DOI:10.1068/b31073 A review of rural land-use planning models
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paper_title: ALES: a framework for land evaluation using a microcomputer

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. ALES, the Automated Land Evaluation System, is a microcomputer program that allows land evaluators to build their own knowledge-based systems with which they can compute the physical and economic suitability of land map units, in accordance with the FAO's Framework for Land Evaluation. The economic suitability of a land mapping unit for a land utilization type is determined from the predicted annual gross margin per unit area. Increasing limitations result in increased costs of production, decreased yields, or both. Evaluators build decision trees to express inferences from land characteristics to land qualities, from land qualities to predicted yields, and from land qualities to overall physical suitability. A representative model is described.
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paper_title: Comparison of Boolean and Fuzzy Classification Methods in Land Suitability Analysis by Using Geographical Information Systems

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In this paper the information content of Boolean and fuzzy-set-based approaches to the problem of analyzing land suitability for agriculture within a geographical information system (GIS) is assessed. First, the two approaches to this problem are stated and formalized in the context of land-suitability evaluation. A database comprising 642 unique areas, 7 land qualities, 13 land characteristics, and 2 crop types is defined and described. Land-use suitability ratings for two crops, wetland rice and soybean, are generated by using Boolean and fuzzy methods. Results produced by the two methods are compared in terms of their usefulness for agricultural land-use plannning. The ARC/INFO vector-based GIS software package is utilized. The study area is the Cimanuk watershed in northwest Java, Indonesia.
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paper_title: A land evaluation project in Greece using GIS and based on Boolean and fuzzy set methodologies

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Abstract In Mediterranean regions there is little experience in using GIS as an aid to land evaluation. This paper reports a project in Greece which investigated the usefulness of such technology, Particular emphasis was also given to comparing the results of land evaluation using Boolean and fuzzy set methodologies. The need was to produce the results as quickly and efficiently as possible to aid agricultural planning. By using a GIS, a series of single factor and land evaluation maps was produced for a range of crops; a land suitability map for receipt of sewage was also derived. A comparison of results from using Boolean and fuzzy set methodologies highlighted the advantages of the latter, although critical decisions are required on choice of membership functions and weights which have a major effect on the results.
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paper_title: LAND SUITABILITY CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUZZY SET THEORY

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Abstract TANG HUAJUN* J. DEBA VEYE* RUANDA** E. VAN RANST* In this study, the fuzzy set theory is applied to the field of land evaluation. The result of the land suitability classification for a defined land utilization type applied to a land unit, is no more a single land suitability class, as in the tradtional set theory, but an expression of the degree of belonging of the land unit to each of the discerned suitability classes. This principle is applied to a land assessment for grain maize in Hahen County, China. The classification results obtained with the fuzzy set method show a closer relationship with observed yields than previously proposed suitability classification methods. Key-words Fuzzy sets, land suitability classification, maize. 1. INTRODUCTION Land evaluation is concerned with the assessment of land performance for specified land utilization purposes. Such evaluation is essential in the process of land use planning, because it may guide decisions on land utilization in such a way th at the resources of the environment are optimally used and that a sustained land management is achieved. Land suitability classification is an approach in land evaluation that con­cerns the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms of their suitability for defined uses (FAO, 1976). The FAO proposed a general classi-
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paper_title: Fertility capability soil classification: a tool to help assess soil quality in the tropics

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The soil quality paradigm was originally developed in the temperate region with the overarching objective of approaching air quality and water quality standards. Although holistic and systemsoriented, soil quality focused principally on issues arising from large nutrient and energy inputs to agricultural lands. Soil quality in the tropics, however, focuses on three overarching concerns: food insecurity, rural poverty and ecosystem degradation. Soil science in the tropics relies heavily on quantitative attributes of soils that can be measured. The emotional, value-laden and ‘‘measure everything’’ approach proposed by some proponents of the soil quality paradigm has no place in the tropics. Soil quality in the tropics must be considered a component of an integrated natural resource management framework (INRM). Based on quantitative topsoil attributes and soil taxonomy, the fertility capability soil classification (FCC) system is probably a good starting point to approach soil quality for the tropics and is widely used. FCC does not deal with soil attributes that can change in less than 1 year, but those that are either dynamic at time scales of years or decades with management, as well as inherent ones that do not change in less than a century. FCC attributes can be positive or negative depending on the land use as well as the temporal and spatial scales in question. Version 4 is introduced in this paper. The main changes are to include the former h condition modifier (acid, but not Al-toxic) with ‘‘no major chemical limitations’’ because field experience has shown little difference between the two and to introduce a new condition modifier m that denotes organic carbon saturation deficit. Additional modifiers are needed for nutrient depletion, compaction, surface sealing and other soil biological attributes, but there is no sufficient evidence to propose robust, quantitative threshold values at this time. The authors call on those actively involved in linking these attributes with plant growth and ecosystem functions to provide additional suggestions that would enhance FCC. The use of diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) shows great potential on a wide range of tropical soils. The evolution of soil science from a qualitative art into a
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paper_title: Evaluating the consistency of results for the agricultural land evaluation and site assessment (LESA) system

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(...). The LESA system uses a measure of soil productivity to evaluate land quality and a series of questions or site factors to evaluate suitability of a site for urban development. The tests were part of a class exercise for a land use course in agronomy to determine, first, if student responses to LESA were the same as the instructors and if the students were consistent among themselves and, second, to determine if any of the site factors used in LESA were especially difficult to analyze. Five sites in Hamilton County, Indiana, were selected for analysis. (...)
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paper_title: An Integrated Expert Geographical Information System for Soil Suitability and Soil Evaluation

