Visible and Infrared Remote Imaging of Hazardous Waste: A Review
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paper_title: THE INTERNATIONAL REGULATION OF TRANSBOUNDARY TRAFFIC IN HAZARDOUS WASTES: THE 1989 BASEL CONVENTION

paper_content:

IN response to the growing worldwide awareness of the problem of international traffic in hazardous wastes, the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (the "Basel Convention"), elaborated under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), was adopted in 1989. This treaty, which entered into force on 5 May 1992, constitutes the first attempt at comprehensive regulation of international transport and disposal of hazardous wastes on a global level. Previously, the issue was addressed by international law only in an incomplete and fragmentary fashion. Customary law relating to pollution control provides a number of basic rules.' Thus, no State may use its territory-or permit it to be used-to inflict serious harm on the environment of other States; in carrying out or permitting potentially hazardous activities under their jurisdiction or control, States have the obligation to exercise due diligence.' Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration' laid the foundation for recognising a duty on every State to refrain from activities within its territory which result in serious harm to the environment, regardless
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paper_title: Evidence of excessive releases of metals from primitive e-waste processing in Guiyu, China.

paper_content:

Guiyu, China is infamous for its involvement in primitive e-waste processing and recycling activities. Freshwater samples were collected in and outside of Guiyu for dissolved metal analysis. It was found that dissolved metal concentrations were higher in Lianjiang and Nanyang River within Guiyu than the reservoir outside of Guiyu. Lianjiang was enriched with dissolved As, Cr, Li, Mo, Sb and Se, while Nanyang River had elevated dissolved Ag, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn. Temporal distributions of the metals suggested recent discharges of metals attributable to a strong acid leaching operation of e-waste, where dissolved Ag, Cd, Cu and Ni (0.344+/-0.014, 0.547+/-0.074, 87.6+/-3.0 and 93.0+/-1.4 microg/L, respectively) were significantly elevated. Pb isotopic composition of dissolved Pb confirmed that more than one non-indigenous Pb were present in Lianjiang and Nanyang River. In summary, it was evident that the riverine environment of Guiyu was heavily impacted by e-waste related activities.
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paper_title: Export of toxic chemicals - a review of the case of uncontrolled electronic-waste recycling.

paper_content:

This paper reviews the concentrations of persistent organic pollutants such as flame retardants (PBDEs), dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy metals/metalloid concentrations of different environmental media at Guiyu, a traditional rice-growing village located in southeastern Guangdong Province (PR China), which has turned into an intensive electronic-waste (e-waste) recycling site. Incomplete combustion of e-waste in open air and dumping of processed materials are the major sources of various toxic chemicals. By comparing with existing data available in other areas and also guidelines adopted in different countries, it is obvious that the environment is highly contaminated by these toxic chemicals derived from the recycling processes. For example, the monthly concentration of the sum of 22 PBDE congeners contained in PM(2.5) (16.8ngm(-3)) of air samples at Guiyu was 100 times higher than published data. In order to safeguard the environment and human health, detailed investigations are urgently needed, especially on tracking the exposure pathways of different toxic chemicals which may affect the workers and local residents especially mothers, infants and children.
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paper_title: Use of maps, aerial photographs, and other remote sensor data for practical evaluations of hazardous waste sites

paper_content:

Aerial photographs and remote sensor data were used to identify and inventory hydrologic, soil, and vegetative conditions indicative of hazardous waste sites. Several papers and their results demonstrate the utility of these data and techniques for engineering applications. A combination of aerial photos, remote sensing, maps, and advanced evaluation techniques provided more information than traditional engineering techniques alone. 17 references.
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paper_title: The use of aerial photographs in county inventories of waste-disposal sites

paper_content:

Over the past 15 years, various studies have documented the value of remote sensing for inventorying and assessing waste-disposal sites. Most of these efforts have concentrated on specific sites. This paper reviews and illustrates a procedure that can be applied in performing comprehensive inventories of known and unknown, active and inactive, waste-disposal sites over county-size areas. The steps described include pre-survey activities, evaluation and acquisition of aerial photographs, development of the classification system, public information surveys, airphoto analysis, site georeferencing, site prioritization and follow-up airphoto analysis, and implementation of a monitoring program. Although not a case-study report, the paper focuses on Suffolk County, N.Y., where multidate, historic aerial photographs were analyzed in conjunction with field and citizen surveys to detect and categorize hundreds of previously unidentified sites for remedial action. 20 refs.
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paper_title: Environmental application of aerial reconnaissance to search for open dumps

paper_content:

Three approaches to using aerial photography are evaluated for searching for open dumps in the state of Indiana. Photography with hand-held cameras from a small airplane proved more effective and flexible than either photo-interpretation of existing air photos or subcontracting to a federal agency for new aerial photography. The rationale for our choice of aerial reconnaissance, other uses of low-level aerial surveillance, the utility of small-format camera aerial photography for environmental analysis, and methods used for locating open dumps are discussed.
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paper_title: A temporal and spatial resolution remote sensing study of a Michigan Superfund site

paper_content:

Color infrared aerial photography collected for the years 1969, 1974, 1978, 1981, and 1986 showed a decrease over time in the intensity and extent of vegetation stress within the lowland hardwoods along the valley of Big Black Creek which flows east to west adjacent to the south edge of the Superfund site. The change in vegetation vigor corresponds to the initiation of groundwater remediation at the site in the late 70's, and containment of the chemical plume by ground-water pumping by 1986. The CIR aerial photography shows a definite improvement in the health and vigor of vegetation within Big Black Creek since the beginning of clean-up and remediation activities at the site
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paper_title: Environmental Waste Site Characterization Utilizing Aerial Photographs, Remote Sensing, And Surface Geophysics

paper_content:

Six different techniques were used to delineate 40 year old trench boundary at Los Alamos National Laboratory. Data from historical aerial photographs, a magnetic gradient survey, airborne multispectral and thermal infra-red imagery, seismic refraction, DC resistivity, and total field magnetometry were utilized in this process. Each data set indicated a southern and northern edge for the trench. Average locations and 95% confidence limits for each edge were determined along a survey line perpendicular to the trench. Trench edge locations were fairly consistent among all six techniques. Results from a modeling effort performed with the total magnetic field data was the least consistent. However, each method provided unique and complementary information, and the integration of all this information led to a more complete characterization of the trench boundaries and contents.
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paper_title: Digital analysis of hazardous waste site aerial photographs

paper_content:

to locate and identify buried objects and to characterize the extent and nature of potential groundwater contamina tion.12 The overall monitoring of landfills and hazardous waste disposal sites has relied extensively on the use of aerial photography and both satellite and aircraft scanner data. Landsat multispectral (MSS) data have been used to map regional geologic features that might influence potential ground water movement near a hazardous waste landfill.3 The relatively coarse spatial resolution (80 m) of MSS data has precluded its use for monitoring specific characteristics of these sites. Panchromatic and multispectral data (from the French satellite SPOT), with spatial resolutions of 10 m and 20 m,
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paper_title: Use of maps, aerial photographs, and other remote sensor data for practical evaluations of hazardous waste sites

paper_content:

Aerial photographs and remote sensor data were used to identify and inventory hydrologic, soil, and vegetative conditions indicative of hazardous waste sites. Several papers and their results demonstrate the utility of these data and techniques for engineering applications. A combination of aerial photos, remote sensing, maps, and advanced evaluation techniques provided more information than traditional engineering techniques alone. 17 references.
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paper_title: The use of aerial photographs in county inventories of waste-disposal sites

paper_content:

Over the past 15 years, various studies have documented the value of remote sensing for inventorying and assessing waste-disposal sites. Most of these efforts have concentrated on specific sites. This paper reviews and illustrates a procedure that can be applied in performing comprehensive inventories of known and unknown, active and inactive, waste-disposal sites over county-size areas. The steps described include pre-survey activities, evaluation and acquisition of aerial photographs, development of the classification system, public information surveys, airphoto analysis, site georeferencing, site prioritization and follow-up airphoto analysis, and implementation of a monitoring program. Although not a case-study report, the paper focuses on Suffolk County, N.Y., where multidate, historic aerial photographs were analyzed in conjunction with field and citizen surveys to detect and categorize hundreds of previously unidentified sites for remedial action. 20 refs.
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paper_title: Remote sensing for solid waste landfills and hazardous waste sites

paper_content:

Geological remote sensing can be used to characterize solid waste landfills and hazardous waste sites in two ways: the use of digitized stereo photos to compute digital elevation models (DEM) of the landfill and the use of multispectral image data to map chemical compositional differences that are environmentally significant. The former can result in more accurate predictions of surface water run-off, measurement of the volume of water that can be stored in depressions in the landfill surface, and performance of volumetric measurements. The latter can likely be used to map clays, iron oxides associated with contaminated groundwater geochemical «cells,» stressed vegetation, and even gaseous methane plumes escaping from the landfill
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paper_title: Remote sensing detection of heavy oil through spectral enhancement techniques in the western slope zone of Songliao Basin, China

paper_content:

Landsat-7 enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) imagery was used to identify anomalous areas caused by hydrocarbon leakage in Fula'erji in the western slope of Songliao Basin, China. Three image enhancement techniques, including principal component analysis (PCA), band ratioing, and false-color composition (FCC), were used. Based on the spectral characteristics of hydrocarbon-induced minerals and the eigenvectors of PCA, the best four principal components (PCs), 1345-PC3 (the third component of the PCA on bands 1, 3, 4, and 5), 1357-PC3, 3457-PC4, and 123457-PC4, were selected for FCC combined with band ratios of 3/1, 4/3, and 7/5. According to the tonal characteristics of the surface near wells and their visual expression, four FCC images were acquired for hydrocarbon-induced area delineation. The result indicates that anomalies are expressed as a faint tone blob and are mostly located in the Holocene sediments. An analysis of two cross sections traversing the identified anomalies suggests that they are closely related to the anomalous area interpreted from the four FCC images. Field data of magnetic susceptibility and delta carbonate are consistent with the distribution of the tonal anomalies and suggest a positive spatial association between the identified anomalous area and the hydrocarbon leakage environment.
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paper_title: Assessment of Kuwait's Al-Qurain Landfill Using Remotely Sensed Data

paper_content:

Abstract Kuwait's Al-Qurain landfill problem resulted from indiscriminate dumping of domestic and industrial waste in an abandoned quarry in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The landfill and surrounding areas were set aside for a government housing project without an environmental assessment of the impact of the landfill on the project. Inhabitants of the newly constructed housing area experienced persistent foul odor emanating from the landfill site. Since then, the issue has generated a lot of public interests, and several remediation measures have been adopted. In this preliminary study, several remotely sensed data consisting of Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), IKONOS, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) acquired between 1972 and 2000 were processed and assessed for their usefulness to study and monitor the landfill site. The imagery provided a historical perspective of how the areas had changed over the last 30 years. Other useful information of the landfill obtained f...
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paper_title: A temporal and spatial resolution remote sensing study of a Michigan Superfund site

paper_content:

Color infrared aerial photography collected for the years 1969, 1974, 1978, 1981, and 1986 showed a decrease over time in the intensity and extent of vegetation stress within the lowland hardwoods along the valley of Big Black Creek which flows east to west adjacent to the south edge of the Superfund site. The change in vegetation vigor corresponds to the initiation of groundwater remediation at the site in the late 70's, and containment of the chemical plume by ground-water pumping by 1986. The CIR aerial photography shows a definite improvement in the health and vigor of vegetation within Big Black Creek since the beginning of clean-up and remediation activities at the site
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paper_title: Remote detection of a tonal anomaly in an area of hydrocarbon microseepage, Tucano basin, north-eastern Brazil

paper_content:

Mapping of a tonal anomaly in an area of hydrocarbon microseepage was possible using a Landsat-Thematic Mapper false-colour composite consisting of TM2/3, TM4/3 and of the difference TM2/3-TM4/3, displayed as red, green and blue, respectively. In this false-colour composite, green and yellow express variations in the vegetation cover, whereas hues of magenta are related to terrain conditions representing bleached materials, which occur close to the centre of a soil gas anomaly. Simultaneous occurrence of anomalous soil gas values with magnetic and radioactive minerals suggests that a reducing environment associated with the microseepage phenomenon created the bleached materials, identified as a tonal anomaly in the enhanced TM image.
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paper_title: A method for the remote sensing identification of uncontrolled landfills: formulation and validation

paper_content:

The identification of uncontrolled landfills is a central environmental problem in all developed and developing countries, where several illegal waste deposits exist as a result of rapid industrial growth over the past century. Remote sensing can potentially provide crucial information for the identification of contaminated sites, but surprisingly there is a marked lack of rigorously validated approaches. In this paper we introduce and validate a method that uses remotely sensed information and a geographic information system (GIS) to identify unknown landfills over large areas. The method is applied to a study area located in NE Italy (part of the Venice lagoon watershed) using IKONOS satellite data. Soil contamination effects on the radiometric properties of vegetation, calibrated using spectral signatures of stressed vegetation from known illegal landfill sites, were used to define numerous candidate sites that are most likely to host waste materials. Distributed geographical information, such as the position of the road network, the population density, and historical aerial photographs, have then been used to select the most likely contaminated sites among the candidates identified through remote sensing. The importance of the integration of GIS and remote sensing is highlighted and represents a key instrument for environmental management and for the spatially distributed characterization of possible uncontrolled landfill sites.
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paper_title: Digital analysis of hazardous waste site aerial photographs

paper_content:

to locate and identify buried objects and to characterize the extent and nature of potential groundwater contamina tion.12 The overall monitoring of landfills and hazardous waste disposal sites has relied extensively on the use of aerial photography and both satellite and aircraft scanner data. Landsat multispectral (MSS) data have been used to map regional geologic features that might influence potential ground water movement near a hazardous waste landfill.3 The relatively coarse spatial resolution (80 m) of MSS data has precluded its use for monitoring specific characteristics of these sites. Panchromatic and multispectral data (from the French satellite SPOT), with spatial resolutions of 10 m and 20 m,
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paper_title: Mapping despoiled land cover from landsat thematic mapper imagery

paper_content:

