Flexibility Options for Absorption and Distillation to Adapt to Raw Material Supply and Product Demand Uncertainties: A Review
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paper_title: Separation technology–Making a difference in biorefineries

paper_content:

In the quest for a sustainable bio-based economy, biorefineries play a central role as they involve the sustainable processing of biomass into marketable products and energy. This paper aims to provide a perspective on applications of separations that can make a great difference in biorefineries, by significantly reducing the costs and thus making the processes competitive without subsidies. A parallel is drawn between bio-refinery and petro-refinery, to highlight the specific separation challenges encountered in biorefineries and point out the impact of separations on the total costs. Existing and foreseen separations in biorefineries are reviewed, and the upcoming challenges in the bio-domain (additional to current fossil) are identified. Relevant industrial examples are provided to illustrate the tremendous eco-efficiency benefits of well-designed separation processes based on process intensification principles (e.g. reactive separations, dividing-wall column, affinity and trigger-enhanced separations). These examples also illustrate the low sustainability of several bio-separations currently practiced, in terms of high relative energy requirements, large amounts of gypsum co-production and/or excess use of caustic.
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paper_title: Biorefineries–Industrial Processes and Products: Status Quo and Future Directions

paper_content:

Editors's Preface. Foreword (Henning Hopf). Foreword (Paul T. Anastas). List of Contributors. Volume 1. Part I Background and Outline - Principles and Fundamentals. 1 Biorefinery Systems - An Overview (Birgit Kamm, Michael Kamm, Patrick R. Gruber, and Stefan Kromus). 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 Historical Outline 1.3 Situation. 1.4 Principles of Biorefineries. 1.5 Biorefinery Systems and Design. 1.6 Outlook and Perspectives. References. 2 Biomass Refining Global Impact - The Biobased Economy of the 21st Century (Bruce E. Dale and Seungdo Kim). 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Historical Outline. 2.3 Supplying the Biorefinery. 2.4 How Will Biorefineries Develop Technologically? 2.5 Sustainability of Integrated Biorefining Systems. 2.6 Conclusions. Acknowledgements. References. 3 Development of Biorefineries - Technical and Economic Considerations (Bill Dean, Tim Dodge, Fernando Valle, and Gopal Chotani). 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Overview: The Biorefinery Model. 3.3 Feedstock and Conversion to Fermentable Sugar. 3.4 Technical Challenges. 3.5 Conclusions. Acknowledgments. References. 4 Biorefineries for the Chemical Industry - A Dutch Point of View (Ed de Jong, Rene van Ree Rea, Robert van Tuil, and Wolter Elbersen). 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Historical Outline - The Chemical Industry: Current Situation and Perspectives. 4.3 Biomass: Technology and Sustainability. 4.4 The Chemical Industry: Biomass Opportunities - Biorefineries. 4.5 Conclusions, Outlook, and Perspectives. References. Part II Biorefinery Systems. Lignocellulose Feedstock Biorefinery. 5 The Lignocellulosic Biorefinery - A Strategy for Returning to a Sustainable Source of Fuels and Industrial Organic Chemicals (L. Davis Clements and Donald L. Van Dyne). 5.1 The Situation. 5.2 The Strategy. 5.3 Comparison of Petroleum and Biomass Chemistry. 5.4 The Chemistry of the Lignocellulosic Biorefinery. 5.5 Examples of Integrated Biorefinery Applications. 5.6 Summary. References. 6 Lignocellulosic Feedstock Biorefinery: History and Plant Development for Biomass Hydrolysis (Raphael Katzen and Daniel J. Schell). 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Hydrolysis of Biomass Materials. 6.3 Acid Hydrolysis Processes. 6.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis Process. 6.5 Conclusion. References. 7 The Biofine Process - Production of Levulinic Acid, Furfural, and Formic Acid from Lignocellulosic Feedstocks (Daniel J. Hayes, Steve Fitzpatrick, Michael H.B. Hayes, and Julian R.H. Ross). 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Lignocellulosic Fractionation. 7.3 The Biofine Process. 7.4 Conclusion. References. Whole Crop Biorefinery. 8 A Whole Crop Biorefinery System: A Closed System for the Manufacture of Non-food Products from Cereals (Apostolis A. Koutinas, Rouhang Wang, Grant M. Campbell, and Colin Webb). 8.1 Intro. 8.2 Biorefineries Based on Wheat. 8.3 A Biorefinery Based on Oats. 8.4 Summary. References. Fuel-oriented Biorefineries. 9 Iogen's Demonstration Process for Producing Ethanol from Cellulosic Biomass (Jeffrey S. Tolan). 9.1 Introduction. 9.2 Process Overview. 9.3 Feedstock Selection. 9.4 Pretreatment. 9.5 Cellulase Enzyme Production. 9.6 Cellulose Hydrolysis. 9.7 Lignin Processing. 9.8 Sugar Fermentation and Ethanol Recovery. References. 10 Sugar-based Biorefinery - Technology for Integrated Production of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate), Sugar, and Ethanol (Carlos Eduardo Vaz Rossell, Paulo E. Mantelatto, Jose A.M. Agnelli, and Jefter Nascimento). 