How should my chatbot interact? A survey on human-chatbot interaction design
---
paper_title: The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places

paper_content:

Part I. Introduction: 1. The media equation Part II. Media and Manners: 2. Politeness 3. Interpersonal distance 4. Flattery 5. Judging others and ourselves Part III. Media and Personality: 6. Personality of characters 7. Personality of interfaces 8. Imitating a personality Part IV. Media and emotion: 9. Good versus bad 10. Negativity 11. Arousal Part V. Media and Social Roles: 12. Specialists 13. Teammates 14. Gender 15. Voices 16. Source orientation Part VI. Media and Form: 17. Image size 18. Fidelity 19. Synchrony 20. Motion 21. Scene changes 22. Subliminal images Part VII. Final Words: 23. Conclusions about the media equation References.
---
paper_title: "Like Having a Really Bad PA": The Gulf between User Expectation and Experience of Conversational Agents

paper_content:

The past four years have seen the rise of conversational agents (CAs) in everyday life. Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Google and Facebook have all embedded proprietary CAs within their software and, increasingly, conversation is becoming a key mode of human-computer interaction. Whilst we have long been familiar with the notion of computers that speak, the investigative concern within HCI has been upon multimodality rather than dialogue alone, and there is no sense of how such interfaces are used in everyday life. This paper reports the findings of interviews with 14 users of CAs in an effort to understand the current interactional factors affecting everyday use. We find user expectations dramatically out of step with the operation of the systems, particularly in terms of known machine intelligence, system capability and goals. Using Norman's 'gulfs of execution and evaluation' [30] we consider the implications of these findings for the design of future systems.
---
paper_title: Computers as persuasive social actors

paper_content:

This chapter describes the role of computing products as persuasive social actors. These products persuade by giving a variety of social cues that elicit social responses from their human users. The chapter proposes five primary types of social cues cause people to make inferences about social presence in a computing product—physical, psychological, language, social dynamics, and social roles. Physical attractiveness has a significant impact on social influence. A computing technology that is visually attractive to target users is likely to be more persuasive as well. People are more readily persuaded by computing technology products that are similar to themselves; they feel the need to reciprocate when computing technology has done a favor for them. The chapter concludes that the social cues should be handled with care. The positive and negative outcome often depends on the user.
---
paper_title: Let's Talk About Race: Identity, Chatbots, and AI

paper_content:

Why is it so hard for chatbots to talk about race? This work explores how the biased contents of databases, the syntactic focus of natural language processing, and the opaque nature of deep learning algorithms cause chatbots difficulty in handling race-talk. In each of these areas, the tensions between race and chatbots create new opportunities for people and machines. By making the abstract and disparate qualities of this problem space tangible, we can develop chatbots that are more capable of handling race-talk in its many forms. Our goal is to provide the HCI community with ways to begin addressing the question, how can chatbots handle race-talk in new and improved ways?
---
paper_title: Computers are social actors

paper_content:

This paper presents a new experimental paradigm for the study of human-computer interaction, Five experiments provide evidence that individuals’ interactions with computers are fundamentally social. The studies show that social responses to computers are not the result of conscious beliefs that computers are human or human-like. Moreover, such behaviors do not result from users’ ignorance or from psychological or social dysfunctions, nor from a belief that subjects are interacting with programmers. Rather, social responses to computers are commonplace and easy to generate. The results reported here present numerous and unprecedented hypotheses, unexpected implications for design, new approaches to usability testing, and direct methods for verii3cation.
---
paper_title: Qualitative Data: An Introduction to Coding and Analysis

paper_content:

Preface AcknowledgmentsPart I: Getting into Qualitative Research1. Introducing Qualitative Hypothesis-Generating Research: The Yeshiva University Fatherhood ProjectPart II: Planning Your First Research Study2. Designing Hypothesis-Generating Research: The Haitian Fathers Study3. Qualitative and Quantitative Research as Complementary Strategies Part III: Analyzing Your First Research Study4. Coding 1: The Basic Ideas 5. Coding 2: The Mechanics, Phase 1: Making the Text Manageable 6. Coding 2: The Mechanics, Phase 2: Hearing What Was Said 7. Coding 2: The Mechanics, Phase 3: Developing Theory 8. Convincing Other People: The Issues Formerly Known as Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability Part IV: Designing and Analyzing Your Next Research Study9. Designing Your Next Study Using Theoretical Sampling: The Promise Keeper Fathers 10. Analyzing Your Next Study Using Elaborative Coding: The Promise Keeper Fathers Part V: Final Thoughts11. The "Why" of Qualitative Research: A Personal View Appendix A: Simplifying the Bookkeeping with Qualitative Data Analysis Programs Appendix B: The Haitian Fathers Study Appendix C: The Promise Keepers Study References Index About the Authors
---
paper_title: How interface agents affect interaction between humans and computers

paper_content:

For many years, the HCI community has harbored a vision of interacting with intelligent, embodied computer agents. However, the reality of this vision remains elusive. From an interaction design perspective, little is known about how to specifically design an embodied agent to support the task it will perform and the social interactions that will result. This paper presents design research that explores the relationship between the visual features of embodied agents and the tasks they perform, and the social attributions that result. Our results show a clear link between agent task and agent form and reveals that people often prefer agents who conform to gender stereotypes associated with tasks. Based on the results of this work, we provide a set of emerging design considerations to help guide interaction designers in creating the visual form of embodied agents.
---
paper_title: Single or Multiple Conversational Agents?: An Interactional Coherence Comparison

paper_content:

Chatbots focusing on a narrow domain of expertise are in great rise. As several tasks require multiple expertise, a designer may integrate multiple chatbots in the background or include them as interlocutors in a conversation. We investigated both scenarios by means of a Wizard of Oz experiment, in which participants talked to chatbots about visiting a destination. We analyzed the conversation content, users' speech, and reported impressions. We found no significant difference between single- and multi-chatbots scenarios. However, even with equivalent conversation structures, users reported more confusion in multi-chatbots interactions and adopted strategies to organize turn-taking. Our findings indicate that implementing a meta-chatbot may not be necessary, since similar conversation structures occur when interacting to multiple chatbots, but different interactional aspects must be considered for each scenario.
---
paper_title: Six modes of proactive resource management: a user-centric typology for proactive behaviors

paper_content:

Proactivity has recently arisen as one of the focus areas within HCI. Proactive systems adhere to two premises: 1) working on behalf of, or pro, the user, and 2) acting on their own initiative. To extend researchers' views on how proactive systems can support the user, we clarify the concept of proactivity and suggest a typology that distinguishes between 6 modes of proactive resource management: preparation, optimization, advising, manipulation, inhibition, and finalization of user's resources. A scenario of mobile imaging is presented to illustrate how the typology can support the innovation of new use purposes. We argue that conceptual developments like the one proposed here are crucial for the advancement of the emerging field.
---
paper_title: Evaluating the language resources of chatbots for their potential in english as a second language

paper_content:

This paper investigates the linguistic worth of current ‘chatbot’ programs – software programs which attempt to hold a conversation, or interact, in English – as a precursor to their potential as an ESL (English as a second language) learning resource. After some initial background to the development of chatbots, and a discussion of the Loebner Prize Contest for the most ‘human’ chatbot (the ‘Turing Test’), the paper describes an in-depth study evaluating the linguistic accuracy of a number of chatbots available online. Since the ultimate purpose of the current study concerns chatbots' potential with ESL learners, the analysis of language embraces not only an examination of features of language from a native-speaker's perspective (the focus of the Turing Test), but also aspects of language from a second-language-user's perspective. Analyses indicate that while the winner of the 2005 Loebner Prize is the most able chatbot linguistically, it may not necessarily be the chatbot most suited to ESL learners. The paper concludes that while substantial progress has been made in terms of chatbots' language-handling, a robust ESL ‘conversation practice machine’ (Atwell, 1999) is still some way off being a reality.
---
paper_title: Survey on Chatbot Design Techniques in Speech Conversation Systems

paper_content:

Human-Computer Speech is gaining momentum as a technique of computer interaction. There has been a recent upsurge in speech based search engines and assistants such as Siri, Google Chrome and Cortana. Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques such as NLTK for Python can be applied to analyse speech, and intelligent responses can be found by designing an engine to provide appropriate human like responses. This type of programme is called a Chatbot, which is the focus of this study. This paper presents a survey on the techniques used to design Chatbots and a comparison is made between different design techniques from nine carefully selected papers according to the main methods adopted. These papers are representative of the significant improvements in Chatbots in the last decade. The paper discusses the similarities and differences in the techniques and examines in particular the Loebner prize-winning Chatbots.
---
paper_title: Iterative Development and Evaluation of a Social Conversational Agent

paper_content:

We show that an agent with fairly good social conversational abilities can be built based on a limited number of topics and dialogue strategies if it is tailored to its intended users through a high degree of user involvement during an iterative development process. The technology used is pattern matching of question-answer pairs, coupled with strategies to handle: followup questions, utterances not understood, abusive utterances, repetitive utterances, and initiation of new topics.
---
paper_title: An Investigation of Conversational Agent Interventions Supporting Historical Reasoning in Primary Education

paper_content:

This work examines the efficiency of an agent intervention mode, aiming to stimulate productive conversational interactions and encourage students to explicate their historical reasoning about important domain concepts. The findings of a pilot study, conducted in the context of primary school class in Modern History, a suggest a favorable student opinion of the conversational agent, b indicate that agent interventions can help students to engage in a transactive form of dialogue, where peers build on each other's reasoning, and c reveal a series of interaction patterns emerging from the display of the agent interventions.
---
paper_title: A new friend in our smartphone?: observing interactions with chatbots in the search of emotional engagement

paper_content:

We present the findings of a quantitative and qualitative empirical research to understand the possibilities of engagement and affection in the use of conversational agents (chatbots). Based on an experiment with 13 participants, we explored on one hand the correlation between the user expectation, user experience and intended use and, on the other, whether users feel keen and engaged in having a personal, empathic relation with an intelligent system like chatbots. We used psychological questionnaires to semi-structured interviews for disentangle the meaning of the interaction. In particular, the personal psychological background of participants was found critical while the experience itself allowed them to imagine new possible relations with chatbots. Our results show some insights on how people understand and empathize with future interactions with conversational agents and other non-visual interfaces.
---
paper_title: 'Realness' in chatbots: establishing quantifiable criteria

paper_content:

The aim of this research is to generate measurable evaluation criteria acceptable to chatbot users. Results of two studies are summarised. In the first, fourteen participants were asked to do a critical incident analysis of their transcriptions with an ELIZA-type chatbot. Results were content analysed, and yielded seven overall themes. In the second, these themes were made into statements of an attitude-like nature, and 20 participants chatted with five winning entrants in the 2011 Chatterbox Challenge and five which failed to place. Latent variable analysis reduced the themes to four, resulting in four subscales with strong reliability which discriminated well between the two categories of chatbots. Content analysis of freeform comments led to a proposal of four dimensions along which people judge the naturalness of a conversation with chatbots.
---
paper_title: Here's What I Can Do: Chatbots' Strategies to Convey Their Features to Users

paper_content:

Chatbots have been around since the 1960's, but recently they have risen in popularity especially due to new compatibility with social networks and messenger applications. Chatbots are different from traditional user interfaces, for they unveil themselves to the user one sentence at a time. Because of that, users may struggle to interact with them and to understand what they can do. Hence, it is important to support designers in deciding how to convey chatbots' features to users, as this might determine whether the user continues to chat or not. As a first step in this direction, in this paper our goal is to analyze the communicative strategies that have been used by popular chatbots to convey their features to users. To perform this analysis we use the Semiotic Inspection Method (SIM). As a result we identify and discuss the different strategies used by the analyzed chatbots to present their features to users. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of using SIM on such interfaces.
---
paper_title: Benjamin Franklin’s Decision Method is Acceptable and Helpful with a Conversational Agent

paper_content:

In this paper, we show that rational decision-making methods such as Benjamin Franklin’s can be successfully implemented as a text based natural language dialog system. More specifically, we developed a prototype, vpino, and conducted a user study. Vpino acts maieutically: the questions raised by vpino encourage the user to reflect about potential options and arguments and help her structure her thoughts. To maintain a real dialog, vpino unobtrusively attempts to keep control of the conversation at all times. Serious, motivated users evaluated acceptance and usefulness of vpino quite positively. Users that are more open to computer based decision support held better and more fruitful dialogs than those with a sceptical attitude. This quantitative result conforms well to our qualitative observation that vpino shows good human like behaviour whenever the user is serious and motivated. We also found that users with a more hypervigilant approach to decisions particularly benefit from vpino.
---
paper_title: Social Facilitation Effects by Pedagogical Conversational Agent: Lexical Network Analysis in an Online Explanation Task.

paper_content:

The present study investigates web-based learning activities of undergraduate students who generate explanations about a key concept taught in a large-scale classroom. The present study used an online system with Pedagogical Conversational Agent (PCA), asked to explain about the key concept from different points and provided suggestions and requests about how to make explanations, and gave social facilitation prompts such as providing examples by other members in the classroom. A total of 314 learner's text based explanation activities were collected from three different classrooms and were analyzed using the social network analysis methods. The main results from the lexical analysis show that those using the PCAs with social feedback worked harder to use more various types of explanations than those without such feedback. Future directions on how to design online tutoring systems are discussed.
---
paper_title: The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places

paper_content:

Part I. Introduction: 1. The media equation Part II. Media and Manners: 2. Politeness 3. Interpersonal distance 4. Flattery 5. Judging others and ourselves Part III. Media and Personality: 6. Personality of characters 7. Personality of interfaces 8. Imitating a personality Part IV. Media and emotion: 9. Good versus bad 10. Negativity 11. Arousal Part V. Media and Social Roles: 12. Specialists 13. Teammates 14. Gender 15. Voices 16. Source orientation Part VI. Media and Form: 17. Image size 18. Fidelity 19. Synchrony 20. Motion 21. Scene changes 22. Subliminal images Part VII. Final Words: 23. Conclusions about the media equation References.
---
paper_title: Social intelligence - empathy = aggression?

paper_content:

Empathy reduces aggressive behavior. While empathy and social intelligence are strongly correlated, it is, for both logical and consequential reasons, important to regard them as different concepts. Social intelligence is required for all types of conflict behavior, prosocial as well as antisocial, but the presence of empathy acts as a mitigator of aggression. When empathy is partialed out, correlations between social intelligence and all types of aggression increase, while correlations between social intelligence and peaceful conflict resolution decrease. Social intelligence is related differently to various forms of aggressive behavior: more strongly to indirect than to verbal aggression, and weakest to physical aggression, which is in accordance with the developmental theory of aggressive style. More sophisticated forms of aggression require more social intelligence.
---
paper_title: The media inequality: Comparing the initial human-human and human-AI social interactions

paper_content:

As human-machine communication has yet to become prevalent, the rules of interactions between human and intelligent machines need to be explored. This study aims to investigate a specific question: During human users' initial interactions with artificial intelligence, would they reveal their personality traits and communicative attributes differently from human-human interactions? A sample of 245 participants was recruited to view six targets' twelve conversation transcripts on a social media platform: Half with a chatbot Microsoft's Little Ice, and half with human friends. The findings suggested that when the targets interacted with Little Ice, they demonstrated different personality traits and communication attributes from interacting with humans. Specifically, users tended to be more open, more agreeable, more extroverted, more conscientious and self-disclosing when interacting with humans than with AI. The findings not only echo Mischel's cognitive-affective processing system model but also complement the Computers Are Social Actors Paradigm. Theoretical implications were discussed. During initial interactions with AI, would users reveal their personality differently?An exploratory study was conducted to examine users' performance.Facing AI, users demonstrated different personality from interacting with humans.Users were less open, agreeable, extroverted and conscientious when interacting with AI.The findings echo Mischel's cognitive-affective processing system model.
---
paper_title: The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places

paper_content:

Part I. Introduction: 1. The media equation Part II. Media and Manners: 2. Politeness 3. Interpersonal distance 4. Flattery 5. Judging others and ourselves Part III. Media and Personality: 6. Personality of characters 7. Personality of interfaces 8. Imitating a personality Part IV. Media and emotion: 9. Good versus bad 10. Negativity 11. Arousal Part V. Media and Social Roles: 12. Specialists 13. Teammates 14. Gender 15. Voices 16. Source orientation Part VI. Media and Form: 17. Image size 18. Fidelity 19. Synchrony 20. Motion 21. Scene changes 22. Subliminal images Part VII. Final Words: 23. Conclusions about the media equation References.
---
paper_title: "Like Having a Really Bad PA": The Gulf between User Expectation and Experience of Conversational Agents

paper_content:

The past four years have seen the rise of conversational agents (CAs) in everyday life. Apple, Microsoft, Amazon, Google and Facebook have all embedded proprietary CAs within their software and, increasingly, conversation is becoming a key mode of human-computer interaction. Whilst we have long been familiar with the notion of computers that speak, the investigative concern within HCI has been upon multimodality rather than dialogue alone, and there is no sense of how such interfaces are used in everyday life. This paper reports the findings of interviews with 14 users of CAs in an effort to understand the current interactional factors affecting everyday use. We find user expectations dramatically out of step with the operation of the systems, particularly in terms of known machine intelligence, system capability and goals. Using Norman's 'gulfs of execution and evaluation' [30] we consider the implications of these findings for the design of future systems.
---
paper_title: Iterative Development and Evaluation of a Social Conversational Agent

paper_content:

We show that an agent with fairly good social conversational abilities can be built based on a limited number of topics and dialogue strategies if it is tailored to its intended users through a high degree of user involvement during an iterative development process. The technology used is pattern matching of question-answer pairs, coupled with strategies to handle: followup questions, utterances not understood, abusive utterances, repetitive utterances, and initiation of new topics.
---
paper_title: Social intelligence - empathy = aggression?

paper_content:

Empathy reduces aggressive behavior. While empathy and social intelligence are strongly correlated, it is, for both logical and consequential reasons, important to regard them as different concepts. Social intelligence is required for all types of conflict behavior, prosocial as well as antisocial, but the presence of empathy acts as a mitigator of aggression. When empathy is partialed out, correlations between social intelligence and all types of aggression increase, while correlations between social intelligence and peaceful conflict resolution decrease. Social intelligence is related differently to various forms of aggressive behavior: more strongly to indirect than to verbal aggression, and weakest to physical aggression, which is in accordance with the developmental theory of aggressive style. More sophisticated forms of aggression require more social intelligence.
---
paper_title: Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human-human online conversations and human-chatbot conversations

paper_content:

How does communication change when speaking to intelligent agents over humans?We compared 100 IM conversations to 100 exchanges with the chatbot Cleverbot.People used more, but shorter, messages when communicating with chatbots.People also used more restricted vocabulary and greater profanity with chatbots.People can easily adapt their language to communicate with intelligent agents. This study analyzed how communication changes when people communicate with an intelligent agent as opposed to with another human. We compared 100 instant messaging conversations to 100 exchanges with the popular chatbot Cleverbot along seven dimensions: words per message, words per conversation, messages per conversation, word uniqueness, and use of profanity, shorthand, and emoticons. A MANOVA indicated that people communicated with the chatbot for longer durations (but with shorter messages) than they did with another human. Additionally, human-chatbot communication lacked much of the richness of vocabulary found in conversations among people, and exhibited greater profanity. These results suggest that while human language skills transfer easily to human-chatbot communication, there are notable differences in the content and quality of such conversations.
---
paper_title: Media inequality in conversation: how people behave differently when interacting with computers and people

paper_content:

How is interacting with computer programs different from interacting with people? One answer in the literature is that these two types of interactions are similar. The present study challenges this perspective with a laboratory experiment grounded in the principles of Interpersonal Theory, a psychological approach to interpersonal dynamics. Participants had a text-based, structured conversation with a computer that gave scripted conversational responses. The main manipulation was whether participants were told that they were interacting with a computer program or a person in the room next door. Discourse analyses revealed a key difference in participants' behavior -- when participants believed they were talking to a person, they showed many more of the kinds of behaviors associated with establishing the interpersonal nature of a relationship. This finding has important implications for the design of technologies intended to take on social roles or characteristics.
---
paper_title: You always hurt the one you love: Strategies and tactics in interpersonal conflict

paper_content:

The present study delineates the five most frequently utilized strategies of relational conflict resolution. Three propositions were tested. In examining the first proposition, same and opposite sex friends indicated that they utilized significantly different conflict strategies. In testing proposition two, males and females reported that they employ different strategies with their same but not opposite sex friends. In probing the third proposition, frequently used conflict strategies discriminated between levels of relational satisfaction.
---
paper_title: Benjamin Franklin’s Decision Method is Acceptable and Helpful with a Conversational Agent

paper_content:

In this paper, we show that rational decision-making methods such as Benjamin Franklin’s can be successfully implemented as a text based natural language dialog system. More specifically, we developed a prototype, vpino, and conducted a user study. Vpino acts maieutically: the questions raised by vpino encourage the user to reflect about potential options and arguments and help her structure her thoughts. To maintain a real dialog, vpino unobtrusively attempts to keep control of the conversation at all times. Serious, motivated users evaluated acceptance and usefulness of vpino quite positively. Users that are more open to computer based decision support held better and more fruitful dialogs than those with a sceptical attitude. This quantitative result conforms well to our qualitative observation that vpino shows good human like behaviour whenever the user is serious and motivated. We also found that users with a more hypervigilant approach to decisions particularly benefit from vpino.
---
paper_title: The media equation: how people treat computers, television, and new media like real people and places

paper_content:

Part I. Introduction: 1. The media equation Part II. Media and Manners: 2. Politeness 3. Interpersonal distance 4. Flattery 5. Judging others and ourselves Part III. Media and Personality: 6. Personality of characters 7. Personality of interfaces 8. Imitating a personality Part IV. Media and emotion: 9. Good versus bad 10. Negativity 11. Arousal Part V. Media and Social Roles: 12. Specialists 13. Teammates 14. Gender 15. Voices 16. Source orientation Part VI. Media and Form: 17. Image size 18. Fidelity 19. Synchrony 20. Motion 21. Scene changes 22. Subliminal images Part VII. Final Words: 23. Conclusions about the media equation References.
---
paper_title: Single or Multiple Conversational Agents?: An Interactional Coherence Comparison

paper_content:

Chatbots focusing on a narrow domain of expertise are in great rise. As several tasks require multiple expertise, a designer may integrate multiple chatbots in the background or include them as interlocutors in a conversation. We investigated both scenarios by means of a Wizard of Oz experiment, in which participants talked to chatbots about visiting a destination. We analyzed the conversation content, users' speech, and reported impressions. We found no significant difference between single- and multi-chatbots scenarios. However, even with equivalent conversation structures, users reported more confusion in multi-chatbots interactions and adopted strategies to organize turn-taking. Our findings indicate that implementing a meta-chatbot may not be necessary, since similar conversation structures occur when interacting to multiple chatbots, but different interactional aspects must be considered for each scenario.
---
paper_title: Conversational Agents for Game-Like Virtual Environments

paper_content:

Insp. Gray: I’d like to ask you a few questions about last night. Coln. Mustard:Fire away young man, I’ve got nothing to hide. (Mustard uses phrase ’young man’ he feels a superiority in the social relationship with the inspector) (Mustard is a defensive person protests innocence straight away) Insp. Gray: Were you in the ballroom at all last night? Coln. Mustard:Yes. I was in the ballroom between 1945 hours and 2000 hours. (Mustard is an army man dictates choice of ’1945 hours’ over ’seven forty-five’) (Mustard is confident of himself very affirmative tone used) Insp. Gray: Okay. So where had you been before you went to the ballroom? Coln. Mustard:I was in the Kitchen (Abrupt. Dislikes the Inspectors questioning) Insp. Gray: But Mrs. White was in the Kitchen at that time and said that she didn’t see anyone else. Coln. Mustard:Well she must be mistaken. (Very defensive. Authoritative about the fact commanding personality) Insp. Gray: She seemed very confident she was right. Are you sure you’ve not made a mistake? Coln. Mustard:I’m absolutely certain! (Very defensive and angry strengthens his claim with the use of the adverb) Coln. Mustard:You should talk to Mrs. Peacock. I saw her heading towards the library at 1945 hours. She seemed very suspicious. (Changes subject dominant personality disliked previous conversational direction) Insp. Gray: Why do you say that? Coln. Mustard:She hates reading, and never goes to the library. (Authoritative confident of his knowledge) Insp. Gray: Okay. Thanks for your time. Figure 1. Example Conversation from the Cluedo Game
---
paper_title: Evaluating the language resources of chatbots for their potential in english as a second language

paper_content:

This paper investigates the linguistic worth of current ‘chatbot’ programs – software programs which attempt to hold a conversation, or interact, in English – as a precursor to their potential as an ESL (English as a second language) learning resource. After some initial background to the development of chatbots, and a discussion of the Loebner Prize Contest for the most ‘human’ chatbot (the ‘Turing Test’), the paper describes an in-depth study evaluating the linguistic accuracy of a number of chatbots available online. Since the ultimate purpose of the current study concerns chatbots' potential with ESL learners, the analysis of language embraces not only an examination of features of language from a native-speaker's perspective (the focus of the Turing Test), but also aspects of language from a second-language-user's perspective. Analyses indicate that while the winner of the 2005 Loebner Prize is the most able chatbot linguistically, it may not necessarily be the chatbot most suited to ESL learners. The paper concludes that while substantial progress has been made in terms of chatbots' language-handling, a robust ESL ‘conversation practice machine’ (Atwell, 1999) is still some way off being a reality.
---
paper_title: Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human-human online conversations and human-chatbot conversations

paper_content:

How does communication change when speaking to intelligent agents over humans?We compared 100 IM conversations to 100 exchanges with the chatbot Cleverbot.People used more, but shorter, messages when communicating with chatbots.People also used more restricted vocabulary and greater profanity with chatbots.People can easily adapt their language to communicate with intelligent agents. This study analyzed how communication changes when people communicate with an intelligent agent as opposed to with another human. We compared 100 instant messaging conversations to 100 exchanges with the popular chatbot Cleverbot along seven dimensions: words per message, words per conversation, messages per conversation, word uniqueness, and use of profanity, shorthand, and emoticons. A MANOVA indicated that people communicated with the chatbot for longer durations (but with shorter messages) than they did with another human. Additionally, human-chatbot communication lacked much of the richness of vocabulary found in conversations among people, and exhibited greater profanity. These results suggest that while human language skills transfer easily to human-chatbot communication, there are notable differences in the content and quality of such conversations.
---
paper_title: 'Realness' in chatbots: establishing quantifiable criteria

paper_content:

The aim of this research is to generate measurable evaluation criteria acceptable to chatbot users. Results of two studies are summarised. In the first, fourteen participants were asked to do a critical incident analysis of their transcriptions with an ELIZA-type chatbot. Results were content analysed, and yielded seven overall themes. In the second, these themes were made into statements of an attitude-like nature, and 20 participants chatted with five winning entrants in the 2011 Chatterbox Challenge and five which failed to place. Latent variable analysis reduced the themes to four, resulting in four subscales with strong reliability which discriminated well between the two categories of chatbots. Content analysis of freeform comments led to a proposal of four dimensions along which people judge the naturalness of a conversation with chatbots.
---
paper_title: Neural personalized response generation as domain adaptation

paper_content:

One of the most crucial problem on training personalized response generation models for conversational robots is the lack of large scale personal conversation data. To address the problem, we propose a two-phase approach, namely initialization then adaptation, to first pre-train an optimized RNN encoder-decoder model (LTS model) in a large scale conversational data for general response generation and then fine-tune the model in a small scale personal conversation data to generate personalized responses. For evaluation, we propose a novel human aided method, which can be seen as a quasi-Turing test, to evaluate the performance of the personalized response generation models. Experimental results show that the proposed personalized response generation model outperforms the state-of-the-art approaches to language model personalization and persona-based neural conversation generation on the automatic evaluation, offline human judgment and the quasi-Turing test.
---
paper_title: Single or Multiple Conversational Agents?: An Interactional Coherence Comparison

paper_content:

Chatbots focusing on a narrow domain of expertise are in great rise. As several tasks require multiple expertise, a designer may integrate multiple chatbots in the background or include them as interlocutors in a conversation. We investigated both scenarios by means of a Wizard of Oz experiment, in which participants talked to chatbots about visiting a destination. We analyzed the conversation content, users' speech, and reported impressions. We found no significant difference between single- and multi-chatbots scenarios. However, even with equivalent conversation structures, users reported more confusion in multi-chatbots interactions and adopted strategies to organize turn-taking. Our findings indicate that implementing a meta-chatbot may not be necessary, since similar conversation structures occur when interacting to multiple chatbots, but different interactional aspects must be considered for each scenario.
---
paper_title: Having an Animated Coffee with a Group of Chatbots from the 19th Century

paper_content:

Beyond current dyadic chatbots and voice-based personal assistants, this demo showcases a novel experience where users interact with multiple, text-based conversational systems as if seating around a table with them. Two key technologies allow the seamless interaction between users and chatbots: (1) A state-of-art artificial conversational governance system which allows a natural flow of conversation without the use of vocatives to trigger the chatbot responses; (2) a conversation visualization mechanism where the utterances from participants are aesthetically projected on a tabletop. Those technologies were developed originally for "Cafe com os Santiagos" an artwork where visitors conversed with three chatbots portraying characters from a book in a scenographic space recreating a 19th-century coffee table. The demo allows users to seat to actually have coffee and chat with multi-chatbots characters.
---
paper_title: Politeness : some universals in language usage

paper_content:

Symbols and abbreviations Foreword John J. Gumperz Introduction to the reissue Notes 1. Introduction 2. Summarized argument 3. The argument: intuitive bases and derivative definitions 4. On the nature of the model 5. Realizations of politeness strategies in language 6. Derivative hypotheses 7. Sociological implications 8. Implications for language studies 9. Conclusions Notes References Author index Subject index.
---
paper_title: Computer-Mediated Communication Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction

paper_content:

While computer-mediated communication use and research are proliferating rapidly, findings offer contrasting images regarding the interpersonal character of this technology. Research trends over the history of these media are reviewed with observations across trends suggested so as to provide integrative principles with which to apply media to different circumstances. First, the notion that the media reduce personal influences—their impersonal effects—is reviewed. Newer theories and research are noted explaining normative “interpersonal” uses of the media. From this vantage point, recognizing that impersonal communication is sometimes advantageous, strategies for the intentional depersonalization of media use are inferred, with implications for Group Decision Support Systems effects. Additionally, recognizing that media sometimes facilitate communication that surpasses normal interpersonal levels, a new perspective on “hyperpersonal” communication is introduced. Subprocesses are discussed pertaining to re...
---
paper_title: A Hybrid Architecture for Multi-Party Conversational Systems

paper_content:

Multi-party Conversational Systems are systems with natural language interaction between one or more people or systems. From the moment that an utterance is sent to a group, to the moment that it is replied in the group by a member, several activities must be done by the system: utterance understanding, information search, reasoning, among others. In this paper we present the challenges of designing and building multi-party conversational systems, the state of the art, our proposed hybrid architecture using both rules and machine learning and some insights after implementing and evaluating one on the finance domain.
---
paper_title: Selective self-presentation in computer-mediated communication : Hyperpersonal dimensions of technology , language , and cognition

paper_content:

The hyperpersonal model of computer-mediated communication (CMC) posits that users exploit the technological aspects of CMC in order to enhance the messages they construct to manage impressions and facilitate desired relationships. This research examined how CMC users managed message composing time, editing behaviors, personal language, sentence complexity, and relational tone in their initial messages to different presumed targets, and the cognitive awareness related to these processes. Effects on several of these processes and outcomes were obtained in response to different targets, partially supporting the hyperpersonal perspective of CMC, with unanticipated gender and status interaction effects suggesting behavioral compensation through CMC, or overcompensation when addressing presumably undesirable partners.
---
paper_title: 'Realness' in chatbots: establishing quantifiable criteria

paper_content:

The aim of this research is to generate measurable evaluation criteria acceptable to chatbot users. Results of two studies are summarised. In the first, fourteen participants were asked to do a critical incident analysis of their transcriptions with an ELIZA-type chatbot. Results were content analysed, and yielded seven overall themes. In the second, these themes were made into statements of an attitude-like nature, and 20 participants chatted with five winning entrants in the 2011 Chatterbox Challenge and five which failed to place. Latent variable analysis reduced the themes to four, resulting in four subscales with strong reliability which discriminated well between the two categories of chatbots. Content analysis of freeform comments led to a proposal of four dimensions along which people judge the naturalness of a conversation with chatbots.
---
paper_title: Style Transfer Through Back-Translation

paper_content:

Style transfer is the task of rephrasing the text to contain specific stylistic properties without changing the intent or affect within the context. This paper introduces a new method for automatic style transfer. We first learn a latent representation of the input sentence which is grounded in a language translation model in order to better preserve the meaning of the sentence while reducing stylistic properties. Then adversarial generation techniques are used to make the output match the desired style. We evaluate this technique on three different style transformations: sentiment, gender and political slant. Compared to two state-of-the-art style transfer modeling techniques we show improvements both in automatic evaluation of style transfer and in manual evaluation of meaning preservation and fluency.
---
paper_title: Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction A Relational Perspective

paper_content:

Several theories and much experimental research on relational tone in computer-mediated communication (CMC) points to the lack of nonverbal cues in this channel as a cause of impersonal and task-oriented messages. Field research in CMC often reports more positive relational behavior. This article examines the assumptions, methods, and findings of such research and suggests that negative relational effects are confined to narrow situational boundary conditions. Alternatively, it is suggested that communicators develop individuating impressions of others through accumulated CMC messages. Based upon these impressions, users may develop relationships and express multidimensional relational messages through verbal or textual cues. Predictions regarding these processes are suggested, and future research incorporating these points is urged.
---
paper_title: Register, Genre, and Style

paper_content:

1. Registers, genres, and styles: fundamental varieties of language Part I. Analytical Framework: 2. Describing the situational characteristics of registers and genres 3. Analysing linguistic features and their functions Part II. Detailed Descriptions of Register, Genre and Style: 4. Interpersonal spoken registers 5. Written registers, genres and styles 6. Historical evolution of registers, genres and styles 7. Registers and genres in electronic communication Part III. Larger Theoretical Issues: 8. Multidimensional patterns of register variation 9. Register studies in context Appendix A. Annotation of major register/genre studies Appendix B. Activity texts References.
---
paper_title: Politeness and language

paper_content:

This article assesses the advantages and limitations of three different approaches to the analysis of politeness in language: politeness as social rules, politeness as adherence to an expanded set of Gricean Maxims, and politeness as strategic attention to ‘face.’ It argues that only the last can account for the observable commonalities in polite expressions across diverse languages and cultures, and positions the analysis of politeness as strategic attention to face in the modern context of attention to the evolutionary origins and nature of human cooperation. What Is Politeness? If, as many have claimed, language is the trait that most radically distinguishes Homo sapiens from other species, politeness is the feature of language use that most clearly reveals the nature of human sociality as expressed in speech. Politeness is essentially a matter of taking into account the feelings of others as to how they should be interactionally treated, including behaving in a manner that demonstrates appropriate concern for interactors’ social status and their social relationship. Politeness – in this broad sense of speech oriented to an interactor’s public persona or ‘face ’– is ubiquitous in language use. Since, on the whole, taking account of people’s feelings means saying and doing things in a less straightforward or more elaborate manner than when one is not taking such feelings into consideration, ways of being polite provide probably the most pervasive source of indirectness, reasons for not saying exactly what one means, in how people frame their communicative intentions in formulating their utterances. There are two quite different kinds of feelings to be attended to, and therefore there are two distinct kinds of politeness. One kind arises whenever what is about to be said may be unwelcome, prompting expressions of respect, restraint, avoidance (‘negative politeness’). Another arises from the fact that longterm relationships with people can be important in taking their feelings into account, prompting expressions of social closeness, caring, and approval (‘positive politeness’). There are many folk notions for these kinds of attention to feelings – including courtesy, tact, deference, demeanor, sensibility, poise, discernment, rapport, mannerliness, urbanity, as well as for the contrasting behavior – rudeness, gaucheness, social gaffes, and for their consequences – embarrassment, humiliation. Such terms label culture-specific notions invested with social importance, and attest both to the pervasiveness of notions of politeness and to their cultural framing.
---
paper_title: Benjamin Franklin’s Decision Method is Acceptable and Helpful with a Conversational Agent

paper_content:

In this paper, we show that rational decision-making methods such as Benjamin Franklin’s can be successfully implemented as a text based natural language dialog system. More specifically, we developed a prototype, vpino, and conducted a user study. Vpino acts maieutically: the questions raised by vpino encourage the user to reflect about potential options and arguments and help her structure her thoughts. To maintain a real dialog, vpino unobtrusively attempts to keep control of the conversation at all times. Serious, motivated users evaluated acceptance and usefulness of vpino quite positively. Users that are more open to computer based decision support held better and more fruitful dialogs than those with a sceptical attitude. This quantitative result conforms well to our qualitative observation that vpino shows good human like behaviour whenever the user is serious and motivated. We also found that users with a more hypervigilant approach to decisions particularly benefit from vpino.
---
paper_title: The Racial Formation of Chatbots

paper_content:

In his article "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" Mark C. Marino introduces electronic literature known as chatbot or conversation agent. These programs are all around us from automated help centers to smartphones (e.g., Siri). These conversation agents are often represented as text or disembodied voices. However, when programmers give them a body or the representation of a body (partial or full), other aspects of their identity become more apparent—particularly their racial or ethnic identity. Marino explores the ways racial identity is constructed through the embodied performance of chatbots and what that indicates for human identity construction on the internet. Mark C. Marino, "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" page 2 of 11 CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 16.5 (2014): http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb/vol16/iss5/13> Special Issue New Work on Electronic Literature and Cyberculture. Ed. Maya Zalbidea, Mark C. Marino, and Asuncion Lopez-Varela
---
paper_title: Conversational Agents for Game-Like Virtual Environments

paper_content:

Insp. Gray: I’d like to ask you a few questions about last night. Coln. Mustard:Fire away young man, I’ve got nothing to hide. (Mustard uses phrase ’young man’ he feels a superiority in the social relationship with the inspector) (Mustard is a defensive person protests innocence straight away) Insp. Gray: Were you in the ballroom at all last night? Coln. Mustard:Yes. I was in the ballroom between 1945 hours and 2000 hours. (Mustard is an army man dictates choice of ’1945 hours’ over ’seven forty-five’) (Mustard is confident of himself very affirmative tone used) Insp. Gray: Okay. So where had you been before you went to the ballroom? Coln. Mustard:I was in the Kitchen (Abrupt. Dislikes the Inspectors questioning) Insp. Gray: But Mrs. White was in the Kitchen at that time and said that she didn’t see anyone else. Coln. Mustard:Well she must be mistaken. (Very defensive. Authoritative about the fact commanding personality) Insp. Gray: She seemed very confident she was right. Are you sure you’ve not made a mistake? Coln. Mustard:I’m absolutely certain! (Very defensive and angry strengthens his claim with the use of the adverb) Coln. Mustard:You should talk to Mrs. Peacock. I saw her heading towards the library at 1945 hours. She seemed very suspicious. (Changes subject dominant personality disliked previous conversational direction) Insp. Gray: Why do you say that? Coln. Mustard:She hates reading, and never goes to the library. (Authoritative confident of his knowledge) Insp. Gray: Okay. Thanks for your time. Figure 1. Example Conversation from the Cluedo Game
---
paper_title: DailyDialog: A Manually Labelled Multi-turn Dialogue Dataset

paper_content:

We develop a high-quality multi-turn dialog dataset, DailyDialog, which is intriguing in several aspects. The language is human-written and less noisy. The dialogues in the dataset reflect our daily communication way and cover various topics about our daily life. We also manually label the developed dataset with communication intention and emotion information. Then, we evaluate existing approaches on DailyDialog dataset and hope it benefit the research field of dialog systems.
---
paper_title: Let's Talk About Race: Identity, Chatbots, and AI

paper_content:

Why is it so hard for chatbots to talk about race? This work explores how the biased contents of databases, the syntactic focus of natural language processing, and the opaque nature of deep learning algorithms cause chatbots difficulty in handling race-talk. In each of these areas, the tensions between race and chatbots create new opportunities for people and machines. By making the abstract and disparate qualities of this problem space tangible, we can develop chatbots that are more capable of handling race-talk in its many forms. Our goal is to provide the HCI community with ways to begin addressing the question, how can chatbots handle race-talk in new and improved ways?
---
paper_title: WHAT MAKES ANY AGENT A MORAL AGENT? REFLECTIONS ON MACHINE CONSCIOUSNESS AND MORAL AGENCY

paper_content:

In this paper, we take moral agency to be that context in which a particular agent can, appropriately, be held responsible for her actions and their consequences. In order to understand moral agency, we will discuss what it would take for an artifact to be a moral agent. For reasons that will become clear over the course of the paper, we take the artifactual question to be a useful way into discussion but ultimately misleading. We set out a number of conceptual pre-conditions for being a moral agent and then outline how one should — and should not — go about attributing moral agency. In place of a litmus test for such an agency — such as Allen et al.'s Moral Turing Test — we suggest some tools from the conceptual spaces theory and the unified conceptual space theory for mapping out the nature and extent of that agency.
---
paper_title: Conversational Agents and Mental Health: Theory-Informed Assessment of Language and Affect

paper_content:

A study deployed the mental health Relational Frame Theory as grounding for an analysis of sentiment dynamics in human-language dialogs. The work takes a step towards enabling use of conversational agents in mental health settings. Sentiment tendencies and mirroring behaviors in 11k human-human dialogs were compared with behaviors when humans interacted with conversational agents in a similar-sized collection. The study finds that human sentiment-related interaction norms persist in human-agent dialogs, but that humans are twice as likely to respond negatively when faced with a negative utterance by a robot than in a comparable situation with humans. Similarly, inhibition towards use of obscenity is greatly reduced. We introduce a new Affective Neural Net implementation that specializes in analyzing sentiment in real time.
---
paper_title: Artificial agency, consciousness, and the criteria for moral agency: what properties must an artificial agent have to be a moral agent?

paper_content:

In this essay, I describe and explain the standard accounts of agency, natural agency, artificial agency, and moral agency, as well as articulate what are widely taken to be the criteria for moral agency, supporting the contention that this is the standard account with citations from such widely used and respected professional resources as the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. I then flesh out the implications of some of these well-settled theories with respect to the prerequisites that an ICT must satisfy in order to count as a moral agent accountable for its behavior. I argue that each of the various elements of the necessary conditions for moral agency presupposes consciousness, i.e., the capacity for inner subjective experience like that of pain or, as Nagel puts it, the possession of an internal something-of-which-it is-is-to-be-like. I ultimately conclude that the issue of whether artificial moral agency is possible depends on the issue of whether it is possible for ICTs to be conscious.
---
paper_title: A perceived moral agency scale: Development and validation of a metric for humans and social machines

paper_content:

Abstract Although current social machine technology cannot fully exhibit the hallmarks of human morality or agency, popular culture representations and emerging technology make it increasingly important to examine human interlocutors’ perception of social machines (e.g., digital assistants, chatbots, robots) as moral agents. To facilitate such scholarship, the notion of perceived moral agency (PMA) is proposed and defined, and a metric developed and validated through two studies: (1) a large-scale online survey featuring potential scale items and concurrent validation metrics for both machine and human targets, and (2) a scale validation study with robots presented as variably agentic and moral. The PMA metric is shown to be reliable, valid, and exhibiting predictive utility.
---
paper_title: Automation, Algorithms, and Politics| Talking to Bots: Symbiotic Agency and the Case of Tay

paper_content:

In 2016, Microsoft launched Tay, an experimental artificial intelligence chat bot. Learning from interactions with Twitter users, Tay was shut down after one day because of its obscene and inflammatory tweets. This article uses the case of Tay to re-examine theories of agency. How did users view the personality and actions of an artificial intelligence chat bot when interacting with Tay on Twitter? Using phenomenological research methods and pragmatic approaches to agency, we look at what people said about Tay to study how they imagine and interact with emerging technologies and to show the limitations of our current theories of agency for describing communication in these settings. We show how different qualities of agency, different expectations for technologies, and different capacities for affordance emerge in the interactions between people and artificial intelligence. We argue that a perspective of “symbiotic agency”—informed by the imagined affordances of emerging technology—is required to really understand the collapse of Tay.
---
paper_title: A new friend in our smartphone?: observing interactions with chatbots in the search of emotional engagement

paper_content:

We present the findings of a quantitative and qualitative empirical research to understand the possibilities of engagement and affection in the use of conversational agents (chatbots). Based on an experiment with 13 participants, we explored on one hand the correlation between the user expectation, user experience and intended use and, on the other, whether users feel keen and engaged in having a personal, empathic relation with an intelligent system like chatbots. We used psychological questionnaires to semi-structured interviews for disentangle the meaning of the interaction. In particular, the personal psychological background of participants was found critical while the experience itself allowed them to imagine new possible relations with chatbots. Our results show some insights on how people understand and empathize with future interactions with conversational agents and other non-visual interfaces.
---
paper_title: Why Machine Ethics?

paper_content:

Machine ethics isn't merely science fiction; it's a topic that requires serious consideration, given the rapid emergence of increasingly complex autonomous software agents and robots. Machine ethics is an emerging field that seeks to implement moral decision-making faculties in computers and robots. We already have semiautonomous robots and software agents that violate ethical standards as a matter of course. In the case of AI and robotics, fearful scenarios range from the future takeover of humanity by a superior form of AI to the havoc created by endlessly reproducing nanobots
---
paper_title: What Is Personalization? Perspectives on the Design and Implementation of Personalization in Information Systems

paper_content:

In e-commerce and mobile commerce, personalization has been recognized as an important approach element in customer relationships and Web strategies. However, there are wide differences in how this concept is defined, characterized, and implemented in the literature. In this article we present a high-level framework for classifying approaches to personalization that delineates fundamental assumptions about personalization in the literature and relates them to strategies for developing personalization systems. The framework consists of 2 parts: (a) a set of perspectives on personalization that guide the design of personalization systems at a general level and (b) a scheme for classifying how personalization can be implemented. The personalization perspectives represent 4 distinct schools of thought on the nature of personalization distilled from the literature of several fields. These perspectives are ideal types and we discuss them in terms of the motivation they supply for personalization, the goals and ...
---
paper_title: The Racial Formation of Chatbots

paper_content:

In his article "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" Mark C. Marino introduces electronic literature known as chatbot or conversation agent. These programs are all around us from automated help centers to smartphones (e.g., Siri). These conversation agents are often represented as text or disembodied voices. However, when programmers give them a body or the representation of a body (partial or full), other aspects of their identity become more apparent—particularly their racial or ethnic identity. Marino explores the ways racial identity is constructed through the embodied performance of chatbots and what that indicates for human identity construction on the internet. Mark C. Marino, "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" page 2 of 11 CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 16.5 (2014): http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb/vol16/iss5/13> Special Issue New Work on Electronic Literature and Cyberculture. Ed. Maya Zalbidea, Mark C. Marino, and Asuncion Lopez-Varela
---
paper_title: Conversational Agents for Game-Like Virtual Environments

paper_content:

Insp. Gray: I’d like to ask you a few questions about last night. Coln. Mustard:Fire away young man, I’ve got nothing to hide. (Mustard uses phrase ’young man’ he feels a superiority in the social relationship with the inspector) (Mustard is a defensive person protests innocence straight away) Insp. Gray: Were you in the ballroom at all last night? Coln. Mustard:Yes. I was in the ballroom between 1945 hours and 2000 hours. (Mustard is an army man dictates choice of ’1945 hours’ over ’seven forty-five’) (Mustard is confident of himself very affirmative tone used) Insp. Gray: Okay. So where had you been before you went to the ballroom? Coln. Mustard:I was in the Kitchen (Abrupt. Dislikes the Inspectors questioning) Insp. Gray: But Mrs. White was in the Kitchen at that time and said that she didn’t see anyone else. Coln. Mustard:Well she must be mistaken. (Very defensive. Authoritative about the fact commanding personality) Insp. Gray: She seemed very confident she was right. Are you sure you’ve not made a mistake? Coln. Mustard:I’m absolutely certain! (Very defensive and angry strengthens his claim with the use of the adverb) Coln. Mustard:You should talk to Mrs. Peacock. I saw her heading towards the library at 1945 hours. She seemed very suspicious. (Changes subject dominant personality disliked previous conversational direction) Insp. Gray: Why do you say that? Coln. Mustard:She hates reading, and never goes to the library. (Authoritative confident of his knowledge) Insp. Gray: Okay. Thanks for your time. Figure 1. Example Conversation from the Cluedo Game
---
paper_title: Personifying the e-Market: A Framework for Social Agents.

paper_content:

This paper discusses our vision of the future with respect to the introduction of virtual assistants in the e-market. It presents the latest evolution of the involvement framework , an on-going model aimed at driving the design and the evaluation of social agents virtual characters designed to set up lasting relationships with the users. The framework is based on a review of the literature and on the systematic analysis of the firstgeneration social agents available on the Web. Moreover, it is enriched by empirical results of two user-based evaluations of Granny, a social agent that tries to inject a specific personality into the interaction between a financial service provider and a customer. The assumption behind our research is that social agents require a reexamination of the traditional HCI approach to system design and evaluation. Both the usability framework and the media equation paradigm need to be updated to account for the peculiarity of the new interaction form.
---
paper_title: Let's Talk About Race: Identity, Chatbots, and AI

paper_content:

Why is it so hard for chatbots to talk about race? This work explores how the biased contents of databases, the syntactic focus of natural language processing, and the opaque nature of deep learning algorithms cause chatbots difficulty in handling race-talk. In each of these areas, the tensions between race and chatbots create new opportunities for people and machines. By making the abstract and disparate qualities of this problem space tangible, we can develop chatbots that are more capable of handling race-talk in its many forms. Our goal is to provide the HCI community with ways to begin addressing the question, how can chatbots handle race-talk in new and improved ways?
---
paper_title: The Self and Others: Positioning Individuals and Groups in Personal, Political, and Cultural Contexts

paper_content:

Introduction by Rom HarRE and Fathali M. Moghaddam The Self and Other Individuals Motivational Styles and Positioning Theory by Michael J. Apter Positioning and the Emotions by W. Gerrod Parrott "There You Are Man": Men's Use of Emotion Discourses and Their Negotiation of Emotional Subject Positions by Chris Walton, Adrian Coyle, and Evanthia Lyons The Unthinkable, the Unspeakable Self: Reflections on the Importance of Negative Emotional Boundaries for the Formation, Maintenance and Transformation of Identities by Ciaran Benson Malignant Positioning and the Predicament of People with Alzheimer's Disease by Steven R. Sabat Paranoia, Ambivalence, and Discursive Practices: Concepts of Position and Positioning in Psychoanalysis and Discursive Psychology by Margaret Wetherell The Self and Groups Positioning and Neighborhood Groups by Rom HarRE and Nikki Slocum Sustaining Intergroup Harmony: An Analysis of the Kissinger Papers through Positioning Theory by Fathali M. Moghaddam, Elizabeth Hanley, and Rom HarRE Categories as Actions: Positioning, Oppression, and Heteronormativity by Sue Wilkinson and Celia Kitzenger Gender Positioning: A 16th/17th Century Example Jennifer Lynn Adams and Rom HarRE Positioning and Postcolonial Apologizing in Australia by Lucinda Aberdeen Applying Positioning Principles to a Theory of Collective Identity by Donald M. Taylor, Evelyne Bougie, and Julie Caouette The Self and Context Integration Speaking: Introducing Positioning Theory in Regional Integration Studies by Nikki Slocum and Luk Van Langenhove Culture-Clash and Patents: Positioning and Intellectual Property Rights by Fathali M. Moghaddam and Shayna Ginsburg Assessment of Quality Systems with Positioning Theory by Lionel Boxer Positioning the Subject in Body/Landscape Relations by Bronwyn Davies Concluding Chapter by Tim May
---
paper_title: Iterative Development and Evaluation of a Social Conversational Agent

paper_content:

We show that an agent with fairly good social conversational abilities can be built based on a limited number of topics and dialogue strategies if it is tailored to its intended users through a high degree of user involvement during an iterative development process. The technology used is pattern matching of question-answer pairs, coupled with strategies to handle: followup questions, utterances not understood, abusive utterances, repetitive utterances, and initiation of new topics.
---
paper_title: Sense of humor and dimensions of personality

paper_content:

Previous researchers have demonstrated relationships between sense of humor and personality. Most have viewed sense of humor from the perspective of humor appreciation. Others have taken the approach that sense of humor has two factors: appreciation and creativity. Our approach has been to look at sense of humor as made up of creativity and several additional elements. The present study reports on the factor analysis of a Multidimensional Sense of Humor Scale, as well as correlates of various elements of sense of humor with personality traits assessed by the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Relationships by humor scale factors are reported, as are differences between those high and low in sense of humor within a sample of 426 individuals, 18 through 90 years of age.
---
paper_title: How social is social responses to computers? The function of the degree of anthropomorphism in computer representations

paper_content:

Testing the assumption that more anthropomorphic (human-like) computer representations elicit more social responses from people, a between-participants experiment (N=168) manipulated 12 computer agents to represent four levels of anthropomorphism: low, medium, high, and real human images. Social responses were assessed with users' social judgment and homophily perception of the agents, conformity in a choice dilemma task, and competency and trustworthiness ratings of the agents. Linear polynomial trend analyses revealed significant linear trends for almost all the measures. As the agent became more anthropomorphic to being human, it received more social responses from users.
---
paper_title: Extending an Educational Math Game with a Pedagogical Conversational Agent: Facing Design Challenges

paper_content:

We describe our work-in-progress of developing an educational game in mathematics for 12-14 year olds, by adding social and conversational abilities to an existing “teachable agent” (TA) in the game. The purpose of this extension is to affect cognitive, emotional and social constructs known to promote learning, such as self-efficacy and engagement, as well as enhancing students’ experiences of interacting with the agent over an extended period of time. Drawing from the EnALI framework, which states practical design guidelines, we discuss specific design challenges and exemplify research considerations as to developing the agent’s visual representation and conversational module. We present some initial findings from prototype testing with students from the target group. Promising developments seem to reside in pronouncing the agent’s personality traits and expanding its knowledge database, particularly its range of conversational topics. Finally we propose some future studies and research directions.
---
paper_title: Living up to the chatbot hype: The influence of anthropomorphic design cues and communicative agency framing on conversational agent and company perceptions

paper_content:

Disembodied conversational agents in the form of chatbots are increasingly becoming a reality on social media and messaging applications, and are a particularly pressing topic for service encounters with companies. Adopting an experimental design with actual chatbots powered with current technology, this study explores the extent to which human-like cues such as language style and name, and the framing used to introduce the chatbot to the consumer can influence perceptions about social presence as well as mindful and mindless anthropomorphism. Moreover, this study investigates the relevance of anthropomorphism and social presence to important company-related outcomes, such as attitudes, satisfaction and the emotional connection that consumers feel with the company after interacting with the chatbot.
---
paper_title: Personality trait structure as a human universal.

paper_content:

Patterns of covariation among personality traits in English-speaking populations can be summarized by the five-factor model (FFM). To assess the cross-cultural generalizability of the FFM, data from studies using 6 translations of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (P. T. Costa & R. R. McCrae, 1992) were compared with the American factor structure. German, Portuguese, Hebrew, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese samples (N = 7,134) showed similar structures after varimax rotation of 5 factors. When targeted rotations were used, the American factor structure was closely reproduced, even at the level of secondary loadings. Because the samples studied represented highly diverse cultures with languages from 5 distinct language families, these data strongly suggest that personality trait structure is universal.
---
paper_title: Co-constructing intersubjectivity with artificial conversational agents: People are more likely to initiate repairs of misunderstandings with agents represented as human

paper_content:

This article explores whether people more frequently attempt to repair misunderstandings when speaking to an artificial conversational agent if it is represented as fully human. Interactants in dyadic conversations with an agent (the chat bot Cleverbot) spoke to either a text screen interface (agent's responses shown on a screen) or a human body interface (agent's responses vocalized by a human speech shadower via the echoborg method) and were either informed or not informed prior to interlocution that their interlocutor's responses would be agent-generated. Results show that an interactant is less likely to initiate repairs when an agent-interlocutor communicates via a text screen interface as well as when they explicitly know their interlocutor's words to be agent-generated. That is to say, people demonstrate the most "intersubjective effort" toward establishing common ground when they engage an agent under the same social psychological conditions as face-to-face human-human interaction (i.e., when they both encounter another human body and assume that they are speaking to an autonomously-communicating person). This article's methodology presents a novel means of benchmarking intersubjectivity and intersubjective effort in human-agent interaction. This article demonstrates a method for evaluating human-agent interaction against human-human benchmarks.An experiment assesses the effort people exert toward building common ground with a conversational agent.Believing an interlocutor is a person (vs. an agent) augments efforts to establish common ground.Interfacing with a human body (vs. a text screen) augments efforts to establish common ground.
---
paper_title: A new friend in our smartphone?: observing interactions with chatbots in the search of emotional engagement

paper_content:

We present the findings of a quantitative and qualitative empirical research to understand the possibilities of engagement and affection in the use of conversational agents (chatbots). Based on an experiment with 13 participants, we explored on one hand the correlation between the user expectation, user experience and intended use and, on the other, whether users feel keen and engaged in having a personal, empathic relation with an intelligent system like chatbots. We used psychological questionnaires to semi-structured interviews for disentangle the meaning of the interaction. In particular, the personal psychological background of participants was found critical while the experience itself allowed them to imagine new possible relations with chatbots. Our results show some insights on how people understand and empathize with future interactions with conversational agents and other non-visual interfaces.
---
paper_title: The sense of humor : explorations of a personality characteristic

paper_content:

This volume brings together the current approaches to the definition and measurement of the sense of humor and its components. It provides both an overview of historic approaches and a compendium of current humor inventories and humor traits that have been studied. Presenting the only available overview and analysis of this significant facet of human behavior, this volume will interest researchers from the fields of humor and personality studies as well as those interested in the clinical or abstract implications of the subject.
---
paper_title: Social Practice: Becoming Enculturated in Human-Computer Interaction

paper_content:

We present a new approach to the design, development and evaluation of embodied conversational agents (ECAs) that allows them to index identity through culturally and socially authentic verbal and non-verbal behaviors. This approach is illustrated with research we are carrying out with children who speak several dialects of American English, and the subsequent implementation and first evaluation of a virtual peer based on that research. Results suggest that issues of identity in ECAs are more complicated than previous approaches might suggest, and that ECAs themselves may play a role in understanding issues of identity and language use in ways that have promise for educational applications.
---
paper_title: What Is Personalization? Perspectives on the Design and Implementation of Personalization in Information Systems

paper_content:

In e-commerce and mobile commerce, personalization has been recognized as an important approach element in customer relationships and Web strategies. However, there are wide differences in how this concept is defined, characterized, and implemented in the literature. In this article we present a high-level framework for classifying approaches to personalization that delineates fundamental assumptions about personalization in the literature and relates them to strategies for developing personalization systems. The framework consists of 2 parts: (a) a set of perspectives on personalization that guide the design of personalization systems at a general level and (b) a scheme for classifying how personalization can be implemented. The personalization perspectives represent 4 distinct schools of thought on the nature of personalization distilled from the literature of several fields. These perspectives are ideal types and we discuss them in terms of the motivation they supply for personalization, the goals and ...
---
paper_title: Social identity theory: past achievements, current problems and future challenges

paper_content:

This article presents a critical review of Social Identity Theory. Its major contributions to the study of intergroup relations are discussed, focusing on its powerful explanations of such phenomena as ingroup bias, responses of subordinate groups to their unequal status position, and intragroup homogeneity and stereotyping. In addition, its stimulative role for theoretical elaborations of the Contact Hypothesis as a strategy for improving intergroup attitudes is noted. Then five issues which have proved problematic for Social Identity Theory are identified: the relationship between group identification and ingroup bias; the self-esteem hypothesis; positive – negative asymmetry in intergroup discrimination; the effects of intergroup similarity; and the choice of identity strategies by low-status groups. In a third section a future research agenda for the theory is sketched out, with five lines of enquiry noted as being particularly promising: expanding the concept of social identity; predicting comparison choice in intergroup settings; incorporating affect into the theory; managing social identities in multicultural settings; and integrating implicit and explicit processes. The article concludes with some remarks on the potential applications of social identity principles. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
---
paper_title: The Racial Formation of Chatbots

paper_content:

In his article "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" Mark C. Marino introduces electronic literature known as chatbot or conversation agent. These programs are all around us from automated help centers to smartphones (e.g., Siri). These conversation agents are often represented as text or disembodied voices. However, when programmers give them a body or the representation of a body (partial or full), other aspects of their identity become more apparent—particularly their racial or ethnic identity. Marino explores the ways racial identity is constructed through the embodied performance of chatbots and what that indicates for human identity construction on the internet. Mark C. Marino, "The Racial Formation of Chatbots" page 2 of 11 CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture 16.5 (2014): http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb/vol16/iss5/13> Special Issue New Work on Electronic Literature and Cyberculture. Ed. Maya Zalbidea, Mark C. Marino, and Asuncion Lopez-Varela
---
paper_title: Single or Multiple Conversational Agents?: An Interactional Coherence Comparison

paper_content:

Chatbots focusing on a narrow domain of expertise are in great rise. As several tasks require multiple expertise, a designer may integrate multiple chatbots in the background or include them as interlocutors in a conversation. We investigated both scenarios by means of a Wizard of Oz experiment, in which participants talked to chatbots about visiting a destination. We analyzed the conversation content, users' speech, and reported impressions. We found no significant difference between single- and multi-chatbots scenarios. However, even with equivalent conversation structures, users reported more confusion in multi-chatbots interactions and adopted strategies to organize turn-taking. Our findings indicate that implementing a meta-chatbot may not be necessary, since similar conversation structures occur when interacting to multiple chatbots, but different interactional aspects must be considered for each scenario.
---
paper_title: Conversational Agents for Game-Like Virtual Environments

paper_content:

Insp. Gray: I’d like to ask you a few questions about last night. Coln. Mustard:Fire away young man, I’ve got nothing to hide. (Mustard uses phrase ’young man’ he feels a superiority in the social relationship with the inspector) (Mustard is a defensive person protests innocence straight away) Insp. Gray: Were you in the ballroom at all last night? Coln. Mustard:Yes. I was in the ballroom between 1945 hours and 2000 hours. (Mustard is an army man dictates choice of ’1945 hours’ over ’seven forty-five’) (Mustard is confident of himself very affirmative tone used) Insp. Gray: Okay. So where had you been before you went to the ballroom? Coln. Mustard:I was in the Kitchen (Abrupt. Dislikes the Inspectors questioning) Insp. Gray: But Mrs. White was in the Kitchen at that time and said that she didn’t see anyone else. Coln. Mustard:Well she must be mistaken. (Very defensive. Authoritative about the fact commanding personality) Insp. Gray: She seemed very confident she was right. Are you sure you’ve not made a mistake? Coln. Mustard:I’m absolutely certain! (Very defensive and angry strengthens his claim with the use of the adverb) Coln. Mustard:You should talk to Mrs. Peacock. I saw her heading towards the library at 1945 hours. She seemed very suspicious. (Changes subject dominant personality disliked previous conversational direction) Insp. Gray: Why do you say that? Coln. Mustard:She hates reading, and never goes to the library. (Authoritative confident of his knowledge) Insp. Gray: Okay. Thanks for your time. Figure 1. Example Conversation from the Cluedo Game
---
paper_title: Let's Talk About Race: Identity, Chatbots, and AI

paper_content:

Why is it so hard for chatbots to talk about race? This work explores how the biased contents of databases, the syntactic focus of natural language processing, and the opaque nature of deep learning algorithms cause chatbots difficulty in handling race-talk. In each of these areas, the tensions between race and chatbots create new opportunities for people and machines. By making the abstract and disparate qualities of this problem space tangible, we can develop chatbots that are more capable of handling race-talk in its many forms. Our goal is to provide the HCI community with ways to begin addressing the question, how can chatbots handle race-talk in new and improved ways?
---
paper_title: Iterative Development and Evaluation of a Social Conversational Agent

paper_content:

We show that an agent with fairly good social conversational abilities can be built based on a limited number of topics and dialogue strategies if it is tailored to its intended users through a high degree of user involvement during an iterative development process. The technology used is pattern matching of question-answer pairs, coupled with strategies to handle: followup questions, utterances not understood, abusive utterances, repetitive utterances, and initiation of new topics.
---
paper_title: How social is social responses to computers? The function of the degree of anthropomorphism in computer representations

paper_content:

Testing the assumption that more anthropomorphic (human-like) computer representations elicit more social responses from people, a between-participants experiment (N=168) manipulated 12 computer agents to represent four levels of anthropomorphism: low, medium, high, and real human images. Social responses were assessed with users' social judgment and homophily perception of the agents, conformity in a choice dilemma task, and competency and trustworthiness ratings of the agents. Linear polynomial trend analyses revealed significant linear trends for almost all the measures. As the agent became more anthropomorphic to being human, it received more social responses from users.
---
paper_title: Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human-human online conversations and human-chatbot conversations

paper_content:

How does communication change when speaking to intelligent agents over humans?We compared 100 IM conversations to 100 exchanges with the chatbot Cleverbot.People used more, but shorter, messages when communicating with chatbots.People also used more restricted vocabulary and greater profanity with chatbots.People can easily adapt their language to communicate with intelligent agents. This study analyzed how communication changes when people communicate with an intelligent agent as opposed to with another human. We compared 100 instant messaging conversations to 100 exchanges with the popular chatbot Cleverbot along seven dimensions: words per message, words per conversation, messages per conversation, word uniqueness, and use of profanity, shorthand, and emoticons. A MANOVA indicated that people communicated with the chatbot for longer durations (but with shorter messages) than they did with another human. Additionally, human-chatbot communication lacked much of the richness of vocabulary found in conversations among people, and exhibited greater profanity. These results suggest that while human language skills transfer easily to human-chatbot communication, there are notable differences in the content and quality of such conversations.
---
paper_title: Extending an Educational Math Game with a Pedagogical Conversational Agent: Facing Design Challenges

paper_content:

We describe our work-in-progress of developing an educational game in mathematics for 12-14 year olds, by adding social and conversational abilities to an existing “teachable agent” (TA) in the game. The purpose of this extension is to affect cognitive, emotional and social constructs known to promote learning, such as self-efficacy and engagement, as well as enhancing students’ experiences of interacting with the agent over an extended period of time. Drawing from the EnALI framework, which states practical design guidelines, we discuss specific design challenges and exemplify research considerations as to developing the agent’s visual representation and conversational module. We present some initial findings from prototype testing with students from the target group. Promising developments seem to reside in pronouncing the agent’s personality traits and expanding its knowledge database, particularly its range of conversational topics. Finally we propose some future studies and research directions.
---
paper_title: Here's What I Can Do: Chatbots' Strategies to Convey Their Features to Users

paper_content:

Chatbots have been around since the 1960's, but recently they have risen in popularity especially due to new compatibility with social networks and messenger applications. Chatbots are different from traditional user interfaces, for they unveil themselves to the user one sentence at a time. Because of that, users may struggle to interact with them and to understand what they can do. Hence, it is important to support designers in deciding how to convey chatbots' features to users, as this might determine whether the user continues to chat or not. As a first step in this direction, in this paper our goal is to analyze the communicative strategies that have been used by popular chatbots to convey their features to users. To perform this analysis we use the Semiotic Inspection Method (SIM). As a result we identify and discuss the different strategies used by the analyzed chatbots to present their features to users. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of using SIM on such interfaces.
---
paper_title: Artificially intelligent conversational agents in libraries

paper_content:

Purpose – Conversational agents are natural language interaction interfaces designed to simulate conversation with a real person. This paper seeks to investigate current development and applications of these systems worldwide, while focusing on their availability in Canadian libraries. It aims to argue that it is both timely and conceivable for Canadian libraries to consider adopting conversational agents to enhance – not replace – face‐to‐face human interaction. Potential users include library web site tour guides, automated virtual reference and readers' advisory librarians, and virtual story‐tellers. To provide background and justification for this argument, the paper seeks to review agents from classic implementations to state‐of‐the‐art prototypes: how they interact with users, produce language, and control conversational behaviors.Design/methodology/approach – The web sites of the 20 largest Canadian libraries were surveyed to assess the extent to which specific language‐related technologies are off...
---
paper_title: Unleashing the Potential of Chatbots in Education: A State-Of-The-Art Analysis

paper_content:

Chatbots are becoming a ubiquitous trend in many fields such as medicine, product and ::: service industry, and education. Chatbots are computer programs used to conduct auditory or ::: textual conversations. A growing body of evidence suggests that these programs have the potential ::: to change the way students learn and search for information. Especially in large-scale learning ::: scenarios with more than 100 students per lecturer, chatbots are able to solve the problem of ::: individual student support. However, until now, there has been no systematic, structured overview ::: of their use in education. The aim of this paper is therefore to conduct a systematic literature review ::: based on a multi-perspective framework, from which we have derived initial search questions, ::: synthesized past research, and highlighted future research directions. We reviewed titles and ::: abstracts of 1405 articles drawn from management, education, information systems, and ::: psychology literature before examining and individually coding a relevant subset of 80 articles. ::: The results show that chatbots are in the very beginning of entering education. Few studies suggest ::: the potential of chatbots for improving learning processes and outcomes. Nevertheless, past ::: research has revealed that the effectiveness of chatbots in education is complex and depends on a ::: variety of factors. With our literature review, we make two principal contributions: first, we ::: structure and synthesize past research by using an input-process-output framework, and secondly, ::: we use the framework to highlight research gaps for guiding future research in that area.
---
paper_title: Can a Chatbot Determine My Diet?: Addressing Challenges of Chatbot Application for Meal Recommendation

paper_content:

Poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity, increased susceptibility to disease, impaired physical and mental development, and reduced productivity. A conversational agent can support people as a virtual coach, however building such systems still have its associated challenges and limitations. This paper describes the background and motivation for chatbot systems in the context of healthy nutrition recommendation. We discuss current challenges associated with chatbot application, we tackled technical, theoretical, behavioural, and social aspects of the challenges. We then propose a pipeline to be used as guidelines by developers to implement theoretically and technically robust chatbot systems.
---
paper_title: An Overview of Open-Source Chatbots Social Skills

paper_content:

This paper aims to analyze and compare some of the most known open source chatbot technologies focusing on their potential to model a conversational agent able to show a form of “social intelligence”. The main features and drawbacks of each system will be examined. Then, we will discuss their flexibility to produce more realistic social conversational scenarios adopting as the reference the social practice theory.
---
paper_title: Chatbots: Are they Really Useful?

paper_content:

Chatbots are computer programs that interact with users using natural lan- guages. This technology started in the 1960’s; the aim was to see if chatbot systems could fool users that they were real humans. However, chatbot sys- tems are not only built to mimic human conversation, and entertain users. In this paper, we investigate other applications where chatbots could be useful such as education, information retrival, business, and e-commerce. A range of chatbots with useful applications, including several based on the ALICE/AIML architecture, are presented in this paper.
---
paper_title: Chatbots' Greetings to Human-Computer Communication

paper_content:

Both dialogue systems and chatbots aim at putting into action communication between humans and computers. However, instead of focusing on sophisticated techniques to perform natural language understanding, as the former usually do, chatbots seek to mimic conversation. Since Eliza, the first chatbot ever, developed in 1966, there were many interesting ideas explored by the chatbots' community. Actually, more than just ideas, some chatbots' developers also provide free resources, including tools and large-scale corpora. It is our opinion that this know-how and materials should not be neglected, as they might be put to use in the human-computer communication field (and some authors already do it). Thus, in this paper we present a historical overview of the chatbots' developments, we review what we consider to be the main contributions of this community, and we point to some possible ways of coupling these with current work in the human-computer communication research line.
---
paper_title: A Review of Technologies for Conversational Systems

paper_content:

During the last 50 years, since the development of ELIZA by Weizenbaum, technologies for developing conversational systems have made a great stride. The number of conversational systems is increasing. Conversational systems emerge almost in every digital device in many application areas. In this paper, we present the review of the development of conversational systems regarding technologies and their special features including language tricks.
---
paper_title: Review of integrated applications with AIML based chatbot

paper_content:

Artificial Intelligence Markup Language (AIML) is derived from Extensible Markup Language (XML) which is used to build up conversational agent (chatbot) artificially. There are developed a lot of works to make conversational agent. But low cost, configuration and availability make possible to use it in various applications. In this paper, we give a brief review of some applications which are used AIML chatbot for their conversational service. These applications are related to cultural heritage, e-learning, e-government, web base model, dialog model, semantic analysis framework, interaction framework, humorist expert, network management, adaptive modular architecture as well. In this case, they are not only providing useful services but also interact with customers and give solution of their problems through AIML chatbot instead of human beings. So, this is popular day by day with entrepreneur and users to provide efficient service.
---
paper_title: Conversational agents in healthcare: a systematic review

paper_content:

Objective ::: Our objective was to review the characteristics, current applications, and evaluation measures of conversational agents with unconstrained natural language input capabilities used for health-related purposes. ::: ::: ::: Methods ::: We searched PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, PsycInfo, and ACM Digital using a predefined search strategy. Studies were included if they focused on consumers or healthcare professionals; involved a conversational agent using any unconstrained natural language input; and reported evaluation measures resulting from user interaction with the system. Studies were screened by independent reviewers and Cohen's kappa measured inter-coder agreement. ::: ::: ::: Results ::: The database search retrieved 1513 citations; 17 articles (14 different conversational agents) met the inclusion criteria. Dialogue management strategies were mostly finite-state and frame-based (6 and 7 conversational agents, respectively); agent-based strategies were present in one type of system. Two studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 1 was cross-sectional, and the remaining were quasi-experimental. Half of the conversational agents supported consumers with health tasks such as self-care. The only RCT evaluating the efficacy of a conversational agent found a significant effect in reducing depression symptoms (effect size d = 0.44, p = .04). Patient safety was rarely evaluated in the included studies. ::: ::: ::: Conclusions ::: The use of conversational agents with unconstrained natural language input capabilities for health-related purposes is an emerging field of research, where the few published studies were mainly quasi-experimental, and rarely evaluated efficacy or safety. Future studies would benefit from more robust experimental designs and standardized reporting. ::: ::: ::: Protocol Registration ::: The protocol for this systematic review is registered at PROSPERO with the number CRD42017065917.
---

<format>
Title: How should my chatbot interact? A survey on human-chatbot interaction design

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: This section introduces the motivation behind the study and outlines the importance of social capabilities in chatbots, summarizing current research challenges and objectives.

Section 2: Related Work
Description 2: This section reviews related surveys and literature on chatbots, focusing on their social interactions and identifying the gaps this paper aims to address.

Section 3: Methodology
Description 3: This section describes the research methodology, including the literature review process, selection criteria, coding process, and data analysis.

Section 4: Chatbots Social Characteristics
Description 4: This section presents the identified social characteristics of chatbots, grouped into categories such as conversational intelligence, social intelligence, and personification.

Section 5: Conversational Intelligence
Description 5: This section discusses social characteristics related to conversational intelligence, including proactivity, conscientiousness, and communicability.

Section 6: Social Intelligence
Description 6: This section explores characteristics related to social intelligence, such as damage control, thoroughness, manners, moral agency, emotional intelligence, and personalization.

Section 7: Personification
Description 7: This section examines the influence of identity projection on human-chatbot interaction, focusing on identity and personality traits.

Section 8: Interrelationships Among the Characteristics
Description 8: This section describes the theoretical framework of how the identified social characteristics interrelate and influence each other.

Section 9: Related Surveys
Description 9: This section compares the current survey with previous related surveys, highlighting the unique contributions of this paper.

Section 10: Limitations
Description 10: This section discusses the limitations of the study, including scope restrictions and methodological constraints.

Section 11: Conclusion
Description 11: This section summarizes the findings, identifies research opportunities, and suggests future directions for advancing human-chatbot interactions.

Section 12: Supplemental Material
Description 12: This section includes additional tables and constructs that can be used to assess the success of social characteristics in chatbots.
</format>
