A Review of Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications in Agriculture and Food Industry: State of the Art and Current Trends
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paper_title: A Wireless Sensor Network Prototype for Environmental Monitoring in Greenhouses

paper_content:

Wireless sensor network technology is very suitable for distributed data collecting and monitoring in tough environments such as greenhouse or cropland. This paper presents a wireless sensor network prototype with two-part framework for greenhouses. In the first part, several sensor nodes were used to measure temperature, light and soil moisture. A sink node with embedded terminal based on ARM processor was installed indoor together for collecting and transferring data wirelessly to a remote PC using short message service. The other part consists of GSM module and the management software based on database running on the remote PC. Some experiments results including sensor data, radio propagation loss and radio range are also expounded in this paper.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks: A survey on the state of the art and the 802.15.4 and ZigBee standards

paper_content:

Wireless sensor networks are an emerging technology for low-cost, unattended monitoring of a wide range of environments. Their importance has been enforced by the recent delivery of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for the physical and MAC layers and the forthcoming ZigBee standard for the network and application layers. The fast progress of research on energy efficiency, networking, data management and security in wireless sensor networks, and the need to compare with the solutions adopted in the standards motivates the need for a survey on this field.
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paper_title: A Wireless Sensor Network for the Nursery and Greenhouse Industry

paper_content:

John D. Lea-Cox , George Kantor , Joshua Anhalt , Andrew Ristvey 3 and David S. Ross 4 1 Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture University of Maryland, College Park, MD USA 20742 2 The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburg PA 15213 3 Wye Research and Education Center University of Maryland, Queenstown, MD USA 21658 4 Department of Environmental Science and Technology University of Maryland, College Park, MD USA 20742 JLC@umd.edu
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paper_title: Bluetooth technology: an exploratory study of the analysis and implementation frameworks

paper_content:

Abstract Bluetooth is still a relatively new technology to the wireless world. It is designed for wireless communication between a wide variety of different Bluetooth enabled devices; from computers and PDAs to GPS systems and heart monitoring devices. There are a growing number of companies continually adopting this technology. As Bluetooth becomes a standard feature in many products that we use everyday, it seems that the use of the technology will grow even faster in the future. This paper provides an analysis of the technology's features and how companies should go about deciding if they should adopt Bluetooth or another wireless alternative. First, the paper talks about what Bluetooth is and how it compares with other wireless standards. It then goes into an analysis of how feasible integrating Bluetooth into a business would be, and how some industries are already using the technology. These case studies are followed by a look at what steps need to be taken through the implementation cycle, and deciding what technology makes a better fit for a business. The paper ends with a look at the pros and cons of Bluetooth, as well as a look into what the future may hold for this technology.
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paper_title: Simultaneous Web-based real-time temperature monitoring using multiple wireless sensor networks

paper_content:

We outline a system that allows simultaneous temperature monitoring on two or more fishing vessels using multiple wireless sensor networks. The distribution of wireless temperature data loggers across a boat with an associated base station results in the fishing vessel being in effect an individual wireless sensor network. The existence of this wireless sensor network allows for real-time temperature monitoring with the temperature information being accessed over the Internet. Previously, Web-based real-time temperature monitoring of fish catches has used single sensor networks to monitor temperature, so a user could only monitor the temperature sensors of a single vessel. The system we outline allows for multiple sensor networks to be integrated and for a user to monitor temperature across two or more of these networks. Furthermore the system uses SMS to send warnings and to monitor recent temperature data. The system is built around a Web server and bespoke wireless data loggers operating over a GSM network
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paper_title: A2S: Automated Agriculture System based on WSN

paper_content:

This paper describes the results of real deployment of A S which consists of WSN(Wireless Sensor Network) to monitor and control the environments and a management sub-system to manage the WSN and provide various and convenient services to consumers with hand-held devices such as a PDA living a farming village. The WSN were deployed in greenhouses with melon and cabbage in Dongbu Handong Seed Research Center. A S was used to monitor the growing process of them and control the environment of the greenhouses. We acquired valuable experiences and ideas from this real deployment and operation of A S and believe that they can be useful in consumer electronics field such as home network as well as automated agriculture field. .
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paper_title: A two-layer wireless sensor network for remote sediment monitoring

paper_content:

A wireless data transmission system was developed to remotely monitor sediment runoff at a low-water crossing in real time. The system uses wireless motes and other devices to form a wireless sensor network to collect data from multiple sensors. The system also uses a “Stargate,” a single-board computer, as a gateway to manage and control data flow and wireless data transfer. The sensor signals are transmitted from an “aircard” on the Stargate to an Internet server through the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) provided by a commercial GSM phone system. Various types of antennae are used to boost the signal level in a radio-hostile environment. Both short- and long-distance wireless data communications were achieved. Power supplies for the motes, Stargate, and aircard were improved for reliable and robust outdoor applications. The application software was developed using Java, C, nesC, LabView, and SQL to ensure seamless data transfer and enable both on-site and remote monitoring. Remote field tests were carried out at different locations with different GPRS signal strengths and a variety of landscapes
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks: a survey

paper_content:

This paper describes the concept of sensor networks which has been made viable by the convergence of micro-electro-mechanical systems technology, wireless communications and digital electronics. First, the sensing tasks and the potential sensor networks applications are explored, and a review of factors influencing the design of sensor networks is provided. Then, the communication architecture for sensor networks is outlined, and the algorithms and protocols developed for each layer in the literature are explored. Open research issues for the realization of sensor networks are also discussed.
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paper_title: Study of Wireless-Sensor-Based Groundwater Monitoring Instrument

paper_content:

The paper designed a new groundwater-monitoring instrument based on the technology of wireless-sensor net. The new instrument monitors groundwater table and temperature through a sensor. An embedded singlechip processes the monitoring data and TC35, a GSM data module transfers the data wirelessly. Above mentioned compose the whole intelligent sensor net. The intelligent network sensor has the function of self-recognition and self-adjustment, meanwhile realizes the non-linearity compensating of sensor by using software technology. The wireless transmission module takes the low power loss AT89C51 chip as a core and has realized bidirectional communication between central node and sensor. The wireless sensor net adopts star topology and its central node may communicate with any ordinary nodes. The system has self-diagnosis function, once appears fault, the monitor system can receive the fault alarm and report automatically. This paper takes GSM public net as data transmission net and provides the convenience for system expansion and maintenance.
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paper_title: Bluetooth technology: an exploratory study of the analysis and implementation frameworks

paper_content:

Abstract Bluetooth is still a relatively new technology to the wireless world. It is designed for wireless communication between a wide variety of different Bluetooth enabled devices; from computers and PDAs to GPS systems and heart monitoring devices. There are a growing number of companies continually adopting this technology. As Bluetooth becomes a standard feature in many products that we use everyday, it seems that the use of the technology will grow even faster in the future. This paper provides an analysis of the technology's features and how companies should go about deciding if they should adopt Bluetooth or another wireless alternative. First, the paper talks about what Bluetooth is and how it compares with other wireless standards. It then goes into an analysis of how feasible integrating Bluetooth into a business would be, and how some industries are already using the technology. These case studies are followed by a look at what steps need to be taken through the implementation cycle, and deciding what technology makes a better fit for a business. The paper ends with a look at the pros and cons of Bluetooth, as well as a look into what the future may hold for this technology.
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paper_title: Wireless intelligent sensor networks for refrigerated vehicle

paper_content:

This paper presents an investigation into technologies of wireless intelligent sensor networks for refrigerated delivery vehicle. The investigation has reviewed the latest wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth and Zigbee, and artificial intelligent technologies such as neural network, fuzzy logic and neuro-fuzzy. A proposed solution of future sensor networks for cold chain area has been addressed.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks: A survey on the state of the art and the 802.15.4 and ZigBee standards

paper_content:

Wireless sensor networks are an emerging technology for low-cost, unattended monitoring of a wide range of environments. Their importance has been enforced by the recent delivery of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for the physical and MAC layers and the forthcoming ZigBee standard for the network and application layers. The fast progress of research on energy efficiency, networking, data management and security in wireless sensor networks, and the need to compare with the solutions adopted in the standards motivates the need for a survey on this field.
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paper_title: ZigBee and Bluetooth strengths and weaknesses for industrial applications

paper_content:

Most industry analysts are forecasting explosive growth in the use of wireless data network technologies in industrial applications. For both ZigBee and Bluetooth separate alliances of companies worked to develop specifications covering the network/link, security and application profile layers so that the commercial potential of the standards could be realized. Real industrial wireless networks are inevitably be hybrids including ZigBee/802.15.4 and Bluetooth in complementary roles that suit the characteristics of each. The key to success is in deploying the right wireless technologies for the requirements of the application and avoiding the temptation of trying to make one technology meet all needs.
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paper_title: Wireless sensors in agriculture and food industry-Recent development and future perspective

paper_content:

This paper presents an overviewon recent development of wireless sensor technologies and standards for wireless communications as applied to wireless sensors. Examples of wireless sensors and sensor networks applied in agriculture and food production for environmental monitoring, precision agriculture, M2M-based machine and process control, building and facility automation and RFID-based traceability systems are given. The paper also discusses advantages of wireless sensors and obstacles that prevent their fast adoption. Finally, based on an analysis of market growth, the paper discusses future trend of wireless sensor technology development in agriculture and food industry
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paper_title: Applying autonomous sensor systems in logistics—Combining sensor networks, RFIDs and software agents

paper_content:

New sensor, communication and software technologies are used to broaden the facilities of tracing and tracing systems for food transports. An embedded assessing unit detects from sensor data collected by a wireless network potential risks for the freight quality. The estimation of the current maturing state of agricultural products will be supported by measurements of the gaseous hormone ethylene as an indicator for the ripening processes. A miniaturized high-resolution gas chromatography is under construction. The system autonomously configures itself to a product specific supervision task based on data scanned by an RFID reader during freight loading. Mobile software agents accompany the freight along the supply chain. They pre-process the vast sensor data and submit only substantial changes to the freight owner.
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paper_title: The impact of radio frequency identification on supply chain facilities

paper_content:

Radio frequency identification or RFID has received much press of late, mainly due to the recent compliance mandates by many of the world’s largest retailers (Wal‐Mart, Tesco, Marks and Spencer, Target, etc.) and Gillette’s reported purchase of 500 million units last year. The technology has been proclaimed to ‘lead to an entirely new relationship between people and things’ (J. D. Markman, ‘Invest in the Greatest Thing since the Bar Code’, MSN Money ‐ SuperModels, 25th June, 2003; http:// moneycentral.msn.com/content/P50823.asp). Others have said ‘we think it will be bigger than the Internet. All the Web did was connect computers to computers. That’s not as big as connecting things to computers’ (M. Roberti, publisher of RFID Journal, in interview with Markman, above). Promoters describe a supply chain where all assets are in perfect visibility through production, distribution, retail and consumption. According to one analyst, the world will need about half the warehouse space it needs today (P. Jilek, ‘Corporate Sector Focus, A Killer App?’ CSFB Investment Strategy, 17th June, 2003). This paper introduces RFID technology and its potential implications. Although the technology is compelling, there are serious nearterm challenges. Finally, the paper looks at the impact RFID could have on supply chain facilities and the future demand for industrial real estate.
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paper_title: An RFID reader with onboard sensing capability for monitoring fruit quality

paper_content:

Abstract We report on the development of an RFID reader with onboard micro-machined metal oxide gas sensors aimed at monitoring climacteric fruit during transport and vending. The developed platform integrates a commercial off the shelf inductive coupling RF transceiver in the 13.56 MHz band, fully compliant with the ISO15693 standard, micro-hotplate gas sensors, driving and readout electronics. By operating the sensors at a fixed temperature, we show that the reader could work as an alarm level monitor able to assess the conservation stage of apples. Furthermore, if the sensors are operated under an optimised temperature-modulation mode, we show that accurate calibration models for the species that are relevant to assess the conservation stage of apples (i.e., ethylene, acetaldehyde and ethanol) can be built.
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paper_title: Spatial Identification of Animals in Different Breeding Systems to Monitor Behavior

paper_content:

The aim of this paper was to focus the evolution of the application of technologies to identify and monitor animals. In time, a lot of various solutions have been thought up in order to record spatial data and time spotting of the animals in grazing areas. From first radio-telemetry approaches in the fifties to automatic photographing or videotaping, technology has made huge progress thanks to the digital revolution. Instruments have become more sophisticated, precise and automatic. The analysis of their capacity and limits could be useful to offer a complete overview about new opportunities for planning good research methodology. Bibliographical studies point out analogies, differences and technological advances of different systems of identification useful both for wild and domestic animal populations. The survey of conventional radio technologies, satellite telemetry, and RFID systems allows investigation of the real potentials and new opportunities of different solutions. In order to collect data to conduct a comparative analysis, new RFID products were tested on pigs on an outdoor farm located in a hilly area in the north of Italy. The preliminary results of electronic identification system to monitor pig behavior are presented in this paper. Outcomes of the paper trace the working out of new features of these technologies: automatic elaboration of databases, precision of remote sensing, minimizing instrument and human mistakes. All these characteristics enable researchers to operate widely and efficiently. Furthermore, researchers will be able to integrate the technologies in order to create an environmental analysis methodology aimed to optimize and rationalize animal management performance.
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paper_title: A 5.1-/spl mu/W UHF RFID tag chip integrated with sensors for wireless environmental monitoring

paper_content:

An RF-powered transponder with temperature and photo sensors is designed and fabricated for environmental monitoring. The transponder gathers power from external ISM (860-960MHz) band RF signal and senses ambient temperature and light. It contains a supply voltage generator, a temperature-compensated ring oscillator, an oversampling synchronizer, a PTAT temperature sensor and an abrupt transition buffered photo sensor. Its internal clock frequency has variation less than 7% for 1.5-V supply voltage and 90/spl deg/C temperature change. The transponder occupies 0.4mm/sup 2/ with 0.25-/spl mu/m CMOS process and dissipates only 5.14-/spl mu/W during active state.
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paper_title: Application of RFID technologies in the temperature mapping of the pineapple supply chain

paper_content:

Current temperature tracking systems lack the convenience and accuracy demanded by the real conditions of a fast-paced produce supply chain. In recent years RFID technology has been suggested to be an enhanced method for temperature tracking because of its many benefits, such as using little instrumentation, offering the quick readings necessary for real-time decision making, and allowing the capture of long-duration temperature profiles. However its limitation lies in that probeless systems fail to provide accurate temperature readings in some of the critical points of the pallet and the load. The objective of this work was to study the use of RFID in temperature monitoring by comparing the performance of RFID temperature tags versus conventional temperature tracking methods, as well as RFID temperature tags with probe versus RFID temperature tags without probes and their utilization along the supply chain. Therefore, the temperature mapping of a shipping trial comprising pallets of crownless pineapples instrumented using different RFID temperature dataloggers and traditional temperature dataloggers and packed in two kinds of packages (corrugated boxes and reusable plastic containers) inside a container was performed. The results showed that RFID temperature tags are analogous with regards to accuracy to the conventional methods, but have a superior performance because they allow quick instrumentation and data recovery, and the possibility of accessing the sensor program and data at any point of the supply chain without line of sight. In addition, the use of RFID tags with probe was justified by its role in determining the efficiency of the pre-cooling operations and low temperature abuse tracking during transportation and refrigerated storage; while the RFID tags without probe proved useful for high temperature abuse monitoring during transportation and refrigerated storage. The creation of a RFID sensor with a probe, able to record both ambient and pulp temperatures simultaneously is suggested.
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paper_title: Rfid Technologies: Supply-Chain Applications and Implementation Issues

paper_content:

Abstract RFID technologies hold the promise of closing some of the information gaps in the supply chain, especially in retailing and logistics. As a mobile technology, RFID can enable “process freedoms” and real-time visibility into supply chains. This article provides an introduction to the technology, several case examples, and implementation guidelines for managers based on published reports.
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paper_title: Spatial temperature profiling by semi-passive RFID loggers for perishable food transportation

paper_content:

Perishable food products are at risk of suffering various damages along the cold chain. The parties involved should control and monitor the conditions of goods in order to ensure their quality for consumers and to comply with all legal requirements. Among environmental parameters during transport, temperature is the most important in prolonging the shelf life of the products. Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) is an emergent technology that has proven its suitability for tracking and tracing in logistics. This paper shows how miniaturized RFID temperature loggers can be adapted to analyze the amount of local deviations, detect temperature gradients, and estimate the minimum number of sensors that are necessary for reliable monitoring inside a truck or container. These devices are useful tools for improving the control during the transport chain and detecting weaknesses by identifying specific problem areas where corrective actions are necessitated. In a first step, the RFID tags were tested by studying the temperature distribution in a pallet. Then, 15 shipments from a wholesale company in Germany in compartmented trucks were monitored, covering different temperature range conditions. During transport, several temperature differences were found in the same compartment. Using a factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) the influence of different factors has been studied, such as: the location of the logger, type of truck, and external temperature. The shelf life, or keeping quality model, was applied to the recorded temperature profiles. Suggestions for future research areas are also discussed.
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paper_title: Low-Cost RFID Threshold Shock Sensors

paper_content:

This paper describes a battery-free threshold shock sensor with wireless readout via RFID circuitry. The entire package is designed to provide low-cost sensors for monitoring shock loads in applications such as shipping. The sensor is based on a mechanical bistable mechanism laser-cut from a single Delrin layer which switches states when exposed to accelerations above a threshold. The sensor was tested using quasi-static accelerations in a centrifuge, pulsed accelerations from an impact event, and vibration (sinusoidal) accelerations on a shaker table. Measured threshold accelerations were similar in magnitude for the three load types, although they varied slightly due to dynamic effects. This phenomenon was further explored using a dynamic model of the sensor. Threshold accelerations in the range of 30-50 G's were measured, and these values can be varied by changing the mass of the accelerometer's outer frame. Wireless readout was successfully demonstrated by using the mechanical accelerometer as an electrical switch connected to the sensor input of an RFID chip.
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paper_title: Functional antenna integrated with relative humidity sensor using synthesised polyimide for passive RFID sensing

paper_content:

A new type of antenna with an RH (relative humidity) sensing function using a modified polyimide is proposed for passive RFID sensing. Designed to operate at a frequency that depends on the relative humidity level, the proposed antenna is a passive device that physically and functionally combines an antenna with an RH sensor. The compactness and cost-efficiency of the antenna enables it to realise a passive tag of the RFID sensing without an additional sensor component
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paper_title: Radio-frequency tag with optoelectronic interface for distributed wireless chemical and biological sensor applications

paper_content:

Abstract A battery-free, wireless optical chemical sensor with integral contactless power and data link is demonstrated. The chemical sensor and its optoelectronic interface form an integral part of a radio-frequency tag which we have developed specifically for use as a wireless chemical and biological sensor, and which is compatible with the International Standards Organisation ISO15693 radio-frequency identification (RFID) protocol. The chemical sensor, optoelectronic interface, RFID processor and antenna are designed and fabricated on a credit-card sized tag which is operated in a passive mode using wireless energy transfer to power the sensor and read its response. The optical chemical sensing capability of the RFID tag is demonstrated by measuring pH using a thin sol–gel film containing a pH-sensitive indicator dye, bromocresol green (BCG), as a model chemical sensor interface. The film exhibits a colourimetric response to pH in the range 5.0–8.5 pH units. The optoelectronic interface of the tag comprises a silicon photodiode and two light emitting diode (LED) sources measuring the optical absorption of the pH-induced colour change of the thin film at two discrete wavelengths. The pH response curve and the p K value of the immobilised indicator were determined using the RFID tag system and compared with the results obtained using a standard laboratory spectrophotometer. A good correlation between the measurements was achieved, demonstrating the viable integration of an optical absorption based chemical sensor onto a passive RFID tag. By combining the relative advantages of simple, tuneable, optical sol–gel sensing chemistries and integrating these onto the RFID wireless communication platform, it is possible to envisage in the near future a range of new wireless sensors for distributed industrial, scientific and medical applications, in particular for smart packaging, personal (wearable) diagnostics, and infrastructure-related applications.
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paper_title: RFID smart tag for traceability and cold chain monitoring of foods: Demonstration in an intercontinental fresh fish logistic chain

paper_content:

The main objective of this work was the validation of a RFID smart tag developed for real-time traceability and cold chain monitoring for food applications. This RFID based system consists of a smart tag and a commercial reader/writer. The smart tag, attached on the product to be tracked integrates light, temperature and humidity sensors, a microcontroller, a memory chip, low power electronics and an antenna for RFID communications. These sensor logged data can be stored in the memory together with traceability data. A commercial reader/writer was used for reading and writing data on the smart tag, with a wireless reading distance of 10 cm, in real-time at any time of the food chain. The results concerning a demonstration of the system along an intercontinental fresh fish logistic chain are reported here. These results proved that this system presents important advantages regarding conventional traceability tools and currently used temperature data loggers such as more memory, reusability, no human participation, no tag visibility needed for reading, possibility of reading many tags at the same time and more resistance to humidity and environmental conditions.
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paper_title: Radio frequency identification technology: applications, technical challenges and strategies

paper_content:

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to discuss the technology behind RFID systems, identify the applications of RFID in various industries, and discuss the technical challenges of RFID implementation and the corresponding strategies to overcome those challenges.Design/methodology/approach – Comprehensive literature review and integration of the findings from literature.Findings – Technical challenges of RFID implementation include tag cost, standards, tag and reader selection, data management, systems integration and security. The corresponding solution is suggested for each challenge.Research limitations/implications – A survey type research is needed to validate the results.Practical implications – This research offers useful technical guidance for companies which plan to implement RFID and we expect it to provide the motivation for much future research in this area.Originality/value – As the infancy of RFID applications, few researches have existed to address the technical issues of RFID implementat...
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paper_title: Pilot study to monitor body temperature of dairy cows with a rumen bolus

paper_content:

A bolus containing a mote (temperature sensor, processor and radio) was placed in the rumen of a fistulated cow to monitor body temperature. Rumen temperature was measured every minute and stored in the internal buffer of the mote. The measured temperature was also transmitted to a base station by the mote every minute. A relay mote mounted on the cows' left front leg assisted transmission of the information from rumen to the base station. Cow behaviour affected the success rate of data transmission. The base station received more than 50% of the transmitted data when the cow was standing. Success rate was lower than 40% when the cow was lying down. Rumen temperature varied diurnally with night-time temperatures higher than day-time temperatures. Drinking events resulted in distinct decreases of the rumen temperature. It is concluded that for the application of internal sensor motes wireless communication through the body and living environment of the animal works but improvements are possible. Research should also focus on the interpretation of sensor data on mote level for optimizing data recording frequency and transmission of data to dairy management practice.
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paper_title: Performance Assessment of Wireless Sensor Networks in Agricultural Settings

paper_content:

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) utilizes radios operating primarily in the 900 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequency bands. In general, as frequency increases, bandwidth increases allowing for higher data rates but power requirements are also higher and transmission distance is considerably shorter. In general, depending on the operating environment, significant signal loss can occur at these frequencies particularly when the radios require line-of-sight for optimal performance, with 2.4 GHz more susceptible than 900 MHz. For agricultural applications, WSN must be able to operate in a range of environments, from bare fields to orchards, from flat to complex topography, and over a range of weather conditions, all of which affect radio performance. However, there are limited data on radio performance as affected by agricultural setting and no standard tests are available for quantifying WSN performance in agricultural applications. Using a low powered, 10 mW 900 MHz frequency hopping spread spectrum radio, we developed a range of tests intended to quantify the performance of agricultural WSN in fields, vineyards, and orchards over a range of crop and weather conditions. Performance data include different metrics of radio performance such as packet delivery and signal strength along with power consumption tests under different supply strategies. This paper evaluates the extent to which various tests can be used to quantify WSN performance and how WSN perform under various cropping systems.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks in precision agriculture

paper_content:

Control valve assemblies for a lock-up clutch in a vehicle drive system, wherein a torque converter normally couples a prime mover with a transmission, vary the degree of engagement of the lock-up clutch with respect to prime mover rotational speed within a predetermined speed range. In the control valve assemblies, a centrifugal valve selectively communicates the fluid pressure operated lock-up clutch with a source of pressure and a fluid drain, with the centrifugal valve having rotor means drivably interconnected with the prime mover. Spool means slidably received within a rotor bore are outwardly displaceable with a first force while resilient bias means oppose and equalize this first force when the prime mover reaches a first predetermined speed, with valve means regulating the flow of pressurized fluid from the rotor means. Reaction means augment the force of the bias means and permits a gradual engagement of the lock-up clutch which progressively increases until the prime mover attains a second higher predetermined speed at which time the lock-up clutch is fully engaged. In one instance a modulating balance valve varies the pressure in the lock-up clutch consistent with the pressure produced by the action of the centrifugal valve.
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paper_title: Performance of ZigBee-Based wireless sensor nodes for real-time monitoring of fruit logistics

paper_content:

Progress in fruit logistics requires an increasing number of measurements to be performed in refrigerated chambers and during transport. Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are a promising solution in this field. This paper explores the potential of wireless sensor technology for monitoring fruit storage and transport conditions. It focuses in particular on ZigBee technology with special regard to two different commercial modules (Xbow and Xbee). The main contributions of the paper relate to the analysis of battery life under cooling conditions and the evaluation of the reliability of communications and measurements. Psychrometric equations were used for quick assessment of changes in the absolute water content of air, allowing estimation of future water loss, and detection of condensation on the product.
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paper_title: ZigBee-based wireless sensor networks for monitoring animal presence and pasture time in a strip of new grass

paper_content:

The problem of online monitoring of cows' presence and pasture time in an extended area covered by a strip of new grass using wireless sensor networks has been addressed. The total pasture time in the extended area was estimated by measuring the pasture time in a specific part of that area called the gateway connectivity area where sensor nodes mounted on the cows could communicate directly with a gateway. Packet loss causes a node that was present in the connectivity range of the gateway frequently to be classified as an absent node. Therefore, a moving average window with optimal window length and threshold was designed to minimize the misclassification. As the measured pasture time in the gateway connectivity area was an underestimation of the total pasture time in the extended area, an area-based correction factor, same for all individual animals was applied. As only 23% of the animals in a herd were equipped to be monitored by sensor nodes, investigations to evaluate if the monitored number of animals could represent the whole herd were of great importance. To accomplish the investigations, the number of monitored cows by sensor nodes and the total number of cows (with and without sensor nodes) in the extended area were counted manually each minute over a period of 3h during 3 days. Pearson chi-square test of goodness of fit showed that the number of cows in the extended area was normally distributed. Furthermore, a statistical test showed that the mean number of monitored cows in the extended area and the mean of total number of cows in the extended area corresponded with the percentage of monitored cows by sensor nodes in the herd (23%).
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paper_title: WSN Link Budget Analysis for Precision Agriculture

paper_content:

The reliability and efficiency of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are dependent on the radio link power budget between network nodes. WSNs used in precision agriculture present an interesting problem given the link power budget is dependent on crop growth and terrain in addition to more common factors such as node spacing and antenna height. A generally accepted value for signal margin in a typical link budget is a received signal strength indication (RSSI) > 15dB above receiver sensitivity. This paper discusses the results of an experimental investigation of RSSI over irregular terrain within a range of node distances and antenna heights. Experimental data are compared to predictions from an irregular terrain electromagnetic propagation model (ITS) with good agreement. Preliminary data on propagation losses due to crop canopy is presented and a demonstration of link power budget analysis using the open-source ITS model is given.
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paper_title: Performance of ZigBee-Based wireless sensor nodes for real-time monitoring of fruit logistics

paper_content:

Progress in fruit logistics requires an increasing number of measurements to be performed in refrigerated chambers and during transport. Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are a promising solution in this field. This paper explores the potential of wireless sensor technology for monitoring fruit storage and transport conditions. It focuses in particular on ZigBee technology with special regard to two different commercial modules (Xbow and Xbee). The main contributions of the paper relate to the analysis of battery life under cooling conditions and the evaluation of the reliability of communications and measurements. Psychrometric equations were used for quick assessment of changes in the absolute water content of air, allowing estimation of future water loss, and detection of condensation on the product.
---
paper_title: Wireless sensor networks: a survey

paper_content:

This paper describes the concept of sensor networks which has been made viable by the convergence of micro-electro-mechanical systems technology, wireless communications and digital electronics. First, the sensing tasks and the potential sensor networks applications are explored, and a review of factors influencing the design of sensor networks is provided. Then, the communication architecture for sensor networks is outlined, and the algorithms and protocols developed for each layer in the literature are explored. Open research issues for the realization of sensor networks are also discussed.
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paper_title: WSN Link Budget Analysis for Precision Agriculture

paper_content:

The reliability and efficiency of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are dependent on the radio link power budget between network nodes. WSNs used in precision agriculture present an interesting problem given the link power budget is dependent on crop growth and terrain in addition to more common factors such as node spacing and antenna height. A generally accepted value for signal margin in a typical link budget is a received signal strength indication (RSSI) > 15dB above receiver sensitivity. This paper discusses the results of an experimental investigation of RSSI over irregular terrain within a range of node distances and antenna heights. Experimental data are compared to predictions from an irregular terrain electromagnetic propagation model (ITS) with good agreement. Preliminary data on propagation losses due to crop canopy is presented and a demonstration of link power budget analysis using the open-source ITS model is given.
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paper_title: Meeting Wide-Area Agricultural Data Acquisition And Control Challenges Through Zigbee Wireless Network Technology

paper_content:

The nature of agricultural environments presents significant challenges in data acquisition and ::: control (DAAC) that hinders both scientific research and process automation. Recent technological ::: advancements in wireless mesh network systems meet these challenges and open the door to agricultural ::: applications limited only to ones imagination. ZigBee, a wireless standard approved in early 2005, is ::: gaining wide acceptance in home and industry automation, but the characteristics of ZigBee make it an ideal ::: fit for meeting the challenges in agriculture. Devices may be placed hundreds of meters apart. The data and ::: control information is relayed (routed) from device to device allowing very large areas to be covered. These ::: low-cost, low-power consuming transceivers can be battery-operated for up to 5 years. Embedded ::: microcontroller technology allows for easy sensor interface and intelligent programming. This paper ::: provides information concerning the Zigbee specification, its benefits in agricultural use, and explores its ::: implementation in theoretical and actual agricultural environments.
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paper_title: Investigation of Wireless Sensor Networks for Precision Agriculture

paper_content:

Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a promising data mining solution of precision agriculture. ::: Instrumented with wireless sensors, it will become available to monitor the plants in real time, such ::: as air temperature, soil water content, and nutrition stress. The real time information of the fields will ::: provide a solid base for farmers to adjust strategies at any time. WSN will revolutionize the data ::: collection in agricultural research. However, there have been few researches on the applications of ::: WSN for agriculture. This work was focused on the investigation of wireless sensor networks in ::: agricultural applications. With a 2.4GHz wireless sensor node, the factors such as the coverage area ::: and the agricultural environment effects (bare soil, soybean, and corn fields) on the radio were ::: studied. The datasets were obtained from experiments. They could give an estimation of the sensors ::: to be deployed in different environments given a certain area.
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paper_title: Results of Wireless Sensor Network Transceiver Testing for Agricultural Applications

paper_content:

Radio frequency propagation for wireless sensor networks in agricultural environments faces challenges due to placement of nodes for wide-area mesh coverage and reliable link quality above crop canopies. Environmental conditions may also have a role in receiver signal strengths. IEEE 802.15.4/ZigBee XBee Pro 2.4GHz wireless sensor network devices were tested to determine distance and height limitations on signal strength. Testing of signal strength and link quality was performed to simulate effects of changing crop canopy heights. Data indicated attenuation and signal strength variance were dependent on line of sight (LOS) losses and heights less than the Fresnel zone radius. Testing of receiver signal strength during heavy precipitation indicated non-uniform losses and variance in signal strength across available frequency channels.
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paper_title: WSN Link Budget Analysis for Precision Agriculture

paper_content:

The reliability and efficiency of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are dependent on the radio link power budget between network nodes. WSNs used in precision agriculture present an interesting problem given the link power budget is dependent on crop growth and terrain in addition to more common factors such as node spacing and antenna height. A generally accepted value for signal margin in a typical link budget is a received signal strength indication (RSSI) > 15dB above receiver sensitivity. This paper discusses the results of an experimental investigation of RSSI over irregular terrain within a range of node distances and antenna heights. Experimental data are compared to predictions from an irregular terrain electromagnetic propagation model (ITS) with good agreement. Preliminary data on propagation losses due to crop canopy is presented and a demonstration of link power budget analysis using the open-source ITS model is given.
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paper_title: Application of Wireless Sensor Networks with GIS on the Soil Moisture Distribution Mapping

paper_content:

The development of microelectronics began in 1948 and continued with the miniaturisation of sensors during the last ten years. Today, microsystems which are used in silicon microtechnology are called microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Microsensors are defined as very small sized devices that convert humidity, moisture, temperature, pressure, pollutants, light intensity, etc. into electrical signal. Integration of MEMS with the radio frequency wireless communication technique put forward low power consuming, cheap and communicating small devices called wireless sensor networks (WSN). WSN have spatially distributed transceivers with microsensors that give the possibility of monitoring and collecting data easily and quickly. Nowadays, these devices are used in many different application areas like home automation, forest fire monitoring, traffic control, noise and pollutant detection in the crowded areas. Classical definition of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which is known by everybody is a computer based system that collects, stores, edits, analyses and displays spatial data. GIS is a powerful tool to access, analyse and evaluate large amounts of spatial data. The total time to get the results is a strategic part of the study. GIS is very efficient for reaching the correct conclusion in a fraction of time. WSN provides huge amount of data. If it would be possible to integrate the power of WSN with GIS, the data can be obtained in a very short time and the evaluation time can be decreased. In this study, integration of WSN with GIS is used for preparation of the soil moisture distribution map of the studied area. Wireless devices with moisture sensed sensors are located at predetermined locations. Geographic coordinates of these points are obtained with GPS. The sensed data is collected by using WSN and evaluated by using GIS. Finally, moisture distribution map of the soil is prepared. We claim that the irrigation of the soil can be done more efficiently by using this prepared map. Moreover, dry situation can be alarmed with this system and adaquate irrigation can be done just on time. In the following section, we briefly introduce wireless sensor networks. In Section 3, and Section 4 we describe the application of WSN for agricultural studies and the integration of WSN and GIS for agricultural fields, respectively. Finally, in Section 5, we conclude the paper with our recommendations.
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paper_title: DEVELOPMENT OF A “SMART” WIRELESS SOIL MONITORING SENSOR PROTOTYPE USING RFID TECHNOLOGY

paper_content:

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is commonly used for object or animal identification and ::: tracking. In this article, we explore the feasibility of its use in a rapid solution to wireless real-time monitoring of soil ::: properties. A lab prototype system for wireless measurement of temperature was developed using a commercially available ::: 13.56-MHz RFID passive tag. Temperature is sensed by a thermometer Integrated Circuit (IC) that produces a Pulse Width ::: Modulated (PWM) signal. An embedded Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller monitors this signal, produces averaged ::: measurements, and sends them to the RFID “tag” or transponder unit, hence the “smart” feature of the sensor. A receiving ::: unit also called the “interrogator” emits an electromagnetic field, which when detected by the passive RFID tag causes it ::: to transmit temperature data stored in its memory to the interrogator. The latter detects these measurements and sends them ::: to a data collection PC. The architecture of the sensor allows for the addition of other transducers without alteration of the ::: telemetry channel or significant changes to the sensor design. In benchmarking tests using a water bath over the course of ::: several days, measurement error over a range of 0 to 50.C showed a standard deviation of 0.5.C and a max error of 1.5.C. ::: Measurements also showed a high correlation (greater than 99%) with those obtained using a thermocouple. The architecture ::: of the developed wireless sensor prototype allows for additional soil transducers to be integrated into it without changes to ::: the sensor design. Potential applications for this sensor could be in the area of precision farming where soil properties such ::: as temperature might be monitored in a wireless manner. Although limitations in transmission range (less than one meter) ::: would require proximity reading of the sensor, using existing equipment that regularly pass over the field as a mount for the ::: interrogator, such as center pivot booms or sprayers, would increase feasibility of this telemetry strategy.
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paper_title: A two-layer wireless sensor network for remote sediment monitoring

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A wireless data transmission system was developed to remotely monitor sediment runoff at a low-water crossing in real time. The system uses wireless motes and other devices to form a wireless sensor network to collect data from multiple sensors. The system also uses a “Stargate,” a single-board computer, as a gateway to manage and control data flow and wireless data transfer. The sensor signals are transmitted from an “aircard” on the Stargate to an Internet server through the General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) provided by a commercial GSM phone system. Various types of antennae are used to boost the signal level in a radio-hostile environment. Both short- and long-distance wireless data communications were achieved. Power supplies for the motes, Stargate, and aircard were improved for reliable and robust outdoor applications. The application software was developed using Java, C, nesC, LabView, and SQL to ensure seamless data transfer and enable both on-site and remote monitoring. Remote field tests were carried out at different locations with different GPRS signal strengths and a variety of landscapes
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paper_title: Regional and on-farm wireless sensor networks for agricultural systems in Eastern Washington

paper_content:

Recent advances in sensor and wireless radio frequency (RF) technologies and their convergence with the Internet offer vast opportunities for development and application of sensor systems for agriculture. The objective was to create regional and on-farm sensor networks that provide remote, real-time monitoring and/or control of important farming operations that add value through improved efficiency and efficacy of targeted management practices. This paper describes hardware and software components of technologies we developed for regional and on-farm sensor networks and their implementation in two agricultural applications in Washington State, an agricultural weather network and an on-farm frost monitoring network. The regional sensor network consists of our AWN200 data logger equipped with a 900MHz, frequency hopping, spread spectrum (FHSS) radio configured into master-repeater-slave network for broad geographic coverage. A single master is configured with multiple repeaters to provide a RF line-of-sight telemetry backbone network. Independent network backbones from disparate geographic regions are then aggregated in a central database via standard Internet protocols for further processing and dissemination. Software includes firmware to operate the data logger and radio telemetry aspects of the AWN200 in an agricultural weather network application called AgWeatherNet (http://www.weather.wsu.edu). The on-farm sensor network uses our SS100 radio/logger which includes a 900MHz, FHSS radio, with software designed primarily for mobile, real-time farm operations and management applications. The network is deployed in a star topology in which a strategically placed base radio is responsible for network synchronization, data collection from remote stations within the network, and re-broadcasting collected data to roamer radio units attached to mobile computers and/or directly to the Internet. Client software, AgFrostNet, operating on a computer connected to a roamer, collects, manages, and display data in real-time. This software was designed specifically for air temperature monitoring during frost/freeze protection events. Both the regional AgWeatherNet WSN and the on-farm AgFrostNet networks were successfully implemented in Washington State. Problems encountered were mainly associated with power management under periods of low solar energy and with electrostatic discharge (ESD) damage to gallium-arsenide (GaAs) based transmit-receive switches in the radios during storms, a problem now corrected. Both systems have been made commercially available to growers via a novel arrangement between WSU and a local manufacturer.
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paper_title: Real-time forest fire detection with wireless sensor networks

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In this paper, we propose a wireless sensor network paradigm for real-time forest fire detection. The wireless sensor network can detect and forecast forest fire more promptly than the traditional satellite-based detection approach. This paper mainly describes the data collecting and processing in wireless sensor networks for real-time forest fire detection. A neural network method is applied to in-network data processing. We evaluate the performance of our approach by simulations.
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paper_title: A Design and Implementation of Forest-Fires Surveillance System based on Wireless Sensor Networks for South Korea Mountains

paper_content:

††† † Summary Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) become an important issue such as environmental monitoring, home or factory automation, logistics and so on. Many wild fires cause to damage on forest and a mountain which have valuable natural resources during the dry winter season. Current surveillance systems use a camera, an infrared sensor system and a satellite system. These systems can not support real-time surveillance, monitoring and automatic alarm. In this paper, we develop a forest-fires surveillance system in South Korea Mountains. We call this system FFSS (Forest-Fires Surveillance System). The developed FFSS consists of WSNs, middleware and web application. The WSNs measure temperature and humidity, and detect smoke. The middleware program and the web application analyze the collected data and information. The FFSS is possible to detect the heat. It let to know early alarm in real time when the forest-fire occurs.
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paper_title: Silage Yield Monitoring System

paper_content:

This research was conducted to develop a silage yield mapping system using DGPS, load ::: cells, Bluetooth modules for wireless data transmission, and a moisture sensor. A silage yield ::: mapping system was successfully developed and tested in a silage corn field. The system yielded ::: an error in the range of 0.37 ~ 1.96% of total harvested crop, compared with measurements by a ::: platform scale. A Bluetooth module (wireless transmission) was successfully implemented to transfer ::: moisture sensor information to a host computer. A silage corn yield map was created for a ::: site-specific crop management.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks in precision agriculture

paper_content:

Control valve assemblies for a lock-up clutch in a vehicle drive system, wherein a torque converter normally couples a prime mover with a transmission, vary the degree of engagement of the lock-up clutch with respect to prime mover rotational speed within a predetermined speed range. In the control valve assemblies, a centrifugal valve selectively communicates the fluid pressure operated lock-up clutch with a source of pressure and a fluid drain, with the centrifugal valve having rotor means drivably interconnected with the prime mover. Spool means slidably received within a rotor bore are outwardly displaceable with a first force while resilient bias means oppose and equalize this first force when the prime mover reaches a first predetermined speed, with valve means regulating the flow of pressurized fluid from the rotor means. Reaction means augment the force of the bias means and permits a gradual engagement of the lock-up clutch which progressively increases until the prime mover attains a second higher predetermined speed at which time the lock-up clutch is fully engaged. In one instance a modulating balance valve varies the pressure in the lock-up clutch consistent with the pressure produced by the action of the centrifugal valve.
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paper_title: Report from the field: results from an agricultural wireless sensor network

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This paper reports the results of a 6-month deployment of a 65-node multi-hop network in a vineyard setting. This deployment specifically looked to discover ways in which a farm setting could find a return on investment for deploying such a network. Our ongoing collaborations of over two years ultimately have included everyone from the vineyard owners to the technology developers. We have been able to find several areas where wireless sensor networks deliver valuable information and provide a return on investment.
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paper_title: A ZigBee multi-powered wireless acquisition device for remote sensing applications in precision viticulture

paper_content:

This paper is part of a long-term effort to introduce precision viticulture in the region of Demarcated Region of Douro. It presents the architecture, hardware and software of a platform designed for that purpose, called MPWiNodeZ. A major feature of this platform is its power-management subsystem, able to recharge batteries with energy harvested from the surrounding environment from up to three sources. It allows the system to sustain operation as a general-purpose wireless acquisition device for remote sensing in large coverage areas, where the power to run the devices is always a concern. The MPWiNodeZ, as a ZigBee(TM) network element, provides a mesh-type array of acquisition devices ready for deployment in vineyards. In addition to describing the overall architecture, hardware and software of the monitoring system, the paper also reports on the performance of the module in the field, emphasising the energy issues, crucial to obtain self-sustained operation. The testing was done in two stages: the first in the laboratory, to validate the power management and networking solutions under particularly severe conditions, the second stage in a vineyard. The measurements about the behaviour of the system confirm that the hardware and software solutions proposed do indeed lead to good performance. The platform is currently being used as a simple and compact yet powerful building block for generic remote sensing applications, with characteristics that are well suited to precision viticulture in the DRD region. It is planned to be used as a network of wireless sensors on the canopy of vines, to assist in the development of grapevine powdery mildew prediction models.
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paper_title: A real-time wireless smart sensor array for scheduling irrigation

paper_content:

A prototype real-time, smart sensor array for measuring soil moisture and soil temperature that uses off-the-shelf components was developed and evaluated for scheduling irrigation in cotton. The array consists of a centrally located receiver connected to a laptop computer and multiple sensor nodes installed in the field. The sensor nodes consist of sensors (up to three Watermark^(R) soil moisture sensors and up to four thermocouples), a specially designed circuit board, and a Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) tag which transmits data to the receiver. The smart sensor array described here offers real potential for reliably monitoring spatially variable soil water status in crop fields. The relatively low cost of the system (~USD 2400 for a 20-sensor node system) allows for installation of a dense population of soil moisture sensors that can adequately represent the inherent soil variability present in fields. This paper describes the smart sensor array and testing in a cotton crop. Integration of the sensors with precision irrigation technologies will provide a closed loop irrigation system where inputs from the smart sensor array will determine timing and amounts for real-time site-specific irrigation applications.
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paper_title: Evaluation of a low-cost soil water content sensor for wireless network applications

paper_content:

Summary Wireless sensor networks are a promising new in situ measurement technology for monitoring soil water content changes with a high spatial and temporal resolution for large areas. However, to realise sensor networks at the small basin scale (e.g. 500 sensors for an area of 25 ha), the costs for a single sensor have to be minimised. Furthermore, the sensor technique should be robust and operate with a low energy consumption to achieve a long operation time of the network. This paper evaluates a low-cost soil water content sensor (ECH 2 O probe model EC-5, Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA) using laboratory as well as field experiments. The field experiment features a comparison of water content measurements of a forest soil at 5 cm depth using TDR and EC-5 sensors. The laboratory experiment is based on a standardized sensor characterisation methodology, which uses liquid standards with a known dielectric permittivity. The results of the laboratory experiment showed that the EC-5 sensor has good output voltage sensitivity below a permittivity of 40, but is less sensitive when permittivity is higher. The experiments also revealed a distinct dependence of the sensor reading on the applied supply voltage. Therefore, a function was obtained that allows the permittivity to be determined from the sensor reading and the supply voltage. Due to the higher frequency of the EC-5 sensor, conductivity effects were less pronounced compared to the older EC-20 sensor (also Decagon Devices Inc.). However, the EC-5 sensor reading was significantly influenced by temperature changes. The field experiment showed distinct differences between TDR and EC-5 measurements that could be explained to a large degree with the correction functions derived from the laboratory measurements. Remaining errors are possibly due to soil variability and discrepancies between measurement volume and installation depth. Overall, we conclude that the EC-5 sensor is suitable for wireless network applications. However, the results of this paper also suggest that temperature and electric conductivity effects on the sensor reading have to be compensated using appropriate correction functions.
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paper_title: Integration of Wireless Sensor Networks into Moving Irrigation Systems for Automatic Irrigation Scheduling

paper_content:

A six-span center pivot irrigation system was used as a platform for testing two wireless sensor networks (WSN) of infrared thermometers. The cropped field was a semi-circle, divided into six pie-slice sections of which three were irrigated manually and three were irrigated automatically based on the time temperature threshold method. One network was mounted on masts fixed to the pivot arm (Pivot-WSN) and was programmed with mesh networking firmware. The second wireless network was comprised of sensors programmed with non-mesh firmware and was deployed in the field (Field-WSN). Our objectives were to: (1) compare the performance of a mesh and non-mesh networking systems of wireless sensors on a center pivot platform; (2) investigate the relationships between crop canopy, sensor body, and air temperatures; and (3) investigate automatic irrigation scheduling using data from wireless sensor networks.
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paper_title: Wireless underground sensor networks : Research challenges

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This work introduces the concept of a Wireless Underground Sensor Network (WUSN). WUSNs can be used to monitor a variety of conditions, such as soil properties for agricultural applications and toxic substances for environmental monitoring. Unlike existing methods of monitoring underground conditions, which rely on buried sensors connected via wire to the surface, WUSN devices are deployed completely belowground and do not require any wired connections. Each device contains all necessary sensors, memory, a processor, a radio, an antenna, and a power source. This makes their deployment much simpler than existing underground sensing solutions. Wireless communication within a dense substance such as soil or rock is, however, significantly more challenging than through air. This factor, combined with the necessity to conserve energy due to the difficulty of unearthing and recharging WUSN devices, requires that communication protocols be redesigned to be as efficient as possible. This work provides an extensive overview of applications and design challenges for WUSNs, challenges for the underground communication channel including methods for predicting path losses in an underground link, and challenges at each layer of the communication protocol stack. � 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
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paper_title: Remote Sensing and Control of an Irrigation System Using a Distributed Wireless Sensor Network

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Efficient water management is a major concern in many cropping systems in semiarid and arid areas. Distributed in-field sensor-based irrigation systemsoffer a potential solution to support site-specific irrigation management that allows producers to maximize their productivity while saving water. This paper describes details of the design and instrumentation of variable rate irrigation, a wireless sensor network, and software for real-time in-field sensing and control of a site-specific precision linear-move irrigation system. Field conditions were site-specifically monitored by six in-field sensor stations distributed across the field based on a soil property map, and periodically sampled and wirelessly transmitted to a base station. An irrigation machine was converted to be electronically controlled by a programming logic controller that updates georeferenced location of sprinklers from a differential Global Positioning System (GPS) and wirelessly communicates with a computer at the base station. Communication signals from the sensor network and irrigation controller to the base station were successfully interfaced using low-cost Bluetooth wireless radio communication. Graphic user interface-based software developed in this paper offered stable remote access to field conditions and real-time control and monitoring of the variable-rate irrigation controller.
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paper_title: Study of Wireless-Sensor-Based Groundwater Monitoring Instrument

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The paper designed a new groundwater-monitoring instrument based on the technology of wireless-sensor net. The new instrument monitors groundwater table and temperature through a sensor. An embedded singlechip processes the monitoring data and TC35, a GSM data module transfers the data wirelessly. Above mentioned compose the whole intelligent sensor net. The intelligent network sensor has the function of self-recognition and self-adjustment, meanwhile realizes the non-linearity compensating of sensor by using software technology. The wireless transmission module takes the low power loss AT89C51 chip as a core and has realized bidirectional communication between central node and sensor. The wireless sensor net adopts star topology and its central node may communicate with any ordinary nodes. The system has self-diagnosis function, once appears fault, the monitor system can receive the fault alarm and report automatically. This paper takes GSM public net as data transmission net and provides the convenience for system expansion and maintenance.
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paper_title: A Wireless Sensor Network Prototype for Environmental Monitoring in Greenhouses

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Wireless sensor network technology is very suitable for distributed data collecting and monitoring in tough environments such as greenhouse or cropland. This paper presents a wireless sensor network prototype with two-part framework for greenhouses. In the first part, several sensor nodes were used to measure temperature, light and soil moisture. A sink node with embedded terminal based on ARM processor was installed indoor together for collecting and transferring data wirelessly to a remote PC using short message service. The other part consists of GSM module and the management software based on database running on the remote PC. Some experiments results including sensor data, radio propagation loss and radio range are also expounded in this paper.
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paper_title: Application of Bluetooth technology in greenhouse environment. monitor and control

