Towards a Comprehensive Conceptual Framework of Active Travel Behavior: a Review and Synthesis of Published Frameworks
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paper_title: Bikeway Networks: A Review of Effects on Cycling

paper_content:

Research linking bikeway infrastructure and cycling levels has increased significantly over the last 20 years — with the strongest growth since 2010. The research has evolved from the study of lanes and paths, to include analyses of the role of intersection treatments, and finally to studies that attempt to measure the whole bike network. Most studies suggest a positive relationship between bikeway networks or aspects of the network and cycling levels. Stated and revealed-preference studies suggest a hierarchy of cyclist and non-cyclist preferences may exist, favoring separate paths and/or lanes over cycling on roadways with traffic — particularly with high volumes of fast-moving motorized traffic. Revealed- and stated-route-choice studies indicate that intersections have negative effects on the cycling experience, but that certain features can offset this. The research correlating link and node characteristics to cycling implies that networks of such facilities would have positive effects, though very few empirical studies link complex measures of the network to cycling levels. In spite of an increase in studies and general agreement among findings, several important research gaps remain, including empirical studies using comprehensive network measures and studies of specific facility designs and new types of facilities (including intersection treatments). Improved research methods are necessary, including better sampling, longitudinal studies, greater geographic diversity, and incorporating more control variables, including policies.
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paper_title: Estimation of the determinants of bicycle mode share for the journey to work using census data

paper_content:

A model is presented that relates the proportion of bicycle journeys to work for English and Welsh electoral wards to relevant socio-economic, transport and physical variables. A number of previous studies have exploited existing disaggregate data sets. This study uses UK 2001 census data, is based on a logistic regression model and provides complementary evidence based on aggregate data for the determinants of cycle choice. It suggests a saturation level for bicycle use of 43%. Smaller proportions cycle in wards with more females and higher car ownership. The physical condition of the highway, rainfall and temperature each have an effect on the proportion that cycles to work, but the most significant physical variable is hilliness. The proportion of bicycle route that is off-road is shown to be significant, although it displays a low elasticity (+0.049) and this contrasts with more significant changes usually forecast by models constructed from stated preference based data. Forecasting shows the trend in car ownership has a significant effect on cycle use and offsets the positive effect of the provision of off-road routes for cycle traffic but only in districts that are moderately hilly or hilly. The provision of infrastructure alone appears insufficient to engender higher levels of cycling.
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paper_title: Evaluating the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of a ‘natural experiment’ in the provision of new walking and cycling infrastructure: methods for the core module of the iConnect study

paper_content:

INTRODUCTION: Improving infrastructure to support walking and cycling is often regarded as fundamental to encouraging their widespread uptake. However, there is little evidence that specific provision of this kind has led to a significant increase in walking or cycling in practice, let alone wider impacts such as changes in overall physical activity or carbon emissions. Connect2 is a major new project that aims to promote walking and cycling in the UK by improving local pedestrian and cycle routes. It therefore provides a useful opportunity to contribute new evidence in this field by means of a natural experimental study. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: iConnect is an independent study that aims to integrate the perspectives of public health and transport research on the measurement and evaluation of the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of the Connect2 programme. In this paper, the authors report the study design and methods for the iConnect core module. This comprised a cohort study of residents living within 5 km of three case study Connect2 projects in Cardiff, Kenilworth and Southampton, supported by a programme of qualitative interviews with key informants about the projects. Participants were asked to complete postal questionnaires, repeated before and after the opening of the new infrastructure, which collected data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, travel, car fuel purchasing and physical activity, and potential psychosocial and environmental correlates and mediators of those behaviours. In the absence of suitable no-intervention control groups, the study design drew on heterogeneity in exposure both within and between case study samples to provide for a counterfactual. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by the University of Southampton Research Ethics Committee. The findings will be disseminated through academic presentations, peer-reviewed publications and the study website (http://www.iconnect.ac.uk) and by means of a national seminar at the end of the study.
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paper_title: Health impact assessment of active transportation: A systematic review.

paper_content:

OBJECTIVE ::: Walking and cycling for transportation (i.e. active transportation, AT), provide substantial health benefits from increased physical activity (PA). However, risks of injury from exposure to motorized traffic and their emissions (i.e. air pollution) exist. The objective was to systematically review studies conducting health impact assessment (HIA) of a mode shift to AT on grounds of associated health benefits and risks. ::: ::: ::: METHODS ::: Systematic database searches of MEDLINE, Web of Science and Transportation Research International Documentation were performed by two independent researchers, augmented by bibliographic review, internet searches and expert consultation to identify peer-reviewed studies from inception to December 2014. ::: ::: ::: RESULTS ::: Thirty studies were included, originating predominantly from Europe, but also the United States, Australia and New Zealand. They compromised of mostly HIA approaches of comparative risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis. Estimated health benefit-risk or benefit-cost ratios of a mode shift to AT ranged between -2 and 360 (median=9). Effects of increased PA contributed the most to estimated health benefits, which strongly outweighed detrimental effects of traffic incidents and air pollution exposure on health. ::: ::: ::: CONCLUSION ::: Despite different HIA methodologies being applied with distinctive assumptions on key parameters, AT can provide substantial net health benefits, irrespective of geographical context.
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paper_title: Similarities in Attitudes and Norms and the Effect on Bicycle Commuting: Evidence from the Bicycle Cities Davis and Delft

paper_content:

Owing to its beneficial effects, many governments encourage bicycle use for commuting. In search of effective strategies, they often study best practices from elsewhere. However, in order to assess the likely success of transferring measures from one city or country to another, an accurate comparison of the bicycling context is needed. This article explores the similarities and differences in attitudes and beliefs about the decision to commute by bicycle to work in two bicycling-oriented cities: Delft, the Netherlands, and Davis, California, in the U.S. Because bicycling conditions are good in both cities, it is possible to explore the role that attitudes play in the decision to cycle to work. Analyses indicate that beliefs about safety and the importance attached to environmental benefits differ between the cities. Social norms about cycling are important in both cities, but residents in Davis are more often confronted with negative reactions to cycling. Similarities are found in beliefs towards the health benefits of cycling. Strategies successful in one city in encouraging cycling by targeting or leveraging health therefore offer promise for the other city. This exploration provides an important starting point for large-sample comparative studies of attitudes towards bicycle commuting.
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paper_title: Associations of health, physical activity and weight status with motorised travel and transport carbon dioxide emissions: a cross-sectional, observational study

paper_content:

Motorised travel and associated carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions generate substantial health costs; in the case of motorised travel, this may include contributing to rising obesity levels. Obesity has in turn been hypothesised to increase motorised travel and/or CO2 emissions, both because heavier people may use motorised travel more and because heavier people may choose larger and less fuel-efficient cars. These hypothesised associations have not been examined empirically, however, nor has previous research examined associations with other health characteristics. Our aim was therefore to examine how and why weight status, health, and physical activity are associated with transport CO2 emissions. 3463 adults completed questionnaires in the baseline iConnect survey at three study sites in the UK, reporting their health, weight, height and past-week physical activity. Seven-day recall instruments were used to assess travel behaviour and, together with data on car characteristics, were used to estimate CO2 emissions. We used path analysis to examine the extent to which active travel, motorised travel and car engine size explained associations between health characteristics and CO2 emissions. CO2 emissions were higher in overweight or obese participants (multivariable standardized probit coefficients 0.16, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.25 for overweight vs. normal weight; 0.16, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.28 for obese vs. normal weight). Lower active travel and, particularly for obesity, larger car engine size explained 19-31% of this effect, but most of the effect was directly explained by greater distance travelled by motor vehicles. Walking for recreation and leisure-time physical activity were associated with higher motorised travel distance and therefore higher CO2 emissions, while active travel was associated with lower CO2 emissions. Poor health and illness were not independently associated with CO2 emissions. Establishing the direction of causality between weight status and travel behaviour requires longitudinal data, but the association with engine size suggests that there may be at least some causal effect of obesity on CO2 emissions. More generally, transport CO2 emissions are associated in different ways with different health-related characteristics. These include associations between health goods and environmental harms (recreational physical activity and high emissions), indicating that environment-health ‘co-benefits’ cannot be assumed. Instead, attention should also be paid to identifying and mitigating potential areas of tension, for example by promoting low-carbon recreational physical activity.
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paper_title: The impact of transportation infrastructure on bicycling injuries and crashes: a review of the literature

paper_content:

Background: Bicycling has the potential to improve fitness, diminish obesity, and reduce noise, air pollution, and greenhouse gases associated with travel. However, bicyclists incur a higher risk of injuries requiring hospitalization than motor vehicle occupants. Therefore, understanding ways of making bicycling safer and increasing rates of bicycling are important to improving population health. There is a growing body of research examining transportation infrastructure and the risk of injury to bicyclists. Methods: We reviewed studies of the impact of transportation infrastructure on bicyclist safety. The results were tabulated within two categories of infrastructure, namely that at intersections (e.g. roundabouts, traffic lights) or between intersections on "straightaways" (e.g. bike lanes or paths). To assess safety, studies examining the following outcomes were included: injuries; injury severity; and crashes (collisions and/or falls). Results: The literature to date on transportation infrastructure and cyclist safety is limited by the incomplete range of facilities studied and difficulties in controlling for exposure to risk. However, evidence from the 23 papers reviewed (eight that examined intersections and 15 that examined straightaways) suggests that infrastructure influences injury and crash risk. Intersection studies focused mainly on roundabouts. They found that multi-lane roundabouts can significantly increase risk to bicyclists unless a separated cycle track is included in the design. Studies of straightaways grouped facilities into few categories, such that facilities with potentially different risks may have been classified within a single category. Results to date suggest that sidewalks and multi-use trails pose the highest risk, major roads are more hazardous than minor roads, and the presence of bicycle facilities (e.g. on-road bike routes, on-road marked bike lanes, and off-road bike paths) was associated with the lowest risk. Conclusion: Evidence is beginning to accumulate that purpose-built bicycle-specific facilities reduce crashes and injuries among cyclists, providing the basis for initial transportation engineering guidelines for cyclist safety. Street lighting, paved surfaces, and low-angled grades are additional factors that appear to improve cyclist safety. Future research examining a greater variety of infrastructure would allow development of more detailed guidelines.
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paper_title: Estimating Bicycling and Walking for Planning and Project Development: A Guidebook

paper_content:

This guidebook contains methods and tools for practitioners to estimate bicycling and walking demand as part of regional-, corridor-, or project-level analyses. The methods are sensitive to key planning factors, including bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure, land use and urban design, topography, and sociodemographic characteristics. The planning tools presented in this guidebook include some entirely new methods as well as some existing methods found to have useful properties for particular applications. The tools take advantage of existing data and the capabilities present in GIS methods to create realistic measures of accessibility which are a critical determinant of bicycle, pedestrian, and even transit mode choice. The publication includes a CD-ROM (CRP-CD-148) containing a GIS Walk Accessibility Model, spreadsheets, and the contractor’s final report, which documents the research and tools that operationalize the methods described in the guidebook. The CD-ROM is also available for download from TRB’s website as an ISO image. The guidebook should be of value to transportation practitioners either directly interested in forecasting bicycling or walking activity levels or accounting for the impact of bicycle or pedestrian activity in support of broader transportation and land use planning issues.
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paper_title: Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA): protocol for a multi-centre, longitudinal study

paper_content:

Physical inactivity is one of the leading risk factors for non-communicable diseases, yet many are not sufficiently active. The Physical Activity through Sustainable Transport Approaches (PASTA) study aims to better understand active mobility (walking and cycling for transport solely or in combination with public transport) as an innovative approach to integrate physical activity into individuals’ everyday lives. The PASTA study will collect data of multiple cities in a longitudinal cohort design to study correlates of active mobility, its effect on overall physical activity, crash risk and exposure to traffic-related air pollution. A set of online questionnaires incorporating gold standard approaches from the physical activity and transport fields have been developed, piloted and are now being deployed in a longitudinal study in seven European cities (Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Oerebro, Rome, Vienna, Zurich). In total, 14000 adults are being recruited (2000 in each city). A first questionnaire collects baseline information; follow-up questionnaires sent every 13 days collect prospective data on travel behaviour, levels of physical activity and traffic safety incidents. Self-reported data will be validated with objective data in subsamples using conventional and novel methods. Accelerometers, GPS and tracking apps record routes and activity. Air pollution and physical activity are measured to study their combined effects on health biomarkers. Exposure-adjusted crash risks will be calculated for active modes, and crash location audits are performed to study the role of the built environment. Ethics committees in all seven cities have given independent approval for the study. The PASTA study collects a wealth of subjective and objective data on active mobility and physical activity. This will allow the investigation of numerous correlates of active mobility and physical activity using a data set that advances previous efforts in its richness, geographical coverage and comprehensiveness. Results will inform new health impact assessment models and support efforts to promote and facilitate active mobility in cities.
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paper_title: Pedestrians in Regional Travel Demand Forecasting Models: State of the Practice

paper_content:

It has been nearly 25 years since non-motorized modes and non-motorized-specific built environment measures were first included in the regional travel demand models of metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs). Such modeling practices have evolved considerably as data collection and analysis methods improve, decision-makers demand more policy-responsive travel forecasting tools, and walking and cycling grow in popularity. As MPOs look to enhance their models’ representations of pedestrian travel, the need to understand current and emerging practice is great. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the practice of representing walking in MPO travel models. Based on a review of model documentation, it was determined that – as of mid-2012 – 63% (30) of the 48 largest MPOs include non-motorized travel in their regional models, while 47% (14) of those also distinguish between walk and bicycle modes. The modeling frameworks, model structures, and variables used for pedestrian and non-motorized regional modeling are also described and discussed. A survey of lead MPO modelers revealed barriers to modeling non-motorized travel, including insufficient travel survey records, but also innovations being implemented, including smaller zones and non-motorized network assignment. Finally, best practices in representing pedestrians in regional travel demand forecasting models are presented and possible future advances are discussed.
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paper_title: AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO CREATING ACTIVE LIVING COMMUNITIES

paper_content:

▪ Abstract The thesis of this article is that multilevel interventions based on ecological models and targeting individuals, social environments, physical environments, and policies must be implemented to achieve population change in physical activity. A model is proposed that identifies potential environmental and policy influences on four domains of active living: recreation, transport, occupation, and household. Multilevel research and interventions require multiple disciplines to combine concepts and methods to create new transdisciplinary approaches. The contributions being made by a broad range of disciplines are summarized. Research to date supports a conclusion that there are multiple levels of influence on physical activity, and the active living domains are associated with different environmental variables. Continued research is needed to provide detailed findings that can inform improved designs of communities, transportation systems, and recreation facilities. Collaborations with policy resear...
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paper_title: Evaluating the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of a ‘natural experiment’ in the provision of new walking and cycling infrastructure: methods for the core module of the iConnect study

paper_content:

INTRODUCTION: Improving infrastructure to support walking and cycling is often regarded as fundamental to encouraging their widespread uptake. However, there is little evidence that specific provision of this kind has led to a significant increase in walking or cycling in practice, let alone wider impacts such as changes in overall physical activity or carbon emissions. Connect2 is a major new project that aims to promote walking and cycling in the UK by improving local pedestrian and cycle routes. It therefore provides a useful opportunity to contribute new evidence in this field by means of a natural experimental study. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: iConnect is an independent study that aims to integrate the perspectives of public health and transport research on the measurement and evaluation of the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of the Connect2 programme. In this paper, the authors report the study design and methods for the iConnect core module. This comprised a cohort study of residents living within 5 km of three case study Connect2 projects in Cardiff, Kenilworth and Southampton, supported by a programme of qualitative interviews with key informants about the projects. Participants were asked to complete postal questionnaires, repeated before and after the opening of the new infrastructure, which collected data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, travel, car fuel purchasing and physical activity, and potential psychosocial and environmental correlates and mediators of those behaviours. In the absence of suitable no-intervention control groups, the study design drew on heterogeneity in exposure both within and between case study samples to provide for a counterfactual. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by the University of Southampton Research Ethics Committee. The findings will be disseminated through academic presentations, peer-reviewed publications and the study website (http://www.iconnect.ac.uk) and by means of a national seminar at the end of the study.
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paper_title: The theory of planned behavior

paper_content:

Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these relations is still uncertain. Expectancy— value formulations are found to be only partly successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability. © 1991 Academic Press. Inc.
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paper_title: Correlates of physical activity: why are some people physically active and others not?

paper_content:

Physical inactivity is an important contributor to non-communicable diseases in countries of high income, and increasingly so in those of low and middle income. Understanding why people are physically active or inactive contributes to evidence-based planning of public health interventions, because effective programmes will target factors known to cause inactivity. Research into correlates (factors associated with activity) or determinants (those with a causal relationship) has burgeoned in the past two decades, but has mostly focused on individual-level factors in high-income countries. It has shown that age, sex, health status, self-efficacy, and motivation are associated with physical activity. Ecological models take a broad view of health behaviour causation, with the social and physical environment included as contributors to physical inactivity, particularly those outside the health sector, such as urban planning, transportation systems, and parks and trails. New areas of determinants research have identified genetic factors contributing to the propensity to be physically active, and evolutionary factors and obesity that might predispose to inactivity, and have explored the longitudinal tracking of physical activity throughout life. An understanding of correlates and determinants, especially in countries of low and middle income, could reduce the eff ect of future epidemics of inactivity and contribute to effective global prevention of non-communicable diseases.
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paper_title: The Model of Children’s Active Travel (M‐CAT): A conceptual framework for examining factors influencing children’s active travel

paper_content:

Background: The current decline in children's participation in physical activity has attracted the attention of those concerned with children's health and wellbeing. A sustainable approach to ensuring children engage in adequate amounts of physical activity is to support their involvement in incidental activity such as active travel (AT), which includes walking or riding a bicycle to or from local destinations, such as school or a park. Understanding how we can embed physical activity into children's everyday occupational roles is a way in which occupational therapists can contribute to this important health promotion agenda. Aims: To present a simple, coherent and comprehensive framework as a means of examining factors influencing children's AT. Methods: Based on current literature, this conceptual framework incorporates the observable environment, parents' perceptions and decisions regarding their children's AT, as well as children's own perceptions and decisions regarding AT within their family contexts across time. Conclusion: The Model of Children's Active Travel (M‐CAT) highlights the complex and dynamic nature of factors impacting the decision‐making process of parents and children in relation to children's AT. The M‐CAT offers a way forward for researchers to examine variables influencing active travel in a systematic manner. Future testing of the M‐CAT will consolidate understanding of the factors underlying the decision‐making process which occurs within families in the context of their communities.
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paper_title: Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: A review and framework for future research

paper_content:

Background ::: Many youth fail to meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity. Walking and cycling, forms of active travel, have the potential to contribute significantly towards overall physical activity levels. Recent research examining the associations between physical activity and the environment has shown that environmental factors play a role in determining behaviour in children and adolescents. However, links between the environment and active travel have received less attention.
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paper_title: Estimation of the determinants of bicycle mode share for the journey to work using census data

paper_content:

A model is presented that relates the proportion of bicycle journeys to work for English and Welsh electoral wards to relevant socio-economic, transport and physical variables. A number of previous studies have exploited existing disaggregate data sets. This study uses UK 2001 census data, is based on a logistic regression model and provides complementary evidence based on aggregate data for the determinants of cycle choice. It suggests a saturation level for bicycle use of 43%. Smaller proportions cycle in wards with more females and higher car ownership. The physical condition of the highway, rainfall and temperature each have an effect on the proportion that cycles to work, but the most significant physical variable is hilliness. The proportion of bicycle route that is off-road is shown to be significant, although it displays a low elasticity (+0.049) and this contrasts with more significant changes usually forecast by models constructed from stated preference based data. Forecasting shows the trend in car ownership has a significant effect on cycle use and offsets the positive effect of the provision of off-road routes for cycle traffic but only in districts that are moderately hilly or hilly. The provision of infrastructure alone appears insufficient to engender higher levels of cycling.
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paper_title: ATTITUDES TO CYCLING: A QUALITATIVE STUDY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

paper_content:

It is known that attitudinal factors influence the willingness of individuals to use bicycles. A qualitative study was carried out to assess attitudes of cyclists and non-cyclists to cycling, with emphasis on exploring strategies that would encourage people to cycle. Thirteen focus groups were held, including two extended creativity sessions, in five towns. Projective techniques were used to de-layer responses and explore rationalisations and misperceptions. Stated preference exercises were also undertaken to verify and rank responses to cycle promotion strategies, including car restraint policies. A parallel study drew on experience from public health promotion and theories of motivation and behaviour change to devise a conceptual framework for interpreting and structuring the results from qualitative studies. Conclusions are drawn on the ways in which cycling should be promoted in the UK. (A)
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paper_title: Economic interventions to promote physical activity: application of the SLOTH model.

paper_content:

Physical inactivity is responsible for major health and economic costs in the United States. Despite widespread recognition of the scope and importance of the problem of physical inactivity, only modest progress has been made in improving overall physical activity in the U.S. population. This paper applies a combined economic and public health perspective to better understand physical activity behavior and to guide a search for promising new economically oriented interventions to increase physical activity at the population level. This perspective is operationalized as the SLOTH model-a time-budget model incorporating Sleep, Leisure, Occupation, Transportation, and Home-based activities. Key economic forces that may influence individuals' choices about utilization of time and physical activity are identified. Potential interventions are proposed in response to each of the important forces and are evaluated on four criteria: (1) economic efficiency, (2) equity, (3) effectiveness, and (4) feasibility. The SLOTH model provides guidance regarding interventions that might increase physical activity in each of the four nonsleep domains. Economic intervention strategies are proposed and compared to economic and public health criteria. The results provide a starting point for selecting and evaluating potentially effective and feasible economic interventions that might be implemented as part of a larger effort to address the health crisis of inactive lifestyles and obesity.
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paper_title: AN ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO CREATING ACTIVE LIVING COMMUNITIES

paper_content:

▪ Abstract The thesis of this article is that multilevel interventions based on ecological models and targeting individuals, social environments, physical environments, and policies must be implemented to achieve population change in physical activity. A model is proposed that identifies potential environmental and policy influences on four domains of active living: recreation, transport, occupation, and household. Multilevel research and interventions require multiple disciplines to combine concepts and methods to create new transdisciplinary approaches. The contributions being made by a broad range of disciplines are summarized. Research to date supports a conclusion that there are multiple levels of influence on physical activity, and the active living domains are associated with different environmental variables. Continued research is needed to provide detailed findings that can inform improved designs of communities, transportation systems, and recreation facilities. Collaborations with policy resear...
---
paper_title: Evaluating the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of a ‘natural experiment’ in the provision of new walking and cycling infrastructure: methods for the core module of the iConnect study

paper_content:

INTRODUCTION: Improving infrastructure to support walking and cycling is often regarded as fundamental to encouraging their widespread uptake. However, there is little evidence that specific provision of this kind has led to a significant increase in walking or cycling in practice, let alone wider impacts such as changes in overall physical activity or carbon emissions. Connect2 is a major new project that aims to promote walking and cycling in the UK by improving local pedestrian and cycle routes. It therefore provides a useful opportunity to contribute new evidence in this field by means of a natural experimental study. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: iConnect is an independent study that aims to integrate the perspectives of public health and transport research on the measurement and evaluation of the travel, physical activity and carbon impacts of the Connect2 programme. In this paper, the authors report the study design and methods for the iConnect core module. This comprised a cohort study of residents living within 5 km of three case study Connect2 projects in Cardiff, Kenilworth and Southampton, supported by a programme of qualitative interviews with key informants about the projects. Participants were asked to complete postal questionnaires, repeated before and after the opening of the new infrastructure, which collected data on demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, travel, car fuel purchasing and physical activity, and potential psychosocial and environmental correlates and mediators of those behaviours. In the absence of suitable no-intervention control groups, the study design drew on heterogeneity in exposure both within and between case study samples to provide for a counterfactual. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The study was approved by the University of Southampton Research Ethics Committee. The findings will be disseminated through academic presentations, peer-reviewed publications and the study website (http://www.iconnect.ac.uk) and by means of a national seminar at the end of the study.
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paper_title: Theory of routine mode choice decisions: An operational framework to increase sustainable transportation

paper_content:

A growing number of communities in the United States are seeking to improve the sustainability of their transportation systems by shifting routine automobile travel to walking and bicycling. In order to identify strategies that may be most effective at increasing pedestrian and bicycle transportation in a specific local context, practitioners need a greater understanding of the underlying thought process that people use to select travel modes. Previous research from the travel behavior and psychology fields provides the foundation for a five-step, operational Theory of Routine Mode Choice Decisions. Walking and bicycling could be promoted through each of the five steps: awareness and availability (e.g., offer individual marketing programs), basic safety and security (e.g., make pedestrian and bicycle facility improvements and increase education and enforcement efforts), convenience and cost (e.g., institute higher-density, mixed land uses, and limited, more expensive automobile parking), enjoyment (e.g., plant street trees and increase awareness of non-motorized transportation benefits), and habit (e.g., target information about sustainable transportation options to people making key life changes). The components of the theory are supported by in-depth interview responses from the San Francisco Bay Area.
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paper_title: The theory of planned behavior

paper_content:

Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these relations is still uncertain. Expectancy— value formulations are found to be only partly successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability. © 1991 Academic Press. Inc.
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paper_title: Evidence-based Policy: In Search of a Method:

paper_content:

Evaluation research is tortured by time constraints. The policy cycle revolves quicker than the research cycle, with the result that `real time' evaluations often have little influence on policy making. As a result, the quest for evidence-based policy has turned increasingly to systematic reviews of the results of previous inquiries in the relevant policy domain. However, this shifting of the temporal frame for evaluation is in itself no guarantee of success. Evidence, whether new or old, never speaks for itself. Accordingly, there is debate about the best strategy of marshalling bygone research results into the policy process. This article joins the imbroglio by examining the logic of the two main strategies of systematic review: `meta-analysis' and `narrative review'. Whilst they are often presented as diametrically opposed perspectives, this article argues that they share common limitations in their understanding of how to provide a template for impending policy decisions. This review provides the back...
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paper_title: Choice of Travel Mode in the Theory of Planned Behavior: The Roles of Past Behavior, Habit, and Reasoned Action

paper_content:

Relying on the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), a longitudinal study investigated the effects of an intervention-introduction of a prepaid bus ticket-on increased bus use among college students. In this context, the logic of the proposition that past behavior is the best predictor of later behavior was also examined. The intervention was found to influence attitudes toward bus use, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioral control and, consistent with the theory, to affect intentions and behavior in the desired direction. Furthermore, the theory afforded accurate prediction of intention and behavior both before and after the intervention. In contrast, a measure of past behavior improved prediction of travel mode prior to the intervention, but lost its predictive utility for behavior following the intervention. In a test of the proposition that the effect of past on later behavior is due to habit formation, an independent measure of habit failed to mediate the effects of past on later behavi...
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paper_title: The relative influence of urban form on a child's travel mode to school

paper_content:

Walking and bicycling to school has decreased in recent years, while private vehicle travel has increased. Policies and programs focusing on urban form improvements such as Safe Routes to School were created to address this mode shift and possible related children's health issues, despite minimal research showing the influence of urban form on children's travel and health. This research examined: (1) the influence of objectively measured urban form on travel mode to school and; (2) the magnitude of influence urban form and non-urban form factors have on children's travel behavior. The results of the analysis support the hypothesis that urban form is important but not the sole factor that influences school travel mode choice. Other factors may be equally important such as perceptions of neighborhood safety and traffic safety, household transportation options, and social/cultural norms. Odds ratios indicate that the magnitude of influence of these latter factors is greater than that of urban form; however, model improvement tests found that urban form contributed significantly to model fit. This research provides evidence that urban form is an influential factor in non-motorized travel behavior and therefore is a possible intervention to target through programs such as Safe Routes to School.
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paper_title: To Walk or Not to Walk?: The Hierarchy of Walking Needs.

paper_content:

The multitude of quality of life problems associated with declining walking rates has impelled researchers from various disciplines to identify factors related to this behavior change. Currently, this body of research is in need of a transdisciplinary, multilevel theoretical model that can help explain howindividual, group, regional, and physical-environmental factors all affect physical activity behaviors. To address this gap, this article offers a social-ecological model of walking that presents a dynamic, causal model of the decision-making process. Within the model, a hierarchy of walking needs operates and organizes five levels of needs hierarchically and presents them as antecedents within the walking decision-making process. This model can (a) serve as a framework by which to understand the relative significance of the cornucopia of variables identified by existing research, (b) offer hypotheses for how these factors affect peoples' decision to walk, and (c) help to guide future research and practice.
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paper_title: An intervention to promote walking amongst the general population based on an 'extended' theory of planned behaviour: A waiting list randomised controlled trial

paper_content:

Theory of planned behaviour (TPB) studies have identified perceived behavioural control (PBC) as the key determinant of walking intentions. The present study investigated whether an intervention designed to alter PBC and create walking plans increased TPB measures concerning walking more, planning and objectively measured walking. One hundred and thirty UK adults participated in a waiting-list randomised controlled trial. The intervention consisted of strategies to boost PBC, plus volitional strategies to enact walking intentions. All TPB constructs were measured, along with self-reported measures of action planning and walking, and an objective pedometer measure of time spent walking. The intervention increased PBC, attitudes, intentions and objectively measured walking from 20 to 32 min a day. The effects of the intervention on intentions and behaviour were mediated by PBC, although the effects on PBC were not mediated by control beliefs. At 6 weeks follow-up, participants maintained their increases in walking. The findings of this study partially support the proposed causal nature of the extended TPB as a framework for developing and evaluating health behaviour change interventions. This is the first study using the TPB to develop, design and evaluate the components of an intervention which increased objectively measured behaviour, with effects mediated by TPB variables.
---
paper_title: Developing a framework for assessment of the environmental determinants of walking and cycling.

paper_content:

The focus for interventions and research on physical activity has moved away from vigorous activity to moderate-intensity activities, such as walking. In addition, a social ecological approach to physical activity research and practice is recommended. This approach considers the influence of the environment and policies on physical activity. Although there is limited empirical published evidence related to the features of the physical environment that influence physical activity, urban planning and transport agencies have developed policies and strategies that have the potential to influence whether people walk or cycle in their neighbourhood. This paper presents the development of a framework of the potential environmental influences on walking and cycling based on published evidence and policy literature, interviews with experts and a Delphi study. The framework includes four features: functional, safety, aesthetic and destination; as well as the hypothesised factors that contribute to each of these features of the environment. In addition, the Delphi experts determined the perceived relative importance of these factors. Based on these factors, a data collection tool will be developed and the frameworks will be tested through the collection of environmental information on neighbourhoods, where data on the walking and cycling patterns have been collected previously. Identifying the environmental factors that influence walking and cycling will allow the inclusion of a public health perspective as well as those of urban planning and transport in the design of built environments.
---
paper_title: An Applied Ecological Framework for Evaluating Infrastructure to Promote Walking and Cycling: The iConnect Study

paper_content:

Improving infrastructure for walking and cycling is increasingly recommended as a means to promote physical activity, prevent obesity, and reduce traffic congestion and carbon emissions. However, limited evidence from intervention studies exists to support this approach. Drawing on classic epidemiological methods, psychological and ecological models of behavior change, and the principles of realistic evaluation, we have developed an applied ecological framework by which current theories about the behavioral effects of environmental change may be tested in heterogeneous and complex intervention settings. Our framework guides study design and analysis by specifying the most important data to be collected and relations to be tested to confirm or refute specific hypotheses and thereby refine the underlying theories.
---
paper_title: Change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity in adults: longitudinal findings from the iConnect study

paper_content:

To better understand the health benefits of promoting active travel, it is important to understand the relationship between a change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity. These analyses, carried out in April 2012, use longitudinal data from 1628 adult respondents (mean age 54 years; 47% male) in the UK-based iConnect study. Travel and recreational physical activity were measured using detailed seven-day recall instruments. Adjusted linear regression models were fitted with change in active travel defined as ‘decreased’ (<−15 min/week), ‘maintained’ (±15 min/week) or ‘increased’ (>15 min/week) as the primary exposure variable and changes in (a) recreational and (b) total physical activity (min/week) as the primary outcome variables. Active travel increased in 32% (n=529), was maintained in 33% (n=534) and decreased in 35% (n=565) of respondents. Recreational physical activity decreased in all groups but this decrease was not greater in those whose active travel increased. Conversely, changes in active travel were associated with commensurate changes in total physical activity. Compared with those whose active travel remained unchanged, total physical activity decreased by 176.9 min/week in those whose active travel had decreased (adjusted regression coefficient −154.9, 95% CI −195.3 to −114.5) and was 112.2 min/week greater among those whose active travel had increased (adjusted regression coefficient 135.1, 95% CI 94.3 to 175.9). An increase in active travel was associated with a commensurate increase in total physical activity and not a decrease in recreational physical activity.
---
paper_title: ACTIVE TRAVEL BEHAVIOR

paper_content:

AbstractPhysical inactivity has become a dominant feature of most American's lives over the past quarter century. This has spurred an entire research domain straddling several different disciplines. Although model development within the field of travel behavior as a whole continues today with more momentum than ever, the focus on active mode choice has largely been overlooked and left to a small fragment of transportation and public health researchers. Research regarding active mode choice has been primarily conducted outside the field of travel behavior and has utilized research methods designed for other purposes. This leads to results which address behavioral causality in a superficial way while also neglecting the role of residential self-selection. This paper provides an overview of existing travel behavior analysis regarding active mode choice, presents potential threats to validity in this type of research, and critiques existing intervention methodologies. Additionally, a conceptual model of activ...
---
paper_title: Motivation and Personality

paper_content:

Perspectives on Sexuality Sex Research - an Overview Part 1. Biological Perspectives: Sexual Anatomy 1. Sexual Physiology 2. Human Reproduction 3. Birth Control 4. Abortion Part 2. Developmental Perspectives: Childhood Sexuality 5. Adolescent Sexuality 6. Adult Sexuality 7. Gender Roles Part 3. Psychological Perspectives: Loving and Being Loved 8. Intimacy and Communication Skills 9. Enhancing your Sexual Relationships 10. Sexual Orientation 11. Sexual Behaviour 12. Sexual Variations 13. Coercive Sex - the Varieties of Sexual Assault Part 4. Sexual Health Perspectives: Sexually Transmitted Diseases and Sexual Infections 14. HIV Infection and AIDS 15. Sexual Dysfunctions and Sex Therapy 16. Sexual Disorders and Sexual Health Part 5 Cultural Perspectives: Sex and the Law 17. Religious and Ethical Perspectives and Sexuality
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paper_title: MINDSPACE: influencing behaviour for public policy

paper_content:

New insights from science and behaviour change could lead to significantly improved outcomes, and at a lower cost, than the way many conventional policy tools are used. MINDSPACE explores how behaviour change theory can help meet current policy challenges, such as how to: * reduce crime * tackle obesity * ensure environmental sustainability. Today's policy makers are in the business of influencing behaviour - they need to understand the effects their policies may be having. The aim of MINDSPACE is to help them do this, and in doing so get better outcomes for the public and society.
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paper_title: Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the transportation, urban design, and planning literatures

paper_content:

Research in transportation, urban design, and planning has examined associations between physical environment variables and individuals’ walking and cycling for transport. Constructs, methods, and findings from these fields can be applied by physical activity and health researchers to improve understanding of environmental influences on physical activity. In this review, neighborhood environment characteristics proposed to be relevant to walking/cycling for transport are defined, including population density, connectivity, and land use mix. Neighborhood comparison and correlational studies with nonmotorized transport outcomes are considered, with evidence suggesting that residents from communities with higher density, greater connectivity, and more land use mix report higher rates of walking/cycling for utilitarian purposes than low-density, poorly connected, and single land use neighborhoods. Environmental variables appear to add to variance accounted for beyond sociodemographic predictors of walking/cycling for transport. Implications of the transportation literature for physical activity and related research are outlined. Future research directions are detailed for physical activity research to further examine the impact of neighborhood and other physical environment factors on physical activity and the potential interactive effects of psychosocial and environmental variables. The transportation, urban design, and planning literatures provide a valuable starting point for multidisciplinary research on environmental contributions to physical activity levels in the population.
---
paper_title: The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change

paper_content:

The transtheoretical model posits that health behavior change involves progress through six stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Ten processes of change have been identified for producing progress along with decisional balance, self-efficacy, and temptations. Basic research has generated a rule of thumb for at-risk populations: 40% in precontemplation, 40% in contemplation, and 20% in preparation. Across 12 health behaviors, consistent patterns have been found between the pros and cons of changing and the stages of change. Applied research has demonstrated dramatic improvements in recruitment, retention, and progress using stage-matched interventions and proactive recruitment procedures. The most promising outcomes to date have been found with computer-based individualized and interactive interventions. The most promising enhancement to the computer-based programs are personalized counselors. One of the most striking results to date for stag...
---
paper_title: Decision field theory: A dynamic-cognitive approach to decision making in an uncertain environment.

paper_content:

Decision field theory provides for a mathematical foundation leading to a dynamic, stochastic theory of decision behavior in an uncertain environment. This theory is used to explain (a) violations of stochastic dominance, (b) violations of strong stochastic transitivity, (c) violations of independence between alternatives, (d) serial position effects on preference, (e) speed-accuracy trade-off effects in decision making, (f) the inverse relation between choice probability and decision time, (g) changes in the direction of preference under time pressure, (h) slower decision times for avoidance as compared with approach conflicts, and (i) preference reversals between choice and selling price measures of preference. The proposed theory is compared with 4 other theories of decision making under uncertainty
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paper_title: Environmental determinants of active travel in youth: A review and framework for future research

paper_content:

Background ::: Many youth fail to meet the recommended guidelines for physical activity. Walking and cycling, forms of active travel, have the potential to contribute significantly towards overall physical activity levels. Recent research examining the associations between physical activity and the environment has shown that environmental factors play a role in determining behaviour in children and adolescents. However, links between the environment and active travel have received less attention.
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paper_title: The theory of planned behavior

paper_content:

Research dealing with various aspects of* the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) is reviewed, and some unresolved issues are discussed. In broad terms, the theory is found to be well supported by empirical evidence. Intentions to perform behaviors of different kinds can be predicted with high accuracy from attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; and these intentions, together with perceptions of behavioral control, account for considerable variance in actual behavior. Attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control are shown to be related to appropriate sets of salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs about the behavior, but the exact nature of these relations is still uncertain. Expectancy— value formulations are found to be only partly successful in dealing with these relations. Optimal rescaling of expectancy and value measures is offered as a means of dealing with measurement limitations. Finally, inclusion of past behavior in the prediction equation is shown to provide a means of testing the theory*s sufficiency, another issue that remains unresolved. The limited available evidence concerning this question shows that the theory is predicting behavior quite well in comparison to the ceiling imposed by behavioral reliability. © 1991 Academic Press. Inc.
---
paper_title: Choice of Travel Mode in the Theory of Planned Behavior: The Roles of Past Behavior, Habit, and Reasoned Action

paper_content:

Relying on the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991), a longitudinal study investigated the effects of an intervention-introduction of a prepaid bus ticket-on increased bus use among college students. In this context, the logic of the proposition that past behavior is the best predictor of later behavior was also examined. The intervention was found to influence attitudes toward bus use, subjective norms, and perceptions of behavioral control and, consistent with the theory, to affect intentions and behavior in the desired direction. Furthermore, the theory afforded accurate prediction of intention and behavior both before and after the intervention. In contrast, a measure of past behavior improved prediction of travel mode prior to the intervention, but lost its predictive utility for behavior following the intervention. In a test of the proposition that the effect of past on later behavior is due to habit formation, an independent measure of habit failed to mediate the effects of past on later behavi...
---
paper_title: To Walk or Not to Walk?: The Hierarchy of Walking Needs.

