM), its critique of previous decision theories, and the focus on real-world decision-making processes.

Section 3: Ecological Interface Design
Description 3: This section explains the principles of Ecological Interface Design (EID) and Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA), their roots in ecological psychology, and their application in system design.

Section 4: Mental Constructs
Description 4: This section elaborates on key mental constructs such as situation awareness, mental workload, and mental models, and their role in CEDM.

Section 5: Computational Modeling of Cognition
Description 5: This section describes the use of computational models and simulations to predict human behavior and enhance cognitive theories within the CEDM field.

Section 6: Automation
Description 6: This section discusses the challenges and research efforts related to automation and decision support systems within CEDM.

Section 7: Collaborative Work
Description 7: This section addresses the cognitive dynamics of teamwork in complex, real-world settings and the development of training and technologies to support collaboration.

Section 8: Summary
Description 8: This section summarizes the various branches of the CEDM field and how they complement each other.

Section 9: Future Directions
Description 9: This section outlines potential future developments in CEDM, emphasizing the need for practical methods, effective design translation, and expansion into new domains.

Section 10: Purpose and Scope of the Journal
Description 10: This section describes the journal's role in unifying diverse research approaches and outlines the three main tracks for paper submissions: Cognition in Context, Studies in Simulations and Synthetic Environments, and Design of Complex and Joint Cognitive Systems.

Section 11: Cognition in Context Track: Scope, Criteria, and Objectives
Description 11: This section provides details about the scope, criteria, and objectives for the Cognition in Context track, emphasizing ecological and field studies.

Section 12: Studies in Simulations and Synthetic Environments Track: Scope, Criteria, and Objectives
Description 12: This section outlines the focus of the Studies in Simulations and Synthetic Environments track, highlighting the importance of simulation-based research.

Section 13: Design of Complex and Joint Cognitive Systems Track: Scope, Criteria, and Objectives
Description 13: This section focuses on the Design of Complex and Joint Cognitive Systems track, discussing the importance of innovative system designs and their theoretical rationale.

Section 14: JCEDM Online Forum
Description 14: This section introduces the online companion to the journal, describing its purpose and features for enhancing the CEDM community.