10.1 Introduction. 10.2 Sugar Cane Agro Industry in Brazil - Historical Outline. 10.3 Biodegradable Plastics from Sugar Cane. 10.4 Poly(3-Hydroxybutyric Acid) Production Process. 10.5 Outlook and Perspectives. References. Biorefineries Based on Thermochemical Processing. 11 Biomass Refineries Based on Hybrid Thermochemical-Biological Processing - An Overview (Robert C. Brown). 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Historical Outline. 11.3 Gasification-Based Systems. 11.4 Fast Pyrolysis-based Systems. 11.5 Outlook and Perspectives. References. Green Biorefineries. 12 The Green Biorefiner Concept - Fundamentals and Potential (Stefan Kromus, Birgit Kamm, Michael Kamm, Paul Fowler, and Michael Narodoslawsky). 12.1 Introduction. 12.2 Historical Outline. 12.3 Green Biorefinery Raw Materials. 12.4 Green Biorefinery Concept. 12.5 Processes and Products. 12.6 Green Biorefinery - Economic and Ecological Aspects. 12.7 Outlook and Perspectives. Acknowledgment. References. 13 Plant Juice in the Biorefinery - Use of Plant Juice as Fermentation Medium (Margrethe Andersen, Pauli Kiel, and Mette Hedegaard Thomsen). 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Historical Outline. 13.3 Biobased Poly(lactic Acid). 13.4 Materials and Methods. 13.5 Brown Juice. 13.6 Potato Juice. 13.7 Carbohydrate Source. 13.8 Purification of Lactic Acid. 13.9 Conclusion and Outlook. Acknowledgments. References. Part III Biomass Production and Primary Biorefineries. 14 Biomass Commercialization and Agriculture Residue Collection (James Hettenhaus). 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Historical Outline. 14.3 Biomass Value. 14.4 Sustainable Removal. 14.5 Innovative Methods for Collection, Storage and Transport. 14.6 Establishing Feedstock Supply. 14.7 Perspectives and Outlook. References. 15 The Corn Wet Milling and Corn Dry Milling Industry - A Base for Biorefinery Technology Developments (Donald L. Johnson). 15.1 Introduction. 15.2 The Corn Refinery. 15.3 The Modern Corn Refinery. 15.4 Carbohydrate Refining. 15.5 Outlook and Perspectives. References. Part IV Biomass Conversion: Processes and Technologies. 16 Enzymes for Biorefineries (Sarah A. Teter, Feng Xu, Glenn E. Nedwin, and Joel R. Cherry). 16.1 Introduction. 16.2 Biomass as a Substrate. 16.3 Enzymes Involved in Biomass Biodegradation. 16.4 Cellulase Development for Biomass Conversion. 16.5 Expression of Cellulases. 16.6 Range of Biobased Products. 16.7 Biorefineries: Outlook and Perspectives. References. 17 Biocatalytic and Catalytic Routes for the Production of Bulk and Fine Chemicals from Renewable Resources (Thomas Willke, Ulf Pruse, and Klaus-Dieter Vorlop). 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Historical Outline. 17.3 Processes. References. Subjcet Index. Volume 2. Part I Biobased Product Family Trees. Carbohydrate-based Product Lines. 1 The Key Sugars of Biomass: Availability, Present Non-Food Uses and Potential Future Development Lines (Frieder W. Lichtenthaler). 2 Industrial Starch Platform - Status quo of Production, Modification and Application (Dietmar R. Grull, Franz Jetzinger, Martin Kozich, Marnik M. Wastyn, and Robert Wittenberger). 3 Lignocellulose-based Chemical Products and Product Family Trees (Birgit Kamm, Michael Kamm, Matthias Schmidt, Thomas Hirth, and Margit Schulze). Lignin Line and Lignin-based Product Family Trees. 4 Lignin Chemistry and its Role in Biomass Conversion (Gosta Brunow). 5 Industrial Lignin Production and Applications (E. Kendall Pye). Protein Line and Amino Acid-based Product Family Trees. 6 Towards Integration of Biorefinery and Microbial Amino Acid Production (Achim Marx, Volker F. Wendisch, Ralf Kelle, and Stefan Buchholz). 7 Protein-based Polymers: Mechanistic Foundations for Bioproduction and Engineering (Dan W. Urry). Biobased Fats (Lipids) and Oils. 8 New Syntheses with Oils and Fats as Renewable Raw Materials for the Chemical Industry (Ursula Biermann, Wolfgang Friedt, Siegmund Lang, Wilfried Luhs, Guido Machmuller, Jurgen O. Metzger, Mark Rusch gen. Klaas, Hans J. Schafer, Manfred P. Schneider). 9 Industrial Development and Application of Biobased Oleochemicals (Karlheinz Hill). Special Ingredients and Subsequent Products. 10 Phytochemicals, Dyes, and Pigments in the Biorefinery Context (George A. Kraus). 11 Adding Color to Green Chemistry? An Overview of the Fundamentals and Potential of Chlorophylls (Mathias O. Senge and Julia Richter). Part II Biobased Industrial Products, Materials and Consumer Products. 12 Industrial Chemicals from Biomass - Industrial Concepts (Johan Thoen and Rainer Busch). 13 Succinic Acid - A Model Building Block for Chemical Production from Renewable Resources (Todd Werpy, John Frye, and John Holladay). 14 Polylactic Acid from Renewable Resources (Patrick Gruber, David E. Henton, and Jack Starr). 15 Biobased Consumer Products for Cosmetics (Thomas C. Kripp). Part III Biobased Industry: Economy, Commercialization and Sustainability. 16 Industrial Biotech - Setting Conditions to Capitalize on the Economic Potential (Rolf Bachmann and Jens Riese). Subject Index.
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paper_title: Processes for the Synthesis of Liquid Fuels from CO2 and Marine Energy