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An integrated Expert Geographical Information System (EXGIS) is presented and applied for the evaluation of the suitability of soil and climatic conditions of in area of southern Greece, for five crops. EXGIS is an integration of an Expert System shell, designed for the manipulation of knowledge concerning soil suitability for agricultural uses, with the commercial GIS package PC ARC/INFO. The work was carried out for the purposes of a research program concerning the development of a Geographical Information System (GIS) for the management and evaluation of natural resources of the Pinios River basin, located in West Peloponnese, in South-Western Greece. Both the FAO system for soil evaluation and the local experience and knowledge of soil and climatic conditions were combined for the formulation of the rules of the knowledge base of EXGIS. The shell of the Expert System communicates with the commercial GIS PC ARC/INFO, under a common operating environment.
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paper_title: A Theoretical Framework for Land Evaluation

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Abstract Land evaluation is the process of predicting the use potential of land on the basis of its attributes. A variety of analytical models can be used in these predictions, ranging from qualitative to quantitative, functional to mechanistic, and specific to general. This paper classifies land evaluation models by how they take time and space into account, and whether they use land qualities as an intermediate between land characteristics and land suitability. Temporally, models can be of a static resource base and static land suitability, a dynamic resource base but static land suitability, or both a dynamic resource base and dynamic land suitability. spatially, land evaluation models can be of a single area with no interaction between areas, with static inter-area effects, or dynamic inter-area effects. In the most complex case, land suitabilities for several land uses are interdependent.
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paper_title: Fuzzy classification methods for determining land suitability from soil profile observations and topography

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SUMMARY ::: Because conventional Boolean retrieval of soil survey data and logical models for assessing land suitability treat both spatial units and attribute value ranges as exactly specifiable quantities, they ignore the continuous nature of soil and landscape variation and uncertainties in measurement which can result in the misclassification of sites that just fail to match strictly defined requirements. This paper uses fuzzy classification to determine land suitability from (i) multivariate point observations of soil attributes, (ii) topographically controlled site drainage conditions, and (iii) minimum contiguous areas, and compares the results obtained with conventional Boolean methods. The methods are illustrated using data from the Alberta Agricultural Department experimental farm at Lacombe in Alberta, Canada. Data on site elevation and soil chemical and physical properties measured at 154 soil profiles were interpolated by ordinary block kriging to 15 m × 15 m cells on a 50 × 50 grid. The soil property data for each cell were classified by Boolean and fuzzy methods. The digital elevation model created by interpolating the elevation data was used to determine the surface drainage network and map it in terms of the numbers of cells draining through each cell on the grid. This map was reclassified to yield Boolean and fuzzy maps of surface wetness which were then intersected with the soil profile classes. The resulting classification maps were examined for contiguity to locate areas where a block of minimum size (45m × 45m) could be located successfully. In this study Boolean methods reject larger numbers of cells than fuzzy classification, and select cells that are insufficiently contiguous to meet the aims of the land classification. Fuzzy methods produce contiguous areas and reject less information at all stages of the analyses than Boolean methods. They are much better than Boolean methods for classification of continuous variation, such as the results of the drainage analysis.
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paper_title: The DSSAT cropping system model

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Abstract The decision support system for agrotechnology transfer (DSSAT) has been in use for the last 15 years by researchers worldwide. This package incorporates models of 16 different crops with software that facilitates the evaluation and application of the crop models for different purposes. Over the last few years, it has become increasingly difficult to maintain the DSSAT crop models, partly due to fact that there were different sets of computer code for different crops with little attention to software design at the level of crop models themselves. Thus, the DSSAT crop models have been re-designed and programmed to facilitate more efficient incorporation of new scientific advances, applications, documentation and maintenance. The basis for the new DSSAT cropping system model (CSM) design is a modular structure in which components separate along scientific discipline lines and are structured to allow easy replacement or addition of modules. It has one Soil module, a Crop Template module which can simulate different crops by defining species input files, an interface to add individual crop models if they have the same design and interface, a Weather module, and a module for dealing with competition for light and water among the soil, plants, and atmosphere. It is also designed for incorporation into various application packages, ranging from those that help researchers adapt and test the CSM to those that operate the DSSAT–CSM to simulate production over time and space for different purposes. In this paper, we describe this new DSSAT–CSM design as well as approaches used to model the primary scientific components (soil, crop, weather, and management). In addition, the paper describes data requirements and methods used for model evaluation. We provide an overview of the hundreds of published studies in which the DSSAT crop models have been used for various applications. The benefits of the new, re-designed DSSAT–CSM will provide considerable opportunities to its developers and others in the scientific community for greater cooperation in interdisciplinary research and in the application of knowledge to solve problems at field, farm, and higher levels.
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paper_title: Integrating geographical information systems and multiple criteria decision-making methods

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Abstract Many spatial decision-making problems, such as site selection or land use allocation require the decision-maker to consider the impacts of choice-alternatives along multiple dimensions in order to choose the best alternative. The decision-making process, involving policy priorities, trade-offs, and uncertainties, can be aided by Multiple Criteria Decision making (MCDM) methods. This paper presents a framework for integrating geographical information systems (GIS) and MCDM methods. In this framework the MCDM methods are classified and matched with choice heuristics used by the decision-makers in the presence of competing alternatives and multiple evaluation criteria. Two strategies for integrating GIS with MCDM are proposed. The first strategy suggests linking GIS and MCDM techniques using a file exchange mechanism. The second strategy suggests integrating GIS and MCDM functions using a common database. The paper presents the implementation of the first strategy using PC-ARC/INFO, a file exchange ...
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paper_title: Land suitability assessment in the Namoi Valley of Australia, using a continuous model

