A Review of Recent Papers on Online Discussion in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education A REVIEW OF RECENT PAPERS ON ONLINE DISCUSSION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION
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paper_title: A Critical Review of the Literature on Electronic Networks as Reflective Discourse Communities for Inservice Teachers

paper_content:

Over the past two decades, computer mediated communication (CMC) technologies have been used in a variety of efforts aimed at fostering teacher learning and teacher collaboration. This study is an attempt to closely examine the literature on the use of electronic networks for creating reflective teacher communities. We found that many teacher networks pursued the goal of building learning and reflective communities for teachers. Much was expected out of electronic teacher networks both as a practical solution to the stubborn problems in teacher professional development and as a new agent to create what is difficult to realize in face-to-face situations. However, we found a general lack of rigorous research on these networks. Little is known about the effectiveness of these networks on teacher learning. Few seriously examined to what degree the networks indeed were “communities” that promote “reflective discourses.”
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paper_title: Educational Performance of ALN via Content Analysis

paper_content:

Learning in an ALN mode is modeled by a set of educational processes. The group is modeled by an abstract entity that provides services to the learners via its group educational processes. The learners reciprocate by their corresponding educational processes. Following findings of the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning, we conjecture that the ALN is Cooperative Learning enhanced by extended think time. If ALN is structured for effective cooperation then the group dynamics will regulate the high level reasoning and the interpersonal relationships of the learners towards their highest levels. If this conjecture is found to be true, it identifies the maximization of reasoning and interpersonal relationships as one of the educational benefits of an ALN. To test the conjecture, we developed a methodology for the evaluation of the performance profiles of the ALN educational processes. Performance profiles are calculated via content analysis of the information flows exchanged between the participants, and the results are tested for reproducibility. We use this methodology to analyze three weeks of asynchronous discussions embedded in an ALN course of the Open University of Israel (OUI). The results of this analysis indicate the plausibility of our conjecture.
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paper_title: Online Learning in Higher Education: a review of research on interactions among teachers and students

paper_content:

Online learning has become a widespread method for providing education at the graduate and undergraduate level. Although it is an extension of distance learning, the medium requires new modes of presentation and interaction. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the existing literature in communications, distance education, educational technology, and other education-related fields, to articulate what is currently known about online teaching and learning, how the field has been conceptualized in the various research communities, and what might be useful areas for future research. The review indicates that, although there has been extensive work to conceptualize and understand the social interactions and constructs entailed by online education, there has been little work that connects these concepts to subject-specific interactions and learning. That is, the literature provides insights into social aspects of online teaching and learning such as the development of community, the social r...
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paper_title: Communities of Practice: guidelines for the design of online seminars in higher education

paper_content:

This article focuses on the Community of Practice (CoP) concept and its implications for designing online seminars in the university context. Student learning in seminars at universities is seen as peripheral participation in a particular scientific community—one of the many knowledge-creating CoPs that constitute a university. Introducing information technology into university education thus should be measured by the degree to which these new ways of teaching enhance students' access to scientific communities. This framing view of university education is connected to a social theory of learning where learning is seen as an essentially social, situated phenomenon. The concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in a community of practice is used to derive a design framework for online seminars. Using this framework, the authors implemented an online seminar on the topic of organisational knowledge management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. The GroupWare platform BSCW (Basic Support f...
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paper_title: Educational Performance of ALN via Content Analysis

paper_content:

Learning in an ALN mode is modeled by a set of educational processes. The group is modeled by an abstract entity that provides services to the learners via its group educational processes. The learners reciprocate by their corresponding educational processes. Following findings of the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning, we conjecture that the ALN is Cooperative Learning enhanced by extended think time. If ALN is structured for effective cooperation then the group dynamics will regulate the high level reasoning and the interpersonal relationships of the learners towards their highest levels. If this conjecture is found to be true, it identifies the maximization of reasoning and interpersonal relationships as one of the educational benefits of an ALN. To test the conjecture, we developed a methodology for the evaluation of the performance profiles of the ALN educational processes. Performance profiles are calculated via content analysis of the information flows exchanged between the participants, and the results are tested for reproducibility. We use this methodology to analyze three weeks of asynchronous discussions embedded in an ALN course of the Open University of Israel (OUI). The results of this analysis indicate the plausibility of our conjecture.
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paper_title: The anatomy of a distance education course: a case study analysis

paper_content:

This case study of a distance education course in children’s literature focuses on the creation of an interpretive community and the importance of that community in online learning. It also refines Michael G. Moore’s work on transactional distance to include the concept of a faculty member’s “restrained presence” in an effort to facilitate students’ personal responsibility for their own learning and for community building in an online learning environment.
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paper_title: Asynchronous discussion in support of medical education

paper_content:

Although the potential of asynchronous discussion to support learning is widely recognized, student engagement remains problematic. Often, for example, students simply refuse to participate. Consequently the rich promise of asynchronous learning networks for supporting students’ learning can prove hard to achieve. After reviewing strategies for encouraging student participation in discussions in Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALN), we present a study that investigates how these strategies influenced students’ perceptions and use of the discussion area. We identify and explore factors that encouraged and inhibited student participation in asynchronous discussion, and evaluate student postings to an asynchronous discussion group by content analysis.The results question received wisdom about some of the pedagogic techniques advocated in the literature. Instead, results support the view that the major factors for stimulating student participation in asynchronous discussion are tutor enthusiasm and expertise. It appears that the tutor may be the root cause of engagement in discussions, an important conclusion, given that to date, the tutor’s role has remained relatively unexamined. We also note that participation in asynchronous discussion is inhibited when students allocate a low priority to participation, as may occur when participation is not assessed. Content analysis of an asynchronous discussion in this study reveals that contributions were not strongly interactive and that students were simply ‘playing the game’ of assessment, making postings that earned marks but rarely contributing otherwise. Thus the use of assessment to encourage students’ contributions appears to be only a superficial success; it seems likely that giving credit for postings changes behavior without necessarily improving learning. This finding has significant implications for curriculum design.
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paper_title: Sharing designer and user perspectives of web site evaluation: a cross-campus collaborative learning experience

paper_content:

In this paper we present an online, collaborative process that facilitates usability evaluation of web sites. The online workspace consists of simple and effective proformas and computer-mediated discussion space to support usability evaluation. The system was designed and used by staff and students at two universities. Students, working in small teams, at each university, developed web sites and then evaluated the usability of web sites developed at the other university, using the results to improve their own sites. Our project evaluations show that the process provides valuable feedback on web site usability and provides students with the experience of usability evaluation from two important perspectives: those of a user and of a developer. Further, students develop important generic skills: the ability to participate in and critique computer supported cooperative work environments.
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paper_title: Distance education via the Internet: the student experience

paper_content:

This is the second in a series of papers that describes the use of the Internet on a distance-taught undergraduate Computer Science course (Thomas et al., 1998). This paper examines students' experience of a large-scale trial in which students were taught using electronic communication exclusively. The paper compares the constitution and experiences of a group of Internet students to those of conventional distance learning students on the same course. Learning styles, background questionnaires, and learning outcomes were used in the comparison of the two groups. The study reveals comparable learning outcomes with no discrimination in grade as the result of using different communication media. The student experience is reported, highlighting the main gains and issues of using the Internet as a communication medium in distance education. This paper also shows that using the Internet in this context can provide students with a worthwhile experience.
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paper_title: Teacher Participation in Computer Conferencing: socio-psychological dimensions

paper_content:

Abstract It has been pointed out in the literature on computer-mediated communication that the social dimensions of network design, user behaviour and user participation on computer networks are very important to the building of an electronic community. So far, no study has examined these dimensions systematically and the ways in which they mediate user participation. This article reports on a study conducted on a computer network for English teachers in Hong Kong schools, TeleNex, to investigate the teachers' participation on the network, and the technical and social psychological dimensions that mediated their participation. Data were obtained by questionnaires and by interviews with a small sample of teachers. The questionnaire results show significant differences between teachers who participated actively in conferencing and those who did not. The interview data provided further insights into the social psychological dimensions. Implications to be considered when building an electronic community of te...
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paper_title: Network Analysis Of Knowledge Construction In Asynchronous Learning Networks

paper_content:

Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs) make the process of collaboration more transparent, because a transcript of conference messages can be used to assess individual roles and contributions and the collaborative process itself. This study considers three aspects of ALNs: the design; the quality of the resulting knowledge construction process; and cohesion, role and power network structures. The design is evaluated according to the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through Content Analysis; and the network structures are analyzed using Social Network Analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. In this research we analyze data from two three-monthlong ALN academic university courses: a formal, structured, closed forum and an informal, nonstructured, open forum. We found that in the structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a very high phase of critical thinking and developed cohesive cliques. The students took on bridging and triggering roles, while the tutor had relatively little power. In the non-structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a low phase of cognitive activity; few cliques were constructed; most of the students took on the passive role of teacher-followers; and the tutor was at the center of activity. These differences are statistically significant. We conclude that a well-designed ALN develops significant, distinct cohesion, and role and power structures lead the knowledge construction process to high phases of critical thinking.
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paper_title: Using unmediated computer conferencing to promote reflective practice and confidencebuilding in initial teacher education

paper_content:

Abstract The use of computer conferencing in initial teacher education (ITE) has been well documented, along with the barriers to its implementation. Existing research includes investigation into ways in which computer conferencing can be used as a medium to support reflective thinking and professional discourse between university tutors, teachers, student teachers and their peers during school placement. This article takes a different approach, examining instead whether computer conferencing can be successful between ITE peer groups, from different educational systems, without tutor moderation. It considers to what extent computer conferencing can raise students' confidence in the use of information and communication technologies and can encourage ‘reflective practice’ among student teachers. The report also considers the extent to which on-line discussion among student teachers can provide emotional support and stress relief during the course's most intensive period of teaching practice. Finally, it des...
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paper_title: Following the thread in computer conferences

paper_content:

Abstract Computer conferencing systems allow students to discuss their ideas and learn from each other. However, the asynchronous nature of these discussions can result in large and complex collections of messages. Threading facilities help students to cope with this by structuring their discussions into parallel ‘conversations’. This paper discusses an investigation of students’ use of threading in two different conferencing systems. The context for the study was a small-group collaborative assignment in an Open University course. Conference transcripts were studied, and ‘message maps’ were created, in order to investigate the threading links made by students, in relation to the semantic links between the messages. The results show that the way in which threads are represented in a conferencing system can have a significant effect on how students use the system, and on the character of the resulting discussions.
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paper_title: Design Elements for a CSCL Environment in a Teacher Training Programme

paper_content:

In the design of a Telematic Learning Environment (TLE) in which student teachers learn collaboratively, we consider three clusters of design elements as important: the Telematic Work Environment, the guidance of the instructor and the task instruction. We will have a look at the way group and task behaviour, triggered by these design elements influence the collaborative outcomes. Experiments have revealed that the technical environment is not as important as we had expected beforehand. This research shows that the task instruction (pre-imposed structure, role taking and intrinsic motivation for the task) and the group process itself have far more impact on the online collaborative work of the student teachers.
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paper_title: Combining Qualitative Evaluation and Social Network Analysis for the Study of Classroom Social Interactions

paper_content:

Studying and evaluating real experiences that promote active and collaborative learning is a crucial field in CSCL. Major issues that remain unsolved deal with the merging of qualitative and quantitative methods and data, especially in educational settings that involve both physical and computer-supported collaboration. In this paper we present a mixed evaluation method that combines traditional sources of data with computer logs, and integrates quantitative statistics, qualitative data analysis and social network analysis in an overall interpretative approach. Several computer tools have been developed to assist in this process, integrated with generic software for qualitative analysis. The evaluation method and tools have been incrementally applied and validated in the context of an educational and research project that has been going on during the last three years. The use of the method is illustrated in this paper by an example consisting of the evaluation of a particular category within this project. The proposed method and tools aim at giving an answer to the need of innovative techniques for the study of new forms of interaction emerging in CSCL; at increasing the efficiency of the traditionally demanding qualitative methods, so that they can be used by teachers in curriculum-based experiences; and at the definition of a set of guidelines for bridging different data sources and analysis perspectives.
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paper_title: The Use of Asynchronous Learning Networks in Nutrition Education: Student Attitude, Experiences and Performance

paper_content:

In this study a change in teaching strategy to involve a greater emphasis on asynchronous learning networks (ALNs) was implemented and the views of students (n=51) to this change were evaluated through responses to an online questionnaire. In response to Likert-type questions the majority of students demonstrated a positive view of this new model. Sixty-one percent of students felt that other types of online material would benefit the learning process and 80 % would recommend this module to a friend. Students acknowledged that the use of ALN-supported learning made the material easier to understand (52%), the lecturer more accessible (66%) and enabled them to take a more active role in the learning process (55%). Though only 10% of students utilized the asynchronous newsgroup more than 5 times, 77% found reading the contributions of others useful. Contrary to this 76% preferred the more familiar lecturebased environment for subject delivery. In response to open-ended questions students’ views were more reserved and highlighted a range of problems such as inadequate infrastructure, unreliable computers, and poor access to the online material as well as resistance to a new teaching paradigm. Student performance was influenced by age and contribution to the newsgroup. Those who were younger had a lower grade (47.8 ? 15.8) than those who were older (52.0 ? 11.4). Students with higher grades (56.2 ? 10.3) contributed to the newsgroup while students with lower grades (45.7 ? 12.5) did not. Based on these observations, it is apparent that students do appreciate the advantages of ALNsupported learning though for a shift toward this model to be effective problems of access and system failure must be resolved. Implications for future ALN-based modules are discussed.
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paper_title: Beyond knowledge transmission? computer-supported learning in teacher education: some benefits in terms of stress, control and self-belief

paper_content:

This article outlines some benefits of a computer-supported interactive learning environment in terms of students' attitudes and factors associated with stress. In the 3rd year of a 4-year undergraduate course for primary teachers (B.Ed.), students were required to undertake a research module, which was seen in part as a preparation for a thesis dissertation in the final year. The subject matter was contained in several computer conferences; other learning experiences included some face-to-face contact and optional technical support sessions. Initial feedback from students indicated that there are benefits in terms of greater flexibility of work patterns, increased sense of control and enhanced self-esteem. Other issues are raised, including the role of the tutor, cost benefits and problems of access. More research is called for into the non-cognitive aspects of computer use.
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paper_title: A Method to Increase Student Interaction Using Student Groups and Peer Review over the Internet

paper_content:

A method of peer review for student groups is proposed. In this method, groups of students publish their assignments results over the Internet. A fellow student group reviews their work and publishes their findings (on the Internet). Finally, the two groups debate their points of view in front of the class. The debate and healthy competition among groups give the students a chance to learn how to give and receive criticism in a constructive way. This should increase the students' ability to interact and work in groups, an important skill for computer science professionals.
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paper_title: Implementing a CMC tutor group for an existing distance education course

paper_content:

‘Artificial Intelligence for Technology’ (T396) is a distance learning course provided by the Open University of the UK using face-to-face tutorials. In 1997 a pilot study was undertaken of a computer-mediated communication (CMC) tutor group which consisted of volunteers from around the UK. The student feedback raised a number of issues including: the need for a distinct function for the tutor group conference, the role of and demands on the tutor, and the benefits perceived by students. It is suggested that some issues arise from a conflict of cultures each with their own implicit assumptions. The traditional face-to-face tutorial model is sometimes at variance with the demands of the new CMC based tuition.
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paper_title: Inter-Rater Reliability of an Electronic Discussion Coding System.

paper_content:

Abstract A ‘cognote’ system has been developed for coding electronic discussion groups and promoting critical thinking. Previous literature has provided an account of the strategy as applied to several academic settings. This article addresses the research around establishing the inter-rater reliability of the cognote system. The findings suggest three indicators of reliability, namely: 1. that raters assign similar grades to students' discussion group contributions; 2. that raters predominantly assign the same cognotes to students' discussion group contributions and 3. that raters are selecting in excess of 50% of the same text in assigning the same cognotes.
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paper_title: Experiences of assessment: using phenomenography for evaluation

paper_content:

The aim of this paper is to explore the use of assessment as a tool for structuring students' experiences within a networked learning environment. It is suggested that this investigation may have a wider bearing on issues raised by the idea of aligning teaching approach with the students' approach to learning. The methods used are broadly phenomenographic and the use of this approach is proposed for the evaluation of networked learning in higher education. The work is drawn from the initial phase of a two-year study being undertaken at Lancaster University. The choice of phenomenography as the preferred methodological approach is explained and how this is appropriate for evaluation. An emphasis is placed upon the evaluative aspects of phenomenography, its focus on varieties of experience and the relationship between approaches adopted to learning and the outcomes of learning. The example, drawn from the research, examines student approaches in relation to the declared intentions of the course designers.
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paper_title: Communication in a web-based conferencing system: the quality of computer-mediated interactions

paper_content:

Time constraints and teaching in crowded classrooms restrict in-depth dialogical interaction in teaching and learning. Electronic conferencing systems, however, have the potential to foster online discussions beyond class time. Case-based instruction also constitutes a promising approach in fostering learners’ participation and reflection. The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the extent to which an electronic conferencing system, named COW (“Conferencing on the Web”), facilitates pre-service teachers’ communication outside their classroom, when discussing teaching cases from their field experiences, and (b) the potential of COW and case-based instruction to foster quality discourse and promote students’ critical-thinking skills. The results showed that students’ online discourse was mostly an exchange of personal experiences and did not reflect well-supported reasoning. Future research on the issue of interactivity should address motivational and affective variables related to the implementation of distance-education methods, variations in pedagogical activity and task structure, and the readiness of mentors and learners.
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paper_title: DOES ONE SIZE FIT ALL? EXPLORING ASYNCHRONOUS LEARNING IN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

paper_content:

Computer-mediated classrooms coupled with heightened emphasis on removing geographic limitations have led to growing dependence on asynchronous learning networks as a delivery medium. An increasingly robust body of literature suggests both positive and negative implications of knowledge delivery using this medium. However, much less is known about the implications of this delivery method relative to the cultural differences which exist in a geographically limitless environment. Exploratory research from a graduate level course was used to ascertain some of the basic cross cultural issues which may be relevant in this environment. Using cultural context as a separator, twenty four participants evenly split between low context participants and high context participants were polled regarding their experience in the course. The poll addressed a number of key issues finding increasing frequency in the asynchronous learning network literature. Results confirm some of the published benefits as touted in the literature, but identify an additional set of issues for further research and evaluation.
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paper_title: Communities of Practice: guidelines for the design of online seminars in higher education

paper_content:

This article focuses on the Community of Practice (CoP) concept and its implications for designing online seminars in the university context. Student learning in seminars at universities is seen as peripheral participation in a particular scientific community—one of the many knowledge-creating CoPs that constitute a university. Introducing information technology into university education thus should be measured by the degree to which these new ways of teaching enhance students' access to scientific communities. This framing view of university education is connected to a social theory of learning where learning is seen as an essentially social, situated phenomenon. The concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in a community of practice is used to derive a design framework for online seminars. Using this framework, the authors implemented an online seminar on the topic of organisational knowledge management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. The GroupWare platform BSCW (Basic Support f...
---
paper_title: The anatomy of a distance education course: a case study analysis

paper_content:

This case study of a distance education course in children’s literature focuses on the creation of an interpretive community and the importance of that community in online learning. It also refines Michael G. Moore’s work on transactional distance to include the concept of a faculty member’s “restrained presence” in an effort to facilitate students’ personal responsibility for their own learning and for community building in an online learning environment.
---
paper_title: Teacher Participation in Computer Conferencing: socio-psychological dimensions

paper_content:

Abstract It has been pointed out in the literature on computer-mediated communication that the social dimensions of network design, user behaviour and user participation on computer networks are very important to the building of an electronic community. So far, no study has examined these dimensions systematically and the ways in which they mediate user participation. This article reports on a study conducted on a computer network for English teachers in Hong Kong schools, TeleNex, to investigate the teachers' participation on the network, and the technical and social psychological dimensions that mediated their participation. Data were obtained by questionnaires and by interviews with a small sample of teachers. The questionnaire results show significant differences between teachers who participated actively in conferencing and those who did not. The interview data provided further insights into the social psychological dimensions. Implications to be considered when building an electronic community of te...
---
paper_title: Sharing designer and user perspectives of web site evaluation: a cross-campus collaborative learning experience

paper_content:

In this paper we present an online, collaborative process that facilitates usability evaluation of web sites. The online workspace consists of simple and effective proformas and computer-mediated discussion space to support usability evaluation. The system was designed and used by staff and students at two universities. Students, working in small teams, at each university, developed web sites and then evaluated the usability of web sites developed at the other university, using the results to improve their own sites. Our project evaluations show that the process provides valuable feedback on web site usability and provides students with the experience of usability evaluation from two important perspectives: those of a user and of a developer. Further, students develop important generic skills: the ability to participate in and critique computer supported cooperative work environments.
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paper_title: Collaboration and virtual mentoring: building relationships between pre-service and in-service special education teachers

paper_content:

Abstract This study explored the benefits and limitations of mentoring through the Internet in two special education preparation programs in the United States. Nicenet Internet Classroom Assistant was used to facilitate this virtual mentoring process. Seventeen undergraduate and 13 graduate students from two universities participated. The graduate students were mentors to undergraduates who were in the beginning of their senior year of their special education program. Pre- and post-surveys, Internet interactions, and video conferencing were used to gather participants' perceptions of their skill development in teaching, mentoring and collaboration and the effectiveness of virtual mentoring. Content analyses and descriptive statistics were employed to evaluate their responses. Results revealed that participants agreed that virtual mentoring was a positive experience, it supported their intervention and teaming skills and had some positive effects on their communication and teaching skills. However, virtual...
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paper_title: Can a Collaborative Network Environment Enhance Essay-Writing Processes?.

paper_content:

The aim of this study is to examine whether a computer-supported learning environment enhances essay writing by providing an opportunity to share drafts with fellow students and receive feedback from a draft version. Data for this study were provided by 25 law students who were enrolled in a course in legal history at the University of Helsinki in February 2001. Both the students and the teacher were interviewed. The interviews showed that the students' experiences of the essay-writing process were very positive. The teacher's experiences were in line with the students'. The results showed that the students seemed to divide into two groups concerning their experiences towards sharing written drafts with peers: those who were very enthusiastic and enjoyed the possibility to share drafts and those who, on the other hand, felt that the idea of sharing unfinished essays was too threatening for them and required too much openness. The results further showed that the active use of a computer-supported learning environment was related to good essay grades.
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paper_title: Assessing Activity-Based Learning for a Networked Course.

paper_content:

Networked environments offer new scope for presenting activity based courses, in which activities and reflection form the central backbone of course pedagogy. Such courses promise an enriching approach to study, but there are also challenges for the design of assessment. This paper describes a qualitative study of student and tutor perspectives on the assessment of an innovative undergraduate course at the UK Open University which has employed an activity-based approach. It discusses the relationship between assessment, student participation, and the development of skills, and then outlines the priorities for the design of assessment for such courses.
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paper_title: Teacher Participation in Computer Conferencing: socio-psychological dimensions

paper_content:

Abstract It has been pointed out in the literature on computer-mediated communication that the social dimensions of network design, user behaviour and user participation on computer networks are very important to the building of an electronic community. So far, no study has examined these dimensions systematically and the ways in which they mediate user participation. This article reports on a study conducted on a computer network for English teachers in Hong Kong schools, TeleNex, to investigate the teachers' participation on the network, and the technical and social psychological dimensions that mediated their participation. Data were obtained by questionnaires and by interviews with a small sample of teachers. The questionnaire results show significant differences between teachers who participated actively in conferencing and those who did not. The interview data provided further insights into the social psychological dimensions. Implications to be considered when building an electronic community of te...
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paper_title: Mirror, mirror, on my screen ... exploring online reflections

paper_content:

This paper suggests that, through the provision of opportunities for reflection–in–action at critical learning stages and with the support of a trained e–moderator, the participants in computer mediated conferencing (CMC) can be encouraged to engage in reflecting about their onscreen experiences. Such reflection aids the building of a productive online community of practice. In addition, by encouraging participants to reflect on later stages of their online training experiences, a reflection–on–action record can be built up. Participants' reflective processes can be captured through analysis of their on screen text messages and so be available for research purposes. Examples of conference text message reflections are given throughout the paper, drawn from the on screen reflections of Open University Business School (OUBS) Associate Lecturers who were working online through the medium of computer mediated conferencing for the first time. The conclusion is that reflection–on–practice in the online environment is beneficial for helping the participants to learn from online conferencing and can provide an excellent tool for qualitative research. Opportunities for reflection need to be built into the design of online conferences and facilitated by a trained e–moderator.
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paper_title: Network Analysis Of Knowledge Construction In Asynchronous Learning Networks

paper_content:

Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs) make the process of collaboration more transparent, because a transcript of conference messages can be used to assess individual roles and contributions and the collaborative process itself. This study considers three aspects of ALNs: the design; the quality of the resulting knowledge construction process; and cohesion, role and power network structures. The design is evaluated according to the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through Content Analysis; and the network structures are analyzed using Social Network Analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. In this research we analyze data from two three-monthlong ALN academic university courses: a formal, structured, closed forum and an informal, nonstructured, open forum. We found that in the structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a very high phase of critical thinking and developed cohesive cliques. The students took on bridging and triggering roles, while the tutor had relatively little power. In the non-structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a low phase of cognitive activity; few cliques were constructed; most of the students took on the passive role of teacher-followers; and the tutor was at the center of activity. These differences are statistically significant. We conclude that a well-designed ALN develops significant, distinct cohesion, and role and power structures lead the knowledge construction process to high phases of critical thinking.
---
paper_title: Following the thread in computer conferences

paper_content:

Abstract Computer conferencing systems allow students to discuss their ideas and learn from each other. However, the asynchronous nature of these discussions can result in large and complex collections of messages. Threading facilities help students to cope with this by structuring their discussions into parallel ‘conversations’. This paper discusses an investigation of students’ use of threading in two different conferencing systems. The context for the study was a small-group collaborative assignment in an Open University course. Conference transcripts were studied, and ‘message maps’ were created, in order to investigate the threading links made by students, in relation to the semantic links between the messages. The results show that the way in which threads are represented in a conferencing system can have a significant effect on how students use the system, and on the character of the resulting discussions.
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paper_title: Putting the ‘C’ in ICT: using computer conferencing to foster a community of practice among student teachers

paper_content:

Abstract The expansion of communications technology has created countless new possibilities for using on-line communication in many areas of education. The focus of this article is on the use of on-line conferencing by a cohort of students studying for the Postgraduate Certificate in Education at the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland. This on-line discussion was initially developed with the primary aims of fostering skills in information and communications technology, providing a venue for reflective practice and reducing the sense of isolation often felt by students when they are dispersed throughout Northern Ireland on teaching practice. Involvement with the discussions convinced the author that the conferencing was also helping to build a community of practice among student teachers. Indeed, the content of participant dialogues suggests that this is the case, with the salient elements of such communities, namely, mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire, being readily apparent t...
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paper_title: Using narratives in conferences to improve the CMC learning environment

paper_content:

This paper reports on the use of short stories in Internet discussions to promote student learning. It describes off-campus teacher education students CMC discussions of short stories concerning issues in human development. The content of students' discussions is analysed, as is their perceptions of the value of the discussion stories. The results indicate that the use of narratives can improve the social environment of online conferences and contribute to collaborative student learning.
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paper_title: Inter-Rater Reliability of an Electronic Discussion Coding System.

paper_content:

Abstract A ‘cognote’ system has been developed for coding electronic discussion groups and promoting critical thinking. Previous literature has provided an account of the strategy as applied to several academic settings. This article addresses the research around establishing the inter-rater reliability of the cognote system. The findings suggest three indicators of reliability, namely: 1. that raters assign similar grades to students' discussion group contributions; 2. that raters predominantly assign the same cognotes to students' discussion group contributions and 3. that raters are selecting in excess of 50% of the same text in assigning the same cognotes.
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paper_title: Learning together and alone: Cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning

paper_content:

Preface. 1.Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning. 2.Cooperative Learning. 3.Informal Cooperative Learning. 4.Cooperative Base Groups. 5.Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning. 6.Integrated Use of All Types of Cooperative Learning. 7.Assessment and Evaluation. 8.Structuring Competitive Learning. 9.Structuring Individualistic Learning. 10.Integrated Use of Cooperative, Competitive, and Individualistic Learning. 11.Reflections. Glossary. References. Index.
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paper_title: Recognising and promoting collaboration in an online asynchronous discussion

paper_content:

This paper reports on a study involving the identification and measurement of collaboration in an online asynchronous discussion (OAD). A conceptual framework served for the development of a model which conceptualises collaboration on a continuum of processes that move from social presence to production of an artefact. From this model, a preliminary instrument with six processes was developed. Through application of the instrument to an OAD, the instrument was further developed with indicators added for each process. Use of the instrument to analyse an OAD showed that it is effective for gaining insight into collaborative processes in which discussants in an OAD do or do not engage. Use of the instrument in other contexts would test and potentially strengthen its reliability and provide further insight into the collaborative processes in which individuals engage in OADs. Analysis of an OAD using the instrument revealed that participants engaged primarily in processes related to social presence and articulating individual perspectives, and did not reach a stage of sharing goals and producing shared artefacts. The results suggest that the higher-level processes related to collaboration in an OAD may need to be more explicitly and effectively promoted in order to counteract a tendency on the part of participants to remain at the level of individual rather than group or collaborative effort.
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paper_title: Communication in a web-based conferencing system: the quality of computer-mediated interactions

paper_content:

Time constraints and teaching in crowded classrooms restrict in-depth dialogical interaction in teaching and learning. Electronic conferencing systems, however, have the potential to foster online discussions beyond class time. Case-based instruction also constitutes a promising approach in fostering learners’ participation and reflection. The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the extent to which an electronic conferencing system, named COW (“Conferencing on the Web”), facilitates pre-service teachers’ communication outside their classroom, when discussing teaching cases from their field experiences, and (b) the potential of COW and case-based instruction to foster quality discourse and promote students’ critical-thinking skills. The results showed that students’ online discourse was mostly an exchange of personal experiences and did not reflect well-supported reasoning. Future research on the issue of interactivity should address motivational and affective variables related to the implementation of distance-education methods, variations in pedagogical activity and task structure, and the readiness of mentors and learners.
---
paper_title: Rethinking University Teaching: A Framework for the Effective Use of Educational Technology

paper_content:

Part 1 What students need from educational technology: teaching as mediating learning what students bring to learning the complexity of coming to know generating a teaching strategy. Part 2 Analyzing teaching methods and media introduction - categories of media forms: audio-visual media hypermedia interactive media adaptive media discursive media. Part 3 The design methodology: designing teaching materials setting up the learning context effective teaching with multi-media methods.
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paper_title: Communities of Practice: guidelines for the design of online seminars in higher education

paper_content:

This article focuses on the Community of Practice (CoP) concept and its implications for designing online seminars in the university context. Student learning in seminars at universities is seen as peripheral participation in a particular scientific community—one of the many knowledge-creating CoPs that constitute a university. Introducing information technology into university education thus should be measured by the degree to which these new ways of teaching enhance students' access to scientific communities. This framing view of university education is connected to a social theory of learning where learning is seen as an essentially social, situated phenomenon. The concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in a community of practice is used to derive a design framework for online seminars. Using this framework, the authors implemented an online seminar on the topic of organisational knowledge management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. The GroupWare platform BSCW (Basic Support f...
---
paper_title: The anatomy of a distance education course: a case study analysis

paper_content:

This case study of a distance education course in children’s literature focuses on the creation of an interpretive community and the importance of that community in online learning. It also refines Michael G. Moore’s work on transactional distance to include the concept of a faculty member’s “restrained presence” in an effort to facilitate students’ personal responsibility for their own learning and for community building in an online learning environment.
---
paper_title: Taking E-Moderating skills to the next level: Reflecting on the design of conferencing environments

paper_content:

This paper reports an analysis of computer conference structures set up for a distance education course in which major components of the teaching and learning involve group discussions and collaboration via asynchronous text-based conferencing. As well as adopting traditional e-moderator roles, tutors were required to design appropriate online spaces and navigation routes for students. Tutors’ views concerning conference structures focussed on tensions between enabling easy access to conference areas, facilitating the successful running of activities, and addressing students’ subsequent needs for retrieval of conference material for assessment tasks. The geographically dispersed course tutors initially explored these issues in reflective online conversations. Comparisons were made between structures that were set up differently but all used for essentially the same tasks and purposes. Evidence from conference messages, from student feedback given in questionnaire and interview responses, as well as from students’ written assignments, provided insights into the impact such structures may have on the student learning experience. Students found conference areas for their own group easy to navigate, but they had concerns about managing the large number of messages; these concerns centred on the volume, threading, linking, length, and language of messages.
---
paper_title: Asynchronous discussion groups in teacher training classes: Perceptions of native and non-native students

paper_content:

This paper discusses students’ perceptions of an asynchronous electronic discussion assignment implemented shortly after the technology had been introduced to the university. In addition to the weekly face-to-face class meetings, students in two graduate level teacher training courses were assigned to small groups for an entire semester and made weekly contributions to their group’s course web discussion forum in which they discussed course content. Students were to make explicit references to course readings and postings by their group members. The instructor evaluated students' postings on a weekly basis. At the end of the course, students completed a survey assessing their satisfaction and asking for their suggestions for modification of the particular assignment type and format. For all students, the extension of course-related discussions outside the regular face-to-face class meetings offered benefits in the form of greater social interaction with other class members; for the non-native speakers among the students, the asynchronous discussions facilitated assimilation of course content, but it was not perceived as providing additional language practice. For all students, the two main issues perceived as negative related to their perceptions of forced, unnatural interaction promoted by the asynchronous discussions and lack of topic prompts, the requirement to make connections to prior postings, and the frequency of required contributions to discussions. Possible reasons for students’ perceptions are explored and suggestions for further research are provided.
---
paper_title: Distance education via the Internet: the student experience

paper_content:

This is the second in a series of papers that describes the use of the Internet on a distance-taught undergraduate Computer Science course (Thomas et al., 1998). This paper examines students' experience of a large-scale trial in which students were taught using electronic communication exclusively. The paper compares the constitution and experiences of a group of Internet students to those of conventional distance learning students on the same course. Learning styles, background questionnaires, and learning outcomes were used in the comparison of the two groups. The study reveals comparable learning outcomes with no discrimination in grade as the result of using different communication media. The student experience is reported, highlighting the main gains and issues of using the Internet as a communication medium in distance education. This paper also shows that using the Internet in this context can provide students with a worthwhile experience.
---
paper_title: Using group communication to monitor web-based group learning

paper_content:

In a web group-learning environment, students must communicate with other group members on the Internet to accomplish group projects and share knowledge. Communication is likely to affect performance and so analysing the relationship between communicative relationships and group performance may help teachers to monitor groups effectively. Certain tasks are necessary to perform such an analysis — recording group communication, extracting communication relationships and determining the relationship between group communication and group performance. This study developed a method for determining relationships and rules for predicting performance to enable teachers to take act appropriately according to the predicted performance of the group. Four group performance indicators are considered — average grades within a group, project grade, frequency of resource-sharing and drop-out rate. Experimental results are presented, concerning the application of the methodology to a web class of 706 students, divided into 70 groups. The experimental results show that group communication patterns significantly affect group performance.
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paper_title: Network Analysis Of Knowledge Construction In Asynchronous Learning Networks

paper_content:

Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs) make the process of collaboration more transparent, because a transcript of conference messages can be used to assess individual roles and contributions and the collaborative process itself. This study considers three aspects of ALNs: the design; the quality of the resulting knowledge construction process; and cohesion, role and power network structures. The design is evaluated according to the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through Content Analysis; and the network structures are analyzed using Social Network Analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. In this research we analyze data from two three-monthlong ALN academic university courses: a formal, structured, closed forum and an informal, nonstructured, open forum. We found that in the structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a very high phase of critical thinking and developed cohesive cliques. The students took on bridging and triggering roles, while the tutor had relatively little power. In the non-structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a low phase of cognitive activity; few cliques were constructed; most of the students took on the passive role of teacher-followers; and the tutor was at the center of activity. These differences are statistically significant. We conclude that a well-designed ALN develops significant, distinct cohesion, and role and power structures lead the knowledge construction process to high phases of critical thinking.
---
paper_title: Design Elements for a CSCL Environment in a Teacher Training Programme

paper_content:

In the design of a Telematic Learning Environment (TLE) in which student teachers learn collaboratively, we consider three clusters of design elements as important: the Telematic Work Environment, the guidance of the instructor and the task instruction. We will have a look at the way group and task behaviour, triggered by these design elements influence the collaborative outcomes. Experiments have revealed that the technical environment is not as important as we had expected beforehand. This research shows that the task instruction (pre-imposed structure, role taking and intrinsic motivation for the task) and the group process itself have far more impact on the online collaborative work of the student teachers.
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paper_title: DOES ONE SIZE FIT ALL? EXPLORING ASYNCHRONOUS LEARNING IN A MULTICULTURAL ENVIRONMENT

paper_content:

Computer-mediated classrooms coupled with heightened emphasis on removing geographic limitations have led to growing dependence on asynchronous learning networks as a delivery medium. An increasingly robust body of literature suggests both positive and negative implications of knowledge delivery using this medium. However, much less is known about the implications of this delivery method relative to the cultural differences which exist in a geographically limitless environment. Exploratory research from a graduate level course was used to ascertain some of the basic cross cultural issues which may be relevant in this environment. Using cultural context as a separator, twenty four participants evenly split between low context participants and high context participants were polled regarding their experience in the course. The poll addressed a number of key issues finding increasing frequency in the asynchronous learning network literature. Results confirm some of the published benefits as touted in the literature, but identify an additional set of issues for further research and evaluation.
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paper_title: Learning within incoherent structures: the space of online discussion forums

paper_content:

Online discussion forums are an increasingly common use of new information and communication technologies in education. As a tool for promoting conversational modes of learning, it has been suggested that online discussion forums can lead to enhanced learning outcomes for students. However, there is a need to explore further the implications of the highly mediated nature of computer-based interaction on student learning within these virtual learning environments. This paper presents results from a detailed study of students' learning outcomes and patterns of interaction within an online discussion forum. The findings suggest that the typical nonlinear branching structure of online discussion may be insufficient for the realisation of truly conversational modes of learning. The paper discusses the implications of these findings in relation to students' learning.
---
paper_title: Sharing designer and user perspectives of web site evaluation: a cross-campus collaborative learning experience

paper_content:

In this paper we present an online, collaborative process that facilitates usability evaluation of web sites. The online workspace consists of simple and effective proformas and computer-mediated discussion space to support usability evaluation. The system was designed and used by staff and students at two universities. Students, working in small teams, at each university, developed web sites and then evaluated the usability of web sites developed at the other university, using the results to improve their own sites. Our project evaluations show that the process provides valuable feedback on web site usability and provides students with the experience of usability evaluation from two important perspectives: those of a user and of a developer. Further, students develop important generic skills: the ability to participate in and critique computer supported cooperative work environments.
---
paper_title: Asynchronous discussion groups in teacher training classes: Perceptions of native and non-native students

paper_content:

This paper discusses students’ perceptions of an asynchronous electronic discussion assignment implemented shortly after the technology had been introduced to the university. In addition to the weekly face-to-face class meetings, students in two graduate level teacher training courses were assigned to small groups for an entire semester and made weekly contributions to their group’s course web discussion forum in which they discussed course content. Students were to make explicit references to course readings and postings by their group members. The instructor evaluated students' postings on a weekly basis. At the end of the course, students completed a survey assessing their satisfaction and asking for their suggestions for modification of the particular assignment type and format. For all students, the extension of course-related discussions outside the regular face-to-face class meetings offered benefits in the form of greater social interaction with other class members; for the non-native speakers among the students, the asynchronous discussions facilitated assimilation of course content, but it was not perceived as providing additional language practice. For all students, the two main issues perceived as negative related to their perceptions of forced, unnatural interaction promoted by the asynchronous discussions and lack of topic prompts, the requirement to make connections to prior postings, and the frequency of required contributions to discussions. Possible reasons for students’ perceptions are explored and suggestions for further research are provided.
---
paper_title: Can a Collaborative Network Environment Enhance Essay-Writing Processes?.

paper_content:

The aim of this study is to examine whether a computer-supported learning environment enhances essay writing by providing an opportunity to share drafts with fellow students and receive feedback from a draft version. Data for this study were provided by 25 law students who were enrolled in a course in legal history at the University of Helsinki in February 2001. Both the students and the teacher were interviewed. The interviews showed that the students' experiences of the essay-writing process were very positive. The teacher's experiences were in line with the students'. The results showed that the students seemed to divide into two groups concerning their experiences towards sharing written drafts with peers: those who were very enthusiastic and enjoyed the possibility to share drafts and those who, on the other hand, felt that the idea of sharing unfinished essays was too threatening for them and required too much openness. The results further showed that the active use of a computer-supported learning environment was related to good essay grades.
---
paper_title: Assessing Activity-Based Learning for a Networked Course.

paper_content:

Networked environments offer new scope for presenting activity based courses, in which activities and reflection form the central backbone of course pedagogy. Such courses promise an enriching approach to study, but there are also challenges for the design of assessment. This paper describes a qualitative study of student and tutor perspectives on the assessment of an innovative undergraduate course at the UK Open University which has employed an activity-based approach. It discusses the relationship between assessment, student participation, and the development of skills, and then outlines the priorities for the design of assessment for such courses.
---
paper_title: Assessing Online Discussions Working ‘Along the Grain’ of Current Technology and Educational Culture

paper_content:

The paper reports a case study assessing asynchronous text-based online discussion amongst trainee teachers in Britain. It describes the project as working ‘along the grain’ of current technology and educational culture since it aims to exploit the capabilities of the ICT used (e.blackboard1) in ways which could be enacted in schools today whilst at the same time giving due attention to modify the constraints of time, place and hierarchy that the ICT revolution threatens in schools. Quantitative and qualitative results are discussed. The relationship between ICT and the wider social, political and cultural context is also discussed. The paper concludes with areas for further research and points to the need to review current assessment cultures in schools.
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paper_title: Teacher Participation in Computer Conferencing: socio-psychological dimensions

paper_content:

Abstract It has been pointed out in the literature on computer-mediated communication that the social dimensions of network design, user behaviour and user participation on computer networks are very important to the building of an electronic community. So far, no study has examined these dimensions systematically and the ways in which they mediate user participation. This article reports on a study conducted on a computer network for English teachers in Hong Kong schools, TeleNex, to investigate the teachers' participation on the network, and the technical and social psychological dimensions that mediated their participation. Data were obtained by questionnaires and by interviews with a small sample of teachers. The questionnaire results show significant differences between teachers who participated actively in conferencing and those who did not. The interview data provided further insights into the social psychological dimensions. Implications to be considered when building an electronic community of te...
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paper_title: Collaborative knowledge building to promote in-service teacher training in environmental education

paper_content:

Abstract Environmental education (EE) is a problematic field in teacher education for many reasons. First, there is no consensus about its central concepts. Second, environmental education emerged as a response to environmental problems. Environmental educators do not agree on what are real environmental problems and what are exaggerated fears. For many educators, global warming is a serious environmental problem, but for those who view it in a geological perspective of long-term climatic change, it is not such a problem. When teachers are provided with the possibility of sharing problems of EE and building knowledge collaboratively with university experts, what do they do? What kind of problems do teachers regard as important? What kinds of problems do the university experts regard as important? These questions were investigated through the use of a database program called Knowledge Forum®. Knowledge Forum®is a shared virtual environment for collaborative knowledge building. This article analyses the use...
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paper_title: Mirror, mirror, on my screen ... exploring online reflections

paper_content:

This paper suggests that, through the provision of opportunities for reflection–in–action at critical learning stages and with the support of a trained e–moderator, the participants in computer mediated conferencing (CMC) can be encouraged to engage in reflecting about their onscreen experiences. Such reflection aids the building of a productive online community of practice. In addition, by encouraging participants to reflect on later stages of their online training experiences, a reflection–on–action record can be built up. Participants' reflective processes can be captured through analysis of their on screen text messages and so be available for research purposes. Examples of conference text message reflections are given throughout the paper, drawn from the on screen reflections of Open University Business School (OUBS) Associate Lecturers who were working online through the medium of computer mediated conferencing for the first time. The conclusion is that reflection–on–practice in the online environment is beneficial for helping the participants to learn from online conferencing and can provide an excellent tool for qualitative research. Opportunities for reflection need to be built into the design of online conferences and facilitated by a trained e–moderator.
---
paper_title: Network Analysis Of Knowledge Construction In Asynchronous Learning Networks

paper_content:

Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs) make the process of collaboration more transparent, because a transcript of conference messages can be used to assess individual roles and contributions and the collaborative process itself. This study considers three aspects of ALNs: the design; the quality of the resulting knowledge construction process; and cohesion, role and power network structures. The design is evaluated according to the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through Content Analysis; and the network structures are analyzed using Social Network Analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. In this research we analyze data from two three-monthlong ALN academic university courses: a formal, structured, closed forum and an informal, nonstructured, open forum. We found that in the structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a very high phase of critical thinking and developed cohesive cliques. The students took on bridging and triggering roles, while the tutor had relatively little power. In the non-structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a low phase of cognitive activity; few cliques were constructed; most of the students took on the passive role of teacher-followers; and the tutor was at the center of activity. These differences are statistically significant. We conclude that a well-designed ALN develops significant, distinct cohesion, and role and power structures lead the knowledge construction process to high phases of critical thinking.
---
paper_title: Using unmediated computer conferencing to promote reflective practice and confidencebuilding in initial teacher education

paper_content:

Abstract The use of computer conferencing in initial teacher education (ITE) has been well documented, along with the barriers to its implementation. Existing research includes investigation into ways in which computer conferencing can be used as a medium to support reflective thinking and professional discourse between university tutors, teachers, student teachers and their peers during school placement. This article takes a different approach, examining instead whether computer conferencing can be successful between ITE peer groups, from different educational systems, without tutor moderation. It considers to what extent computer conferencing can raise students' confidence in the use of information and communication technologies and can encourage ‘reflective practice’ among student teachers. The report also considers the extent to which on-line discussion among student teachers can provide emotional support and stress relief during the course's most intensive period of teaching practice. Finally, it des...
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paper_title: Variety is the spice of life: student use of CMC in the context of campus based study

paper_content:

At present, courses within British higher education institutions offer a somewhat haphazard patchwork of IT-based learning resources. Through university intranets it is now possible for many students to follow at least parts of their courses online. However, the provision available is highly dependent on local resources and individual tutors. This paper focuses on student discussion supported via computer mediated communication, but not in the context of distance learning. Rather the focus is upon campus-based study, where students are working with one another in a sustained mode over a period of time. In the context of an ESRC 'Virtual Society?' research project we have been using the online dialogues together with interviews and questionnaires to examine two third year level psychology courses at different universities. In both cases tutors used web resources to facilitate computer-mediated communication as an integral part of the course. Different contexts for learning were created by the differing stances of the tutors. One tutor took an active, participatory role whereas the other tutor remained a non-participant. Both, however, wanted to create wide-ranging discussion amongst the learners. The differing roles of tutors were associated with a marked difference in communication styles and perceived learning outcomes.
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paper_title: FACE-TO-FACE VERSUS THREADED DISCUSSIONS: THE ROLE OF TIME AND HIGHER-ORDER THINKING

paper_content:

This study compares the experiences of students in face-to-face (in class) discussions with threaded discussions and also evaluates the threaded discussions for evidence of higher-order thinking. Students were enrolled in graduate-level classes that used both modes (face-to-face and online) for course-related discussions; their end-of-course evaluations of both experiences were grouped for analysis and themes constructed based on their comments. Themes included the “expansion of time,” “experience of time,” “quality of the discussion,” “needs of the student,” and “faculty expertise.” While there are advantages to holding discussions in either setting, students most frequently noted that using threaded discussions increased the amount of time they spent on class objectives and that they appreciated the extra time for reflection on course issues. The face-to-face format also had value as a result of its immediacy and energy, and some students found one mode a better “fit” with their preferred learning mode. The analysis of higher-order thinking was based on a content analysis of the threaded discussions only. Each posting was coded as one of the four cognitive-processing categories described by Garrison and colleagues [1]: 18% were triggering questions, 51% were exploration, 22% were integration, and 7% resolution. A fifth category – social – was appropriate for 3% of the responses and only 12% of the postings included a writing error. This framework provides some support for the assertion that higher-order thinking can and does occur in online discussions; strategies for increasing the number of responses in the integration and resolution categories are discussed.
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paper_title: Computer conferencing with access to a 'guest expert' in the professional development of special educational needs coordinators

paper_content:

This article describes and outlines the implications of a one-year case study of students’ use of the computer conferencing facility of a postgraduate module for special educational needs coordinators (SENCOs) at a distance-learning institution. This facility incorporates a virtual space for a ‘guest expert’. The aim of the study was to inform future development of courses at a time when computer conferencing was just becoming widespread in the university concerned. Quantitative data associated with the volume and patterns of individual participation in the computer conference were collected as well as interview material from students, tutors and the ‘guest expert’. Findings from the study indicate that computer conferencing has the potential to facilitate the professional development of teachers as reflective practitioners and researchers. However, they also point to a number of barriers to student participation that must be addressed. These include access issues related to time constraints, unfamiliarity with the medium, and lack of confidence in expressing personal views in a public arena. A major conclusion drawn from this study is that it may be appropriate to consider future developments which incorporate the assumption that, in computer conferences of large professional development courses, students are much more likely to participate through reading rather than making personal contributions to conference discussions. This opens the possibility of reconceptualising the role of the ‘guest expert’ as two or more discussants with relevant expertise dialoguing with each other while students follow a threaded discussion and/or make personal contributions.
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paper_title: Putting the ‘C’ in ICT: using computer conferencing to foster a community of practice among student teachers

paper_content:

Abstract The expansion of communications technology has created countless new possibilities for using on-line communication in many areas of education. The focus of this article is on the use of on-line conferencing by a cohort of students studying for the Postgraduate Certificate in Education at the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland. This on-line discussion was initially developed with the primary aims of fostering skills in information and communications technology, providing a venue for reflective practice and reducing the sense of isolation often felt by students when they are dispersed throughout Northern Ireland on teaching practice. Involvement with the discussions convinced the author that the conferencing was also helping to build a community of practice among student teachers. Indeed, the content of participant dialogues suggests that this is the case, with the salient elements of such communities, namely, mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire, being readily apparent t...
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paper_title: Beyond knowledge transmission? computer-supported learning in teacher education: some benefits in terms of stress, control and self-belief

paper_content:

This article outlines some benefits of a computer-supported interactive learning environment in terms of students' attitudes and factors associated with stress. In the 3rd year of a 4-year undergraduate course for primary teachers (B.Ed.), students were required to undertake a research module, which was seen in part as a preparation for a thesis dissertation in the final year. The subject matter was contained in several computer conferences; other learning experiences included some face-to-face contact and optional technical support sessions. Initial feedback from students indicated that there are benefits in terms of greater flexibility of work patterns, increased sense of control and enhanced self-esteem. Other issues are raised, including the role of the tutor, cost benefits and problems of access. More research is called for into the non-cognitive aspects of computer use.
---
paper_title: Communities of Practice: guidelines for the design of online seminars in higher education

paper_content:

This article focuses on the Community of Practice (CoP) concept and its implications for designing online seminars in the university context. Student learning in seminars at universities is seen as peripheral participation in a particular scientific community—one of the many knowledge-creating CoPs that constitute a university. Introducing information technology into university education thus should be measured by the degree to which these new ways of teaching enhance students' access to scientific communities. This framing view of university education is connected to a social theory of learning where learning is seen as an essentially social, situated phenomenon. The concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in a community of practice is used to derive a design framework for online seminars. Using this framework, the authors implemented an online seminar on the topic of organisational knowledge management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. The GroupWare platform BSCW (Basic Support f...
---
paper_title: The anatomy of a distance education course: a case study analysis

paper_content:

This case study of a distance education course in children’s literature focuses on the creation of an interpretive community and the importance of that community in online learning. It also refines Michael G. Moore’s work on transactional distance to include the concept of a faculty member’s “restrained presence” in an effort to facilitate students’ personal responsibility for their own learning and for community building in an online learning environment.
---
paper_title: Asynchronous discussion in support of medical education

paper_content:

Although the potential of asynchronous discussion to support learning is widely recognized, student engagement remains problematic. Often, for example, students simply refuse to participate. Consequently the rich promise of asynchronous learning networks for supporting students’ learning can prove hard to achieve. After reviewing strategies for encouraging student participation in discussions in Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALN), we present a study that investigates how these strategies influenced students’ perceptions and use of the discussion area. We identify and explore factors that encouraged and inhibited student participation in asynchronous discussion, and evaluate student postings to an asynchronous discussion group by content analysis.The results question received wisdom about some of the pedagogic techniques advocated in the literature. Instead, results support the view that the major factors for stimulating student participation in asynchronous discussion are tutor enthusiasm and expertise. It appears that the tutor may be the root cause of engagement in discussions, an important conclusion, given that to date, the tutor’s role has remained relatively unexamined. We also note that participation in asynchronous discussion is inhibited when students allocate a low priority to participation, as may occur when participation is not assessed. Content analysis of an asynchronous discussion in this study reveals that contributions were not strongly interactive and that students were simply ‘playing the game’ of assessment, making postings that earned marks but rarely contributing otherwise. Thus the use of assessment to encourage students’ contributions appears to be only a superficial success; it seems likely that giving credit for postings changes behavior without necessarily improving learning. This finding has significant implications for curriculum design.
---
paper_title: Sharing designer and user perspectives of web site evaluation: a cross-campus collaborative learning experience

paper_content:

In this paper we present an online, collaborative process that facilitates usability evaluation of web sites. The online workspace consists of simple and effective proformas and computer-mediated discussion space to support usability evaluation. The system was designed and used by staff and students at two universities. Students, working in small teams, at each university, developed web sites and then evaluated the usability of web sites developed at the other university, using the results to improve their own sites. Our project evaluations show that the process provides valuable feedback on web site usability and provides students with the experience of usability evaluation from two important perspectives: those of a user and of a developer. Further, students develop important generic skills: the ability to participate in and critique computer supported cooperative work environments.
---
paper_title: Assessing online collaborative learning: Process and product

paper_content:

The assessment of online collaborative study presents new opportunities and challenges, both in terms of separating the process and product of collaboration, and in the support of skills development. The purpose of this paper is to explore the role of assessment with respect to the processes and products of online collaborative study. It describes a qualitative case study of staff and students perspectives on two UK Open University courses which have used a variety of models of online collaborative assessment. The findings underline the importance of assessment in ensuring online participation, and in supporting the practice and development of online collaborative learning. They have led to a number of recommendations for the assessment of online collaborative learning.
---
paper_title: Asynchronous discussion groups in teacher training classes: Perceptions of native and non-native students

paper_content:

This paper discusses students’ perceptions of an asynchronous electronic discussion assignment implemented shortly after the technology had been introduced to the university. In addition to the weekly face-to-face class meetings, students in two graduate level teacher training courses were assigned to small groups for an entire semester and made weekly contributions to their group’s course web discussion forum in which they discussed course content. Students were to make explicit references to course readings and postings by their group members. The instructor evaluated students' postings on a weekly basis. At the end of the course, students completed a survey assessing their satisfaction and asking for their suggestions for modification of the particular assignment type and format. For all students, the extension of course-related discussions outside the regular face-to-face class meetings offered benefits in the form of greater social interaction with other class members; for the non-native speakers among the students, the asynchronous discussions facilitated assimilation of course content, but it was not perceived as providing additional language practice. For all students, the two main issues perceived as negative related to their perceptions of forced, unnatural interaction promoted by the asynchronous discussions and lack of topic prompts, the requirement to make connections to prior postings, and the frequency of required contributions to discussions. Possible reasons for students’ perceptions are explored and suggestions for further research are provided.
---
paper_title: Assessing Activity-Based Learning for a Networked Course.

paper_content:

Networked environments offer new scope for presenting activity based courses, in which activities and reflection form the central backbone of course pedagogy. Such courses promise an enriching approach to study, but there are also challenges for the design of assessment. This paper describes a qualitative study of student and tutor perspectives on the assessment of an innovative undergraduate course at the UK Open University which has employed an activity-based approach. It discusses the relationship between assessment, student participation, and the development of skills, and then outlines the priorities for the design of assessment for such courses.
---
paper_title: Mirror, mirror, on my screen ... exploring online reflections

paper_content:

This paper suggests that, through the provision of opportunities for reflection–in–action at critical learning stages and with the support of a trained e–moderator, the participants in computer mediated conferencing (CMC) can be encouraged to engage in reflecting about their onscreen experiences. Such reflection aids the building of a productive online community of practice. In addition, by encouraging participants to reflect on later stages of their online training experiences, a reflection–on–action record can be built up. Participants' reflective processes can be captured through analysis of their on screen text messages and so be available for research purposes. Examples of conference text message reflections are given throughout the paper, drawn from the on screen reflections of Open University Business School (OUBS) Associate Lecturers who were working online through the medium of computer mediated conferencing for the first time. The conclusion is that reflection–on–practice in the online environment is beneficial for helping the participants to learn from online conferencing and can provide an excellent tool for qualitative research. Opportunities for reflection need to be built into the design of online conferences and facilitated by a trained e–moderator.
---
paper_title: Network Analysis Of Knowledge Construction In Asynchronous Learning Networks

paper_content:

Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALNs) make the process of collaboration more transparent, because a transcript of conference messages can be used to assess individual roles and contributions and the collaborative process itself. This study considers three aspects of ALNs: the design; the quality of the resulting knowledge construction process; and cohesion, role and power network structures. The design is evaluated according to the Social Interdependence Theory of Cooperative Learning. The quality of the knowledge construction process is evaluated through Content Analysis; and the network structures are analyzed using Social Network Analysis of the response relations among participants during online discussions. In this research we analyze data from two three-monthlong ALN academic university courses: a formal, structured, closed forum and an informal, nonstructured, open forum. We found that in the structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a very high phase of critical thinking and developed cohesive cliques. The students took on bridging and triggering roles, while the tutor had relatively little power. In the non-structured ALN, the knowledge construction process reached a low phase of cognitive activity; few cliques were constructed; most of the students took on the passive role of teacher-followers; and the tutor was at the center of activity. These differences are statistically significant. We conclude that a well-designed ALN develops significant, distinct cohesion, and role and power structures lead the knowledge construction process to high phases of critical thinking.
---
paper_title: FACE-TO-FACE VERSUS THREADED DISCUSSIONS: THE ROLE OF TIME AND HIGHER-ORDER THINKING

paper_content:

This study compares the experiences of students in face-to-face (in class) discussions with threaded discussions and also evaluates the threaded discussions for evidence of higher-order thinking. Students were enrolled in graduate-level classes that used both modes (face-to-face and online) for course-related discussions; their end-of-course evaluations of both experiences were grouped for analysis and themes constructed based on their comments. Themes included the “expansion of time,” “experience of time,” “quality of the discussion,” “needs of the student,” and “faculty expertise.” While there are advantages to holding discussions in either setting, students most frequently noted that using threaded discussions increased the amount of time they spent on class objectives and that they appreciated the extra time for reflection on course issues. The face-to-face format also had value as a result of its immediacy and energy, and some students found one mode a better “fit” with their preferred learning mode. The analysis of higher-order thinking was based on a content analysis of the threaded discussions only. Each posting was coded as one of the four cognitive-processing categories described by Garrison and colleagues [1]: 18% were triggering questions, 51% were exploration, 22% were integration, and 7% resolution. A fifth category – social – was appropriate for 3% of the responses and only 12% of the postings included a writing error. This framework provides some support for the assertion that higher-order thinking can and does occur in online discussions; strategies for increasing the number of responses in the integration and resolution categories are discussed.
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paper_title: Inside online learning: Comparing conceptual and technique learning performance in place-based and ALN formats

paper_content:

Online learning is coming of age. ‘Traditional’ universities are embracing online components to courses, online courses, and even complete online programs. With the advantage of distance and time insensitivity for the learning process, there appears to be a growing sense that this form of teaching and learning has strong pedagogical merit. Research has shown that students do comparatively well in this new format. There is, however, a lack of evidence illustrating particular strengths and weaknesses of online teaching and learning. This paper discusses experiences with a single course taught using two forms: (1) traditional place-based, and (2) a form of asynchronous learning network (ALN) defined as interactive virtual seminars. Differences in learning performance are tested using longitudinal observations. In a course comprised of both conceptual material and the application of techniques, the students performed overall equally well in either place-based or virtual format. Their degree of learning, however, differed significantly between conceptual and technique-based material. Implications are promising, showing that there are relative strengths to be exploited in both place-based and virtual formats.
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paper_title: Communities of Practice: guidelines for the design of online seminars in higher education

paper_content:

This article focuses on the Community of Practice (CoP) concept and its implications for designing online seminars in the university context. Student learning in seminars at universities is seen as peripheral participation in a particular scientific community—one of the many knowledge-creating CoPs that constitute a university. Introducing information technology into university education thus should be measured by the degree to which these new ways of teaching enhance students' access to scientific communities. This framing view of university education is connected to a social theory of learning where learning is seen as an essentially social, situated phenomenon. The concept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ in a community of practice is used to derive a design framework for online seminars. Using this framework, the authors implemented an online seminar on the topic of organisational knowledge management at the Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria. The GroupWare platform BSCW (Basic Support f...
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paper_title: Asynchronous discussion in support of medical education

paper_content:

Although the potential of asynchronous discussion to support learning is widely recognized, student engagement remains problematic. Often, for example, students simply refuse to participate. Consequently the rich promise of asynchronous learning networks for supporting students’ learning can prove hard to achieve. After reviewing strategies for encouraging student participation in discussions in Asynchronous Learning Networks (ALN), we present a study that investigates how these strategies influenced students’ perceptions and use of the discussion area. We identify and explore factors that encouraged and inhibited student participation in asynchronous discussion, and evaluate student postings to an asynchronous discussion group by content analysis.The results question received wisdom about some of the pedagogic techniques advocated in the literature. Instead, results support the view that the major factors for stimulating student participation in asynchronous discussion are tutor enthusiasm and expertise. It appears that the tutor may be the root cause of engagement in discussions, an important conclusion, given that to date, the tutor’s role has remained relatively unexamined. We also note that participation in asynchronous discussion is inhibited when students allocate a low priority to participation, as may occur when participation is not assessed. Content analysis of an asynchronous discussion in this study reveals that contributions were not strongly interactive and that students were simply ‘playing the game’ of assessment, making postings that earned marks but rarely contributing otherwise. Thus the use of assessment to encourage students’ contributions appears to be only a superficial success; it seems likely that giving credit for postings changes behavior without necessarily improving learning. This finding has significant implications for curriculum design.
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paper_title: Teacher's and students' perspectives on on-line learning in a social constructivist learning environment

paper_content:

This article summarises the teaching and learning experiences of students in higher education with regard to the use of computer conferencing. The on-line unit was designed and implemented within a social constructivist framework, which promoted interaction, collaboration and experiential learning. Students who undertook this unit were practising science and mathematics teachers. They ranged in their experience of on-line learning from inexperienced users to seasoned, on-line learners. However, common among the participants is their novel exposure to being a part of a learning community where interaction and communication took precedence over individual learning. This article looks at the learning experiences from the perspectives of the facilitator and three on-line learners, based on the participants' personal stories specifically in terms of: (a) concerns associated with the implementation of the on-line learning; (b) the differences encountered when using technology for the first time to learn; (c) the difference in perspective, before and after the on-line learning experience; and (d) the differences in the learning experience in light of exposure to a new theoretical framework and a new mode of delivery. The conclusions from the stories suggest that the interaction and the social presence of others grew from the use of a social constructivist approach to teaching and learning, within the context of computer-mediated communication technologies. The role of the facilitator in this setting was to provide a context for social learning and to maintain a student-centred approach. Alternatively, the role of the students was to proactively engage in peer learning.
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paper_title: Using group communication to monitor web-based group learning

paper_content:

In a web group-learning environment, students must communicate with other group members on the Internet to accomplish group projects and share knowledge. Communication is likely to affect performance and so analysing the relationship between communicative relationships and group performance may help teachers to monitor groups effectively. Certain tasks are necessary to perform such an analysis — recording group communication, extracting communication relationships and determining the relationship between group communication and group performance. This study developed a method for determining relationships and rules for predicting performance to enable teachers to take act appropriately according to the predicted performance of the group. Four group performance indicators are considered — average grades within a group, project grade, frequency of resource-sharing and drop-out rate. Experimental results are presented, concerning the application of the methodology to a web class of 706 students, divided into 70 groups. The experimental results show that group communication patterns significantly affect group performance.
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paper_title: Mirror, mirror, on my screen ... exploring online reflections

paper_content:

This paper suggests that, through the provision of opportunities for reflection–in–action at critical learning stages and with the support of a trained e–moderator, the participants in computer mediated conferencing (CMC) can be encouraged to engage in reflecting about their onscreen experiences. Such reflection aids the building of a productive online community of practice. In addition, by encouraging participants to reflect on later stages of their online training experiences, a reflection–on–action record can be built up. Participants' reflective processes can be captured through analysis of their on screen text messages and so be available for research purposes. Examples of conference text message reflections are given throughout the paper, drawn from the on screen reflections of Open University Business School (OUBS) Associate Lecturers who were working online through the medium of computer mediated conferencing for the first time. The conclusion is that reflection–on–practice in the online environment is beneficial for helping the participants to learn from online conferencing and can provide an excellent tool for qualitative research. Opportunities for reflection need to be built into the design of online conferences and facilitated by a trained e–moderator.
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paper_title: Using unmediated computer conferencing to promote reflective practice and confidencebuilding in initial teacher education

paper_content:

Abstract The use of computer conferencing in initial teacher education (ITE) has been well documented, along with the barriers to its implementation. Existing research includes investigation into ways in which computer conferencing can be used as a medium to support reflective thinking and professional discourse between university tutors, teachers, student teachers and their peers during school placement. This article takes a different approach, examining instead whether computer conferencing can be successful between ITE peer groups, from different educational systems, without tutor moderation. It considers to what extent computer conferencing can raise students' confidence in the use of information and communication technologies and can encourage ‘reflective practice’ among student teachers. The report also considers the extent to which on-line discussion among student teachers can provide emotional support and stress relief during the course's most intensive period of teaching practice. Finally, it des...
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paper_title: Variety is the spice of life: student use of CMC in the context of campus based study

paper_content:

At present, courses within British higher education institutions offer a somewhat haphazard patchwork of IT-based learning resources. Through university intranets it is now possible for many students to follow at least parts of their courses online. However, the provision available is highly dependent on local resources and individual tutors. This paper focuses on student discussion supported via computer mediated communication, but not in the context of distance learning. Rather the focus is upon campus-based study, where students are working with one another in a sustained mode over a period of time. In the context of an ESRC 'Virtual Society?' research project we have been using the online dialogues together with interviews and questionnaires to examine two third year level psychology courses at different universities. In both cases tutors used web resources to facilitate computer-mediated communication as an integral part of the course. Different contexts for learning were created by the differing stances of the tutors. One tutor took an active, participatory role whereas the other tutor remained a non-participant. Both, however, wanted to create wide-ranging discussion amongst the learners. The differing roles of tutors were associated with a marked difference in communication styles and perceived learning outcomes.
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paper_title: Beyond knowledge transmission? computer-supported learning in teacher education: some benefits in terms of stress, control and self-belief

paper_content:

This article outlines some benefits of a computer-supported interactive learning environment in terms of students' attitudes and factors associated with stress. In the 3rd year of a 4-year undergraduate course for primary teachers (B.Ed.), students were required to undertake a research module, which was seen in part as a preparation for a thesis dissertation in the final year. The subject matter was contained in several computer conferences; other learning experiences included some face-to-face contact and optional technical support sessions. Initial feedback from students indicated that there are benefits in terms of greater flexibility of work patterns, increased sense of control and enhanced self-esteem. Other issues are raised, including the role of the tutor, cost benefits and problems of access. More research is called for into the non-cognitive aspects of computer use.
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paper_title: A Method to Increase Student Interaction Using Student Groups and Peer Review over the Internet

paper_content:

A method of peer review for student groups is proposed. In this method, groups of students publish their assignments results over the Internet. A fellow student group reviews their work and publishes their findings (on the Internet). Finally, the two groups debate their points of view in front of the class. The debate and healthy competition among groups give the students a chance to learn how to give and receive criticism in a constructive way. This should increase the students' ability to interact and work in groups, an important skill for computer science professionals.
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paper_title: Inter-Rater Reliability of an Electronic Discussion Coding System.

paper_content:

Abstract A ‘cognote’ system has been developed for coding electronic discussion groups and promoting critical thinking. Previous literature has provided an account of the strategy as applied to several academic settings. This article addresses the research around establishing the inter-rater reliability of the cognote system. The findings suggest three indicators of reliability, namely: 1. that raters assign similar grades to students' discussion group contributions; 2. that raters predominantly assign the same cognotes to students' discussion group contributions and 3. that raters are selecting in excess of 50% of the same text in assigning the same cognotes.
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paper_title: Can a Collaborative Network Environment Enhance Essay-Writing Processes?.

paper_content:

The aim of this study is to examine whether a computer-supported learning environment enhances essay writing by providing an opportunity to share drafts with fellow students and receive feedback from a draft version. Data for this study were provided by 25 law students who were enrolled in a course in legal history at the University of Helsinki in February 2001. Both the students and the teacher were interviewed. The interviews showed that the students' experiences of the essay-writing process were very positive. The teacher's experiences were in line with the students'. The results showed that the students seemed to divide into two groups concerning their experiences towards sharing written drafts with peers: those who were very enthusiastic and enjoyed the possibility to share drafts and those who, on the other hand, felt that the idea of sharing unfinished essays was too threatening for them and required too much openness. The results further showed that the active use of a computer-supported learning environment was related to good essay grades.
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paper_title: Distance education via the Internet: the student experience

paper_content:

This is the second in a series of papers that describes the use of the Internet on a distance-taught undergraduate Computer Science course (Thomas et al., 1998). This paper examines students' experience of a large-scale trial in which students were taught using electronic communication exclusively. The paper compares the constitution and experiences of a group of Internet students to those of conventional distance learning students on the same course. Learning styles, background questionnaires, and learning outcomes were used in the comparison of the two groups. The study reveals comparable learning outcomes with no discrimination in grade as the result of using different communication media. The student experience is reported, highlighting the main gains and issues of using the Internet as a communication medium in distance education. This paper also shows that using the Internet in this context can provide students with a worthwhile experience.
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paper_title: Teacher Participation in Computer Conferencing: socio-psychological dimensions

paper_content:

Abstract It has been pointed out in the literature on computer-mediated communication that the social dimensions of network design, user behaviour and user participation on computer networks are very important to the building of an electronic community. So far, no study has examined these dimensions systematically and the ways in which they mediate user participation. This article reports on a study conducted on a computer network for English teachers in Hong Kong schools, TeleNex, to investigate the teachers' participation on the network, and the technical and social psychological dimensions that mediated their participation. Data were obtained by questionnaires and by interviews with a small sample of teachers. The questionnaire results show significant differences between teachers who participated actively in conferencing and those who did not. The interview data provided further insights into the social psychological dimensions. Implications to be considered when building an electronic community of te...
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paper_title: GENDER AND ONLINE DISCOURSE IN THE PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS

paper_content:

Collaboration is the heart of online learning. Interaction among course participants brings excitement to the online environment and creates knowledge as a group activity. Impediments to active collaboration reduce group, as well as individual, potentialities. Past studies of online discussions have found differences in the style of female and male conversations that could impede the learning process. The conversational styles of female and male students in two online principles of economics classes were analyzed in the present study. The null hypothesis posited no difference in the styles of online discourse between female and male students. The null hypothesis was rejected, implying gender differences in conversational styles. The tone of male postings was more optimistic than the tone of female postings. Female conversations used words revealing social isolation and the rejection of social norms. The paper also discussed the issue of the male X-factor in the principles of economics from a sociolinguistic perspective.
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paper_title: Using unmediated computer conferencing to promote reflective practice and confidencebuilding in initial teacher education

paper_content:

Abstract The use of computer conferencing in initial teacher education (ITE) has been well documented, along with the barriers to its implementation. Existing research includes investigation into ways in which computer conferencing can be used as a medium to support reflective thinking and professional discourse between university tutors, teachers, student teachers and their peers during school placement. This article takes a different approach, examining instead whether computer conferencing can be successful between ITE peer groups, from different educational systems, without tutor moderation. It considers to what extent computer conferencing can raise students' confidence in the use of information and communication technologies and can encourage ‘reflective practice’ among student teachers. The report also considers the extent to which on-line discussion among student teachers can provide emotional support and stress relief during the course's most intensive period of teaching practice. Finally, it des...
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paper_title: Off-Line Factors Contributing to Online Engagement

paper_content:

Abstract Online discourse environments are increasingly popular both in distance education contexts and as adjuncts to face-to-face learning. For many participants such contexts are experienced as positive, community-supported learning opportunities, but this is not the case for everyone. Understanding more about the online and off-line factors that contribute to the online experience is important in order to support equitable online learning. This study has analysed patterns of engagement and disengagement in one particular learning context; that of pre-service, math-anxious elementary candidates enrolled in a two-year pre-service program. Program supports for the self-declared math-anxious participants (n = 20 from a total cohort of 57) included small-group math investigations and participation in an online learning environment. Results show tremendous variability in levels of contribution and that the online context provided most learning support for participants who had had successful social and subje...
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paper_title: FACE-TO-FACE VERSUS THREADED DISCUSSIONS: THE ROLE OF TIME AND HIGHER-ORDER THINKING

paper_content:

This study compares the experiences of students in face-to-face (in class) discussions with threaded discussions and also evaluates the threaded discussions for evidence of higher-order thinking. Students were enrolled in graduate-level classes that used both modes (face-to-face and online) for course-related discussions; their end-of-course evaluations of both experiences were grouped for analysis and themes constructed based on their comments. Themes included the “expansion of time,” “experience of time,” “quality of the discussion,” “needs of the student,” and “faculty expertise.” While there are advantages to holding discussions in either setting, students most frequently noted that using threaded discussions increased the amount of time they spent on class objectives and that they appreciated the extra time for reflection on course issues. The face-to-face format also had value as a result of its immediacy and energy, and some students found one mode a better “fit” with their preferred learning mode. The analysis of higher-order thinking was based on a content analysis of the threaded discussions only. Each posting was coded as one of the four cognitive-processing categories described by Garrison and colleagues [1]: 18% were triggering questions, 51% were exploration, 22% were integration, and 7% resolution. A fifth category – social – was appropriate for 3% of the responses and only 12% of the postings included a writing error. This framework provides some support for the assertion that higher-order thinking can and does occur in online discussions; strategies for increasing the number of responses in the integration and resolution categories are discussed.
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paper_title: Computer conferencing with access to a 'guest expert' in the professional development of special educational needs coordinators

paper_content:

This article describes and outlines the implications of a one-year case study of students’ use of the computer conferencing facility of a postgraduate module for special educational needs coordinators (SENCOs) at a distance-learning institution. This facility incorporates a virtual space for a ‘guest expert’. The aim of the study was to inform future development of courses at a time when computer conferencing was just becoming widespread in the university concerned. Quantitative data associated with the volume and patterns of individual participation in the computer conference were collected as well as interview material from students, tutors and the ‘guest expert’. Findings from the study indicate that computer conferencing has the potential to facilitate the professional development of teachers as reflective practitioners and researchers. However, they also point to a number of barriers to student participation that must be addressed. These include access issues related to time constraints, unfamiliarity with the medium, and lack of confidence in expressing personal views in a public arena. A major conclusion drawn from this study is that it may be appropriate to consider future developments which incorporate the assumption that, in computer conferences of large professional development courses, students are much more likely to participate through reading rather than making personal contributions to conference discussions. This opens the possibility of reconceptualising the role of the ‘guest expert’ as two or more discussants with relevant expertise dialoguing with each other while students follow a threaded discussion and/or make personal contributions.
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paper_title: Student characteristics and computer-mediated communication

paper_content:

Abstract Use of computer-mediated communication systems (CMCS) to support coursework is increasing, both as a means for students to prepare for using CMCS in their careers and as a mechanism for delivering distance education. But it is not clear whether the same student characteristics lead to academic success using CMCS as with traditional face-to-face (FTF) communication. This paper reports the results of a correlational study of the relationship between individual characteristics and use of CMCS in a team project situation. On most measures the results suggest CMCS will be adopted and used successfully by the same types of students who do well in courses conducted via FTF communication, e.g., students with high-achievement or high-aptitude characteristics. However, personality type was linked to substantial deviations in CMCS usage, suggesting that personality may influence academic success in unanticipated ways.
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paper_title: The role of cognitive style in educational computer conferencing

paper_content:

This paper reports an investigation of the impact of students’ cognitive style on their effective use of educational text-based computer-mediated conferences. The research centres on an empirical study involving students from three courses run by the British Open University. Statistical analysis of the data does not suggest that cognitive style has a strong influence on student participation in the conference, but does suggest that, contrary to expectations, ‘imagers’ may send more messages to conferences than ‘verbalisers’. The data also suggest a possible link between certain cognitive styles and course completion, and that the interaction of different styles within a group, as described by ) team roles, may have an indirect influence on task completion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
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paper_title: Can a Collaborative Network Environment Enhance Essay-Writing Processes?.

paper_content:

The aim of this study is to examine whether a computer-supported learning environment enhances essay writing by providing an opportunity to share drafts with fellow students and receive feedback from a draft version. Data for this study were provided by 25 law students who were enrolled in a course in legal history at the University of Helsinki in February 2001. Both the students and the teacher were interviewed. The interviews showed that the students' experiences of the essay-writing process were very positive. The teacher's experiences were in line with the students'. The results showed that the students seemed to divide into two groups concerning their experiences towards sharing written drafts with peers: those who were very enthusiastic and enjoyed the possibility to share drafts and those who, on the other hand, felt that the idea of sharing unfinished essays was too threatening for them and required too much openness. The results further showed that the active use of a computer-supported learning environment was related to good essay grades.
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paper_title: Collaborative knowledge building to promote in-service teacher training in environmental education

paper_content:

Abstract Environmental education (EE) is a problematic field in teacher education for many reasons. First, there is no consensus about its central concepts. Second, environmental education emerged as a response to environmental problems. Environmental educators do not agree on what are real environmental problems and what are exaggerated fears. For many educators, global warming is a serious environmental problem, but for those who view it in a geological perspective of long-term climatic change, it is not such a problem. When teachers are provided with the possibility of sharing problems of EE and building knowledge collaboratively with university experts, what do they do? What kind of problems do teachers regard as important? What kinds of problems do the university experts regard as important? These questions were investigated through the use of a database program called Knowledge Forum®. Knowledge Forum®is a shared virtual environment for collaborative knowledge building. This article analyses the use...
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paper_title: Following the thread in computer conferences

paper_content:

Abstract Computer conferencing systems allow students to discuss their ideas and learn from each other. However, the asynchronous nature of these discussions can result in large and complex collections of messages. Threading facilities help students to cope with this by structuring their discussions into parallel ‘conversations’. This paper discusses an investigation of students’ use of threading in two different conferencing systems. The context for the study was a small-group collaborative assignment in an Open University course. Conference transcripts were studied, and ‘message maps’ were created, in order to investigate the threading links made by students, in relation to the semantic links between the messages. The results show that the way in which threads are represented in a conferencing system can have a significant effect on how students use the system, and on the character of the resulting discussions.
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paper_title: The Use of Asynchronous Learning Networks in Nutrition Education: Student Attitude, Experiences and Performance

paper_content:

In this study a change in teaching strategy to involve a greater emphasis on asynchronous learning networks (ALNs) was implemented and the views of students (n=51) to this change were evaluated through responses to an online questionnaire. In response to Likert-type questions the majority of students demonstrated a positive view of this new model. Sixty-one percent of students felt that other types of online material would benefit the learning process and 80 % would recommend this module to a friend. Students acknowledged that the use of ALN-supported learning made the material easier to understand (52%), the lecturer more accessible (66%) and enabled them to take a more active role in the learning process (55%). Though only 10% of students utilized the asynchronous newsgroup more than 5 times, 77% found reading the contributions of others useful. Contrary to this 76% preferred the more familiar lecturebased environment for subject delivery. In response to open-ended questions students’ views were more reserved and highlighted a range of problems such as inadequate infrastructure, unreliable computers, and poor access to the online material as well as resistance to a new teaching paradigm. Student performance was influenced by age and contribution to the newsgroup. Those who were younger had a lower grade (47.8 ? 15.8) than those who were older (52.0 ? 11.4). Students with higher grades (56.2 ? 10.3) contributed to the newsgroup while students with lower grades (45.7 ? 12.5) did not. Based on these observations, it is apparent that students do appreciate the advantages of ALNsupported learning though for a shift toward this model to be effective problems of access and system failure must be resolved. Implications for future ALN-based modules are discussed.
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paper_title: Taking E-Moderating skills to the next level: Reflecting on the design of conferencing environments

paper_content:

This paper reports an analysis of computer conference structures set up for a distance education course in which major components of the teaching and learning involve group discussions and collaboration via asynchronous text-based conferencing. As well as adopting traditional e-moderator roles, tutors were required to design appropriate online spaces and navigation routes for students. Tutors’ views concerning conference structures focussed on tensions between enabling easy access to conference areas, facilitating the successful running of activities, and addressing students’ subsequent needs for retrieval of conference material for assessment tasks. The geographically dispersed course tutors initially explored these issues in reflective online conversations. Comparisons were made between structures that were set up differently but all used for essentially the same tasks and purposes. Evidence from conference messages, from student feedback given in questionnaire and interview responses, as well as from students’ written assignments, provided insights into the impact such structures may have on the student learning experience. Students found conference areas for their own group easy to navigate, but they had concerns about managing the large number of messages; these concerns centred on the volume, threading, linking, length, and language of messages.
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Title: A Review of Recent Papers on Online Discussion in Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

Section 1: INTRODUCTION
Description 1: Introduce the theme of the paper, provide background on asynchronous online discussions, and discuss the aim and scope of the review.

Section 2: Sample and Selection Criteria
Description 2: Describe the categorization and selection process for the sample of reviewed papers, including journal, discipline, country, and software used.

Section 3: Themes and Focus Questions
Description 3: Detail the categorization of papers by themes with associated focus questions, including Curriculum Design, Theoretical Assumptions, Claims Made, and Conditions.

Section 4: Curriculum Design
Description 4: Discuss issues in categorizing curriculum design and describe types of online discussion activities identified in the literature.

Section 5: Theoretical Assumptions about Teaching and Learning
Description 5: Explain the theories of teaching and learning that underpin the reviewed work, with a focus on social constructivism, media theory, and social psychology.

Section 6: Claims Made for Asynchronous Online Discussion within the Case Studies
Description 6: Provide an overview of the claims made regarding the benefits of asynchronous online discussion and highlight the constraints and opportunities presented in the studies.

Section 7: Optimal Conditions for Asynchronous Online Discussion
Description 7: Describe the key conditions associated with successful asynchronous online discussions, including curriculum design, instructor support, learners' behavior and attitudes, and software considerations.

Section 8: CONCLUSION
Description 8: Summarize insights from the reviewed papers, highlighting best practices, consensus on the benefits of asynchronous online discussion, and conditions promoting learner engagement.

Section 9: Broad Consensus on Best Practices
Description 9: Outline the broad consensus on best practices for asynchronous online discussion, including curriculum, instructor, learner, and software recommendations.

Section 10: Directions for Future Research
Description 10: Suggest areas for future research, such as developing curriculum models, clarifying the role of interaction, transferability to other settings, and addressing the responsibilities of learners and teachers.