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Based on Bluetooth technology, the collected greenhouse environment data could be transmitted to the control system by way of wireless communication, and thereby it would be much more flexible and conveniently to monitor and control the greenhouse environment. Bluetooth technology, its Ericsson ROK 101007 module, and the features of piconet were introduced, and the method of hardware and software design for the greenhouse environment detecting and controlling system based on Bluetooth technology was presented. 
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paper_title: A Wireless Sensor Network for the Nursery and Greenhouse Industry

paper_content:

John D. Lea-Cox , George Kantor , Joshua Anhalt , Andrew Ristvey 3 and David S. Ross 4 1 Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture University of Maryland, College Park, MD USA 20742 2 The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburg PA 15213 3 Wye Research and Education Center University of Maryland, Queenstown, MD USA 21658 4 Department of Environmental Science and Technology University of Maryland, College Park, MD USA 20742 JLC@umd.edu
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paper_title: The Design of Wireless Sensor Networks Node for Measuring the Greenhouse's Environment Parameters

paper_content:

Wireless sensor networks are integrated of sensor techniques, embedded system techniques, distributed computation techniques and wireless communication techniques. It’s a hot research area in the world. It will be widely used in agriculture. This paper introduces the hardware and software design of wireless sensor networks node for the measurement of greenhouse environment parameters. These nodes can form networks themselves, measure the environment parameters precisely, transfer data safely, and solve the difficulty of wiring in greenhouse, making the earlier research of wireless sensor networks used in greenhouse
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paper_title: A2S: Automated Agriculture System based on WSN

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This paper describes the results of real deployment of A S which consists of WSN(Wireless Sensor Network) to monitor and control the environments and a management sub-system to manage the WSN and provide various and convenient services to consumers with hand-held devices such as a PDA living a farming village. The WSN were deployed in greenhouses with melon and cabbage in Dongbu Handong Seed Research Center. A S was used to monitor the growing process of them and control the environment of the greenhouses. We acquired valuable experiences and ideas from this real deployment and operation of A S and believe that they can be useful in consumer electronics field such as home network as well as automated agriculture field. .
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paper_title: A Proposal of Greenhouse Control Using Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a system consisting of a collection of nodes and a base ::: station. A node is composed by a processor, local memory, sensors, radio and battery and a base station is ::: responsible for receiving and processing data collected by the nodes. They perform collaborative activities ::: due to limited resources, such as battery, processor and memory. Nowadays, the applications of WSNs are ::: many and varied, and the applications in agriculture are still incipient. One interesting WSN application is in ::: greenhouses, where the crop conditions such as climate and soil do not depend on natural agents. To control ::: and monitor the environmental factors, sensors and actuators are essential. Under these circumstances, WSN ::: should be used to make a distributed measure, spreading sensors all over the greenhouse. In a great number ::: of applications the sensors are located in a fixed point of the greenhouse. However, even in a greenhouse ::: there are differences between some environmental variables from one place to another. Thus, using WSN ::: should guarantee not only real time monitoring, but also guarantee a better control. This paper presents a ::: proposal of greenhouse control using WSN, its advantages, challenges and future applications.
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paper_title: RFID-integrated Multi-Functional Remote Sensing System for Seedling Production Management

paper_content:

A multi-functional remote sensing system (MFRSS) integrating Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology with remote spectral imaging and environmental sensing was developed to enhance seedling production and management in greenhouse. Consisted of a management traceability system (also known as management resume) and an environment traceability system (also known as environment resume), a traceable production management system is highly desirable for automated operations in greenhouse. This study is the first application of RFID to an automatic greenhouse seedling production system. The advantages of the MFRSS system are twofold: First, the production management information can be made traceable by establishing passive RFID on the multi-functional remote sensing system during variable boom cruising in the greenhouse. The spectral images were acquired using a color camera and a monochrome camera with a 780 nm optical filter, with the exposure time and signal gain controlled through an IEEE-1394 interface. Secondly, an automatic exposure algorithm eliminating interferences caused by sunlight variation was developed using Matlab 6.5 and LabVIEW 7.1. The tray position data were transferred to the look up table and delivered to the water management module through a DataSocket server and wireless network. The environment-sensing sub-system, including temperature, relative humidity, and photo-quantum measurements, was developed with a PCI-6023 interface to analyze their spatial distribution in the greenhouse. Not only does the mechanism established in the present study provide a basis for developing an automatic seedling production system, the environmental factors and facility status captured by the RFID-integrated MFRSS also enable a traceable seedling production management database, which is a crucial constituent for practical applications.
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paper_title: Wearable sensor system for wireless state-of-health determination in cattle

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Wearable systems for human and animal state-of-health determination share many design requirements. This paper discusses the design of a remote health monitoring system for cattle that hosts a suite of sensors and communicates wirelessly with a base station via Bluetooth telemetry.
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paper_title: Pilot study to monitor body temperature of dairy cows with a rumen bolus

paper_content:

A bolus containing a mote (temperature sensor, processor and radio) was placed in the rumen of a fistulated cow to monitor body temperature. Rumen temperature was measured every minute and stored in the internal buffer of the mote. The measured temperature was also transmitted to a base station by the mote every minute. A relay mote mounted on the cows' left front leg assisted transmission of the information from rumen to the base station. Cow behaviour affected the success rate of data transmission. The base station received more than 50% of the transmitted data when the cow was standing. Success rate was lower than 40% when the cow was lying down. Rumen temperature varied diurnally with night-time temperatures higher than day-time temperatures. Drinking events resulted in distinct decreases of the rumen temperature. It is concluded that for the application of internal sensor motes wireless communication through the body and living environment of the animal works but improvements are possible. Research should also focus on the interpretation of sensor data on mote level for optimizing data recording frequency and transmission of data to dairy management practice.
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paper_title: Ad Hoc Wireless Sensor Networks Applied to Animal Welfare Research

paper_content:

Ad hoc Wireless Sensor Networks (AWSN) are arrays of miniaturized electronic devices that embed sensors and have communication capabilities that allow them to interconnect using a radio network. They are available with different technologies, configurations, and sensing capabilities, and can be used on different network topologies. As an AWSN is composed of a large number of compact low-cost and energy-constrained sensor nodes, it offers unprecedented flexibility and mobility, which makes them suitable for environmental data acquisition in the field, and allows fine-granular observations. The sensors are easy to deploy and can be used to detect previously unrecognized relationships and behaviors in natural systems, which cannot be detected by conventional approaches. In many cases, power consumption is still an issue. Research related to biological and environmental systems can be enhanced with AWSNs. Monitoring and control of the quality of indoor environment is very important for animal health and welfare and directly impacts productivity and quality. The goal of this work was to evaluate the capability and usefulness of an AWSN in studies related to animal housing environment. An AWSN has been set up and applied to monitor environmental variables in an animal housing facility. The network is composed of several sensing nodes and a gateway that links the network to a microcomputer. They were distributed over strategic points inside an animal housing facility to allow us to collect data about those environmental variables in real time. The inherent flexibility and mobility of the nodes allowed us to move them through the facility to determine different profiles of temperature, humidity and luminosity across the facility. Model based on this data can be derived to enhance animal welfare.
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paper_title: A Wireless Data Acquisition System for Monitoring Temperature Variations in Swine Barns

paper_content:

Increasing interest in monitoring the spatial variation of temperature at the animal level in swine finishing barns has led to the development of a new wireless data acquisition system. Previous studies used individual commercial data loggers placed in a protective container, then lowered into the animal pens. These traditional systems required significant effort to download each logger individually and to post-process the data into a time-synchronized file with all measurement points. The newly developed wireless system allows all measurement points to be simultaneously collected and logged to a single external data file. The specific project objectives include (1) develop a wireless sensor node capable of meeting the data transfer and sensor interface requirements of a swine finishing barn and (2) evaluate the performance of the wireless node through experimental testing. Each wireless node is preset with a specific ID which is logged with the sensor data to provide a definite indicator for the data’s source location within the barn. The individual nodes use a high accuracy thermistor for temperature sensing and are capable of transmitting one additional analog signal and eight digital signals to the data logger. The digital inputs were commonly used to collect fan activity data for ventilation monitoring. The additional analog channel can be used for other environmental sensing or for monitoring static pressure. When powered from a single 3.6 volt, 1200 mAhr battery, the wireless nodes have a usable life of 3.5 years when transmitting at a 5-minute sampling interval. This system was successfully developed and implemented for a 4-year study of swine finishing barns.
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paper_title: ZigBee-based wireless sensor networks for classifying the behaviour of a herd of animals using classification trees

paper_content:

An in-depth study of wireless sensor networks applied to the monitoring of animal behaviour in the field is described. Herd motion data, such as the pitch angle of the neck and movement velocity, were monitored by an MTS310 sensor board equipped with a 2-axis accelerometer and received signal strength indicator functionality in a single-hop wireless sensor network. Pitch angle measurements and velocity estimates were transmitted through a wireless sensor network based on the ZigBee communication protocol. After data filtering, the pitch angle measurements together with velocity estimates were used to classify the animal behaviour into two classes; as activity and inactivity. Considering all the advantages and drawbacks of classification trees compared to neural network and fuzzy logic classifiers a general classification tree was preferred. The classification tree was constructed based on the measurements of the pitch angle of the neck and movement velocity of some animals in the herd and was used to predict the behaviour of other animals in the herd. The results showed that there was a large improvement in the classification accuracy if both the pitch angle of the neck and the velocity were employed as predictors when compared to just pitch angle or just velocity employed as a single predictor. The classification results showed the possibility of determining a general decision rule which can classify the behaviour of each individual in a herd of animals. The results were confirmed by manual registration and by GPS measurements.
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paper_title: Assessment of an injectable RFID temperature sensor for indication of horse well-being

paper_content:

This research investigated the performance and placement of an injectable radio frequency identification (RFID) and temperature sensor to monitor the body temperature of horses. Eleven sensors were calibrated to assess reliability (accuracy and repeatability) of the temperature readings. Results of four separate calibration trials demonstrated significant variability in both accuracy and repeatability. To quantify accuracy, the regression standard errors (SE) were placed into four performance categories: 4, 0, 2 and 3 excellent (SE = 0.5°C); 2, 1, 7, and 1 good (0.5°C < SE = 0.75°C); 2, 3, 0, and 7 marginal (0.75oC < SE = 1.0°C); and 3, 7, 2, 0 poor (SE < 1.0oC) sensors in each of the performance categories for the four calibration trials, respectively. Three of the eleven sensors evaluated were found to be repeatable, however, with marginal accuracy. Based on these results it is recommended that the temperature system be calibrated before use.
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paper_title: ZigBee-based wireless sensor networks for monitoring animal presence and pasture time in a strip of new grass

paper_content:

The problem of online monitoring of cows' presence and pasture time in an extended area covered by a strip of new grass using wireless sensor networks has been addressed. The total pasture time in the extended area was estimated by measuring the pasture time in a specific part of that area called the gateway connectivity area where sensor nodes mounted on the cows could communicate directly with a gateway. Packet loss causes a node that was present in the connectivity range of the gateway frequently to be classified as an absent node. Therefore, a moving average window with optimal window length and threshold was designed to minimize the misclassification. As the measured pasture time in the gateway connectivity area was an underestimation of the total pasture time in the extended area, an area-based correction factor, same for all individual animals was applied. As only 23% of the animals in a herd were equipped to be monitored by sensor nodes, investigations to evaluate if the monitored number of animals could represent the whole herd were of great importance. To accomplish the investigations, the number of monitored cows by sensor nodes and the total number of cows (with and without sensor nodes) in the extended area were counted manually each minute over a period of 3h during 3 days. Pearson chi-square test of goodness of fit showed that the number of cows in the extended area was normally distributed. Furthermore, a statistical test showed that the mean number of monitored cows in the extended area and the mean of total number of cows in the extended area corresponded with the percentage of monitored cows by sensor nodes in the herd (23%).
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paper_title: A wireless, remote query ammonia sensor.

paper_content:

Abstract This paper presents a wireless, remote query ammonia sensor comprised of a free-standing magnetoelastic thick-film coated with a polymer, poly(acrylic acid-co-isooctylacrylate), that changes mass in response to atmospheric ammonia concentration. The mass of the polymer layer modulates the resonant frequency the ferromagnetic magnetoelastic substrate, hence by monitoring the frequency response of the sensor, atmospheric NH 3 concentration can be determined remotely, without the need for physical connections to the sensor or specific alignment requirements. The effect of copolymer composition, polymer film thickness, and relative humidity level (RH) on the sensitivity of the sensor were investigated. The sensor linearly tracks ammonia concentration below 0.8 vol.%, and tracks higher concentrations logarithmically; within the linear calibration range, a 0.02 vol.% change in NH 3 concentration can be detected.
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paper_title: A mathematical model to study the influence of wireless temperature sensor during assessment of canned food sterilization

paper_content:

Abstract Wireless temperature sensors (WTS) are measurement devices widely used by food industry to determine time-temperature history during typical processes, such as thermal sterilization. A mathematical model was developed to study, under certain hypotheses, how the insertion of (WTS) influence the heat transfer into conductive canned food. The considered system is mainly described by a can filled with a conductive food with a WTS fixed at the bottom or suspended in the container, to measure the temperature at the slowest heating point. The equations have been solved by means of the finite element method to predict the temperature in every point of the domain. The domain has been meshed in different ways, by increasing the node density where a better investigation is needed, such as around the WTS. The kinetics of microbial inactivation was coupled to the heat transfer model to analyse the processes in terms of the sterilizing value. Simulation results show that the influence of the temperature sensor is related to the relative dimensions of can and WTS, as well as to the WTS position into the container.
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paper_title: Intelligent Products: A Survey

paper_content:

This paper presents an overview of the field of Intelligent Products. As Intelligent Products have many facets, this paper is mainly focused on the concept behind Intelligent Products, the technical foundations, and the achievable practical goals of Intelligent Products. A novel classification of Intelligent Products is introduced, which distinguishes between three orthogonal dimensions. Furthermore, the technical foundations in the areas of automatic identification and embedded processing, distributed information storage and processing, and agent-based systems are discussed, as well as the achievable practical goals in the contexts of manufacturing, supply chains, asset management, and product life cycle management.
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paper_title: A model and prototype implementation for tracking and tracing agricultural batch products along the food chain.

paper_content:

Abstract There is an increasing demand of traceability in the food chain, statutory requirements are growing stricter and there is increasing pressure to develop standardized traceability systems. Each event in the chain, like production of transportation, packing, distribution or processing results in a different product which can have its own information associated within the tracing system. From the raw material to the sale of goods, more and more information needs to be gathered and made available. Supplementary information may also be collected at any step, in order to provide data for analysis and optimization of production practices. Using web-based systems for data processing, storage and transfer makes possible a flexible way of information access, networking and usability. In this paper an architectural proposal is presented and the proposed solution is tested by the implementation of a prototype. The software architecture presented makes use of a series of standards than offer new possibilities in traceability control and management. For testing the prototype, information from precision farming together with the information recorded during the transport and delivery was used. The system enables full traceability and it complies with all existing traceability standards.
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paper_title: Monitoring High-Quality Wine Production using Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

This work reports the experience on the design and deployment of a WSN-based system for monitoring the productive cycle of high-quality wine in a Sicilian winery. Besides providing the means for pervasive monitoring of the cultivated area, the project described here is aimed to support the producer in ensuring the overall quality of their production, in terms of accurate planning of interventions in the field, and preservation of the stored product. Wireless Sensor Networks are employed as the sensing infrastructure of a distributed system for the control of a prototypal productive chain; nodes have been deployed both in the field and in the cellar, where wine aging is performed, and data is collected at a central unit in order to perform inferences that suggest timely interventions that preserve the grapes' quality.
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paper_title: Wireless intelligent sensor networks for refrigerated vehicle

paper_content:

This paper presents an investigation into technologies of wireless intelligent sensor networks for refrigerated delivery vehicle. The investigation has reviewed the latest wireless communication technologies such as Bluetooth and Zigbee, and artificial intelligent technologies such as neural network, fuzzy logic and neuro-fuzzy. A proposed solution of future sensor networks for cold chain area has been addressed.
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paper_title: Sensor fusion for smart containers

paper_content:

The transport of goods around the globe is a major commercial activity, vital to the world's economies. Much of this is accomplished using large standard sized containers which can be readily on and off loaded from different platforms for travel by road, rail, air and sea. Criminals and terrorists may target such containers for their own purposes. The threats include using the containers to assist with smuggling (drugs, currency or arms), stowaways (illegal immigrants or terrorists) and terrorist attacks (weapons of mass destruction). At present, the checking of containers is limited, and hence they are vulnerable prime targets. The various means which criminals may use in order to achieve their objectives include delays, accidental or deliberate damage, theft of goods or services, fraud, piracy, and electronic attacks. In an effort to combat these threats and improve security, smart containers are being introduced. These contain a variety of sensors to detect, identify, log and communicate what happens to a container and its contents during its journeys around the world. The types of sensor may include: door opening sensors; volume intrusion alarms; passive infra-red sensors; microwave radar; ultra wide band radar; sound, light and temperature sensors; ultrasound sensors; visible light and infra-red cameras; gas sensors (e.g. carbon dioxide); chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear and explosive sensors; electronic tag readers; depth gauges; GPS receivers and inertial sensors. In addition to the sensor data from a container, other relevant information must be taken into account, for example the expected location of the container, and its mode of transport. This will involve acquiring and utilising data from other sources, for example, the bill of lading, traffic reports and weather information. The particular problem addressed in this paper is the processing of the sensor data and other information to determine whether or not a container is under attack, and to communicate this to the authorities in a timely manner. Of major importance is that the probability of detecting a genuine attack must high, and of falsely indicating an attack must be low. Moreover, the cost of implementation must be kept low for both the initial installation of the system and the servicing of it during operation. In the paper we will report on our ongoing investigations to design and test an algorithm to fuse the data from the various sources in order to decide whether or not an attack has been made, and to provide the operators with justification for the decision. (11 pages)
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paper_title: Application of RFID technologies in the temperature mapping of the pineapple supply chain

paper_content:

Current temperature tracking systems lack the convenience and accuracy demanded by the real conditions of a fast-paced produce supply chain. In recent years RFID technology has been suggested to be an enhanced method for temperature tracking because of its many benefits, such as using little instrumentation, offering the quick readings necessary for real-time decision making, and allowing the capture of long-duration temperature profiles. However its limitation lies in that probeless systems fail to provide accurate temperature readings in some of the critical points of the pallet and the load. The objective of this work was to study the use of RFID in temperature monitoring by comparing the performance of RFID temperature tags versus conventional temperature tracking methods, as well as RFID temperature tags with probe versus RFID temperature tags without probes and their utilization along the supply chain. Therefore, the temperature mapping of a shipping trial comprising pallets of crownless pineapples instrumented using different RFID temperature dataloggers and traditional temperature dataloggers and packed in two kinds of packages (corrugated boxes and reusable plastic containers) inside a container was performed. The results showed that RFID temperature tags are analogous with regards to accuracy to the conventional methods, but have a superior performance because they allow quick instrumentation and data recovery, and the possibility of accessing the sensor program and data at any point of the supply chain without line of sight. In addition, the use of RFID tags with probe was justified by its role in determining the efficiency of the pre-cooling operations and low temperature abuse tracking during transportation and refrigerated storage; while the RFID tags without probe proved useful for high temperature abuse monitoring during transportation and refrigerated storage. The creation of a RFID sensor with a probe, able to record both ambient and pulp temperatures simultaneously is suggested.
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paper_title: Simultaneous Web-based real-time temperature monitoring using multiple wireless sensor networks

paper_content:

We outline a system that allows simultaneous temperature monitoring on two or more fishing vessels using multiple wireless sensor networks. The distribution of wireless temperature data loggers across a boat with an associated base station results in the fishing vessel being in effect an individual wireless sensor network. The existence of this wireless sensor network allows for real-time temperature monitoring with the temperature information being accessed over the Internet. Previously, Web-based real-time temperature monitoring of fish catches has used single sensor networks to monitor temperature, so a user could only monitor the temperature sensors of a single vessel. The system we outline allows for multiple sensor networks to be integrated and for a user to monitor temperature across two or more of these networks. Furthermore the system uses SMS to send warnings and to monitor recent temperature data. The system is built around a Web server and bespoke wireless data loggers operating over a GSM network
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paper_title: RFID Behavior Study in Enclosed Trailer/Container for Real Time Temperature Tracking

paper_content:

The performance of radio waves in open environments has been studied for years. In contrast, the behavior of RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) inside metal enclosed areas is not yet thoroughly understood. The first part of this research project focuses on the 3-D mapping of RFID signal strength inside a 12m (40’) refrigerated marine container. The container was instrumented with 3 different types of radio frequency emitter: 2.4 GHz reader; 915 MHz reader and 433 MHz RF transmitter. The main goal is to find a frequency/configuration that would allow real time reading of the temperature in a shipment of perishable products using RFID.
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paper_title: Performance of ZigBee-Based wireless sensor nodes for real-time monitoring of fruit logistics

paper_content:

Progress in fruit logistics requires an increasing number of measurements to be performed in refrigerated chambers and during transport. Wireless sensor networks (WSN) are a promising solution in this field. This paper explores the potential of wireless sensor technology for monitoring fruit storage and transport conditions. It focuses in particular on ZigBee technology with special regard to two different commercial modules (Xbow and Xbee). The main contributions of the paper relate to the analysis of battery life under cooling conditions and the evaluation of the reliability of communications and measurements. Psychrometric equations were used for quick assessment of changes in the absolute water content of air, allowing estimation of future water loss, and detection of condensation on the product.
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paper_title: Analysis of use of insulating pallet covers for shipping heat-sensitive foodstuffs in ambient conditions

paper_content:

This work reports on the use of insulated pallet covers to provide thermal protection for heat-sensitive foodstuffs, in particular during logistic operations carried out in an uncontrolled temperature atmosphere. The effectiveness of these insulating devices in reducing the rate of temperature changes allows the products to be transported in a semitrailer without refrigeration or to be stored temporarily on unrefrigerated docks. Consequently, logistic operations can be managed with more flexibility. To evaluate the performance of the insulating device, temperature rises within covered pallets were investigated numerically and experimentally. The experiments were carried out on an individual pallet and on a whole load. All experiments were performed in a temperature-controlled test room. A three-dimensional (3-D) finite-volume heat transfer model was developed using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code Phoenics. The model took into account the thermal characteristics of products and insulating covers, the arrangement of the pallets in the vehicle and the external conditions of ambient temperature and solar exposure. The good agreement obtained between experimental and numerical results shows that the model can be used to estimate the average transportation or storage duration for heat-sensitive products under given ambient conditions.
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paper_title: Spatial temperature profiling by semi-passive RFID loggers for perishable food transportation

paper_content:

Perishable food products are at risk of suffering various damages along the cold chain. The parties involved should control and monitor the conditions of goods in order to ensure their quality for consumers and to comply with all legal requirements. Among environmental parameters during transport, temperature is the most important in prolonging the shelf life of the products. Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) is an emergent technology that has proven its suitability for tracking and tracing in logistics. This paper shows how miniaturized RFID temperature loggers can be adapted to analyze the amount of local deviations, detect temperature gradients, and estimate the minimum number of sensors that are necessary for reliable monitoring inside a truck or container. These devices are useful tools for improving the control during the transport chain and detecting weaknesses by identifying specific problem areas where corrective actions are necessitated. In a first step, the RFID tags were tested by studying the temperature distribution in a pallet. Then, 15 shipments from a wholesale company in Germany in compartmented trucks were monitored, covering different temperature range conditions. During transport, several temperature differences were found in the same compartment. Using a factorial Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) the influence of different factors has been studied, such as: the location of the logger, type of truck, and external temperature. The shelf life, or keeping quality model, was applied to the recorded temperature profiles. Suggestions for future research areas are also discussed.
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paper_title: RFID smart tag for traceability and cold chain monitoring of foods: Demonstration in an intercontinental fresh fish logistic chain

paper_content:

The main objective of this work was the validation of a RFID smart tag developed for real-time traceability and cold chain monitoring for food applications. This RFID based system consists of a smart tag and a commercial reader/writer. The smart tag, attached on the product to be tracked integrates light, temperature and humidity sensors, a microcontroller, a memory chip, low power electronics and an antenna for RFID communications. These sensor logged data can be stored in the memory together with traceability data. A commercial reader/writer was used for reading and writing data on the smart tag, with a wireless reading distance of 10 cm, in real-time at any time of the food chain. The results concerning a demonstration of the system along an intercontinental fresh fish logistic chain are reported here. These results proved that this system presents important advantages regarding conventional traceability tools and currently used temperature data loggers such as more memory, reusability, no human participation, no tag visibility needed for reading, possibility of reading many tags at the same time and more resistance to humidity and environmental conditions.
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paper_title: Applying autonomous sensor systems in logistics—Combining sensor networks, RFIDs and software agents

paper_content:

New sensor, communication and software technologies are used to broaden the facilities of tracing and tracing systems for food transports. An embedded assessing unit detects from sensor data collected by a wireless network potential risks for the freight quality. The estimation of the current maturing state of agricultural products will be supported by measurements of the gaseous hormone ethylene as an indicator for the ripening processes. A miniaturized high-resolution gas chromatography is under construction. The system autonomously configures itself to a product specific supervision task based on data scanned by an RFID reader during freight loading. Mobile software agents accompany the freight along the supply chain. They pre-process the vast sensor data and submit only substantial changes to the freight owner.
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paper_title: Model to integration of RFID into Wireless Sensor Network for Tracking and Monitoring Animals

paper_content:

The pervasive computing concept aims the development of solutions for better perception of events in interest areas. Since 90's, scientific efforts are being applied on the development of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) technologies and applications such as environmental monitoring, surveillance, and security. More recently, industrial and commercial applications demanded advances on object identification and then RFID technology has emerged. Clearly, the RFID technology, initially applied to indoor solutions, can be combined with common outdoor WSN solutions in order to provide a better monitoring system. This fact is shown in this work by proposing a model for heterogeneous architecture to be applied on animal monitoring applications.
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paper_title: Integration of RFID into Wireless Sensor Networks: Architectures, Opportunities and Challenging Problems

paper_content:

The vision of pervasive computing is based on the idea that future computers will merge with their environment. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) are two important components of pervasive computing, since both technologies can be used for coupling the physical and the virtual world. However, RFID and WSN almost are under development in parallel method, few integration schemes and related opportunities are investigated in detail. Through deep analysis of RFID and WSN, three forms of new system architecture that combines the two technologies are proposed and its feasibility, technical challenges are discussed thoroughly.
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paper_title: Applying autonomous sensor systems in logistics—Combining sensor networks, RFIDs and software agents

paper_content:

New sensor, communication and software technologies are used to broaden the facilities of tracing and tracing systems for food transports. An embedded assessing unit detects from sensor data collected by a wireless network potential risks for the freight quality. The estimation of the current maturing state of agricultural products will be supported by measurements of the gaseous hormone ethylene as an indicator for the ripening processes. A miniaturized high-resolution gas chromatography is under construction. The system autonomously configures itself to a product specific supervision task based on data scanned by an RFID reader during freight loading. Mobile software agents accompany the freight along the supply chain. They pre-process the vast sensor data and submit only substantial changes to the freight owner.
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Title: A Review of Wireless Sensor Technologies and Applications in Agriculture and Food Industry: State of the Art and Current Trends

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: This section introduces Wireless Sensor Technologies (WST), including Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID), and discusses their growing importance and opportunities in agriculture and the food industry.

Section 2: Bluetooth
Description 2: This section reviews the Bluetooth standard, its applications, and compares its suitability for various agricultural applications.

Section 3: ZigBee
Description 3: This section explains the ZigBee standard, its functionalities, and its comparison with Bluetooth for use in agricultural and food industry applications.

Section 4: Radio Frequency Identification
Description 4: This section provides an overview of RFID technology, including its components, protocols, and applications in the agriculture and food industry.

Section 5: WST Applications
Description 5: This section presents relevant applications of WST in agriculture and the food industry, highlighting different areas such as environmental monitoring, greenhouse management, and livestock monitoring.

Section 6: Physical Aspects of Applying WST in Agriculture and Food Industry
Description 6: This section discusses the challenges of WST deployment in agricultural environments, including radio propagation, fault detection, and signal quality.

Section 7: Climate Influence
Description 7: This section examines how various climatic conditions affect WST performance and the implications for agricultural applications.

Section 8: Crop Canopy Influence
Description 8: This section explores how changes in crop canopy density over time impact WST signal propagation and communication reliability.

Section 9: Environmental Monitoring
Description 9: This section details how WSN assist in environmental monitoring and provide crucial data for risk assessment and microclimate awareness.

Section 10: Climate Monitoring
Description 10: This section provides examples of WST applications in climate monitoring, including agroclimate and weather monitoring.

Section 11: Fire Detection
Description 11: This section discusses the use of WST for forest fire detection and the advantages over traditional surveillance systems.

Section 12: Precision Agriculture
Description 12: This section outlines the role of WST in precision agriculture, including site-specific management and real-time data for decision-making.

Section 13: Pest Control
Description 13: This section presents case studies of WSN applications in pest control, focusing on monitoring environmental conditions favorable to pests.

Section 14: Viticulture
Description 14: This section discusses the application of WST in viticulture for plant monitoring and vineyard management.

Section 15: Precision Irrigation
Description 15: This section reviews the implementation of WST in precision irrigation systems, emphasizing efficient water usage and irrigation scheduling.

Section 16: Greenhouses
Description 16: This section examines how WST improves greenhouse climate control and monitors environmental variables for better crop yields.

Section 17: Precision Livestock
Description 17: This section explores the use of WST for monitoring animal health and behavior, providing real-time data for improving livestock welfare.

Section 18: Food Industry
Description 18: This section addresses the applications of WST in the food industry, focusing on quality control, traceability, and supply chain logistics.

Section 19: Cold Chain Monitoring and Traceability
Description 19: This section details the importance of WST in monitoring temperature-sensitive products during transport and storage, ensuring food safety and quality.

Section 20: Integration of RFID and WSN
Description 20: This section discusses the potential and current research on integrating RFID and WSN technologies for comprehensive monitoring and identification systems.

Section 21: Conclusions
Description 21: This section summarizes the key findings on the application of WST in agriculture and food industry, and suggests future research directions and improvements needed for these technologies.