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In an agricultural context, land evaluation is assessment for a specified kind of land utilisation. The final result of agricultural evaluation is a map, which partitions the landscapes into suitable and unsuitable areas for a particular land-use of interest. However, this approach may not represent the continuity of land. Land suitability could be better expressed by a fuzzy approach. In this paper a fuzzy methodology is used to evaluate land suitability in the Edgeroi district for various crops including barley, dryland cotton, oats, pasture, soybean, sorghum, sunflower, and wheat. This is achieved using a membership function to derive a land-suitability membership score ranging from non-suitable (i.e. 0) to suitable (i.e. 1). We express this as continuous land suitability maps using punctual kriging. An expression for overall land suitability (i.e. its versatility) and its capacity with respect to suitability to particular rotations is introduced to highlight the most productive units of soil.
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paper_title: GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis

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PRELIMINARIES. Geographical Data, Information, and Decision Making. Introduction to GIS. Introduction to Multicriteria Decision Analysis. SPATIAL MULTICRITERIA DECISION ANALYSIS. Evaluation Criteria. Decision Alternatives and Constraints. Criterion Weighing. Decision Rules. Sensitivity Analysis. MULTICRITERIA-SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS. Spatial Decision Support Systems. MC-SDSS: Case Studies. Glossary. Selected Bibliography. Indexes.
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paper_title: Fuzzy mathematical methods for soil survey and land evaluation

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SUMMARY ::: The rigid-data model consisting of discrete, sharply bounded internally uniform entities that is used in hierarchical and relational databases of soil profiles, choropleth soil maps and land evaluation classifications ignores important aspects of reality caused by internal inhomogeneity, short-range spatial variation, measurement error, complexity and imprecision. Considerable loss of information can occur when data that have been classified according to this model are retrieved or combined using the methods of simple Boolean algebra available in most soil and geographical information systems. Fuzzy set theory, which is a generalization of Boolean algebra to situations where data are modelled by entities whose attributes have zones of gradual transition, rather than sharp boundaries, offers a useful alternative to existing methodology. The basic principles of fuzzy sets, operations on fuzzy sets and the derivation of membership functions according to the Semantic Import Model are explained and illustrated with data from case studies in Venezuela and Kenya.
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paper_title: ILUDSS: a knowledge-based spatial decision support system for strategic land-use planning

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This paper discusses the design and implementation of the Islay Land Use Decision Support System (ILUDSS), a knowledge-based spatial decision support system for strategic land-use planning in a rural area. ILUDSS is designed to support planners in assessing land-use potential for different types of land-use for the development of the island of Islay, off the west coast of Scotland. The system adopts knowledge-based techniques in its design, and incorporates analytical, rule-based and spatial modelling capabilities. The main functions of ILUDSS include query, formulation of land-use models for assessing land-use potential, and evaluation of the land-use models through automated integration of the database, the rule bases, and different types of models. ILUDSS can evaluate land-use potential according to planners' preferences and assessments relating to the various criteria and related evaluation factors, such as physical suitability, proximity to desirable and undesirable land features, and the required minimum area of each land parcel.
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paper_title: Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographical information systems

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Abstract Geographical information systems (GIS) provide the decision-maker with a powerful set of tools for the manipulation and analysis of spatial information. The functionality of GIS is, however, limited to certain deterministic analyses in key application areas such as spatial search. The integration of multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques with GIS is forwarded as providing the user with the means to evaluate various alternatives on the basis of multiple and conflicting criteria and objectives. An example application based on the search for suitable sites for the disposal of radioactive waste in the UK using the Arc/Info GIS is included. The potential use of a combined GIS-MCE approach in the development of spatial decision support systems is considered.
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paper_title: A parameterized region-growing programme for site allocation on raster suitability maps

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In assigning suitability scores to individual cells suitability maps do not solve the question of optimally locating regions of a particular size, shape and orientation. This paper describes a parameterized region-growing (PRG) programme for locating sites with particular spatial characteristics on raster suitability maps. PRG is an heuristic which trades off underlying cell suitability and region suitability to locate near optimal regions. The size, boundary configuration, elongation and orientation of an ideal shape are specified by a set of parameters which control a shape growing programme. Two simulations show how parameterized region-growing can locate wildlife reserves with different spatial characteristics.
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paper_title: Fuzziness in Geographical Information Systems: contributions from the analytic hierarchy process†

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Abstract Recent developments in geographical information systems have drawn upon concepts of fuzzy set theory and multi-criteria methodology. In this paper we argue that there is a method, Saaty’s Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), that is compatible with both these research directions. The contributions of the AHP are highlighted in the light of recent developments in GIS, with particular attention to the concept of fuzzy set theory. An example of a GIS application is provided to show how the AHP can deal operationally with fuzziness, factor diversity and complexity in problems of land evaluation involving the location of a public facility.
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paper_title: Rural landscape and economic results of the farm; a multi-objective approach