The potential of remotely sensed imagery as a source of information on industrially despoiled land cover was investigated. Emphasis was placed on issues relating to the separability and mapping of despoiled land cover from Landsat TM imagery for the production of estimates of despoiled land cover extent in administratively defined local districts. Spatial filtering was found to enhance the separability of despoiled land in the TM imagery. A land cover classification derived from Landsat TM imagery which had been preprocessed with an appropriate filter, was integrated with local district boundaries within a geographical information system and used to derive estimates of despoiled land cover extent. These initial estimates were adjusted using information on classification accuracy to derive a remotely sensed estimate of despoiled land cover extent in each local district. These were then evaluated against the estimates derived from a manually produced map of despoiled land cover. The results showed a high degree of correspondence between the remotely sensed and manually mapped estimates, with correlation coefficients of up to 0.93 observed (significant at the 99% level of confidence) and illustrate a potential operational role for remote sensing in identifying and monitoring despoiled land within administratively defined local authority areas.
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paper_title: Remote Sensing To Assess Landfill Gas Migration

paper_content:

Remote sensing is proposed as a useful technique for monitoring landfill sites for gas migration. Landfill gas has the potential to migrate from the site boundaries and cause damage. It is also spatially and temporally very difficult to monitor. The presence of landfill gas in the root zone causes signs of stress to be visible within the vegetation, the stress generally taking the form of chlorosis or dieback. This, in turn, may result in a change in spectral response of the vegetation. Airborne thematic map data and low cost video imagery are proposed as techniques to obtain imagery in order to classify sites according to vegetation stress. A comparison between the efficiency and costs of the two sources of imagery is made. Two case studies are summarized and the economics of the methodology discussed. It is recommended that remote sensing is used in conjunction with soil and geological maps to identify areas of high landfill gas concentration and that this is combined with traditional field measurements to gain a better spatial and temporal understanding of gas migration.
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paper_title: Detection of naturally heavy-metal-poisoned areas by LANDSAT-1 digital data

paper_content:

Bolviken, B., Honey, F., Levine, S.R., Lyon, R.J.P. and Prelat, A., 1977. Detection of naturally heavy-metal-poisoned areas by LANDSAT-1 digital data. J. Geochem. Explor., 8: 457–471. ::: ::: Natural poisoning of soil and vegetation due to heavy metals originating from sulphide deposits in the bedrock has been demonstrated at several locations in Norway. At some of these, the features of poisoning are rather widespread, suggesting that the recognition of such naturally poisoned areas by means of satellite imagery and satellite digital tapes might be possible. ::: ::: An occurrence of natural Cu poisoning near Karasjok, northern Norway, was selected as a training area. LANDSAT-1 computer compatible tapes were used to prepare enhanced colour ratio images and to calculate ratios of calibrated channel reflectances. Ground reflectance measurements were also carried out using radiometers with band passes equivalent to those on the LANDSAT multispectral scanner system. ::: ::: Compared with the surroundings the LANDSAT data over the training area showed unique spectral characteristics. These are also indicated on the enhanced ratio images, and the digital data can be utilized in supervised discriminant analysis and unsupervised “cluster” analysis. In particular, the area of the natural Cu poisoning shows low values in the band 7/band 5 reflectance ratio. At present, a detailed, precise numerical correlation between the ground and satellite reflectance data is not possible due to differences in resolution, although spatial correlation of spectral trends can be established. ::: ::: It appears that features of natural heavy metal poisoning can be located with the 0.45-hectare resolution of the LANDSAT multispectral scanner system. The search for such features might therefore be used as a tool in mineral exploration. The current resolution limitation can be overcome by utilizing scanners at aircraft altitudes.
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paper_title: Spectral Properties of Plants

paper_content:

The spectral properties of plant leaves and stems have been obtained for ultraviolet, visible, and infrared frequencies. The spectral reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance for certain plants is given. The mechanism by which radiant energy interacts with a leaf is discussed, including the presence of plant pigments. Examples are given concerning the amount of absorbed solar radiation for clear sky and overcast conditions. The spectral properties of desert plants are compared with those of more mesic plants. The evolution of the spectral properties of plant leaves during the early growing season is given as well as the colorimetric behavior during the autumn.
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paper_title: Effect of phosphorus deficiency on spectral reflectance and morphology of soybean plants

paper_content:

Abstract Soybean plants were grown in hydroponic solutions having three concentration levels of phosphorus. Spectral reflectance changes included higher reflectance in the green and yellow portions of the electromagnetic spectrum in phosphorus-deficient plants and a difference in position of the long wavelength edge (the red edge) of the chlorophyll absorption band centered near 0.68 μm. Plants having the least phosphorus in the growing medium did not show the normal shift of the red edge to longer wavelength which occurs as leaves mature. Shoot and root biomass were significantly lower in the phosphorus-deficient plants. These results are consistent with those obtained when soybean plants are dosed with elevated concentrations of metallic elements. We hypothesize that nutrient imbalances or anomalous metal concentrations in the soil set up physiological conditions at the soil/root interface that are responsible for the reflectance differences observed in laboratory and field studies of plants growing in substrates enriched in metallic elements.
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paper_title: Effects of heavy metals on the absorbance and reflectance spectra of plants.

paper_content:

Abstract. Published work on the reflectance of vegetation growing over soil mineralizations is reviewed. Experimental work was carried out on several species grown in a glasshouse and was extended to a pilot field study. In the laboratory studies, the most general effects of Cd, Cu, Pb or Zn were growth inhibition. A detailed study of the leaf pigments of pea plants showed that the chl a/chl b ratio (chl=chlorophyll) decreased under conditions of Cd or Cu stress but showed little effect with Pb or Zn. However, the absorption spectra of chloroplast pigments were not found to show any wavelength shifts with metal treatments, indicating that new spectral forms of chlorophyll were not produced as a stress response. A decrease in the total chlorophyll content of leaf tissue (fresh weight basis) was correlated with an increase in visible-wavelength leaf reflectance (R) of pea plants. R at infrared wavelengths of 0.85 μm, 1.65 μm and 2.20 μm decreased in metal-treated plants, compared with controls. Although exp...
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paper_title: Arsenic- and selenium-induced changes in spectral reflectance and morphology of soybean plants

paper_content:

Abstract Soybean (Glycine max) plants were grown in hydroponic solutions treated with high concentrations of either arsenic or selenium. Spectral reflectance changes in arsenic-dosed plants included a shift to shorter wavelengths in the long-wavelength edge of the chlorophyll absorption band centered at 680 nm (the red edge) and higher reflectance in the 550–650 nm region. These results are consistent with vegetation reflectance anomalies observed in previous greenhouse experiments and in airborne radiometer studies. The selenium-dosed plants contrast, exhibited a shift to longer wavelengths of the red edge and lower reflectance between 550 nm and 650 wh when compared with control plants. Morphological effects of arsenic uptake included lower overall biomass, stunted and discolored roots, and smaller leaves oriented more vertically than leaves of control plants. Selenium-dosed plants also displayed morphological changes, but root and leaf biomass were less affected than were those of arsenic-dosed plants when compared to control plants.
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paper_title: Using Imaging Spectroscopy to Study Ecosystem Processes and Properties

paper_content:

Abstract Remote sensing data provide essential input for today's climate and ecosystem models. It is generally agreed that many model processes are not accurately depicted by current remotely sensed indices of vegetation and that new observational capabilities are needed at different spatial and spectral scales to reduce uncertainty. Recent advances in materials and optics have allowed the development of smaller, more stable, accurately calibrated imaging spectrometers that can quantify biophysical properties on the basis of the spectral absorbing and scattering characteristics of the land surface. Airborne and spaceborne imaging spectrometers, which measure large numbers (hundreds) of narrow spectral bands, are becoming more widely available from government and commercial sources; thus, it is increasingly feasible to use data from imaging spectroscopy for environmental research. In contrast to multispectral sensors, imaging spectroscopy produces quantitative estimates of biophysical absorptions, which ca...
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paper_title: Hyperspectral remote sensing of plant pigments

paper_content:

The dynamics of pigment concentrations are diagnostic of a range of plant physiological properties and processes. This paper appraises the developing technologies and analytical methods for quantifying pigments non-destructively and repeatedly across a range of spatial scales using hyperspectral remote sensing. Progress in deriving predictive relationships between various characteristics and transforms of hyperspectral reflectance data are evaluated and the roles of leaf and canopy radiative transfer models are reviewed. Requirements are identified for more extensive intercomparisons of different approaches and for further work on the strategies for interpreting canopy scale data. The paper examines the prospects for extending research to the wider range of pigments in addition to chlorophyll, testing emerging methods of hyperspectral analysis and exploring the fusion of hyperspectral and LIDAR remote sensing. In spite of these opportunities for further development and the refinement of techniques, current evidence of an expanding range of applications in the ecophysiological, environmental, agricultural, and forestry sciences highlights the growing value of hyperspectral remote sensing of plant pigments.
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paper_title: Airborne biogeophysical mapping of hidden mineral deposits

paper_content:

Three mapping surveys of Cotter Basin, Montana, and Spirit Lake, Washington. The tree cover with widespreading and deeply penetrating root systems is turned to an advantage in the airborne biogeophysical technique by detecting metal-induced changes in the chlorophyll reflectance spectrum.--Modified journal abstract.
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paper_title: The red edge of plant leaf reflectance

paper_content:

Abstract The red edge is the sharp change in leaf reflectance between 680 and 750 nm and has been measured on leaves of a variety of species by first derivative reflectance spectrophotometry. A parameter λre was defined as the wavelength of maximum slope and found to be dependent on chlorophyll concentration (p<0.001), with additional effects of species, developmental stage, leaf layering and leaf water content. The maximum slope parameter was found to be independent of simulated ground area coverage. Often two λre components were identified and both showed a linear relationship with the chlorophyll content of the leaves. The results have been interpreted in terms of Beer's Law and Kubelka-Munk theory. The chlorophyll concentration dependence of λre seems to be explained in terms of a pure absorption effect, and it is suggested that the existence of two λre components arises from the additional factor of leaf scattering properties. In comparison to broad band reflectance, the results indicate that red edg...
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paper_title: Spectral Properties of Plants

paper_content:

The spectral properties of plant leaves and stems have been obtained for ultraviolet, visible, and infrared frequencies. The spectral reflectance, transmittance, and absorptance for certain plants is given. The mechanism by which radiant energy interacts with a leaf is discussed, including the presence of plant pigments. Examples are given concerning the amount of absorbed solar radiation for clear sky and overcast conditions. The spectral properties of desert plants are compared with those of more mesic plants. The evolution of the spectral properties of plant leaves during the early growing season is given as well as the colorimetric behavior during the autumn.
---
paper_title: Effect of phosphorus deficiency on spectral reflectance and morphology of soybean plants

paper_content:

Abstract Soybean plants were grown in hydroponic solutions having three concentration levels of phosphorus. Spectral reflectance changes included higher reflectance in the green and yellow portions of the electromagnetic spectrum in phosphorus-deficient plants and a difference in position of the long wavelength edge (the red edge) of the chlorophyll absorption band centered near 0.68 μm. Plants having the least phosphorus in the growing medium did not show the normal shift of the red edge to longer wavelength which occurs as leaves mature. Shoot and root biomass were significantly lower in the phosphorus-deficient plants. These results are consistent with those obtained when soybean plants are dosed with elevated concentrations of metallic elements. We hypothesize that nutrient imbalances or anomalous metal concentrations in the soil set up physiological conditions at the soil/root interface that are responsible for the reflectance differences observed in laboratory and field studies of plants growing in substrates enriched in metallic elements.
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paper_title: Effects of heavy metals on the absorbance and reflectance spectra of plants.

paper_content:

Abstract. Published work on the reflectance of vegetation growing over soil mineralizations is reviewed. Experimental work was carried out on several species grown in a glasshouse and was extended to a pilot field study. In the laboratory studies, the most general effects of Cd, Cu, Pb or Zn were growth inhibition. A detailed study of the leaf pigments of pea plants showed that the chl a/chl b ratio (chl=chlorophyll) decreased under conditions of Cd or Cu stress but showed little effect with Pb or Zn. However, the absorption spectra of chloroplast pigments were not found to show any wavelength shifts with metal treatments, indicating that new spectral forms of chlorophyll were not produced as a stress response. A decrease in the total chlorophyll content of leaf tissue (fresh weight basis) was correlated with an increase in visible-wavelength leaf reflectance (R) of pea plants. R at infrared wavelengths of 0.85 μm, 1.65 μm and 2.20 μm decreased in metal-treated plants, compared with controls. Although exp...
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paper_title: Arsenic- and selenium-induced changes in spectral reflectance and morphology of soybean plants

paper_content:

Abstract Soybean (Glycine max) plants were grown in hydroponic solutions treated with high concentrations of either arsenic or selenium. Spectral reflectance changes in arsenic-dosed plants included a shift to shorter wavelengths in the long-wavelength edge of the chlorophyll absorption band centered at 680 nm (the red edge) and higher reflectance in the 550–650 nm region. These results are consistent with vegetation reflectance anomalies observed in previous greenhouse experiments and in airborne radiometer studies. The selenium-dosed plants contrast, exhibited a shift to longer wavelengths of the red edge and lower reflectance between 550 nm and 650 wh when compared with control plants. Morphological effects of arsenic uptake included lower overall biomass, stunted and discolored roots, and smaller leaves oriented more vertically than leaves of control plants. Selenium-dosed plants also displayed morphological changes, but root and leaf biomass were less affected than were those of arsenic-dosed plants when compared to control plants.
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paper_title: The red edge in arid region vegetation: 340-1060 nm spectra

paper_content:

The remote sensing study of vegetated regions of the world has typically been focused on the use of broad-band vegetation indices such as NDVI. Various modifications of these indices have been developed in attempts to minimize the effect of soil background, e.g., SAVI, or to reduce the effect of the atmosphere, e.g., ARVI. Most of these indices depend on the so-called 'red edge,' the sharp transition between the strong absorption of chlorophyll pigment in visible wavelengths and the strong scattering in the near-infrared from the cellular structure of leaves. These broadband indices tend to become highly inaccurate as the green canopy cover becomes sparse. The advent of high spectral resolution remote sensing instrument such as the Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) has allowed the detection of narrow spectral features in vegetation and there are reports of detection of the red edge even for pixels with very low levels of green vegetation cover by Vane et al. and Elvidge et al., and to characterize algal biomass in coastal areas. Spectral mixing approaches similar to those of Smith et al. can be extended into the high spectral resolution domain allowing for the analysis of more endmembers, and potentially, discrimination between material with narrow spectral differences. Vegetation in arid regions tends to be sparse, often with small leaves such as the creosote bush. Many types of arid region vegetation spend much of the year with their leaves in a senescent state, i.e., yellow, with lowered chlorophyll pigmentation. The sparseness of the leaves of many arid region plants has the dual effect of lowering the green leaf area which can be observed and of allowing more of the sub-shrub soil to be visible which further complicates the spectrum of a region covered with arid region vegetation. Elvidge examined the spectral characteristics of dry plant materials showing significant differences in the region of the red edge and the diagnostic ligno-cellulose absorptions at 2090 nm and 2300 nm. Ray et al. detected absorption at 2100 nm in AVIRIS spectra of an abandoned field known to be covered by a great deal of dead plant litter. In order to better study arid region vegetation remote sensing data, it is necessary to better characterize the reflectance spectra of in situ, living, arid region plants.
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paper_title: Airborne biogeophysical mapping of hidden mineral deposits

paper_content:

Three mapping surveys of Cotter Basin, Montana, and Spirit Lake, Washington. The tree cover with widespreading and deeply penetrating root systems is turned to an advantage in the airborne biogeophysical technique by detecting metal-induced changes in the chlorophyll reflectance spectrum.--Modified journal abstract.
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paper_title: Premature leaf senescence; remote-sensing detection and utility for geobotanical prospecting

paper_content:

A geobotanical investigation based on the detection of premature leaf senescence was conducted in an area of predominantly chalcocite mineralization on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. As a preliminary step, spectral reflectance measurements of a variety of fall leaves are illustrated. The spectrophotometric measurements suggest that a bandpass from 600 to 700 nm captures the rise in the red reflectance characteristic of any color senescent leaf and that observations at other wavelengths do not distinguish between senescent and green leaves as clearly and unequivocably as observations at these wavelengths. Small format black and white aerial photography filtered for the red band (600-700 nm) was used to identify two sites in the study area characterized by premature leaf senescence of the dominant flora in an area suspected of containing anomalous concentrations of soil copper but for which the geochemical data were lacking. Soil samples were collected from the two sites and from two additional sites in which the leaf canopy was still green. Geochemical analysis revealed that the sites characterized by premature leaf senescence had a significantly higher median soil copper concentration than the other two sites.
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paper_title: Effects of heavy metals on the absorbance and reflectance spectra of plants.

paper_content:

Abstract. Published work on the reflectance of vegetation growing over soil mineralizations is reviewed. Experimental work was carried out on several species grown in a glasshouse and was extended to a pilot field study. In the laboratory studies, the most general effects of Cd, Cu, Pb or Zn were growth inhibition. A detailed study of the leaf pigments of pea plants showed that the chl a/chl b ratio (chl=chlorophyll) decreased under conditions of Cd or Cu stress but showed little effect with Pb or Zn. However, the absorption spectra of chloroplast pigments were not found to show any wavelength shifts with metal treatments, indicating that new spectral forms of chlorophyll were not produced as a stress response. A decrease in the total chlorophyll content of leaf tissue (fresh weight basis) was correlated with an increase in visible-wavelength leaf reflectance (R) of pea plants. R at infrared wavelengths of 0.85 μm, 1.65 μm and 2.20 μm decreased in metal-treated plants, compared with controls. Although exp...
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paper_title: Application of Imaging Spectrometer Data in Identifying Environmental Pollution Caused by Mining at Rodaquilar, Spain

paper_content:

Abstract The Rodaquilar mining area in southern Spain has been mined for gold for an extensive period, most recently in the 1940s and 1950s. This activity has resulted in waste rock and tailings being dispersed from the mine workings down to a large tailings dump and then along a river valley eventually reaching the sea. This tailings dump material consists of a variety of ferruginous materials that often contain trace elements that are environmentally harmful and possibly toxic. These ferruginous materials have distinctive spectral features which make them amenable to detection and mapping by airborne imaging spectrometer data. The dispersion of the tailings material was studied using two semiquantitative techniques, matched filtering and linear spectral unmixing and qualitative methods using band ratios and the variation in strength of spectral features. The distinct ferruginous mineral phases resolved by these methods were then compared to laboratory reference spectrum using qualitative analysis of the spectral profiles and two quantitative techniques, spectral angle mapping and cross correlogram spectral matching. The distribution of the ferruginous materials identified from the imaging spectrometer data supports the results of laboratory experiments on the dependence of the formation of iron species on their geochemical and physical situation.
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paper_title: Mapping mine wastes and analyzing areas affected by selenium-rich water runoff in southeast Idaho using AVIRIS imagery and digital elevation data

paper_content:

Abstract Remotely sensed hyperspectral and digital elevation data from southeastern Idaho are combined in a new method to assess mine waste contamination. Waste rock from phosphorite mining in the area contains selenium, cadmium, vanadium, and other metals. Toxic concentrations of selenium have been found in plants and soils near some mine waste dumps. Eighteen mine waste dumps and five vegetation cover types in the southeast Idaho phosphate district were mapped by using Airborne Visible-Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS) imagery and field data. The interaction of surface water runoff with mine waste was assessed by registering the AVIRIS results to digital elevation data, enabling determinations of (1) mine dump morphologies, (2) catchment watershed areas above each mine dump, (3) flow directions from the dumps, (4) stream gradients, and (5) the extent of downstream wetlands available for selenium absorption. Watersheds with the most severe selenium contamination, such as the South Maybe Canyon watershed, are associated with mine dumps that have large catchment watershed areas, high stream gradients, a paucity of downstream wetlands, and dump forms that tend to obstruct stream flow. Watersheds associated with low concentrations of dissolved selenium, such as Angus Creek, have mine dumps with small catchment watershed areas, low stream gradients, abundant wetlands vegetation, and less obstructing dump morphologies.
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paper_title: Mapping minerals, amorphous materials, environmental materials, vegetation, water, ice and snow, and other materials: The USGS tricorder algorithm

paper_content:

Introduction One of the challenges of Imaging Spectroscopy is the identification, mapping and abundance determination of materials, whether mineral, vegetable, or liquid, given enough spectral range, spedral resolution, signal to noise, and spatial resolution. Many materials show diagnostic absorption features in the visual and near infrared region (0.4 to 2.5 pm) of the spectrum. ‘l’his region is covered by modern imaging spectrometers such as AVIRIS. The challenge is to identi~ the materials from absorption bands in their _ and determine what specific analyses must be done to derive particular parameters of interest, mnging from simply identifying its presence to deriving its abundance, or determining specific chemistry of the material.
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paper_title: Remote sensing for mineral exploration

paper_content:

Remote sensing is the science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting images and related data, acquired from aircraft and satellites, that record the interaction between matter and electromagnetic energy. Remote sensing images are used for mineral exploration in two applications: (1) map geology and the faults and fractures that localize ore deposits; (2) recognize hydrothermally altered rocks by their spectral signatures. Landsat thematic mapper (TM) satellite images are widely used to interpret both structure and hydrothermal alteration. Digitally processed TM ratio images can identify two assemblages of hydrothermal alteration minerals; iron minerals, and clays plus alunite. In northern Chile, TM ratio images defined the prospects that are now major copper deposits at Collahuasi and Ujina. Hyperspectral imaging systems can identify individual species of iron and clay minerals, which can provide details of hydrothermal zoning. Silicification, which is an important indicator of hydrothermal alteration, is not recognizable on TM and hyperspectral images. Quartz has no diagnostic spectral features in the visible and reflected IR wavelengths recorded by these systems. Variations in silica content are recognizable in multispectral thermal IR images, which is a promising topic for research.
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paper_title: Monitoring environmental impacts of surface coal mining

paper_content:

Abstract Coal mining generates a number of significant environmental impacts. Due to its synoptic coverage and repetitive data acquisition capabilities, remote sensing has been extensively used to monitor effects of surface mining. Availability of low cost and high resolution data in recent years has focused increased attention on the use of satellite data for monitoring surface mining activity. This article presents an overview of some of the important studies that have used satellite and airborne remote sensing data to assess environmental impacts of coal mining and to monitor reclamation activities. Detection and delineation of subsurface coal mine fires using remotely-sensed thermal data is also briefly discussed. The utility of interfacing remote sensing and Geographic Information Systems for effective environmental management of mining areas has been emphasized.
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paper_title: Spectral Reflectance and Detection of Iron-Oxide Precipitates Associated with Acidic Mine Drainage

paper_content:

The objective of this study is to develop a repeatable technique to spectrally discriminate between acid and neutral streams based on the reflectance characteristics of acid and neutral iron precipitates. Field spectral measurements were conducted in situ on iron-oxide precipitates coating bottom substrates of an acidified stream (pH < 4) in the Virginia Gold-Pyrite Belt. Spectra of two neutral (pH 6 and 7) streams, one with iron precipitates present, were also measured. Acid precipitates were found to have higher spectral reflectance than neutral precipitates in the 650- to 750-nm region. With regard to water quality, the acid stream possessed low pH and high specific conductance. Guided by the field spectral data, a remote sensing technique using bandpass interference filters and a digital multispectral video system was used to detect mine drainage in two Virginia streams. Where acidic discharge was present, false-color composites showed precipitates having high reflectance in both the 650-nm and 750-nm wavebands. In contrast, neutral iron-rich streams were low in reflectance, and streams unimpaired by mine drainage had virtually no detectable reflectance.
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paper_title: Remote sensing and mountaintop mining

paper_content:

Coal mining in Appalachia has undergone dramatic changes in the 1990s. Large‐scale surface mining practices known as mountaintop mining (MTM) and valley fills (VF) are at the center of an environmental and legal controversy that has spawned lawsuits and major environmental investigations. Current MTM/VF operations are a major source of low‐sulfur, less‐air‐polluting coal, which is desired for much of the energy production in the United States. MTM/VF techniques extract multiple coal seams by removing entire tops of mountains through the use of explosives and massive earth‐moving equipment. Overburden rock debris is inevitably deposited in nearby valleys that are often ephemeral headwater streams. These mining practices have drawn criticism from residents and the environmental community, but are supported by unions and the mining industry. Although MTM/VF techniques will continue to be debated from legal and environmental perspectives, one fact is clear to both sides; the long‐term ecological effects are u...
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paper_title: Assessment of heavy metal contamination in river floodplains by using the red-edge index

paper_content:

The invention relates to a process for scanning a bar code which includes acquiring a first bar code scanning along a scanning line, identifying the family of the bar code, determining the width of at least one of the synchronism characters, calculating the estimated width of each character of the code being examined, based an the width of the synchronism character considered, determining a character following one of the synchronism characters by counting a number of m elements equal to the number of elements that make up each character in the family identified, determining the width of the following characters, checking whether the width of such following character differs from the estimated width of a lower quantity with respect to a prefixed tolerance. If the check gives a positive result, identifying the character and reiterating the steps until the other synchronism character has been reached. If the check gives a negative result, label the following character as an "undecodable character".
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paper_title: Exploring field vegetation reflectance as an indicator of soil contamination in river floodplains

paper_content:

This study investigated the relation between vegetation reflectance and elevated concentrations of the metals Ni, Cd, Cu, Zn and Pb in river floodplain soils. High-resolution vegetation reflectance spectra in the visible to near-infrared (400-1350 nm) were obtained using a field radiometer. The relations were evaluated using simple linear regression in combination with two spectral vegetation indices: the Difference Vegetation Index (DVI) and the Red-Edge Position (REP). In addition, a multivariate regression approach using partial least squares (PLS) regression was adopted. The three methods achieved comparable results. The best R-2 values for the relation between metals concentrations and vegetation reflectance were obtained for grass vegetation and ranged from 0.50 to 0.73. Herbaceous species displayed a larger deviation from the established relationships, resulting in lower R-2 values and larger cross-validation errors. The results corroborate the potential of hyperspectral remote sensing to contribute to the survey of elevated metal concentrations in floodplain soils under grassland using the spectral response of the vegetation as an indicator. Additional constraints will, however, have to be taken into account, as results are resolution- and location-dependent. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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paper_title: Study of heavy metal contamination in river floodplains using the red-edge position in spectroscopic data

paper_content:

One of the major environmental problems resulting from the regular flooding of rivers in Europe is the heavy metal contamination of soils. Various studies have shown that soil contamination may influence plant physiology and, through changes in leaf pigment concentrations, influence reflectance spectra. The main objective of this case study was to study whether the red-edge position (REP) of vegetation spectra may provide information on soil contamination by heavy metals in river floodplains. The use of the maximum first derivative, smoothing methods (like polynomial fitting and the inverted Gaussian function) and interpolation methods based on just a few spectral bands were evaluated for a test site in the floodplain of the river Waal in the Netherlands. On selected transects, heavy metal concentrations of soil samples and reflectance spectra of the growing vegetation using a field spectroradiometer were measured. A significant negative correlation between the REP and heavy metal concentration was found ...
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paper_title: Species Identification and Stress Detection of Heavy-Metal Contaminated Trees

paper_content:

‘Maatheide’ in the north-eastern part of Belgium is contaminated with heavy metals like zinc, lead, cupper and cadmium due to several decades of zinc-melting activities. In August 2000 an airborne CASI campaign was organized in this region. CASI images were acquired with a spatial resolution of 1 m by 1 m in 18 ‘vegetation bands’, mainly concentrated in the red edge curve (680 nm780 nm). The most dominant tree types in this region are pine, oak and birch. After the definition of pine, oak, birch, ... regions of interest, SAM classification and subsequently multi-band segmentation and ‘highest frequency smoothing’, a pine mask, oak mask and birch mask were created. For the pine mask several vegetation stress indices (Penuelas J., et al.,1994, Zarco P.J., 1999) were calculated. The ‘EGFN’ (Edge-Green First derivative Normalized difference) clearly indicates vegetation stress in pine trees in the region near the former zinc-melting factory and no vegetation stress in pine trees for the reference track where no heavymetal contamination is expected.
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paper_title: Remote sensing for mineral exploration

paper_content:

Remote sensing is the science of acquiring, processing, and interpreting images and related data, acquired from aircraft and satellites, that record the interaction between matter and electromagnetic energy. Remote sensing images are used for mineral exploration in two applications: (1) map geology and the faults and fractures that localize ore deposits; (2) recognize hydrothermally altered rocks by their spectral signatures. Landsat thematic mapper (TM) satellite images are widely used to interpret both structure and hydrothermal alteration. Digitally processed TM ratio images can identify two assemblages of hydrothermal alteration minerals; iron minerals, and clays plus alunite. In northern Chile, TM ratio images defined the prospects that are now major copper deposits at Collahuasi and Ujina. Hyperspectral imaging systems can identify individual species of iron and clay minerals, which can provide details of hydrothermal zoning. Silicification, which is an important indicator of hydrothermal alteration, is not recognizable on TM and hyperspectral images. Quartz has no diagnostic spectral features in the visible and reflected IR wavelengths recorded by these systems. Variations in silica content are recognizable in multispectral thermal IR images, which is a promising topic for research.
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paper_title: Airborne biogeophysical mapping of hidden mineral deposits

paper_content:

Three mapping surveys of Cotter Basin, Montana, and Spirit Lake, Washington. The tree cover with widespreading and deeply penetrating root systems is turned to an advantage in the airborne biogeophysical technique by detecting metal-induced changes in the chlorophyll reflectance spectrum.--Modified journal abstract.
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paper_title: Reflectance properties and physiological responses of Salicornia virginica to heavy metal and petroleum contamination.

paper_content:

Wetland ecosystems of California are located in highly populated areas and subject to high levels of contamination. Monitoring of wetlands to assess degrees of pollution damage requires periodic retrieval of information over large areas, which can be effectively accomplished by rapidly evolving remote sensing technologies. The biophysical principles of remote sensing of vegetation under stress need to be understood in order to correctly interpret the information obtained at the scale of canopies. To determine the potential to remotely characterize and monitor pollution, plants of Salicornia virginica, a major component of wetland communities in California, were treated with two metals and two crude oil types to study their sensitivity to pollutants and how this impacted their reflectance characteristics. Several growth and physiological parameters, as well as shoot reflectance were measured and correlated with symptoms and contamination levels. Significant differences between treatments were found in at least some of the measured parameters in all pollutants. Reflectance was sensitive to early stress levels only for cadmium and the lightweight petroleum. Pollutants that differ in their way of action also had different plant reflectance signatures. The high degree of correlation between reflectance features and stress indicators highlights the potential of using remote sensing to assess the type and degree of pollution damage. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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paper_title: The potential of field spectroscopy for the assessment of sediment properties in river floodplains

paper_content:

Investigations have shown that visible-near-infrared (VNIR) spectroscopy can accurately determine soil properties under laboratory conditions. In situ assessment of soil properties is of great benefit for several applications, as spectra can be acquired fast and almost continuously. The present study used partial least squares (PLS) regression to establish a relationship between soil reflectance spectra measured under field conditions and the organic matter and clay content of the soil. Spectra were acquired with a fieldspectrometer in a recently reconstructed floodplain along the river Rhine in The Netherlands. Several spectral pre-processing methods were employed to improve the performance and robustness of the models. Results indicate that, under varying surface conditions, field spectroscopy in combination with multivariate calibration does result in a qualitative relation for organic matter (R2=0.45) and clay content (R2=0.43) while under laboratory conditions more accurate results are obtained (R2=0.69 and 0.92, respectively). Soil moisture and vegetation cover had a negative influence on the prediction capabilities for both soil properties. Although the performance of the spectra measured in situ is not as accurate as physical analysis, the accuracy obtained is useful for rapid soil characterisation and remote sensing applications.
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paper_title: Imaging spectrometry data correlated to hydrocarbon microseepage

paper_content:

Modular Airborne Imaging Spectrometer (MAIS) data were used to map hydrocarbon microseepages in the Weibei Depression, People's Republic of China, as an aid to petroleum exploration. To convert the radiance data to reflectance, the Empirical Line Method was used and the resulting data were similar to the field spectra. After first delineating the wheat fields, three bands (at 719.75nm, 739nm and 758.25nm) were used to map the pixels that had a red shift. A neighbourhood summation function was applied to evaluate which pixels were more likely to be anomalies. The non-systematic geometric distortions were corrected with the aid of linear features in the image and subsequently the systematic geometric distortions were corrected using ground control points. Ethane concentrations of 217 soil samples were used to assess the mapping result. It appears that high ethane concentrations in the map area are positively correlated to red-edge shift, which suggests that a high ethane concentration in soil may cause red-...
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paper_title: IS NATURAL GAS INJURIOUS TO FLOWERING PLANTS?

paper_content:

A study was made to determine the effect of natural gas upon some common greenhouse and home plants. The plants were exposed to the natural gas in an air mixture under bell jars. The natural gas was composed of 74.6% methane, 14.2% ethane, 10.9% nitrogen, 0.2% oxygen and 0.1% carbon dioxide. Results indicate that even though some plants were more sensitive than others, concentrations of gas in homes or greenhouses are so low that there should never be any injury to the plants grown in them.
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paper_title: Hydrocarbon Index – an algorithm for hyperspectral detection of hydrocarbons

paper_content:

Previous studies have shown that spectral signatures of hydrocarbon-bearing materials are characterized by prominent absorption features at 1.73 and 2.31 µm. Many other materials also show absorption features at wavelengths in the interval from 2.0 to 2.5 µm, yielding a mixed response in spectral signatures. In contrast to this wavelength range, most materials show similar spectral characteristics in the 1.73 µm range. Mainly hydrocarbon-bearing materials produce an absorption feature which is unique and prominent at 1.73 µm. A Hydrocarbon Index (HI) was developed and tested for the direct detection of hydrocarbons. The HI transforms multispectral data into a single image band that shows the distribution of hydrocarbons on the ground surface. The HI takes advantage of reflection differences around the 1.73 µm feature in hydrocarbon spectra. The HI indicates the presence of the 1.73 µm hydrocarbon absorption feature in a pixel spectrum. HI values can be easily calculated from radiance and reflectance data ...
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paper_title: Spectral responses of pot-grown plants to displacement of soil oxygen

paper_content:

Detection of leaking gas pipelines is important for safety, economic and environmental reasons, and remote sensing of vegetation offers the potential to identify gas leakage through spectral responses in the plants growing above. Pot-scale investigations were carried out to determine the effects of soil-oxygen displacement using natural gas, argon, nitrogen and waterlogging on the overlying vegetation and to determine whether changes in spectral characteristics were specific to natural gas or were a generic response to soil-oxygen displacement. Leaves responded to soil-oxygen displacement by increased reflectance in the visible wavelengths and changes in the position and shape of the red edge. The red edge of control plants shifted towards longer wavelengths as they matured, while the red edge of treated plants remained stationary, indicating an inhibition of maturing. Bean and barley exhibited different shapes in the peaks at the red edge. Argon and waterlogging produced greater responses than natural ga...
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paper_title: Continuum removed band depth analysis for detecting the effects of natural gas, methane and ethane on maize reflectance

paper_content:

Abstract It is known that natural gas in the soil affects vegetation health, which may be detected through analysis of reflectance spectra. Since natural gas is invisible, changes in the vegetation could potentially indicate gas leakage. Although it is known that gas in soil affects plant reflectance, the relationship between natural gas and the development and reflectance properties of plants has not been studied. The objective of this study was to test whether natural gas and its two main components, methane and ethane, affect vegetation reflectance in the chlorophyll and water absorption regions. An experiment was carried out in which maize (Zea mays) plants were grown in pots that were flushed with 10 l of gas per day for 39 ±4 days. Leaf reflectance was measured once a week with a spectrophotometer. The reflectance was analysed using continuum removal of the blue (400–550 nm), red (550–750 nm) and two water absorption features (1370–1570 nm and 1870–2170 nm), after which the band depths and normalized band depths were analyzed for each treatment. The band depth analysis showed that ethane caused an initial increase of 10% in reflectance between 560 and 590 nm, followed by a decrease during the course of the experiment. Normalized band depth analysis showed that ethane caused a reflectance shift of 1 to 5 nm towards longer wavelengths compared to the control reflectance in the visible region. All gases caused an increase in reflectance in the water absorption bands. The physiological reflectance index, PRI, which has previously linked water stress to photosynthetic activity, suggested that the hydrocarbon gases (particularly ethane) decreased the photosynthetic activity of the plants. The combination of reduced band depths in the chlorophyll and water absorption regions and the increased PRI suggests that ethane gas in the soil hampered a normal water uptake by maize plants in an early stage of their growth. Although further research is necessary to upscale the results from the laboratory to the field, the increased reflectance in the 560–590 nm region caused by ethane together with the increased PRI are promising indicators for gas leakage.
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paper_title: HyMap hyperspectral remote sensing to detect hydrocarbons

paper_content:

The ability of airborne hyperspectral remote sensing methods to detect hydrocarbons was investigated by the Federal Institute of Geosciences and Natural Resources. Reference areas of defined geometry and chemical properties were prepared, e.g. sandy soil, oil-contaminated soil, grass, plastic tarpaulins. The aim of the study was to collect hyperspectral data from these areas and simultaneously determine their spectra with the infrared intelligent spectroradiometer GER Mark V IRIS. The data corrections and further processing were based on data provided by a field spectrometer. This study showed that airborne hyperspectral remote sensing can be used to detect hydrocarbons efficiently. Hydrocarbon-bearing substances are characterized by typical absorption features in the spectra. The availability of the high signal-to-noise-ratio HyMap hyperspectral imaging system permits these features to be recognized in the pixel spectra even if they are not very pronounced. Oil contaminated soil and other materials conta...
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paper_title: Birth weight reduction associated with residence near a hazardous waste landfill.

paper_content:

We examined the relationship between birth weight and mother's residence near a hazardous waste landfill. Twenty-five years of birth certificates (1961-1985) were collected for four towns. Births w...
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paper_title: Hyperspectral indices for detecting changes in canopy reflectance as a result of underground natural gas leakage

paper_content:

Natural gas leakage from underground pipelines is known to affect vegetation adversely, probably by displacement of the soil oxygen needed for respiration. This causes changes in plant and canopy reflectance, which may serve as indicators of gas leakage. In this study, a covariance analysis was performed between reflectance indices of maize (Zea mays) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) canopies and oxygen concentrations in a simulated natural gas leak. Twenty-nine days after oxygen shortage occurred, the reflectance indices had the highest correlation with oxygen concentrations in the soil, for both species. The effect was consistent within species but the absolute values varied between the species. Normalization by adding a constant value to the control index of one species resulted in significant linear regression models for several indices. The indices with the highest regression coefficients were used to predict the oxygen concentration in the soil. This showed that the gas leakage caused reflectance changes up to 0.5 m from the source. As it could not be proven that oxygen shortage was the cause of the reflectance changes, further work is needed to study the side-effects of gas leakage, such as bacterial oxygen depletion, on plant growth and reflectance.
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paper_title: Advances in Remote Sensing for Oil Spill Disaster Management: State-of-the-Art Sensors Technology for Oil Spill Surveillance

paper_content:

Reducing the risk of oil spill disasters is essential for protecting the environmentand reducing economic losses. Oil spill surveillance constitutes an important component ofoil spill disaster management. Advances in remote sensing technologies can help to identifyparties potentially responsible for pollution and to identify minor spills before they causewidespread damage. Due to the large number of sensors currently available for oil spillsurveillance, there is a need for a comprehensive overview and comparison of existingsensors. Specifically, this paper examines the characteristics and applications of differentsensors. A better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of oil spill surveillancesensors will improve the operational use of these sensors for oil spill response andcontingency planning. Laser fluorosensors were found to be the best available sensor for oilspill detection since they not only detect and classify oil on all surfaces but also operate ineither the day or night. For example, the Scanning Laser Environmental AirborneFluorosensor (SLEAF) sensor was identified to be a valuable tool for oil spill surveillance.However, no single sensor was able to provide all information required for oil spillcontingency planning. Hence, combinations of sensors are currently used for oil spillsurveillance. Specifically, satellite sensors are used for preliminary oil spill assessmentwhile airborne sensors are used for detailed oil spill analysis. While satellite remote sensingis not suitable for tactical oil spill planning it can provide a synoptic coverage of theaffected area.
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paper_title: Geochemistry and field spectrometry for detecting hydrocarbon microseepage

paper_content:

Remote sensing detection of hydrocarbon reserves would be a valuable addition to conventional methods used currently. Tests were made in a drilled, proven hydrocarbon area predominantly covered by wheat. Field-spectroradiometers measured spectral characteristics of wheat and soil associated with hydrocarbon microseepage. Soil gas and secondary carbonate produced only by hydrocarbon microseepage were at anomalously high levels at the oil–water or gas–water boundaries. Kaolinite and illite in the soil have higher percentages above petroleum reservoirs. The inflection point positions of spectra on oil-field wheat were shifted 7 nm to longer wavelengths than off-field wheat samples, and can be positively correlated with the delta carbonate and soil-gas. The absorption of soil spectra at 2.346 mm is at least 0.2% higher over oil-fields than off-fields. This research proves that remote sensing can be used in an monocultural agricultural area to detect hydrocarbon microseepage.
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paper_title: Detecting the influence of gas seepage on vegetation using hyperspectral remote sensing

paper_content:

A high gas concentration in the soil - whether from natural hydrocarbon seepage or from leaking gas pipelines ‐ affects the vegetation reflectance. However, the exact mechanism that is responsible for the changes in reflectance is not known. Besides, it is not known exactly how the reflectance reacts on gas seepage. This paper presents the outline of a study on the influence of gas seepage on vegetation reflectance, in which both natural gas seepage and gas pipeline leakage will be studied.
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paper_title: Use of hyperspectral derivative ratios in the red-edge region to identify plant stress responses to gas leaks

paper_content:

Hyperspectral features in the red-edge region were tested as an index of plant stress responses to soil–oxygen depletion. The aim was to provide the basis for a warning system to identify natural gas leakage by the spectral responses of plants growing in the affected soil. ::: ::: Elevated concentrations of natural gas in the soil atmosphere were used to deplete oxygen concentrations around the roots of grass, wheat (Hordeum vulgare cv Claire) and bean (Vicia faba cv Clipper) growing in a field facility. Visible symptoms due to the natural gas included reduced growth of the plants and chlorosis of the leaves. ::: ::: Spectral responses included increased reflectance in the visible wavelengths and decreased reflectance in the near infra-red. Derivative analysis identified features within the red-edge at 720–730 and 702 nm. Ratios of the magnitude of the derivative at 725 to that at 702 nm were less in areas where gas was present. This ratio enabled identification of stress due to gas leakage up to 7 days before visible symptoms were observed and also at the edges of gassed plots where visible symptoms were not expressed. The technique was able to identify stress responses to long-term leaks in all the crops tested but to short-term leaks only in grass. This study therefore suggests that under appropriate conditions remote sensing could be used to detect pipeline gas leaks from decreases in the ratio of peaks within the red-edge.
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paper_title: Spectral reflectance response of big sagebrush to hydrocarbon-induced stress in the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming

paper_content:

A geobotanical reflectance study was conducted at five areas in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming to determine if the spectral responses of sagebrush could be a useful fool in hydrocarbon exploration. Measurements were collected in the visible and near infrared regions (0.45 to 1.1 μm). This investigation shows that a consistent and significant blue shift (to shorter wavelengths) of the green peak (0.56 μm) and red trough (0.67 μm) positions is the most reliable indicator of hydrocarbon-induced stress in sagebrush plants. This shift can only be defected where the sage is actually growing in large amounts of surface-visible or near-surface hydrocarbons. Spectral reflectance intensity data were found to have no significant correlation with the presence or absence of surface or subsurface hydrocarbons
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paper_title: Hydrocarbons on Saturn's satellites Iapetus and Phoebe

paper_content:

Material of low geometric albedo (pV⩽0.1pV⩽0.1) is found on many objects in the outer Solar System, but its distribution in the saturnian satellite system is of special interest because of its juxtaposition with high-albedo ice. In the absence of clear, diagnostic spectral features, the composition of this low-albedo (or “dark”) material is generally inferred to be carbon-rich, but the form(s) of the carbon is unknown. Near-infrared spectra of the low-albedo hemisphere of Saturn's satellite Iapetus were obtained with the Visible–Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) on the Cassini spacecraft at the fly-by of that satellite of 31 December 2004, yielding a maximum spatial resolution on the satellite's surface of ∼65 km. The spectral region 3–3.6 μm reveals a broad absorption band, centered at 3.29 μm, and concentrated in a region comprising about 15% of the low-albedo surface area. This is identified as the CH stretching mode vibration in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules. Two weaker bands attributed to CH2 stretching modes in aliphatic hydrocarbons are found in association with the aromatic band. The bands most likely arise from aromatic and aliphatic units in complex macromolecular carbonaceous material with a kerogen- or coal-like structure, similar to that in carbonaceous meteorites. VIMS spectra of Phoebe, encountered by Cassini on 11 June 2004, also show the aromatic hydrocarbon band, although somewhat weaker than on Iapetus. The origin of the PAH molecular material on these two satellites is unknown, but PAHs are found in carbonaceous meteorites, cometary dust particles, circumstellar dust, and interstellar dust.
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paper_title: Spectral Reflectance Properties of Hydrocarbons: Remote-Sensing Implications

paper_content:

The spectral reflectance properties of bituminous tar sands were examined in the wavelength range from 0.35 to 2.6 micrometers. Unique absorption features due to all the major phases, except quartz, appear in the spectra. The intensities of the absorption features correlate with the abundances of the various phases. The results of this study have applications to the remote sensing of many terrestrial and extraterrestrial targets because of potential similarities between tar sand and other hydrocarbon occurrences. For example, it is found that highly polymerized hydrocarbons are a plausible constituent of the dark material on one of Saturn9s satellites, Iapetus.
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paper_title: Reflectance spectroscopy of organic compounds: 1. Alkanes

paper_content:

[1] Reflectance spectra of the organic compounds comprising the alkane series are presented from the ultraviolet to midinfrared, 0.35 to 15.5 μm. Alkanes are hydrocarbon molecules containing only single carbon-carbon bonds, and are found naturally on the Earth and in the atmospheres of the giant planets and Saturn's moon, Titan. This paper presents the spectral properties of the alkanes as the first in a series of papers to build a spectral database of organic compounds for use in remote sensing studies. Applications range from mapping the environment on the Earth, to the search for organic molecules and life in the solar system and throughout the universe. We show that the spectral reflectance properties of organic compounds are rich, with major diagnostic spectral features throughout the spectral range studied. Little to no spectral change was observed as a function of temperature and only small shifts and changes in the width of absorption bands were observed between liquids and solids, making remote detection of spectral properties throughout the solar system simpler. Some high molecular weight organic compounds contain single-bonded carbon chains and have spectra similar to alkanes even when they fall into other families. Small spectral differences are often present allowing discrimination among some compounds, further illustrating the need to catalog spectral properties for accurate remote sensing identification with spectroscopy.
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paper_title: Compositional maps of Saturn's moon Phoebe from imaging spectroscopy

paper_content:

The origin of Phoebe, which is the outermost large satellite of Saturn, is of particular interest because its inclined, retrograde orbit suggests that it was gravitationally captured by Saturn, having accreted outside the region of the solar nebula in which Saturn formed. By contrast, Saturn's regular satellites (with prograde, low-inclination, circular orbits) probably accreted within the sub-nebula in which Saturn itself formed. Here we report imaging spectroscopy of Phoebe resulting from the Cassini-Huygens spacecraft encounter on 11 June 2004. We mapped ferrous-iron-bearing minerals, bound water, trapped CO2, probable phyllosilicates, organics, nitriles and cyanide compounds. Detection of these compounds on Phoebe makes it one of the most compositionally diverse objects yet observed in our Solar System. It is likely that Phoebe's surface contains primitive materials from the outer Solar System, indicating a surface of cometary origin.
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paper_title: Organics and Other Molecules in the Surfaces of Callisto and Ganymede

paper_content:

Five absorption features are reported at wavelengths of 3.4, 3.88, 4.05, 4.25, and 4.57 micrometers in the surface materials of the Galilean satellites Callisto and Ganymede from analysis of reflectance spectra returned by the Galileo mission near-infrared mapping spectrometer. Candidate materials include CO2, organic materials (such as tholins containing C≡N and C-H), SO2, and compounds containing an SH-functional group; CO2, SO2, and perhaps cyanogen [(CN)2] may be present within the surface material itself as collections of a few molecules each. The spectra indicate that the primary surface constituents are water ice and hydrated minerals.
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paper_title: Vegetation Mapping for Landmine Detection Using Long-Wave Hyperspectral Imagery

paper_content:

We develop a vegetation mapping method using long-wave hyperspectral imagery and apply it to landmine detection. The novel aspect of the method is that it makes use of emissivity skewness. The main purpose of vegetation detection for mine detection is to minimize false alarms. Vegetation, such as round bushes, may be mistaken as mines by mine detection algorithms, particularly in synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery. We employ an unsupervised vegetation detection algorithm that exploits statistics of emissivity spectra of vegetation in the long-wave infrared spectrum for identification. This information is incorporated into a Choquet integral-based fusion structure, which fuses detector outputs from hyperspectral imagery and SAR imagery. Vegetation mapping is shown to improve mine detection results over a variety of images and fusion models.
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paper_title: Landsat-TM data for estimating ground temperature and depth of subsurface coal fire in the Jharia coalfield, India

paper_content:

Abstract Coal fires are a ubiquitous problem in coal-mines, the world over. They burn our prime energy resource, lead to atmospheric pollution and render mining of coal hazardous. Processes leading to coal combustion and spread of subsurface fires are briefly examined in this paper and the role of remote sensing in surveillance of coal fires is presented. The present study aims at developing a quick method for estimating the temperature of the ground surface directly above subsurface coal fires. Utility of TM6 and TM7-band data for temperature estimation is briefly reviewed. It is argued that temperature calculations of surface anomalies related to subsurface fires can only be done on the basis of 8–14 μm band data, due to the low temperatures involved. In the Jharia coalfield, it is noted that subsurface fires in various coal-mines are associated with surface thermal anomalies, as has also been confirmed by ground checks. The pattern of TM6 data distribution and ground truth is used to isolate thermal an...
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paper_title: Monitoring of underground coal fires using thermal infrared data

paper_content:

Abstract The potential utility of thermal infrared and short wavelength infrared data for detecting and mapping sub-surface high temperature sources is analysed. In this study, NOAA-9 AVHRR data and Landsat-5 TM data were used to detect and map sub-surface coal fires. Brightness temperature depicted by AVHRR band 3 illustrated high thermal anomalies in the suspected area. Due to the relatively low spatial resolution of the AVHRR data, only TM data is used in detailed analysis. The short wavelength infrared sensors (bands 5 and 7) have been used to locate the positions of the most intense burning. The thermal band (band 6) has been useful in distinguishing gross thermal anomalies from the background of solar warming, The resultant surface temperature anomalies are compared to surface temperatures derived from thermal infrared aerial survey and ground measurements. Correlation of these data indicate that the relatively coarse resolution of the thermal TM data enabled the detection, delineation and quantifyi...
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paper_title: Detection of gas leakage from landfills using infrared thermography - applicability and limitations

paper_content:

Although landfill gas emission can be greatly reduced by extraction and converting gas to energy, in practice not all gas can be collected and some leaks can still occur. Management of landfill gas can be improved if leaks can be detected and rectified effectively. This paper provides a brief review of methods available for detecting landfill leakage, with a focus on infrared thermography. It then describes a study which was conducted to test if an infrared camera can be used to detect gas leaks accurately by identifying them as anomalies. It examined the applicability and limitations of the technique by investigating fundamental factors such as weather conditions, ground conditions and distance of sensor from source. The paper also describes a test case conducted to reinforce the findings. It concluded that unless all the fundamental factors are clearly understood and addressed, the technique currently can only be used as a screening tool rather than as a precise tool to detect landfill gas leakages. For...
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paper_title: An Enhanced Contextual Fire Detection Algorithm for MODIS

paper_content:

Abstract Experience with the first 2 years of high quality data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) through quality control and validation has suggested several improvements to the original MODIS active fire detection algorithm described by Kaufman, Justice et al. [Journal of Geophysical Research 103 (1998) 32215]. In this paper, we present an improved replacement detection algorithm that offers increased sensitivity to smaller, cooler fires as well as a significantly lower false alarm rate. Performance of both the original and improved algorithm is established using a theoretical simulation and high-resolution Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) scenes. In general, the new algorithm can detect fires roughly half the minimum size that could be detected with the original algorithm while having an overall false alarm rate 10–100 times smaller.
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paper_title: Thermal infrared spectra and images of altered volcanic rocks in the Virginia Range, Nevada

paper_content:

Abstract Airborne Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) data and laboratory thermal infrared reflectance spectra were collected from sites of hydrothermally altered andesitic volcanic rocks near Virginia City, Nevada. Alunitic, kaolinitic, illitic, and propylitic alteration types have distinct laboratory spectral curves, although the individual spectra are difficult to interpret mineralogically. TIMS emittance spectra show a general shift in the wavelength of the silicate emittance minima to shorter wavelengths with increasing intensity of alteration, owing to the increasing abundance of secondary framework and sheet silicate minerals. Strongly altered volcanic rocksare identifiable on TIMS radiance and emittance imagery.
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paper_title: Integrating satellite remote sensing techniques for detection and analysis of uncontrolled coal seam fires in North China

paper_content:

Abstract China is the biggest producer of coal in the world and mines about 1000 Mt of raw coal per year. Approximately 70% of China's energy consumption is covered by coal. At the same time, it is estimated that about 20 Mt of coal are being burnt in uncontrolled coal fires in China each year. Because these coal fires are spread out over the whole northern part of the country, stretching from Xinjiang province in the West to the Pacific coast in the East, it is extremely difficult to keep an overview of the development of known fires as well as of newly developing ones. Satellite remote sensing offers a powerful tool to observe and monitor such large regions; however, special methods and techniques have to be derived to accurately detect and monitor near surface coal seam fires. In this paper, an integrated satellite remote sensing approach is described allowing detection and monitoring of near surface coal seam fires by observing subtle land surface changes induced by the fires. These changes include thermal surface anomalies, changes in spectral surface characteristics as well as land subsidence caused by the fires. The methods comprise the radar interferometric generation of digital elevation models (DEMs) for geometric referencing and orthorectification of satellite imagery, dedicated analysis of thermal satellite data (daytime and nighttime), and multispectral analysis of land surface properties as well as the mapping of small-scale land subsidence by means of differential radar interferometry. It is shown how different satellite remote sensing methods can be synergistically combined to detect, analyze, and monitor near surface coal seam fires in arid or semiarid areas of North China. First results show the successful application of the methods and, furthermore, a comparison with ground measurements is given. While thermal and optical analysis of the fires can be considered robust methods, the assessment of coal seam fires using differential radar interferometry still has to be further developed in order to serve as a reliable analysis and monitoring tool. Within this work, a special focus is given to aspects of automation of the coal fire detection and analysis by means of satellite remote sensing in order to allow fire mapping in large areas with only minimal operator interaction.
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paper_title: Assessment of Kuwait's Al-Qurain Landfill Using Remotely Sensed Data

paper_content:

Abstract Kuwait's Al-Qurain landfill problem resulted from indiscriminate dumping of domestic and industrial waste in an abandoned quarry in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The landfill and surrounding areas were set aside for a government housing project without an environmental assessment of the impact of the landfill on the project. Inhabitants of the newly constructed housing area experienced persistent foul odor emanating from the landfill site. Since then, the issue has generated a lot of public interests, and several remediation measures have been adopted. In this preliminary study, several remotely sensed data consisting of Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS), Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM), IKONOS, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) acquired between 1972 and 2000 were processed and assessed for their usefulness to study and monitor the landfill site. The imagery provided a historical perspective of how the areas had changed over the last 30 years. Other useful information of the landfill obtained f...
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paper_title: Remote Sensing Characterization of Selected Waste Sites at the Los Alamos National Laboratory

paper_content:

Abstract This article presents some examples of the use of remote sensing products for characterization of hazardous waste sites. The sites are located at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) where materials associated with past weapons testing are buried. Problems of interest include the detection and delineation of buried trenches containing contaminants, seepage from capped areas and old septic drain fields, and delineation of strata for soil sampling. Imagery products shown in this article were derived from airborne multispectral Daedalus data, SPOT satellite imagery, aerial photography, digital map information, and engineering drawings of sites. Site managers at LANL suggested the environmental areas in need of assistance and participated in the interpretation of imagery. Overlays of suspected trench locations on thermal images showed correlation between image signatures and trenches. Another thermal image showed warm anomalies suspected to be areas of water seepage through an asphalt cap. Some new cold spots were discovered that could be buried objects. Merging of hydrographic and soil contaminant data with imagery provided aids for soil sampling. Overlays of engineering drawings on recent and historical photos showed errors in trench location and extent. Multispectral images showed correlation between image signatures and engineering drawings of drain fields.
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paper_title: Multispectral Remote Sensing as Stratigraphic and Structural Tool, Wind River Basin and Big Horn Basin Areas, Wyoming

paper_content:

Stratigraphic and structural analyses of the Wind River basin and Big Horn basin areas of central Wyoming are in progress. One result has been the development of an approach to stratigraphic and structural analysis that uses photogeologic and spectral interpretation of multispectral image data to characterize the attitude, thickness, and lithology of strata. New multispectral systems that have only been available since 1982 are used with topographic data to map upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata exposed on the southern margin of the Bighorn Mountains. Landsat-acquired thematic mapper (TM) data together with topographic data are used to map lithologic contacts, measure dip and strike, and develop a stratigraphic column that is correlated with conventional surface and subsurface sections. Aircraft-acquired airborne imaging spectrometer (AIS) and thermal infrared multispectral scanner (TIMS) data add mineralogic information to the TM column, including the stratigraphic distribution of quartz, calcite, dolomite, smectite, and gypsum. Results illustrate an approach that has general applicability in other geologic investigations that could benefit from remotely acquired information about areal variations in attitude, sequence, thickness, and lithology of strata exposed at the earth's surface. Application of our methods elsewhere is limited primarily by availability of multispectral and topographic data, and quality of bedrock exposures.
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paper_title: The detection and mapping of buried waste

paper_content:

Abstract Determining the exact location of buried waste trenches is an important step in the characterization and remediation of certain hazardous waste sites. Remotely sensed data offers a rich source of information for accomplishing this task. This paper presents an investigation of buried waste trenches located at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) using thermal remote sensing. A comparison of historical aerial photography and recently collected thermal imagery reveals a thermal signature which coincides with the precise locations of buried waste trenches. Statistical analysis of extensive ground measurements shows a clear thermal difference between the trench and control areas, with the trenches exhibiting cooler temperatures and greater soil moisture. By incorporating the imagery-derived information into site remediation plans, ORNL realized a cost avoidance of more than U.S. $5 000 000. Similar benefits can be anticipated at other DOE waste sites.
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paper_title: Identification and detection of gaseous effluents from hyperspectral imagery using invariant algorithms

paper_content:

The ability to detect and identify effluent gases is, and will continue to be, of great importance. This would not only aid in ::: the regulation of pollutants but also in treaty enforcement and ::: monitoring the production of weapons. Considering these applications, finding a way to remotely investigate a gaseous emission is highly desirable. This research utilizes hyperspectral imagery in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum to evaluate an invariant method of detecting and identifying gases within a scene. The image is evaluated on a pixel-by-pixel basis and is studied at the subpixel level. A library of target gas spectra is generated using a simple slab radiance model. This results in a more robust description of gas spectra which are representative of real-world observations. This library is the subspace utilized by the ::: detection and identification algorithms. The subspace will be ::: evaluated for the set of basis vectors that best span the subspace. The Lee algorithm will be used to determine the set of basis vectors, which implements the Maximum Distance Method (MaxD). A Generalized Likelihood Ratio Test (GLRT) determines whether or not the pixel contains the target. The target can be either a single species or a combination of gases. Synthetically generated scenes will be used for this research. This work evaluates whether the Lee invariant algorithm will be effective in the gas detection and identification problem.
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paper_title: Mineralogic information from a new airborne thermal infrared multispectral scanner.

paper_content:

A new six-channel aircraft multispectral scanner has been developed to exploit mineral signature information at wavelengths between 8 and 12 micrometers. Preliminary results show that igneous rock units can be identified from their free silica content, and that carbonate as well as clay-bearing units are readily separable on the digitally processed images.
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paper_title: Investigations of hazardous waste sites using thermal IR and ground penetrating radar

paper_content:

The remote sensing techniques of infrared thermography and ground penetrating radar can be used to detect buried waste sites, buried tanks/pits, and both potentially hazardous and non hazardous fluid leak plumes. These technologies can be used to investigate tens of acres per day when used in a combined format which includes rapid survey techniques and manual data analysis. This new fusion of technologies is demonstrated with the use of empirical data in the form of case studies
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paper_title: Performance of the AHI airborne thermal infrared hyperspectral imager

paper_content:

The AHI sensor consists of a long-wave infrared pushbroom hyperspectral imager and a boresighted 3- color visible high resolution CCD linescan camera. The system used a background suppression system to achieve good noise characteristics (less than 1µfl NESR). Work with AHI has shown the utility of the longwave infrared a variety of applications. The AHI system has been used successfully in the detection of buried land mines using infrared absorption features of disturbed soil. Gas detection was also shown feasible, with gas absorption being clearly visible in the thermal IR. This allowed the mapping of a gas release using a matched filter. Geological mapping using AHI can be performed using the thermal band absorption features of different minerals. A large-scale geological map was obtained over a dry lake area in California using a mosaic of AHI flightlines, including mineral spectra and relative abundance maps.
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paper_title: Thermal infrared imagery of The Burning Mountain coal fire

paper_content:

Abstract This paper describes a study of The Burning Mountain coal fire carried out in 1971-2 using an airborne optical-mechanical-scanner operating in the infrared wavelengths, with supplementary ground temperature studies.
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paper_title: Nonlinear Bayesian Algorithms for Gas Plume Detection and Estimation from Hyper-spectral Thermal Image Data

paper_content:

This paper presents a nonlinear Bayesian regression algorithm for the purpose of detecting and estimating gas plume content from hyper-spectral data. Remote sensing data, by its very nature, is collected under less controlled conditions than laboratory data. As a result, the physics-based model that is used to describe the relationship between the observed remotesensing spectra, and the terrestrial (or atmospheric) parameters that we desire to estimate, is typically littered with many unknown "nuisance" parameters (parameters that we are not interested in estimating, but also appear in the model). Bayesian methods are well-suited for this context as they automatically incorporate the uncertainties associated with all nuisance parameters into the error estimates of the parameters of interest. The nonlinear Bayesian regression methodology is illustrated on realistic simulated data from a three-layer model for longwave infrared (LWIR) measurements from a passive instrument. This shows that this approach should permit more accurate estimation as well as a more reasonable description of estimate uncertainty.
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paper_title: Mapping variations in plagioclase felspar mineralogy using airborne hyperspectral TIR imaging data

paper_content:

The Na-Ca chemistry of plagioclase felspar was measured and mapped remotely using airborne hyperspectral thermal infrared (TIR) SEBASS image data collected from a well-exposed porphyry system near Yerington, Nevada. This followed correction of the airborne SEBASS data for instrument and atmospheric effects and temperature-emissivity separation and was validated through associated field and laboratory studies. The later found a linear correlation between the relative intensities of the plagioclase /spl mu/FTIR emissivity spectral features at 9.6 and 10.0 /spl mu/m and the XRD dspacing of the felspar 111/130 hkl reflection, both of which are sensitive to the Na-Ca chemistry of plagioclase. The SEBASS derived felspar mineralogy maps clearly show variations in Na-Ca plagioclase felspar chemistry related to the nature of the host rock and any superimposed hydrothermal alteration.
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paper_title: Gaseous plume detection in hyperspectral images: a comparison of methods

paper_content:

Recently, interest in gaseous effluent detection, identification, and quantification has increased for both commercial and government applications. However, the problem of gas detection is significantly different than the problems associated with the detection of hard-targets in the reflective spectral regime. In particular, gas signatures can be observed in either emission or absorption, are both temperature and concentration dependent, and are viewed in addition to the mixed background pixel signature from the ground. This work applies standard hard-target detection schemes to thermal hyperspectral synthetic imagery. The methods considered here are Principal Components Analysis, Projection Pursuit, and a Spectral Matched Filter. These methods will be compared both quantitatively and qualitatively with respect to their applicability to the gas detection problem. Comparison to truth outputs from the synthetic data provides an accurate quantitative measure of the algorithmic performance. Principle Components and Projection Pursuit are shown to have similar performance, and both are better than the Spectral Matched Filter. Additionally, both Principal Components and Projection Pursuit demonstrate the ability to separate regions of absorption and emission in the plume.
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paper_title: Estimating concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in the stack gas of a hazardous waste incinerator from concentrations of chlorinated benzenes and biphenyls

paper_content:

Abstract We investigated the relationships among concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo- p -dioxins (PCDD), dibenzofurans (PCDF), benzenes (PCBz), phenols (PCPh), and biphenyls (PCB) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) measured in the stack gas of a hazardous waste incinerator. International toxicity equivalents (I-TE) correlated most significantly with PCBz and PCB concentrations. We therefore propose to utilize these classes of compounds as indicator parameters from which I-TE values can be estimated. The most accurate estimates were made using pentachlorobenzene (Cl 5 Bz). The proposal to use Cl 5 Bz as indicator parameter was supported by regression analyses performed for four additional sampling points within the hazardous waste incinerator and by literature data.
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paper_title: SEBASS hyperspectral thermal infrared data: surface emissivity measurement and mineral mapping

paper_content:

This study focuses on mapping surface minerals using a new hyperspectral thermal infrared (TIR) sensor: the spatially enhanced broadband array spectrograph system (SEBASS). SEBASS measures radiance in 128 contiguous spectral channels in the 7.5- to 13.5-μm region with a ground spatial resolution of 2 m. In September 1999, three SEBASS flight lines were acquired over Virginia City and Steamboat Springs, Nevada. At-sensor data were corrected for atmospheric effects using an empirical method that derives the atmospheric characteristics from the scene itself, rather than relying on a predicted model. The apparent surface radiance data were reduced to surface emissivity using an emissivity normalization technique to remove the effects of temperature. Mineral maps were created with a pixel classification routine based on matching instrument- and laboratory-measured emissivity spectra, similar to methods used for other hyperspectral data sets (e.g. AVIRIS). Linear mixtures of library spectra match SEBASS spectra reasonably well, and silicate and sulfate minerals mapped remotely, agree with the dominant minerals identified with laboratory X-ray powder diffraction and spectroscopic analyses of field samples. Though improvements in instrument calibration, atmospheric correction, and information extraction would improve the ability to map more pixels, these hyperspectral TIR data nevertheless show significant advancement over multispectral thermal imaging by mapping surface materials and lithologic units with subtle spectral differences in mineralogy.
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paper_title: Synergy of Active and Passive Airborne Thermal Infrared Systems for Surface Compositional Mapping

paper_content:

NASA thermal infrared multispectral scanner (TIMS) and Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organisation mid-infrared airborne CO2 laser spectrometer (MIRACO2LAS) data were acquired over the Mount Fitton area, South Australia, in order to evaluate their combined use for geological mapping and mineral exploration. TIMS is a passive, imaging system with six spectral bands in the thermal infrared wavelength region (8–12 μm), whereas MIRACO2LAS is an active, profiling system with ∼100 spectral bands in the 9–11 μm spectral range. The TIMS and CO2 laser data (emissivity variations for TIMS and apparent reflectance for MIRACO2LAS) were processed to enhance spectral information related to the surface composition. This spectral information was compared with existing geological maps and field emissivity spectra. Known geological units were well discriminated in the TIMS imagery, including a range of quartz-rich and carbonate-rich sedimentary units, as well as several previously unmapped areas of alteration in the carbonate rocks. However, the broadband spectral resolution of TIMS did not allow identification of discrete mineral constituents. In contrast, the high spectral resolution MIRACO2LAS data provided diagnostic spectral information about a range of minerals present including quartz, dolomite, talc, and tremolite, albeit, along discrete profiles. The widths of some of these diagnostic spectral features were less than 0.2 μm wide, which is half the resolution of the TIMS band passes (0.4 μm). The MIRACO2LAS spectra closely matched the shape, location, and depth of spectra of field samples measured by both a field emission spectrometer and a laboratory laser spectrometer. Pure mineral spectra measured by the (bidirectional) laboratory laser spectrometer also closely matched those measured by a conventional laboratory spectrometer measuring directional hemispherical reflectance. These results indicate that future remote thermal infrared systems designed for improved geological mapping and mineral exploration should incorporate both an imager for mapping lithological units and a high spectral resolution profiler for identifying dominant mineral constituents. Recently, a hyperspectral imaging thermal infrared instrument has been developed termed Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System (SEBASS) [Hackwell and Warren, 1997]. This instrument should allow spectral identification of an entire scene [Gillespie et al., 1997], although the swath width is currently limited to 128 pixels as opposed to the 752 pixels of TIMS after panoramic correction.
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paper_title: Spectral reflectance and emissivity features of broad leaf plants: Prospects for remote sensing in the thermal infrared (8.0-14.0 μm)

paper_content:

Abstract Field emissivity measurements were made of leaves collected from nine deciduous tree and agricultural plant species. The data show, for the first time, that it is possible to discriminate subtle spectral emissivity features of leaves from the natural background emission. Under conditions of controlled measurement geometry (leaves arranged to cover a flat surface), the field emissivity spectra agreed fairly well with emissivity values calculated from laboratory directional hemispherical reflectance measurements. Spectral features associated with a variety of leaf chemical constituents, including cellulose, cutin, xylan, silica, and oleanolic acid could be identified in the field emissivity data. Structural aspects of leaf surfaces also influenced spectral behavior, notably the abundance of trichomes, as well as wax thickness and texture. Field spectral measurements made at increasing distances from natural plant canopies showed progressive attenuation of the spectral emissivity features. This attenuation is ascribed to increased multiple scattering that superimposes an opposite-in-sign reflected component on the emittance, and to the increasing number of canopy voids within the instrument field of view. Errors associated with the removal of atmospheric features and with the non-isotropic thermal characteristics of canopies also contribute to the loss of spectral information at greater measurement distances. In contrast to visible and short-wave infrared data, thermal infrared spectra of broad leaf plants show considerable spectral diversity, suggesting that such data eventually could be utilized to map vegetation composition. However, remotely measuring the subtle emissivity features of leaves still presents major challenges. To be successful, sensors operating in the 8–14 μm atmospheric window must have high signal-to-noise and a small enough instantaneous field of view to allow measurements of only a few leaf surfaces. Methods for atmospheric compensation, temperature–emissivity separation, and spectral feature analysis also will need to be refined to allow the recognition, and perhaps, exploitation of leaf thermal infrared spectral properties.
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paper_title: Analysis of target and nontarget pollutants in aqueous leachates from the hazardous waste site Stringfellow, California, via ion chromatography - particle beam and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry

paper_content:

Liquid chromatography particle beam mass spectrometry (PB/MS is a powerful tool for the analysis of target pollutants but complementary methods are required for nontarget compounds. Preliminary data are presented on an anion exchange chromatography PB/MS based method for the detection of the target compound 4-chlorobenzene sulfonic acid (a contamlnant found in hazardous waste leachates) and also for nontarget pollutants in aqueous leachate samples from the Stringfellow hazardous waste site in California. Anion exchange chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry yields qualitative and quantltative elemental analysis showing the presence or absence of key heteroatoms in organic pollutants including chlorine, other halogens, phosphorus and sulfur.
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paper_title: Mapping Rock-Forming Minerals at Daylight Pass, Death Valley National Park, California, using SEBASS Thermal-Infrared Hyperspectral Image Data

paper_content:

Rock-forming minerals comprise the bulk of the rocks found at the surface of the Earth. These include, amongst others, quartz, feldspars, pyroxenes, micas and carbonates, all of which possess diagnostic emission features in the thermal-infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Using established emission spectra libraries we sought to map the distribution of these minerals using aerial remotely-sensed data centered on Daylight Pass, an alluvial wash dissecting the Grapevine Mountains to the northwest and the Funeral Mountains to the southeast, both of which effectively form the northeast perimeter of Death Valley. An abundance of Late Proterozoic and Cambrian sedimentary beds of dolomite, siltstone and sandstones, in addition to low- to moderate-grade metamorphic rocks form the bulk geology of the area of study, which is largely devoid of vegetation. Thermal-infrared spatially enhanced broadband array spectrograph system (SEBASS) hyperspectral image data was collected at Daylight Pass in mid-July of 2007. Standard reflectance hyperspectral processing techniques were implemented to reduce data dimensionality and, by referencing the emission spectra of both library and laboratory-measured ground specimens, we were able to successfully map the distribution of dominant rock-forming minerals in the form of outcrops and weathering products with a high degree of confidence.
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paper_title: Engineering geology investigations of a hazardous-waste landfill in West Central Illinois, USA

paper_content:

Faster-than-predicted pollutant migration at a state-licensed, hazardous-waste landfill was investigated 3 years after its operation was ceased by court order. At that time, the operator of the landfill discovered organic chemicals in a monitoring well during routine sampling, suggesting laekage from the trenches at a rate of 100 to 1000 times faster than predicted by the laboratory tests made for the initial landfill design. To determine the causes for this rapid pollutant migration, investigators studied site geology and stratigraphy, mine subsidence, hydrogeology, condition of waste containers, trench covers, and soil properties.
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paper_title: Mapping natural and human influenced acid sulfate weathering near Reno, NV using the SEBASS hyperspectral instrument

paper_content:

The region near Reno, Nevada, provides a unique opportunity to compare acid rock weathering from a natural source with exposures that occur primarily from anthropogenic activities. The initial phase of the study focuses on mapping the presence and abundance of sulfate minerals using a new hyperspectral thermal infrared airborne sensor SEBASS (Spatially Enhanced Broadband Array Spectrograph System), developed and flown by Aerospace Corporation. In a group shoot in Fall of 1999 the Arthur Brant Exploration group at LTNR obtained 3 flights over Virginia City, Geiger Grade and Steamboat Springs. The instrument measures 128 spectral channels from 7.8 to 13.5 /spl mu/m with a ground spatial resolution of 2 m and a signal to noise of 2000:1. The ground 'swath of each flight is 128 pixels or approximately 256 m. For initial comparisons the data were corrected to radiance using the "In the Scene Atmospheric Correction" QSAQ routine provided by Aerospace Corporation. This approach corrects for absorption by atmospheric gasses and the surface reflection of sky radiance to reduce the measured radiance to that emitted by the surface. This radiance value is then, divided by a Planck curve to remove the wavelength dependence of radiance on temperature. The resulting values are then surface emissivity which can be directly 'compared with library and laboratory mineral spectra.
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paper_title: Anomaly detection in noisy hyperspectral imagery

paper_content:

Anomaly detection in hyperspectral imagery seeks to identify a small subset of pixels whose spectra differ most significantly from the background. The challenge is to characterize the background and noise well enough to recognize which observations are truly distinct and not simply noise outliers. The covariance-based RXD operator was developed to select low-probability pixel spectra and is therefore sensitive to noise. We compare the RXD operator to a Euclidean metric weighted by the inverse of the estimated spectral noise variance. We then combine the weighted Euclidean metric with RXD using a Lagrange multiplier and demonstrate that this formulation retains RXD's emphasis on small clusters while controlling the impact of noise. An optimum value of the Lagrange multiplier is determined based on the number of bands. We explore the utility of normalizing the pixel spectra as a step in anomaly detection. Results for the RXD, weighted-Euclidean, and Lagrange approach are presented using AVIRIS and HYDICE imagery. Based on these results, we conclude that the Euclidean, although robust to noise, does little more than emphasize the brightest pixels. The Lagrange detector selects the same regions as RXD while significantly reducing the impact of noise.
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paper_title: Two years of operations of AHI: an LWIR hyperspectral imager

paper_content:

The Airborne Hyperspectral Imager (AHI) system is a long- wave infrared imaging spectrometer originally designed to detect the presence of buried land mines. Subsequent work with AHI has shown the utility of the long-wave infrared for other applications. The AHI system has been used successfully in the detection of buried land mines using infrared absorption features of disturbed soil. Gas detection was also shown to be feasible, with gas absorption being clearly visible in the thermal IR. This allowed the mapping of a gas release using a matched filter. Geological mapping using AHI can be performed using the thermal band absorption features of different minerals. A large-scale geological map was obtained over a dry lake area in California using a mosaic of AHI flightlines, including mineral spectra and relative abundance maps.
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paper_title: Application of remote sensing to identify coalfires in the Raniganj Coalbelt, India

paper_content:

Raniganj and Jharia regions together have been for long the single largest coal supplier in India, now contributing about a quarter of the total output in the country. Numerous reasons such as improper mining techniques and policy, as well as unauthorized mining caused surface and subsurface coalfires in these areas. These coalfires burn millions of tonnes of valuable coal resources, creating severe environmental problems and posing enormous operational difficulties of mining. After first use of remote sensing as a tool to identify coalfires in 1960s, with the time, the efficiency of remote sensing to identify and monitoring coalfires has been well established by several researchers. With the knowledge of local geological setting and density sliced surface temperature image the spatial distribution of coalfires can be revealed. The present paper makes an attempt to identify temperature anomalies of the Raniganj coalbelt to locate the spatial distribution of coalfires. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) thermal band data was used to calculate surface temperature along with NDVI (normalized vegetation index) derived emissivity.
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paper_title: The Potential Use of Earth Observing System Data to Monitor the Passive Emission of Sulfur Dioxide from Volcanoes

paper_content:

Long-term monitoring of the passive emission of SO 2 is essential if volcanologists are to establish baseline emission rates and correlate changes in emission rates with the behavior of a volcano. The synoptic perspective, rapid mode of data acquisition, and short revisit intervals of satellite-based remote sensing are well-suited for the monitoring of SO 2 emissions. This paper evaluates the potential of detecting passive SO 2 emissions from space using the data anticipated from the advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER) and moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS). ASTER and MODIS are two of the instruments aboard the first satellite of NASA's Earth Observing System, which is scheduled for a launch in 1999. Image data acquired with NASA's airborne thermal infrared multispectral scanner (TIMS) over Kilauea and Mount Etna volcanoes were used to simulate the ASTER and MODIS data products. These simulations suggest that both ASTER and MODIS will detect Etna-scale plumes, while reliable detection of Kilauea-scale plumes may be limited to ASTER. In addition, both instruments should be able to detect stratospheric SO 2 clouds of a size and concentration similar to those created by the August 1992 eruption of Mount Spurr.
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paper_title: Hyperspectral remote sensing techniques for locating geothermal areas

paper_content:

Hyperspectral sensors are relatively underexploited tools for geothermal resource exploration. However, both short ::: wave infrared (SWIR) and long wave infrared (LWIR) hyperspectral sensors have demonstrated the potential to play a ::: much more significant role as geologists continue to seek innovative exploration technology to reduce the exploration ::: risk. ::: Exploration managers are becoming familiar with hyperspectral data and derived imagery. The data derivatives are ::: used in the early stages of a phased exploration approach to establish a better understanding of the regional structural ::: setting, and allow the project geologist to optimize field-based exploration methods such as seismic and drilling. ::: However, there is more opportunity for researchers and geologists to expand on the ways that hyperspectral data can ::: provide clues about geothermal systems, especially hidden or "blind" systems. Characterization of surface temperature ::: measurements, development of new target mineral spectra, and recognizing regional trends are some examples of areas ::: where more knowledge and experience will result in more robust data interpretation.
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paper_title: Hyperspectral infrared techniques for buried landmine detection

paper_content:

Mine detection using infrared techniques is primarily based on exploiting temperature and/or spectral color differences between pixels on the mines and background pixels. The use of spatial information (e.g., size, shape, pattern) can provide additional discriminants, particularly if the mines are resolved into multiple pixels by a high-resolution imaging sensor. An effective mine detection system should be capable of using all available thermal, spectral and spatial differences for discrimination. In the case of surface mines, temperature differences are introduced by the differential thermal mass and thermal inertia of the mine body itself with respect to the surrounding background, while color phenomena are based on the spectral reflectance characteristics of the surface materials on the mine (painted metal, plastics, etc.). IR spectral discriminants for buried mines are created during the mine emplacement process when subsurface soil layers with varying particle size distributions are brought to the surface and intermixed. The major discriminants for detecting buried and surface land mines are described and some of the applicable data processing techniques are discussed.
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paper_title: Recent results from AHI: a LWIR hyperspectral imager

paper_content:

The University of Hawaii AHI LWIR hyperspectral sensor has been in active use for several years. Since previous publications the sensor characteristics have evolved, and new applications have been encountered. This paper reviews the current status of the sensor and its characteristics, reviews a gas detection experiment conducted using natural sulfur dioxide emitted from a Hawaiian volcano, and test images from a hyperspectral polarization upgrade.
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paper_title: Characterization of gaseous effluents from modeling of LWIR hyperspectral measurements

paper_content:

Longwave Infrared (LWIR) radiation comprising atmospheric and surface emissions provides information for a number of applications including atmospheric profiling, surface temperature and emissivity estimation, and cloud depiction and characterization. The LWIR spectrum also contains absorption lines for numerous molecular species which can be utilized in quantifying species amounts. Modeling the absorption and emission from gaseous species using various radiative transfer codes such as MODTRAN-4 1 and FASE 2 (a follow-on to the line-by-line radiative transfer code FASCODE 3 )p rovides insight into the radiative signature of these elements as viewed from an airborne or space-borne platform and provides a basis for analysis of LWIR hyperspectral measurements. In this study, a model platform was developed for the investigation of the passive outgoing radiance from a scene containing an effluent plume layer. The effects of various scene and model parameters including ambient and plume temperatures, plume concentration, as well as the surface temperature and emissivity on the outgoing radiance were estimated. A simple equation relating the various components of the outgoing radiance was used to study the scale of the component contributions. A number of examples were given depicting the spectral radiance from plumes composed of single or multiple effluent gases as would be observed by typical airborne sensors. The issue of detectability and spectral identification was also discussed.
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paper_title: On autonomous detection of pressured air and gas leaks using passive IR-thermography for mobile robot application

paper_content:

Today, pressured air and gas leaks are typically detected using in-situ sensor technology. In this contribution the application of passive IR-thermography is proposed to permit remote leak detection by assessing the resulting temperature profile disturbance due to expansion of pressured gas. Remote measurements are advantageous as they are easier and safer to conduct. Scanning high-rise objects can be achieved using a ground-bound system without requiring complex climbing. In the paper a novel method for automated leak detection by feature extraction and pattern recognition is presented. This enables autonomous mobile robots with remote leak detection capability.
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paper_title: Classification of depressions in landfill covers using uncalibrated thermal-infrared imagery

paper_content:

A two-step analysis was used to classify depressions developed in covers of two landfills: (1) manual delineation of depressions by stereoscopic, aerial photographic interpretation, followed by (2) classification of depressions according to infiltration characteristics using uncalibrated, nighttime, air-borne, thermal IR imagery. Depressions were delineated as landforms according to their topographic expression using color infrared aerial photography. Classification of depressions into Type I or Type II was made by comparison of mean values of the digital numbers (exitance) inside and outside of a depression (interdepressional area). Samples are taken along a single scan line in order to eliminate variations caused by the gain adjustment of the scanner
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paper_title: AHI: an airborne long-wave infrared hyperspectral imager

paper_content:

The AHI (Airborne Hyperspectral Imager) system was designed to detect the presence of buried land mines from the air through detection of along wave IR observable associated with mine installation. The system is a helicopter-borne LWIR hyperspectral imager with real time on-board radiometric calibration and mine detection. It collects hyperspectral imagery from 7.5 to 11.5 μm in either 256 or 32 spectral bands. At all wavelengths the AHI noise equivalent delta (NEΔT) temperature is less than 0.1K at 300K and the NESR is less than .02 watts/m2-sr-μm.
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paper_title: Application of remote sensing technology to geothermal exploration

paper_content:

Recent significant improvements in the wavelength coverage, spectral resolution and quality of remote sensing imagery have led to the extensive application of these data sets in exploration and site characterization. Traditional techniques in spectral and spatial analysis of imagery, coupled with new, high signal to noise data, allow their direct application to problems in geothermal energy exploration and development. Our work seeks to define surface indicators of geothermal resources at known source regions and to apply these tools to recognizing geothermal potential in other areas. Geothermal indicators include sinter, tufa (carbonate), hydrothermal alteration (clays, sulfates) and thermal anomalies. Our work responds to the need to identify new resources and to map the geology of these areas. In addition, we hope to bring down costs by helping to focus new development in existing resource areas. Our work demonstrates that airborne and spaceborne imagery can be used to map mineralogy and hot spots over broad and inaccessible regions. We have clearly associated indicator mineralogy with present and past geothermal activity. Remote sensing data have been able to identify fault extensions not previously mapped by field geologists. Future work will test these methods on new sites not yet producing power to confirm their predictive capabilities for new resources.
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paper_title: Multispectral thermal infrared mapping of sulfur dioxide plumes: A case study from the East Rift Zone of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii

paper_content:

The synoptic perspective and rapid mode of data acquisition provided by remote sensing are well suited for the study of volcanic SO2 plumes. In this paper we describe a plume-mapping procedure that is based on image data acquired with NASA's airborne thermal infrared multispectral scanner (TIMS) and apply the procedure to TIMS data collected over the East Rift Zone of Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii, on September 30, 1988. These image data covered the Pu‘u ‘O ‘o and Kupaianaha vents and a skylight in the lava tube that was draining the Kupaianaha lava pond. Our estimate of the SO2 emission rate from Pu‘u ‘O ‘o (17–20 kg s−1) is roughly twice the average of estimates derived from correlation spectrometer (COSPEC) measurements collected 10 days prior to the TIMS overflight (10 kg s−1). The agreement between the TIMS and COSPEC results improves when we compare SO2 burden estimates, which are relatively independent of wind speed. We demonstrate the feasibility of mapping Pu‘u ‘O ‘o - scale SO2 plumes from space in anticipation of the 1998 launch of the advanced spaceborne thermal emission and reflectance radiometer (ASTER).
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paper_title: Mapping the distribution of vesicular textures on silicic lavas using the thermal infrared multispectral scanner

paper_content:

The Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) is a potentially powerful tool for mapping detailed chemical variations in silicic lava flows which in turn could expand knowledge of pre-eruption compositional gradients and mixing processes in silicic magma bodies. However, thermal infrared image data may be greatly influenced by the range of vesicular textures which occur on silicic flows. To investigate the effect of vesicularity on TIMS imagery independent of chemical variations, we studied Little Glass Mountain at the Medicine Lake Volcano of northern California, a large rhyolitic flow of uniform composition but textural heterogeneity. The imagery was recalibrated so that the digital number values for a lake in the scene matched a calculated ideal spectrum for water. TIMS spectra for the lava show useful differences in coarsely and finely vesicular pumice data, particularly in TIMS bands 3 and 4. Images generated by ratioing these bands accurately map out those areas known from field studies to be coarsely vesicular pumice. These texture-related emissivity variations are probably due to the larger vesicles being relatively deeper and separated by smaller septa leaving less smooth glass available to give the characteristic emission of the lava. In studies of inaccessible lava flows (as on Mars) areas of coarsely vesicular pumice must be identified and avoided before chemical variations can be interpreted. Remotely determined distributions of vesicular and glassy textures can also be related to the volatile contents and potential hazards associated with the emplacement of silicic lava flows on Earth.
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paper_title: Capability evaluation of 3-5 µm and 8-12,5 µm airborne thermal data for underground coal fire detection

paper_content:

Based on ground temperature measurement, thermal anomalies induced by underground coal fires were extracted from airborne night-time 8–12.5 µm, daytime 8–12.5 µm, and daytime 3–5 µm images by density slicing. The thermal anomalies extracted from these images had different sizes and were partially overlapped. Integration of the three processed images revealed detailed structures of the surface thermal anomalies. The temperature difference (ΔT) between a threshold temperature and the background temperature can be taken as a criterion for the evaluation of detection capabilities of different thermal data. The ΔTs for night-time, daytime 8–12.5 µm data and 3–5 µm data are 2.7, 4.4 and 7.1°C, respectively. The detection capabilities for sub-pixel sized coal fires from different thermal data were evaluated by assuming these fires cause the equivalent spectral radiance as a full pixel thermal anomaly does. The 3–5 µm data are more sensitive to sub-pixel-sized high-temperature (i.e. >165°C) thermal anomalies.
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paper_title: Surface fires in Jharia coalfield, India-their distribution and estimation of area and temperature from TM data

paper_content:

Surface fires occur at a number of places in the Jharia coalfield and are high-temperature phenomena of relatively local extent. The use of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) shortwave infrared (SWIR) bands in estimating temperatures of high-temperature objects is briefly reviewed. Study of data of TM7 and TM5 bands indicate the existence of surface fires in the Jharia coalfield at 59 pixels and this was supported by limited field checks. Pixel-integrated temperatures of surface fire areas are estimated to be in the range of 217 C to 410 C. However, as these fires often do not occupy the whole pixel area, the pixelintegrated temperatures are less than the actual fire temperatures. The relation between spectral radiance and temperature is nonlinear. Therefore, radiant temperature in TM5 and TM7 can be used to estimate the subpixel area and temperature of surface fires (provided there is no band saturation). In the Jharia coalfield, the subpixel area of some of the surface fires has been found to range between 0....
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Title: Visible and Infrared Remote Imaging of Hazardous Waste: A Review

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: Provide an overview of the issue of hazardous waste and discuss the role and potential of remote sensing in hazardous waste monitoring and remediation.

Section 2: The Definition of Hazardous Waste
Description 2: Define what constitutes hazardous waste, including its properties and sources.

Section 3: The Regulation of Hazardous Waste
Description 3: Discuss the federal statutes and international agreements that regulate hazardous waste disposal and cleanup.

Section 4: Worldwide Concerns
Description 4: Explain global issues related to hazardous waste, including trans-boundary movement and international conventions.

Section 5: Remote Sensing of Hazardous Waste
Description 5: Describe the process of site characterization using remote sensing technology and its benefits over traditional methods.

Section 6: Basic Imagery Applications
Description 6: Review the use of aerial photography for identifying and monitoring hazardous waste sites.

Section 7: Multispectral Applications
Description 7: Discuss the application of multispectral sensors in hazardous waste detection and monitoring.

Section 8: Laboratory and Field Spectroscopy
Description 8: Explain the role of spectroscopy in remote sensing and its application in identifying hazardous waste.

Section 9: Vegetation Stress and the Red Edge
Description 9: Describe the concept of the Red Edge and its relevance in detecting vegetation stress due to hazardous waste.

Section 10: Imaging Spectroscopy (Hyperspectral Remote Sensing)
Description 10: Detail the advancements and applications of hyperspectral remote sensing in identifying hazardous waste.

Section 11: Mining and Acid Mine Drainage
Description 11: Discuss the use of remote sensing in detecting mine waste and acid mine drainage.

Section 12: Heavy Metals
Description 12: Review the identification and mapping of heavy metals using remote sensing technologies.

Section 13: Hydrocarbons
Description 13: Explain the remote sensing of hydrocarbons and their environmental impact.

Section 14: Other Organic Chemicals
Description 14: Discuss the detection of other organic chemicals commonly present at hazardous waste sites.

Section 15: Thermal Infrared Applications
Description 15: Describe the application of thermal infrared remote sensing in hazardous waste detection, including its benefits and limitations.

Section 16: Conclusions and Research Opportunities
Description 16: Summarize the key points of the review and suggest areas for future research to improve remote sensing applications in hazardous waste detection.