paper_content:

The multitude of quality of life problems associated with declining walking rates has impelled researchers from various disciplines to identify factors related to this behavior change. Currently, this body of research is in need of a transdisciplinary, multilevel theoretical model that can help explain howindividual, group, regional, and physical-environmental factors all affect physical activity behaviors. To address this gap, this article offers a social-ecological model of walking that presents a dynamic, causal model of the decision-making process. Within the model, a hierarchy of walking needs operates and organizes five levels of needs hierarchically and presents them as antecedents within the walking decision-making process. This model can (a) serve as a framework by which to understand the relative significance of the cornucopia of variables identified by existing research, (b) offer hypotheses for how these factors affect peoples' decision to walk, and (c) help to guide future research and practice.
---
paper_title: Similarities in Attitudes and Norms and the Effect on Bicycle Commuting: Evidence from the Bicycle Cities Davis and Delft

paper_content:

Owing to its beneficial effects, many governments encourage bicycle use for commuting. In search of effective strategies, they often study best practices from elsewhere. However, in order to assess the likely success of transferring measures from one city or country to another, an accurate comparison of the bicycling context is needed. This article explores the similarities and differences in attitudes and beliefs about the decision to commute by bicycle to work in two bicycling-oriented cities: Delft, the Netherlands, and Davis, California, in the U.S. Because bicycling conditions are good in both cities, it is possible to explore the role that attitudes play in the decision to cycle to work. Analyses indicate that beliefs about safety and the importance attached to environmental benefits differ between the cities. Social norms about cycling are important in both cities, but residents in Davis are more often confronted with negative reactions to cycling. Similarities are found in beliefs towards the health benefits of cycling. Strategies successful in one city in encouraging cycling by targeting or leveraging health therefore offer promise for the other city. This exploration provides an important starting point for large-sample comparative studies of attitudes towards bicycle commuting.
---
paper_title: Introduction: Habitual travel choice

paper_content:

In this introduction to the special issue on habitual travel choice, we provide a brief account of the role of habit in travel behaviour, discuss more generally what habitual choice is, and briefly review the issues addressed in the solicited papers. These issues include how habitual travel behaviour should be measured, how to model the learning process that makes travel choice habitual, and how to break and replace car-use habits.
---
paper_title: ACTIVE TRAVEL BEHAVIOR

paper_content:

AbstractPhysical inactivity has become a dominant feature of most American's lives over the past quarter century. This has spurred an entire research domain straddling several different disciplines. Although model development within the field of travel behavior as a whole continues today with more momentum than ever, the focus on active mode choice has largely been overlooked and left to a small fragment of transportation and public health researchers. Research regarding active mode choice has been primarily conducted outside the field of travel behavior and has utilized research methods designed for other purposes. This leads to results which address behavioral causality in a superficial way while also neglecting the role of residential self-selection. This paper provides an overview of existing travel behavior analysis regarding active mode choice, presents potential threats to validity in this type of research, and critiques existing intervention methodologies. Additionally, a conceptual model of activ...
---
paper_title: Attitudes and the environment as determinants of active travel in adults: What do and don't we know?

paper_content:

Background:Walking and cycling for transport, or ‘active travel,’ has the potential to contribute to overall physical activity levels. However, a wide range of factors are hypothesized to be associated with adult’s active travel behavior. This paper describes current knowledge of the psychological and environmental determinants of active travel in adults, and considers ways in which the 2 domains can be better integrated. Methods:Quantitative studies were reviewed which examined psychological and environmental influences on active travel in an adult population. Studies were classified according to whether they examined psychological, environmental or both types of factor. Results:Fourteen studies were identified which examined psychological correlates of active travel behavior in adults, and 36 which examined environmental correlates. Seven studies were identified which considered both domains, of which only 2 of explored the interactions between personal, social and environmental factors. The majority of...
---
paper_title: The Model of Children’s Active Travel (M‐CAT): A conceptual framework for examining factors influencing children’s active travel

paper_content:

Background: The current decline in children's participation in physical activity has attracted the attention of those concerned with children's health and wellbeing. A sustainable approach to ensuring children engage in adequate amounts of physical activity is to support their involvement in incidental activity such as active travel (AT), which includes walking or riding a bicycle to or from local destinations, such as school or a park. Understanding how we can embed physical activity into children's everyday occupational roles is a way in which occupational therapists can contribute to this important health promotion agenda. Aims: To present a simple, coherent and comprehensive framework as a means of examining factors influencing children's AT. Methods: Based on current literature, this conceptual framework incorporates the observable environment, parents' perceptions and decisions regarding their children's AT, as well as children's own perceptions and decisions regarding AT within their family contexts across time. Conclusion: The Model of Children's Active Travel (M‐CAT) highlights the complex and dynamic nature of factors impacting the decision‐making process of parents and children in relation to children's AT. The M‐CAT offers a way forward for researchers to examine variables influencing active travel in a systematic manner. Future testing of the M‐CAT will consolidate understanding of the factors underlying the decision‐making process which occurs within families in the context of their communities.
---
paper_title: ATTITUDES TO CYCLING: A QUALITATIVE STUDY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

paper_content:

It is known that attitudinal factors influence the willingness of individuals to use bicycles. A qualitative study was carried out to assess attitudes of cyclists and non-cyclists to cycling, with emphasis on exploring strategies that would encourage people to cycle. Thirteen focus groups were held, including two extended creativity sessions, in five towns. Projective techniques were used to de-layer responses and explore rationalisations and misperceptions. Stated preference exercises were also undertaken to verify and rank responses to cycle promotion strategies, including car restraint policies. A parallel study drew on experience from public health promotion and theories of motivation and behaviour change to devise a conceptual framework for interpreting and structuring the results from qualitative studies. Conclusions are drawn on the ways in which cycling should be promoted in the UK. (A)
---
paper_title: Developing a framework for assessment of the environmental determinants of walking and cycling.

paper_content:

The focus for interventions and research on physical activity has moved away from vigorous activity to moderate-intensity activities, such as walking. In addition, a social ecological approach to physical activity research and practice is recommended. This approach considers the influence of the environment and policies on physical activity. Although there is limited empirical published evidence related to the features of the physical environment that influence physical activity, urban planning and transport agencies have developed policies and strategies that have the potential to influence whether people walk or cycle in their neighbourhood. This paper presents the development of a framework of the potential environmental influences on walking and cycling based on published evidence and policy literature, interviews with experts and a Delphi study. The framework includes four features: functional, safety, aesthetic and destination; as well as the hypothesised factors that contribute to each of these features of the environment. In addition, the Delphi experts determined the perceived relative importance of these factors. Based on these factors, a data collection tool will be developed and the frameworks will be tested through the collection of environmental information on neighbourhoods, where data on the walking and cycling patterns have been collected previously. Identifying the environmental factors that influence walking and cycling will allow the inclusion of a public health perspective as well as those of urban planning and transport in the design of built environments.
---
paper_title: An Applied Ecological Framework for Evaluating Infrastructure to Promote Walking and Cycling: The iConnect Study

paper_content:

Improving infrastructure for walking and cycling is increasingly recommended as a means to promote physical activity, prevent obesity, and reduce traffic congestion and carbon emissions. However, limited evidence from intervention studies exists to support this approach. Drawing on classic epidemiological methods, psychological and ecological models of behavior change, and the principles of realistic evaluation, we have developed an applied ecological framework by which current theories about the behavioral effects of environmental change may be tested in heterogeneous and complex intervention settings. Our framework guides study design and analysis by specifying the most important data to be collected and relations to be tested to confirm or refute specific hypotheses and thereby refine the underlying theories.
---
paper_title: Change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity in adults: longitudinal findings from the iConnect study

paper_content:

To better understand the health benefits of promoting active travel, it is important to understand the relationship between a change in active travel and changes in recreational and total physical activity. These analyses, carried out in April 2012, use longitudinal data from 1628 adult respondents (mean age 54 years; 47% male) in the UK-based iConnect study. Travel and recreational physical activity were measured using detailed seven-day recall instruments. Adjusted linear regression models were fitted with change in active travel defined as ‘decreased’ (<−15 min/week), ‘maintained’ (±15 min/week) or ‘increased’ (>15 min/week) as the primary exposure variable and changes in (a) recreational and (b) total physical activity (min/week) as the primary outcome variables. Active travel increased in 32% (n=529), was maintained in 33% (n=534) and decreased in 35% (n=565) of respondents. Recreational physical activity decreased in all groups but this decrease was not greater in those whose active travel increased. Conversely, changes in active travel were associated with commensurate changes in total physical activity. Compared with those whose active travel remained unchanged, total physical activity decreased by 176.9 min/week in those whose active travel had decreased (adjusted regression coefficient −154.9, 95% CI −195.3 to −114.5) and was 112.2 min/week greater among those whose active travel had increased (adjusted regression coefficient 135.1, 95% CI 94.3 to 175.9). An increase in active travel was associated with a commensurate increase in total physical activity and not a decrease in recreational physical activity.
---
paper_title: The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change

paper_content:

The transtheoretical model posits that health behavior change involves progress through six stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Ten processes of change have been identified for producing progress along with decisional balance, self-efficacy, and temptations. Basic research has generated a rule of thumb for at-risk populations: 40% in precontemplation, 40% in contemplation, and 20% in preparation. Across 12 health behaviors, consistent patterns have been found between the pros and cons of changing and the stages of change. Applied research has demonstrated dramatic improvements in recruitment, retention, and progress using stage-matched interventions and proactive recruitment procedures. The most promising outcomes to date have been found with computer-based individualized and interactive interventions. The most promising enhancement to the computer-based programs are personalized counselors. One of the most striking results to date for stag...
---
paper_title: Behaviour theory and soft transport policy measures

paper_content:

The aim is to propose a theoretical grounding of soft transport policy measures that aim at promoting voluntary reduction of car use. A general conceptual framework is first presented to clarify how hard and soft transport policy measures impact on car-use reduction. Two different behavioural theories that have been used to account for car use and car-use reduction are then integrated in a self-regulation theory that identifies four stages of the process of voluntarily changing car use: setting a car-use reduction goal, forming a plan for achieving the goal, initiating and executing the plan, and evaluating the outcome of the plan execution. A number of techniques are described that facilitate the different stages of the process of voluntary car-use reduction and which should be used in personalized travel planning programs.
---
paper_title: The Transtheoretical Model of Health Behavior Change

paper_content:

The transtheoretical model posits that health behavior change involves progress through six stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, and termination. Ten processes of change have been identified for producing progress along with decisional balance, self-efficacy, and temptations. Basic research has generated a rule of thumb for at-risk populations: 40% in precontemplation, 40% in contemplation, and 20% in preparation. Across 12 health behaviors, consistent patterns have been found between the pros and cons of changing and the stages of change. Applied research has demonstrated dramatic improvements in recruitment, retention, and progress using stage-matched interventions and proactive recruitment procedures. The most promising outcomes to date have been found with computer-based individualized and interactive interventions. The most promising enhancement to the computer-based programs are personalized counselors. One of the most striking results to date for stag...
---
paper_title: Behaviour theory and soft transport policy measures

paper_content:

The aim is to propose a theoretical grounding of soft transport policy measures that aim at promoting voluntary reduction of car use. A general conceptual framework is first presented to clarify how hard and soft transport policy measures impact on car-use reduction. Two different behavioural theories that have been used to account for car use and car-use reduction are then integrated in a self-regulation theory that identifies four stages of the process of voluntarily changing car use: setting a car-use reduction goal, forming a plan for achieving the goal, initiating and executing the plan, and evaluating the outcome of the plan execution. A number of techniques are described that facilitate the different stages of the process of voluntary car-use reduction and which should be used in personalized travel planning programs.
---

Title: Towards a Comprehensive Conceptual Framework of Active Travel Behavior: a Review and Synthesis of Published Frameworks

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: This section introduces the paper, discusses the importance of active travel, and outlines the goals and structure of the research.

Section 2: Literature Review
Description 2: This section details the systematic approach taken to identify and review existing conceptual frameworks for active travel in the scientific literature.

Section 3: Synthesis of Reviewed Frameworks and Development of the PASTA Conceptual Framework for Active Travel
Description 3: This section explains the process of synthesizing the reviewed frameworks and developing the comprehensive PASTA framework for active travel behavior.

Section 4: Overview of the Identified Frameworks
Description 4: This section provides a detailed overview of the frameworks identified from the literature search and their scope.

Section 5: Review of Selected Frameworks
Description 5: This section reviews specific selected frameworks that contribute distinct features towards a comprehensive framework of active travel behavior.

Section 6: Synthesis of Results and Development of the PASTA Framework of Active Travel Behavior
Description 6: This section discusses the key features of the identified frameworks and theories, and describes how the authors developed the PASTA conceptual framework of active travel behavior.

Section 7: Practical Applications of the PASTA Framework in Active Travel Research
Description 7: This section illustrates the practical applications of the PASTA framework in active travel research, including its use in guiding survey contents, study design, and identifying causal pathways.

Section 8: Conclusions
Description 8: This section concludes the paper by discussing the value of the PASTA framework, its contributions to active travel research, and the importance of systematic development and use of conceptual frameworks in this field.