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The protection and reorganisation of rural landscape constitutes one of the main objectives in European Union agro-environmental policy. Since 1985, numerous measures have been approved with the aim of financing landscape improvement and farm reorganisation. These measures were more clearly defined in 1992, when the timing and content of landscape measures were set in the wider context of agro-environmental policy. European Union intervention was motivated by the growing imbalance between the public demand for higher landscape quality and the land transformation carried out by agriculture. On one hand, the societal and cultural changes which have occurred in the last few decades have produced a rise in demand for green (rural) areas for recreation. On the other hand, the spread of labour-saving technology in agriculture has led to an increasing simplification of the landscape and to a considerable reduction in rural landscape quality. This phenomenon can be attributed to the singular economic characteristics of landscape. In many respects, landscape represents a positive externality of agro-forest activity, which assumes the role of a public good. This therefore necessitates corrective action by the public policy maker who will have to use various means to increase the remuneration of those products which generate positive externalities. Public intervention, however, runs the risk of being transformed into welfare aid. In order to guarantee that it is used to remunerate a real service undertaken by the farmer for the benefit of the whole community, the contribution must be commensurate with the benefits produced. The objectives of this study are, first, to analyse which elements of rural landscape contribute to the aesthetic value of landscape and, second, to estimate the trade-offs between economic results of the farm and landscape quality. An application in the Venice Lagoon Basin Region allowed for the identification and quantification of compromise solutions between the landscape objective and the farm profits. These results can be used to assess the economic consequences of improving landscape quality and the suitability for this purpose of European Union subsidies.
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paper_title: Multicriteria Evaluation of Land-Reallotment Plans: A Case Study

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In this paper an ex post evaluation of a land-reallotment plan carried out in the Netherlands during the 1960s and 1970s is presented. Given the wide range of effects taken into consideration, a multicriteria approach is adopted. Because of the 'soft' nature of many elements involved, special attention is paid to multicriteria methods dealing with qualitative priorities and plan impacts. Outcomes for methods using qualitative and quantitative data are compared.
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paper_title: Multicriteria evaluation methods in renewable resource management: integrated water management under drought conditions

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The limits inherent in conventional decision theory methodologies and the necessity to analyse conflicts between policy objectives have led to many calls for more appropriate analytical tools for strategic evaluation. As such multicriteria evaluation does not itself provide a unique criterion for choice; rather it helps to frame the problem of arriving at a political compromise. This paper, as a first step, deals with the role of multicriteria evaluation methods in the framework of renewable natural resource management. As a second step, the possibility is studied of using multicriteria evaluation methods to tackle problems of integrated water management under drought conditions. We take water management under drought conditions into account because this is an important issue in many southern countries. The term “integrated water management” is used because it is evident that the problems underlying water management can be dealt with only if all the conflicting activities and uses that affect the resource are taken into account. A real-world example in the area of the city of Palermo (western Sicily) is also considered. From this case study, which is a part of a larger project that has been commissioned by the Sicily region, a number of useful lessons can be learned for comparing alternative strategies for the management of a water system under drought conditions.
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paper_title: Mixed-Data Multicriteria Evaluation for Regional Planning: A Systematic Approach to the Decisionmaking Process

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In this paper multicriteria evaluation is dealt with as a tool for the public decisionmaking process. In the first part of the paper the systematic approach to multicriteria evaluation is presented, and the consecutive steps of the evaluation process are outlined. This is followed in the second part by the application of mixed-data multicriteria evaluation to the empirical problem of resource allocation in Poland. Mixed-data multicriteria evaluation is presented as a decision-support tool and as a means of facilitating a bargaining process between the involved parties.
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paper_title: A multiple criteria decision-making approach to GIS-based land suitability evaluation

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Abstract Land suitability evaluation in a raster GIS environment is conceptualized as a multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) problem. A combination of MCDM techniques selected for implementing the methodology included value and priority assessment techniques for scaling the interval and ordinal data respectively, and compromise programming (CP) to aggregate the unidimensional evaluations. The contribution of the proposed methodology to handle problems of scaling and dependence that often affect expert-based suitability analyses is discussed. A case-study of habitat evaluation for the endangered Mount Graham red squirrel is presented. The multiple-criteria models resulting from the CP analysis of an expert's perception of the habitat preference structure of the red squirrel are compared with data of actual habitat use. The predictive power of the models is good and sensitivity analysis based on the distance-metric parameter p of CP reveals some interesting differences between alternative strategies for...
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paper_title: Integration of GIS-Based Suitability Analysis and Multicriteria Evaluation in a Spatial Decision Support System for Route Selection

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Land suitability mapping techniques and geographic information systems (GIS) have been used in the last decade to assist planners in route selection problems. These techniques, though robust in translating physical constraints into feasible alternatives for route location, are weak in incorporating the decisionmaker's preferences, and, hence, are of limited use for decision support. The decisionmaking process that follows a route location study can be supported by multicriteria evaluation techniques that incorporate decisionmakers' preferences. This paper presents an approach to integrating a GIS-based land suitability analysis and multicriteria evaluation in a spatial decision support system for route selection. The design and implementation of the system are presented together with an example of system application to a study of the route selection for a water transmission supply line.
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paper_title: A GIS-based approach to multiple criteria group decision-making

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Abstract The multiple criteria group decision-making problem involves a set of feasible alternatives that are evaluated on the basis of multiple, conflicting and noncommensurate criteria by a group of individuals. This paper is concerned with developing a GIS-based approach to group decision-making under multiple criteria. The approach integrates, within a raster GIS environment, the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) and Borda's choice rule. TOPSIS orders the feasible alternatives according to their closeness to the ideal solution. It is used to derive the individual preference orderings. Borda's method combines the individual preferences into a group preference or consensus/compromise ranking. The approach is implemented within the IDRISI GIS and illustrated on a hypothetical decision situation.
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paper_title: Multi-criteria and multi-objective decision making for land allocation using GIS

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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are designed for the acquisition, management, analysis and display of georeferenced data. As such they have clear implications for informing the spatial decision making process. Subsequently, recent developments in GIS software and in the conceptual basis for decision making have led to dramatic improvements in the capabilities of GIS for resource allocation. These developments are reviewed through an examination of procedures for Multi-Criteria and Multi-Objective land allocation in GIS. Special emphasis is given to the problems of incorporating subjective expertise in the context of participatory decision making; the expression of uncertainty in establishing the relationship between evidence and the decision to be made; procedures for the aggregation of evidence in the presence of varying degrees of tradeoff between criteria; and procedures for conflict resolution and conflict avoidance in cases of multiple objective decision problems.
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paper_title: RASTER PROCEDURES FOR MULTI-CRITERIA/MULTI-OBJECTIVE DECISIONS

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Decisions about the allocation of land typically involve the evaluation of multiple criteria according to several, often conflicting, objective. With the advent of GIS, we now have the opportunity for a more explicity reasoned environmental decision making process. However, GIS has been slow to develop decision support tools, more typically relying on procedures outside the GIS software. In this paper the issues of multi-criteria/multi- objective decision making are discussed, along with an exploration of a new set of decision support tools appropriate for the large data-handling needs of raster GIS. A case study is used to illustrate these tools as developed for the IDRISI geographic analysis software system
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paper_title: An Application of Linear Programming and Geographic Information Systems: Cropland Allocation in Antigua

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This paper is focused on the application of linear programming (LP) in combination with a geographic information system (GIS) in planning agricultural land-use strategies. One of the essential inputs for planning any agricultural land-use strategy is a knowledge of the natural resources. This is even more critical in small countries such as those in the Eastern Caribbean, where land-area limitations dictate a greater need for careful assessment and management of these resources. The first step of the proposed methodology is to obtain an assessment of the natural resources available to agriculture. The GIS is used to delineate land-use conflicts and provide reliable information on the natural-resource database. This is followed by combining the data on natural resources with other quantifiable information on available labour, market forecasts, technology, and cost information in order to estimate the economic potential of the agricultural sector. LP is used in this step. Finally, the GIS is applied again to map the crop and land-allocation patterns generated by the LP model. The results are concrete suggestions for resource allocation, farm-size mix, policy application, and implementation projects.
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paper_title: A scenario exploration of strategic land use options for the Loess Plateau in northern China

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Soil-loss, food insecurity, population pressure and low income of the rural population are interrelated problems in the Loess Plateau of northern China, and result in a spiral of unsustainability. This paper examines Ansai County as a case study to explore strategic land use options that may meet well-defined goals of regional development, using a systems approach that integrated the fragmented and empirical information on the biophysical, agronomic and socio-economic conditions. We used production ecological principles, simulation modeling and multiple goal linear programming as integrative tools. Four scenarios were explored, representing major directions of agricultural development in the region and views of national and local stakeholders, farmers and environmentalists. The results indicate that soil conservation, food self-sufficiency and income for the rural population can be substantially improved by efficient resource use and appropriate inputs. In the long-term, terracing and use of crop rotations with alfalfa may be the best options for soil conservation. The large rural population and the lack of off-farm employment opportunities could be the most important factors affecting rural development in Ansai. This study contributes to the understanding of regional problems and agricultural development potentials, and shows' agro-technical possibilities for alleviating the unsustainability problems in this fragile and poorly endowed region. To promote actual development towards the identified options, on-farm innovation and appropriate policy measures are needed. The explored land use options enable a much more targeted innovation and development of policies. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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paper_title: Goal programming in a planning problem

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The objective of this paper is to apply one of the techniques of multiobjective programming (goal programming) in a brazilian forest problem, in a case study accomplished in the Santa Candida Farm, Parana, Brazil. The areas of this farm can be managed for timber (pine and native species), harvesting of erva-mate leaves, pasture, and tourism. There is also a concern of the farm managers with increasing the diversity of flora and fauna, increasing environmental protection conditions and maintaining employees in the farm. Goal programming was used to develop a project of land allocation, in which all the goals would be reached as closest as possible of the ideal, in a way to attend all the operational restrictions considered. In goal programming, the concept of optimum solution of LP problems is substituted by a satisfactory solution (nondominated). Several solutions can be obtained, and the best solution will depend on the priority associated to each goal.
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paper_title: Using Linear Integer Programming for Multi-Site Land-Use Allocation

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Research in the area of spatial decision support (SDS) and resource allocation has recently generated increased attention for integrating optimization techniques with GIS. In this paper we address the use of spatial optimization techniques for solving multi-site land-use allocation (MLUA) problems, where MLUA refers to the optimal allocation of multiple sites of different land uses to an area. We solve an MLUA problem using four different integer programs (IP), of which three are linear integer programs. The IPs are formulated for a raster-based GIS environment and are designed to minimize development costs and to maximize compactness of the allocated land use. The preference for either minimizing costs or maximizing compactness has been made operational by including a weighting factor. The IPs are evaluated on their speed and their efficacy for handling large databases. All four IPs yielded the optimal solution within a reasonable amount of time, for an area of 8 x 8 cells. The fastest model was successfully applied to a case study involving an area of 30 x 30 cells. The case study demonstrates the practical use of linear IPs for spatial decision support issues.
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paper_title: SIRO-PLAN and LUPLAN: An Australian Approach to Land-Use Planning. 2. The LUPLAN Land-Use Planning Package

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In this paper are described various approaches to implementing the plans evaluation steps of the SIRO-PLAN land-use planning method, including linear and goal programming and the LUPLAN simplification of the linear programming approach.
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paper_title: A farm multicriteria analysis model for the economic and environmental evaluation of agricultural land use

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The paper presents a model that produces and evaluates alternative farming systems. The economic and environmental viewpoints are considered within different hypotheses of agricultural policy and farmer’s decision-making process. The model is composed of three parts: a) a multiobjective programming model for the simulation at farm level of policies and farmer’s decision-making; b) a model for the environmental impact assessment of the results of the previous simulations; c) a multi-attribute evaluation of the simulations from both the economic and environmental point of view. The model has been applied in the area of the Venice Lagoon Basin (VLB), located in northern Italy. The economic-environmental evaluation demonstrates that there is clear synergy between the tendency of the farmer to minimise the risk of the cropping systems and the necessity to reduce the environmental impact of farming techniques. This is particularly useful for promoting low-impact agricultural practices in the situations dominated by traditional production methods whose environmental implications appear very variable.
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paper_title: Integration of linear programming and GIS for land-use modelling

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Abstract Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are becoming basic tools for a wide variety of earth science and land-use applications. This article presents linear programming (LP) as a promising tool for spatial modelling within a GIS. Although LP is not properly a spatial technique, it may be used to optimize spatial distributions or to guide the integration of variables. An example of the use of LP in land-use planning is described, with minimizing rural unemployment as the main goal. Technical, financial and ecological constraints are established to show the influence of several limitations on achieving the optimal solution. LP makes it possible to achieve optimal land-use, where the objective is maximized and the constraints respected. LP can also be used to simulate different planning scenarios, by modifying both the objective function coefficients and the constraints. The integration of LP and GIS is presented in two phases: (i) acquisition of attribute data for the LP model, and (ii) modelling an...
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paper_title: Urban Simulation Using Principal Components Analysis and Cellular Automata for Land-Use Planning

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Cellular automata, principal components analysis (PCA) and geographic information system techniques can be integrated to simulate alternative urban growth patterns based on a large set of environmental constraints that could be considered in land-use planning. The simulation of actual cities usually involves multicriteria evaluation in tackling the problems of complex spatial factors. Spatial factors often exhibit a high degree of correlation which is considered to be an undesirable property for multicriteria evaluation. It is difficult to determine the weights when many spatial variables are involved. This study uses PCA to remove data redundancy among a large set of spatial variables and determine the ideal point for land development. The simulation is based on transition rules that are related to the neighborhood function and similarity between cells and the ideal point. PCA helps to deal with a large data set of spatial variables for the implementation of the cellular automata model. The model can deal with the complicated resources conditions and environmental restrictions that are often encountered in land-use planning. The model can be further developed as an extended function of GIS to be a useful tool for urban planning and environmental management.
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paper_title: Using simulated annealing for resource allocation

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Many resource allocation issues, such as land use- or irrigation planning, require input from extensive spatial databases and involve complex decisionmaking problems. Spatial decision support systems (SDSS) are designed to make these issues more transparent and to support the design and evaluation of resource allocation alternatives. Recent developments in this field focus on the design of allocation plans that utilise mathematical optimisation techniques. These techniques, often referred to as multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) techniques, run into numerical problems when faced with the high dimensionality encountered in spatial applications. In this paper we demonstrate how simulated annealing, a heuristic algorithm, can be used to solve high-dimensional non-linear optimisation problems for multi-site land use allocation (MLUA) problems. The optimisation model both minimises development costs and maximises spatial compactness of the land use. Compactness is achieved by adding a non-linear neighbourhood objective to the objective function. The method is successfully applied to a case study in Galicia, Spain, using an SDSS for supporting the restoration of a former mining area with new land use.
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paper_title: Multi-actor-based land use modelling: spatial planning using agents

paper_content:

This paper describes a spatial planning model combining a multi-agent simulation (MAS) approach with cellular automata (CA). The model includes individual actor behaviour according to a bottom-up modelling concept. Spatial planning intentions and related decision making of planning actors is defined by agents. CA is used to infer the knowledge needed by the agents to make decisions about the future of a spatial organisation in a certain area. The innovative item of this approach offers a framework for modelling complex land use planning process by extending CA approach with MAS. The modelling approach is demonstrated by the implementation of a pilot model using JAVA and the SWARM agent modelling toolkit. The pilot model itself is applied to a study area near the city of Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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paper_title: A design and application of a multi-agent system for simulation of multi-actor spatial planning.

paper_content:

Multi-agent Systems (MAS) offer a conceptual approach to include multi-actor decision making into models of land use change. The main goal is to explore the use of MAS to simulate spatial scenarios based on modelling multi-actor decision-making within a spatial planning process. We demonstrate MAS that consists of agents representing organizations and interest groups involved in an urban allocation problem during a land use planning process. The multi-actor based decision-making is modelled by generating beliefs and preferences of actors about the location of and relation between spatial objects. This allows each agent to confront these beliefs and preferences with it's own desires and with that of other agents. The MAS loosely resembles belief, desire and intentions architecture. Based on a case study for a hypothetical land use planning situation in a study area in the Netherlands we discuss the potential and limitations of the MAS to build models that enable spatial planners to include the 'actor factor' in their analysis and design of spatial scenarios. In addition, our experiments revealed the need for further research on the representation of spatial objects and reasoning, learning and communication about allocation problems using MAS.
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paper_title: SimLand: a prototype to simulate land conversion through the integrated GIS and CA with AHP-derived transition rules

paper_content:

This paper presents a prototype of a simulation model based on cellular automata (CA), and multicriteria evaluation (MCE) and integrated with GIS. Specifically, a method, analytical hierarchy process (AHP), of MCE is used here to derive behaviour-oriented rules of transition in CA. A ‘tight' integration strategy is adopted, which means that the modules of MCE and CA are written in the C programming language and built within ARC/INFO GIS. Designed to run on a workstation Unix SimL and fully utilizes the graphical user interface (GUI),which allows the modelto be driven by menusand automate the simulation of land conversion in the urban-rural fringe. The combination of three elements, GIS, CA, and MCE, has several advantages: visualization of decision-making, easier access to spatial information, and the more realistic definition of transition rules in CA.
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paper_title: Multi-agent systems for the simulation of land-use and land-cover change: A review

paper_content:

This paper presents an overview of multi-agent system models of land-use/cover change (MAS/LUCC models). This special class of LUCC models combines a cellular landscape model with agent-based representations of decisionmaking, integrating the two components through specification of interdependencies and feedbacks between agents and their environment. The authors review alternative LUCC modeling techniques and discuss the ways in which MAS/LUCC models may overcome some important limitations of existing techniques. We briefly review ongoing MAS/LUCC modeling efforts in four research areas. We discuss the potential strengths of MAS/LUCC models and suggest that these strengths guide researchers in assessing the appropriate choice of model for their particular research question. We find that MAS/LUCC models are particularly well suited for representing complex spatial interactions under heterogeneous conditions and for modeling decentralized, autonomous decision making. We discuss a range of possible roles for MAS/LUCC models, from abstract models designed to derive stylized hypotheses to empirically detailed simulation models appropriate for scenario and policy analysis. We also discuss the challenge of validation and verification for MAS/LUCC models. Finally, we outline important challenges and open research questions in this new field. We conclude that, while significant challenges exist, these models offer a promising new tool for researchers whose goal is to create fine-scale models of LUCC phenomena that focus on human-environment interactions.
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paper_title: Multi-scale analysis of a household level agent-based model of landcover change.

paper_content:

Scale issues have significant implications for the analysis of social and biophysical processes in complex systems. These same scale implications are likewise considerations for the design and application of models of landcover change. Scale issues have wide-ranging effects from the representativeness of data used to validate models to aggregation errors introduced in the model structure. This paper presents an analysis of how scale issues affect an agent-based model (ABM) of landcover change developed for a research area in the Midwest, USA. The research presented here explores how scale factors affect the design and application of agent-based landcover change models. The ABM is composed of a series of heterogeneous agents who make landuse decisions on a portfolio of cells in a raster-based programming environment. The model is calibrated using measures of fit derived from both spatial composition and spatial pattern metrics from multi-temporal landcover data interpreted from historical aerial photography. A model calibration process is used to find a best-fit set of parameter weights assigned to agents' preferences for different landuses (agriculture, pasture, timber production, and non-harvested forest). Previous research using this model has shown how a heterogeneous set of agents with differing preferences for a portfolio of landuses produces the best fit to landcover changes observed in the study area. The scale dependence of the model is explored by varying the resolution of the input data used to calibrate the model (observed landcover), ancillary datasets that affect land suitability (topography), and the resolution of the model landscape on which agents make decisions. To explore the impact of these scale relationships the model is run with input datasets constructed at the following spatial resolutions: 60, 90, 120, 150, 240, 300 and 480 m. The results show that the distribution of landuse-preference weights differs as a function of scale. In addition, with the gradient descent model fitting method used in this analysis the model was not able to converge to an acceptable fit at the 300 and 480 m spatial resolutions. This is a product of the ratio of the input cell resolution to the average parcel size in the landscape. This paper uses these findings to identify scale considerations in the design, development, validation and application of ABMs of landcover change.
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paper_title: On the use of genetic algorithms to solve location problems

paper_content:

This paper seeks to evaluate the performance of genetic algorithms (GA) as an alternative procedure for generating optimal or near-optimal solutions for location problems. The specific problems considered are the uncapacitated and capacitated fixed charge problems, the maximum covering problem, and competitive location models. We compare the performance of the GA-based heuristics developed against well-known heuristics from the literature, using a test base of publicly available data sets.
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paper_title: Integrating multi-criteria evaluation with geographical information systems

paper_content:

Abstract Geographical information systems (GIS) provide the decision-maker with a powerful set of tools for the manipulation and analysis of spatial information. The functionality of GIS is, however, limited to certain deterministic analyses in key application areas such as spatial search. The integration of multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) techniques with GIS is forwarded as providing the user with the means to evaluate various alternatives on the basis of multiple and conflicting criteria and objectives. An example application based on the search for suitable sites for the disposal of radioactive waste in the UK using the Arc/Info GIS is included. The potential use of a combined GIS-MCE approach in the development of spatial decision support systems is considered.
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paper_title: Using Linear Integer Programming for Multi-Site Land-Use Allocation

paper_content:

Research in the area of spatial decision support (SDS) and resource allocation has recently generated increased attention for integrating optimization techniques with GIS. In this paper we address the use of spatial optimization techniques for solving multi-site land-use allocation (MLUA) problems, where MLUA refers to the optimal allocation of multiple sites of different land uses to an area. We solve an MLUA problem using four different integer programs (IP), of which three are linear integer programs. The IPs are formulated for a raster-based GIS environment and are designed to minimize development costs and to maximize compactness of the allocated land use. The preference for either minimizing costs or maximizing compactness has been made operational by including a weighting factor. The IPs are evaluated on their speed and their efficacy for handling large databases. All four IPs yielded the optimal solution within a reasonable amount of time, for an area of 8 x 8 cells. The fastest model was successfully applied to a case study involving an area of 30 x 30 cells. The case study demonstrates the practical use of linear IPs for spatial decision support issues.
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paper_title: Using GIS and outranking multicriteria analysis for land-use suitability assessment

paper_content:

Land-use planners often make complex decisions within a short period of time when they must take into account sustainable development and economic competitiveness. A set of land-use suitability maps would be very useful in this respect. Ideally, these maps should incorporate complex criteria integrating several stakeholders' points of view. To illustrate the feasibility of this approach, a land suitability map for housing was realised for a small region of Switzerland. Geographical Information System technology was used to assess the criteria requested to define the suitability of land for housing. An example dealing with the evaluation of noise levels illustrates the initial steps of this procedure. Because the required criteria are heterogeneous and measured on various scales, an outranking multicriteria analysis method called ELECTRE-TRI was used. However, using it to assess the suitability of any point in a territory was impractical due to computational limitations. Therefore, a mathematical function ...
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paper_title: Multi-agent systems for the simulation of land-use and land-cover change: A review

paper_content:

This paper presents an overview of multi-agent system models of land-use/cover change (MAS/LUCC models). This special class of LUCC models combines a cellular landscape model with agent-based representations of decisionmaking, integrating the two components through specification of interdependencies and feedbacks between agents and their environment. The authors review alternative LUCC modeling techniques and discuss the ways in which MAS/LUCC models may overcome some important limitations of existing techniques. We briefly review ongoing MAS/LUCC modeling efforts in four research areas. We discuss the potential strengths of MAS/LUCC models and suggest that these strengths guide researchers in assessing the appropriate choice of model for their particular research question. We find that MAS/LUCC models are particularly well suited for representing complex spatial interactions under heterogeneous conditions and for modeling decentralized, autonomous decision making. We discuss a range of possible roles for MAS/LUCC models, from abstract models designed to derive stylized hypotheses to empirically detailed simulation models appropriate for scenario and policy analysis. We also discuss the challenge of validation and verification for MAS/LUCC models. Finally, we outline important challenges and open research questions in this new field. We conclude that, while significant challenges exist, these models offer a promising new tool for researchers whose goal is to create fine-scale models of LUCC phenomena that focus on human-environment interactions.
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paper_title: Designing compact and contiguous reserve networks with a hybrid heuristic algorithm

paper_content:

Conflicting opinions from environmental advocates and economic interests on the best strategy for management of public lands often leaves land managers in a difficult position. Since ecosystem sustainability is in the long-term interest of each group, the establishment of nature reserves could simultaneously address both views. To promote sustainability, fragmentation of existing natural habitats should be avoided, since it is commonly recognized as being disruptive to the species adapted to these habitats. Therefore, when designing an efficient nature reserve, the compactness and contiguity of the land reserved is an essential consideration. A new formulation of the reserve selection problem is presented that explicitly addresses these issues; specifically, the model minimizes a weighted combination of compactness and contiguity measures subject to constraints on the minimal representation of each habitat class. Motivated by the ongoing reserve efforts in the large and diverse Klamath-Siskiyou region of southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, common heuristic search techniques are implemented and results compared on various simulated test problems. From these findings a new heuristic is developed that reduces solution time and increases solution quality. When applied to the Klamath-Siskiyou region, results are promising.
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paper_title: Multicriterion planning of protected-area buffer zones: an application to Mexico’s Izta-Popo national park

paper_content:

This paper presents a methodology for the design of buffer zones around protected areas. Although the procedure is designed to be used by the protected-area managers and hence respond primarily to their objectives and concerns, it recognizes the influence of the wider socioeconomic and political environments in realizing those objectives. The methodology thus helps resource managers to (1) formulate their objectives, (2) anticipate how those objectives may conflict with ongoing or potential future changes in the wider environment within which resource management must be conducted, and (3) obtain as efficiently as possible the information necessary to (4) design and evaluate management options in view of such changes and conflicts. Multiobjective optimization is used both to formulate the managers’ goals pertaining to land-use change, and to anticipate potential land-use changes resulting under different socioeconomic scenarios. Goal programming is then employed to fashion minimum-conflict plans, which are subsequently used as inputs into a GIS procedure that helps managers design spatial land-use configurations attractive from landscape-ecological perspectives. The prescribed land-use changes common to these plans and/or configurations may be considered a “commitment set”, and the methodology thus employed an exemplification of a robustness philosophy.
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Title: A Review of Rural Land-Use Planning Models

Section 1: Definition of a Land-Use Planning Model
Description 1: Provide an overview of the concepts and phases involved in defining a land-use planning model, referencing key frameworks such as the FAO (1976).

Section 2: Land Evaluation
Description 2: Discuss the process of land evaluation, including historical evolution, various models and methods used, and their respective strengths and weaknesses.

Section 3: Land-Use Allocation
Description 3: Explore the concept of land-use allocation, different decision support systems (DSSs), and their integration with GIS.

Section 4: Expert Systems
Description 4: Examine the role of expert systems in land-use planning, their application areas, and examples of developed systems.

Section 5: Mathematical Models
Description 5: Detail the types of mathematical models used in land-use allocation, including multicriteria evaluation techniques, mathematical programming applications, and spatial simulation models.

Section 6: Multicriteria Evaluation
Description 6: Discuss multicriteria evaluation techniques, their applications in land planning, and the integration with GIS for generating suitability maps.

Section 7: Mathematical Programming
Description 7: Outline the principles of mathematical programming in land-use planning, including examples of optimization models and their objectives.

Section 8: Spatial Simulation Models
Description 8: Describe spatial simulation models, including algorithms like genetic algorithms and simulated annealing, and their applications in land-use optimization.

Section 9: Analysis of Land-Use Allocation Models
Description 9: Analyze the significant characteristics of various land-use allocation models, comparing their aims, required information, GIS integration, and group decision-making capabilities.

Section 10: Discussion
Description 10: Summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the different methods used in land evaluation and land-use allocation, providing a critical evaluation of each approach.

Section 11: Conclusions
Description 11: Conclude with an assessment of the most suitable land-evaluation and land-use allocation methods, considering the specific objectives and expected outcomes of rural land-use planning.