paper_content:

In Britain, wind and wave power are expected to make a significant contribution to future energy supplies, but the vast majority of the resource is located offshore, away from the mainland electricity grid. In this context, the chemical storage and transport of this energy appears to be an attractive option for the supply of fuels. On the other hand, it is not unlikely that CO 2 will be recovered on a large scale in the next 10–20 years, thus making it available as a carbon source for liquid fuels. A preliminary analysis indicated that the liquid fuels that could be most readily manufactured from hydrogen (from electrolysis) and recycled CO 2 were: methanol, mixed alcohols and gasoline (via methanol). In the light of developmental work at NEDO, Japan, methanol appears to be simplest to manufacture. The Mobil Methanol-to-Gasoline process also facilitates the manufacture of a very convenient automotive fuel. Mixed alcohols have the advantages both of low toxicity, and efficient Fischer–Tropsch catalysts for their synthesis (the Pearson process and the Ecalene process). This paper compares the energy efficiency of these three processes.
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paper_title: Techno-economic analysis for the synthesis of liquid and gaseous fuels based on hydrogen production via electrolysis

paper_content:

Abstract The production of hydrogen from renewable sources by water electrolysis can be coupled to a downstream chemical synthesis. This enables the production of liquid fuels or chemical raw materials that can be used in today's infrastructure. However, it is not clear which synthesis technology fits best to the novel boundary conditions for chemical plants (e.g. small scale, flexible operation). In order to identify the most promising syntheses, different one-stage synthesis systems are evaluated in terms of technology, economics and acceptance. The analysis gives in all cases production costs that are significantly above today's market prices. Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis routes are expected to have a higher public acceptance compared to the other technologies due to the high product similarity to conventional energy carriers (diesel, crude oil). The economic feasibility of synthetic natural gas (SNG) production suffers from the low product price of natural gas as a benchmark, but its technical score is high. Methanol production is identified as the synthesis technology that achieves the highest overall score. The analysis shows that not only techno-economic parameters, but also parameters representing the public acceptance like the fit to the existing infrastructure, have to be considered to identify appropriate technologies that may play a role in future energy systems.
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paper_title: Investigation of technical and economic aspects for methanol production through CO2 hydrogenation

paper_content:

Abstract This study investigates various design and operating aspects for the valorization of industrially captured CO 2 towards methanol production and the circumstances under of which this concept can be economically viable. Cost breakdown in various Power-to-Fuel concepts confirm that hydrogen cost is the most crucial factor. Several power delivery options for hydrogen production through electrolysis are compared for their economics. The use of cheap electricity in conjunction with adequate time coverage throughout the annum is of high importance for lowering the overall H 2 production costs. Also, a Power-to-Fuel system integrated with a coal fired power plant can be an interesting option for excess power transformation when the electricity sell is not profitable. The economic analysis on the H 2 production scheme revealed that each of the three main parameters for the determination of the H 2 cost (electrolyzer capital cost, electricity cost and storage cost) can play the key role in the feasibility of the plant depending on the concept each time. A considerable effort is needed in order the CO 2 derived fuels to reach a competitive level in the global market.
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paper_title: Microscale technology and biocatalytic processes: opportunities and challenges for synthesis.

paper_content:

Despite the expanding presence of microscale technology in chemical synthesis and energy production as well as in biomedical devices and analytical and diagnostic tools, its potential in biocatalytic processes for pharmaceutical and fine chemicals, as well as related industries, has not yet been fully exploited. The aim of this review is to shed light on the strategic advantages of this promising technology for the development and realization of biocatalytic processes and subsequent product recovery steps, demonstrated with examples from the literature. Constraints, opportunities, and the future outlook for the implementation of these key green engineering methods and the role of supporting tools such as mathematical models to establish sustainable production processes are discussed.
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paper_title: An industrial view of process intensification

paper_content:

An integrated approach in chemical research and development, and chemical engineering is currently re-emerging under the label process intensification in academia as well as in industry. The promise of process intensification, as already expressed in the late 1970s, is to significantly increase the economic and ecological efficiency of chemical production routes. However, the rate of adoption in the chemical industry has been generally low and only a few examples have been reported since then. This paper addresses micro process technology, which is recognized as one important approach for process intensification in the chemical and process industry. It is particularly well suited for fast and extremely exothermic reactions enabling almost perfect process control. This feature could pave the way for considerable process improvements with regard to specific applications. A brief illustration of the advantages for gas-phase reactions is given. The incorporation of appropriately designed microstructured catalytic wall reactors within conventional partial oxidation production plants is presented.
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paper_title: Process intensification in the future production of base chemicals from biomass

paper_content:

Biomass is an attractive resource for the production of bulk chemicals. Process intensification (PI) is a valuable approach in developing economical processes with a minimal global footprint which will require new infrastructure to be designed and built. An attempt is presented to describe the future architecture of the bio-based chemical industry. The field is in its infancy and it is thus instructive to consider specific case studies of biomass based production routes. The first illustrates a route to mono propylene glycol, an established bulk chemical. The thermo-chemical production of hydrogen from waste biomass streams and the production of base chemicals from amino acids highlight the potential of using agricultural rest streams. Two case studies focus on the use of lignocellulosic biomass in the production of platform molecules (isosorbide and hydroxymethylfurfural) and the last case study on the novel combination of two (relatively) new technologies for a genuinely sustainable production: microwave processing and supercritical extraction technology. ::: ::: In all of these case studies PI aspects are present and major technological challenges are addressed. The end result is a list of research topics with objectives that are intended to contribute to a sustainable future chemical industry for the production of bio-based chemicals
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paper_title: Future manufacturing approaches in the chemical and pharmaceutical industry

paper_content:

In order to develop future manufacturing strategies the chemical and pharmaceutical industry works on the implementation of process intensification and new modularization methods. In this paper current challenges, process intensification approaches and future manufacturing initiatives are summarized and discussed.
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paper_title: Renewable Power-to-Gas: A technological and economic review

paper_content:

The Power-to-Gas (PtG) process chain could play a significant role in the future energy system. Renewable electric energy can be transformed into storable methane via electrolysis and subsequent methanation.
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paper_title: Catalytic conversion of biomass: challenges and issues.

paper_content:

There are strong incentives to develop the production of fuels, chemicals and materials from biomass. However, the extensive use of biomass for industrial production, particularly for biofuels which involves high tonnages, raises environmental and ethical issues that may throw some doubts on the sustainability of these processes. The processing cost of biomass must be decreased by designing new processing routes and catalytic systems because those employed for hydrocarbons are not adapted to the molecular structure of biomolecules. To avoid competition with food supply, lignocellulosic feedstocks should be used rather than traditional agricultural crops particularly for biofuel production. Life-cycle assessment, which takes into account all the inputs and outputs of a process/product, should be carried out to evaluate the environmental impact of processes and used as a decision-making tool for product development.
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paper_title: Scaling up of renewable chemicals.

paper_content:

The transition of promising technologies for production of renewable chemicals from a laboratory scale to commercial scale is often difficult and expensive. As a result the timeframe estimated for commercialization is typically underestimated resulting in much slower penetration of these promising new methods and products into the chemical industries. The theme of ‘sugar is the next oil’ connects biological, chemical, and thermochemical conversions of renewable feedstocks to products that are drop-in replacements for petroleum derived chemicals or are new to market chemicals/materials. The latter typically offer a functionality advantage and can command higher prices that result in less severe scale-up challenges. However, for drop-in replacements, price is of paramount importance and competitive capital and operating expenditures are a prerequisite for success. Hence, scale-up of relevant technologies must be interfaced with effective and efficient management of both cell and steel factories. Details involved in all aspects of manufacturing, such as utilities, sterility, product recovery and purification, regulatory requirements, and emissions must be managed successfully.
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paper_title: Review of the applications of microreactors

paper_content:

Microreactors offer excellent mass and heat transfer performance for extraction and multiphase reactions. They provide a powerful tool for process intensification and micro scale processing. This paper reviews the structures of microreactors and units, and their applications on the synthesis of nanoparticles, organics, polymers and biosubstances. The structural evolution and properties of the commercialized and lab-made microreactors are introduced in detail. Recent developments of the fabrication, structures and applications of micro-structured reactors are highlighted. The promising direction in science and technology for future microreaction technology is also discussed.
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paper_title: Investigation of power-to-methanol processes coupling electrolytic hydrogen production and catalytic CO2 reduction

paper_content:

The purpose of this research work is to perform the techno-economic assessment of a Power-to-MeOH technology that couples a model water eletrolyzer (either a polymer electrolyte or a solid oxide technology) with a model catalytic CO2 reactor. Simulations were made using ASPEN Plus V8.0. Regarding the SOEC/Methanol process, results of the simulation confirm the predominance of CAPEX on MeOH production cost. Cost reductions and lifespan improvement of SOEC technologies are found to be the major cost reduction drivers. Also, the speed at which the SOEC/Methanol facility is constructed is found to affect significantly the competitiveness of this process. Regarding the PEM/Methanol process, the cost breakdown analysis confirms the predominance of OPEX on the methanol cost, a value that is moderately impacted when the lifespan of the electrolyser is doubled. The energy efficiency of the electrolyser is therefore a key driver for a reduction of methanol production costs. Using state-of-the-art technologies, a methanol cost of 891 €/tonne was determined for the PEM/Methanol process and a methanol cost of 5459 €/tonne was determined for the SOEC/Methanol process. These costs represent respectively 2.5 and 15 times the current market price for methanol. However, promising methanol cost reductions are foreseeable by improving the water electrolysis technologies.
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paper_title: Small-scale processing of biomass for biorefinery

paper_content:

The current fossil-based economy is moving towards a more bio-based economy. To enable this transition, many different processes for biorefinery are being developed. Small-scale biorefinery processes can be beneficial, not only socially and ecologically, but also economically. The main motivation for small-scale biorefinery is local re-use of materials, like water, minerals, organic matter, CO2, and heat. This minimizes costs for recycling and transport. A smart and integrated process design can beat the advantages of economy of scale applied in large-scale processes. Examples of two fully operational small-scale systems that produce ethanol and starch are given to illustrate our theory. Specific design rules for small-scale biorefineries are defined. The focus in design for small-scale processes should be on minimizing capital costs. Moreover, it is shown that separation of relatively simple pre-processing at small decentralized and more capital-intensive processing at large centralized factories, respectively, is advantageous. Integration with a biogas and combined heat and power (CHP) unit will furthermore allow usage of residual material to produce energy needed in the rest of the process
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paper_title: Techno-economic study of the storage of fluctuating renewable energy in liquid hydrocarbons

paper_content:

Liquid hydrocarbons are considered as an option to store renewable energy while decoupling the supply ::: and demand of renewable resources. They can also be used as transportation fuel or as feedstock for the ::: chemical industry and are characterized by a high energy density. A process concept using renewable ::: energy from fluctuating wind power and CO2 to produce liquid hydrocarbons was modeled by a flowsheet ::: simulation in Aspen Plus. The capacity of the plant was set to 1 GWLHV of hydrogen input, using ::: water electrolysis, reverse water–gas shift reaction (RWGS) and Fischer–Tropsch (FT) synthesis. A feed ::: of 30 t/h of H2 generated 56.3 t/h (12,856 bbl/d) of liquid hydrocarbons. A Power-to-Liquid efficiency ::: of 44.6% was calculated for the base case scenario. Net production cost ranged from 12.41 $/GGE to ::: 21.35 $/GGE for a system powered by a wind power plant with a full load fraction of about 47%, depending ::: on the assumed electricity feedstock price and electrolyzer capital cost. For systems with full load ::: fractions between 70% and 90%, the production cost was in the range of 5.48 $/GGE to 8.03 $/GGE.
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paper_title: Process industry supply chains: Advances and challenges

paper_content:

Abstract A large body of work exists in process industry supply chain optimisation. We describe the state of the art of research in infrastructure design, modelling and analysis and planning and scheduling, together with some industrial examples. We draw some conclusions about the degree to which different classes of problem have been solved, and discuss challenges for the future.
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paper_title: Fixed capital investment estimation for modular production plants

paper_content:

Abstract Modular plant design is an approach for making chemical production more flexible and more efficient. Different approaches for modular plant design have been developed, for example in the CoPIRIDE or F³ factory project. They have in common that reductions in design and construction expenses for modular equipment and its assembly are expected e.g. by preassembly of modules in a workshop under controlled conditions resulting in less field work on the construction site for erection. However, the main disadvantage of the modular approach is the loss of economy of scale. Thus, the effective impact of the modular concept concerning the fixed capital investment has to be investigated. In this article, a new approach for estimating fixed capital investment of modular production plants will be presented and applied using a generic example. Based on the results we expect that positive effects through modularization on engineering and construction costs can nearly compensate the loss of economy of scale. In the investigated example investment costs of the modular plant are 12% higher than for the comparable conventionally built plant. Such increase could allow other effects that are attributed to the modular concept to be employed to advantage. That would be an economic improvement and a reduction of investment risk in view of the modular plant’s life cycle.
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paper_title: Framework to decide for an expansion strategy of a small scale continuously operated modular multi-product plant

paper_content:

Abstract Continuously operated multi-product plants enable an efficient and flexible production of new products. As a future plant concept, a modular design allows the possibility of a stepwise capacity expansion when market demand is increasing. Choosing the right plant capacity combined with a suitable expansion strategy is a key challenge in this context. Therefore, additional costs for expansion have to be balanced against an achievable economic performance and a reduction of investment risk. In this work a framework to evaluate the production capacity of a continuously operated modular multi-product production line for a production line wise capacity expansion will be presented. As a result, a decision tree analysis integrating production planning by a capacitated lot sizing method is introduced to evaluate the economic performance of plants with different capacities in an uncertain market. The framework is applied for a case study considering a continuous production of a set of three different products. As a key result it can be said that the investment risk can be reduced by applying smaller scale modular production lines. However, the low scalability of investment costs of a small scale production line negatively affects an economic expansion strategy.
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paper_title: Capacity Flexibility of Chemical Plants

paper_content:

In the light of market uncertainties and globalization, the capacity of fast and flexible adaption of a chemical plant to changing market conditions becomes a major necessity in future production scenarios. The capacity flexibility of a plant can be influenced by oversizing and numbering up of unit operations. The additional costs for these measures have to be compensated for by the financial benefit arising from the option to adapt to uncertain market demands. Therefore, the additional costs have to be balanced against the gain in flexibility. In this work, methods for the evaluation of capacity flexibility are adapted from the manufacturing industries to enable a cost-effective design of a modular plant. The evaluation methods are used to select modular plant setups allowing the best compromise between costs and flexibility in different market scenarios.
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paper_title: Multivariate risk analysis of an intensified modular hydroformylation process

paper_content:

Abstract Reduction of investment risk is a major challenge in chemical process design. To minimize financial risks a paradigm shift is necessary. Therefore, risk analysis will have to gain importance already during process development. Only in this way can plant designs be identified that cover the expected demand uncertainty at optimal costs. Stepwise expansion is one option to reduce risks as investments can be spread over a certain time period. This allows waiting for more precise market information and adapting production output to changing market development. The drawback of this approach is the loss in economy of scale. Potentially higher investment costs have to be balanced against an achievable risk reduction which makes the integration of risk assessment in process design indispensable. Furthermore, equipment allowing for an efficient numbering up in plant expansion is needed. Here one of the most promising options is the application of intensified equipment. This work shows how process intensified equipment can be used to reduce the investment risk of a large scale hydroformylation plant. Two methods for risk quantification are applied. Both show that investment risk is reduced by numbering up unit operations and adapting their size. Influencing parameters are the cost structure and process boundaries.
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paper_title: Future Production Concepts in the Chemical Industry: Modular – Small‐Scale – Continuous

paper_content:

Modular continuous production concepts are already successfully applied in research, development, and piloting of a series of chemical compounds in the markets of fine chemistry and pharmaceutical products. Besides, first case studies for the application of those concepts in industrial scale are reported. Current European research projects focus to proof their applicability in a broader range. The elaborated know-how will be commercially used in a franchise between BTS, INVITE, Ehrfeld Mikrotechik BTS, and further partners in the product Flonamic®. One core element of these production concepts are micro- and milli-structured devices assisting continuous-flow processes due to their superior transport characteristics and small holdup. In small-scale production concepts, these special devices have to be considered together with conventional technology. The platform concept developed by TU Dortmund University for chemical manufacturing simplifies the scale-up process from lab to container scale and beyond on different levels in flow rate, temperature, or other process conditions.
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paper_title: Microscale technology and biocatalytic processes: opportunities and challenges for synthesis.

paper_content:

Despite the expanding presence of microscale technology in chemical synthesis and energy production as well as in biomedical devices and analytical and diagnostic tools, its potential in biocatalytic processes for pharmaceutical and fine chemicals, as well as related industries, has not yet been fully exploited. The aim of this review is to shed light on the strategic advantages of this promising technology for the development and realization of biocatalytic processes and subsequent product recovery steps, demonstrated with examples from the literature. Constraints, opportunities, and the future outlook for the implementation of these key green engineering methods and the role of supporting tools such as mathematical models to establish sustainable production processes are discussed.
---
paper_title: An industrial view of process intensification

paper_content:

An integrated approach in chemical research and development, and chemical engineering is currently re-emerging under the label process intensification in academia as well as in industry. The promise of process intensification, as already expressed in the late 1970s, is to significantly increase the economic and ecological efficiency of chemical production routes. However, the rate of adoption in the chemical industry has been generally low and only a few examples have been reported since then. This paper addresses micro process technology, which is recognized as one important approach for process intensification in the chemical and process industry. It is particularly well suited for fast and extremely exothermic reactions enabling almost perfect process control. This feature could pave the way for considerable process improvements with regard to specific applications. A brief illustration of the advantages for gas-phase reactions is given. The incorporation of appropriately designed microstructured catalytic wall reactors within conventional partial oxidation production plants is presented.
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paper_title: Modules in process industry − A life cycle definition

paper_content:

Abstract The chemical and biochemical industry has to face the challenges of globalization, short product cycle times and volatile markets. Therefore, the lead time of development projects has to be shortened. Modules and module-based plant design are widely discussed to enable shorter time-to-market by reuse of engineering effort and standardization. In this paper general requirements on modules in process engineering and modules for particular applications in the chemical and biochemical industry are reviewed. This includes the impact of modules on the planning process and examples of realized modular equipment concepts. Based on this, a general terminology definition of ‘modules’ and of specific module types for the process industry is presented, whereas modules on various ‘aggregation levels’ are accounted. A ‘block representation frame’ stores information and tracks information fluxes along the whole process and plant life cycle and on different ‘realization levels’ from laboratory studies over miniplant validation to production plant design and operation.
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paper_title: Net Present Value Analysis of Modular Chemical Production Plants

paper_content:

Modular plants consist of modules that autonomously operate parts of the plant. These modules are technically and organizationally limited areas of the plant that fulfill defined tasks. Starting with these modules, companies can create capacity either by equaling up modules from general structures or by numbering up equipment. Here, the economics of a modular chemical plant are compared with those of a traditional large-scale plant by investigating the net present value. The modular plant presents a more efficient concept for fast growing products or products with volatile demands. This is because the market impact during operation is more important than the preceding influence of the investment. In those cases, the effects of flexibility surpass the effects of scale.
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paper_title: Roadmap for a Smart Factory: A Modular, Intelligent Concept for the Production of Specialty Chemicals

paper_content:

Digitalization and increasing the flexibility of production concepts offer the possibility to react to market challenges in the field of specialty chemicals. Shorter product lifetimes, increasing product individualization, and the resulting market volatility impose new requirements on plant operators. Novel concepts such as modular production plants and developments in digitalization (Industry 4.0) are able to assist the implementation of smart factories in specialty chemicals. These essential concepts will be presented in this Minireview.
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paper_title: Methodology for evaluating modular production concepts

paper_content:

Abstract A more flexible and efficient production of chemicals is a requirement for further strengthening the competitiveness in the chemical industry. An approach proposed to achieve this is modular plant design. It offers new opportunities for the supply chain and combines production flexibility and efficiency. However, modular facilities are expected to be built at comparably small scales and loss of economy of scale is a major concern. There is a need to know under which conditions a modular plant design is a beneficial option. Addressing this it would be helpful to have a methodology that includes modeling of production scenarios in a holistic way including supply chain and process simulation and thus allowing a meaningful evaluation. For that reason we developed such a methodology, using the F 3 factory concept as an example for modular plant design. Demonstrating the methodology's feasibility an exemplary implementation in a software tool was established enabling comparative simulation and evaluation of batch, continuous and the modular F 3 factory production. As unique feature supply chain and process simulation is combined in a single software implementation allowing for statistical analysis to automatically evaluate the economic performance of production concepts under different boundary conditions of the process and the supply chain. The incorporation of those boundary conditions is usually not part of process simulation and goes beyond state of the art approaches. In this paper, the methodology implemented will be presented and the application will be demonstrated using two production scenarios as examples. For the examples investigated, it was found that compared to the conventional production concept the modular F 3 factory concept is economically robust concerning the choice of design capacity with regard to diverse market conditions.
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paper_title: Review of the applications of microreactors

paper_content:

Microreactors offer excellent mass and heat transfer performance for extraction and multiphase reactions. They provide a powerful tool for process intensification and micro scale processing. This paper reviews the structures of microreactors and units, and their applications on the synthesis of nanoparticles, organics, polymers and biosubstances. The structural evolution and properties of the commercialized and lab-made microreactors are introduced in detail. Recent developments of the fabrication, structures and applications of micro-structured reactors are highlighted. The promising direction in science and technology for future microreaction technology is also discussed.
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paper_title: Real option framework for equipment wise expansion of modular plants applied to the design of a continuous multiproduct plant

paper_content:

Abstract As market demand forecasts will become more uncertain in the future it is necessary to develop new methods for plant design. New technologies allow combining the flexibility of a batch plant with the efficiency of a continuous production. To gain even more economic benefit intensified equipment is often designed as a module. The usage of equipment modules allows an easily and efficient increase of capacity. In this way a plant expansion close to the market is possible. Consideration of stepwise plant expansion is often limited to the copying of complete production lines. This approach results in high additional investment costs due to the loss of economy of scale. To overcome the limitations set by economy of scale, an equipment wise expansion strategy should be applied. By debottlenecking the capacity limits of the plant it is possible to adapt plant capacity very close to the changing environment and reduce the additional costs. Therefore, design of a modular plant must be combined with suitable economic evaluation methods for uncertain demand forecasts. In this work a framework for such a design based on predefined and standardized modules will be presented. The framework consists of two stages. The first stage is the selection of possible modular setups and suitable expansion strategies. Next these setups are evaluated in a real option analysis to investigate the economic performance in an uncertain market. The approach will be used to evaluate a multiproduct continuous plant. The main finding is that the economy of the modular plant depends under the given boundary conditions on the equipment item with the highest proportion on total investment costs and a high cost degression exponent.
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paper_title: Information Technologies for Innovative Process and Plant Design

paper_content:

Process and plant design is associated with long lead times from first planning to plant commissioning. Methods to reduce lead time in chemical engineering process and plant design are reviewed. Experiment-based process design methods for small-scale production will be discussed as well as recent approaches for module-based plant design. For both, the required information technologies will be discussed, and an overview will be given about suitable and available software solutions. Finally, an innovative approach to modularization for small-scale continuous container processes will be presented.
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paper_title: Characterization model for innovative plant designs in the process industry—An application to transformable plants

paper_content:

Abstract This article presents a characterization model for describing, comparing and improving innovative plant designs based on the core idea of Quality Function Deployment. The presented model supports providers of innovative plants to develop highly customer orientated products, to offer a competitive product portfolio and to create customized solutions. Plant operator’s requirements are correlated with design attributes. Radar diagrams visualize requirements attainments and indicate individual strengths and weaknesses of the design. In addition the Degree of Attraction is introduced and specified as a characteristic, comparable performance parameter among innovative plant designs. In order to identify and classify plant operator’s requirements a survey in the means of Kano’s theory has been conducted. Classified requirements are weighted in order to set up the characterization model. Transformable plant designs are applied in this work as they currently represent a highly discussed example of innovative plants in process industry. As there are several transformable designs in research and practice aiming for different purposes a morphology has been developed in order to be able to define each individual design. Using the morphology for defining design attributes in the model allows a characterization of transformable plants. It is shown that transformable designs lead to highly attractive plants.
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paper_title: Business Models and Product Service Systems for Transformable, Modular Plants in the Chemical Process Industry

paper_content:

This paper examines business models and product service systems in the chemical industry. Three main players are currently involved on the market (equipment manufacturers, plant engineering companies and plant operators). Business models between engineering companies and plant operators are transaction oriented. Services such as maintenance and continuous improvements are not standard practice. As modular transformable production concepts emerge, the market structure is due to change. A new player, the module manufacturer, joins the market and competes with plant engineering companies. A modular and decentralized production concept requires different business models and service offers such as remote control or module substitution. Business models between operator and module manufacturers have to be more service orientated with risks shifting more towards the module manufacturer’s side.
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paper_title: Potential analysis model for case specific quantification of the degree of eligibility of innovative production concepts in the process industry

paper_content:

Abstract Several innovative production concepts are currently in the focus of the process industry. These concepts represent alternatives to conventional, established plants. If an investment need for new capacities is identified, innovative concepts seem to be promising in multiple use cases. Comparing and evaluating comprehensively both the innovative and conventional concept in every investment decision process lead to a lot more time and cost efforts in economic and ecological evaluations, though. Therefore, a potential analysis model is developed which quantifies the degree of eligibility for using a defined innovative production concept with respect to the given use case prior to evaluations. Consideration of promising production alternatives with the developed model provide a more comprehensive and accelerated investment decision process. Transformable plant designs and decentralized production are chosen exemplarily as innovative concepts. The model is based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Criteria for eligibility are structured hierarchically into the three clusters market, process/plant and product/logistics. Two scenarios have been implemented to test the model with different use cases. Results indicate that the eligibility of a certain innovative production concept depends on the scenario and the given circumstances like customer locations, demand volatilities or storage costs.
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paper_title: Process Control: Designing Processes and Control Systems for Dynamic Performance

paper_content:

1 Introduction to Process Control 2 Control Objectives and Benefits 3 Mathematical Modeling Principles 4 Modeling and Analysis for Process Control 5 Dynamic Behavior of Typical Process Systems 6 Empirical Model Identification 7 The Feedback Loop 8 The Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Algorithm 9 PID Controller Tuning for Dynamic Performance 10 Stability Analysis and Controller Tuning 11 Digital Implementation of Process Control 12 Practical Application of Feedback Control 13 Performance of Feedback Control Systems 14 Cascade Control 15 Feedforward Control 16 Adapting Single-Loop Control Systems for Non-Linear Processes 17 Inferential Control 18 Level and Inventory Control 19 Single-Variable Model Predictive Control 20 Multiloop ControlEffects of Interaction 21 Multiloop Control Performance Analysis 22 Variable Structure and Constraint Control 23 Centralized Multivariable Control 24 Process Control Design Definition and Decisions 25 Process Control Design Managing the Design Procedure 26 Control for Product Quality and Profit Appendices
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paper_title: Microreactor Technology: A Revolution for the Fine Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries?

paper_content:

50 % of reactions in the fine chemical/pharmaceutical industry could benefit from a continuous process based mainly on microreactor technology. However, the frequent presence of a solid phase still hinders the widespread application of such a technology as a multi-purpose solution. For small scale and pilot productions, speed in process R&D, as well as the avoidance of scale-up issues, are the main drivers. On the other hand, for large scale productions, a gain in yield and safety are the main motivations for the use of micoreactor technology. The gain in yield must be significant in order to cope with the increase in capital expenditure associated with the development of a new technology.
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paper_title: MINIATURIZATION OF AN AMMONIA-WATER ABSORPTION CYCLE HEAT PUMP USING MICROCHANNELS

paper_content:

Small-scale, portable vapor compression cooling systems are encumbered with the need for electricity from batteries or a portable generator in order to operate the mechanical compressor. Heat actuated technologies, such as the absorption cycle heat pump, offer an alternative that can substantially reduce or eliminate the reliance on electricity. Heat can be provided by combusting high energy density liquid fuels or by recovering waste heat from other processes, such as fuel cell systems or vehicle exhaust. With support from the U.S. Army, collaboration between the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and Oregon State University (OSU) is endeavoring to develop miniaturized heat-actuated technologies for portable and personnel cooling. Progress on a miniaturized ammonia-water cycle is reported, including the recent operation of a 250 Watt breadboard system. Microchannel technologies offer a unique approach for intensifying these transport processes by reducing the characteristic length-scale to less than a millimeter. In applying these techniques to miniaturize the absorption cycle heat pump, the major technical hurdles are associated with the absorber and desorber, because of the requirements for two-phase processing and for balancing heat and mass transfer. The PNNL approach for absorbers utilizes thin wicking materials within microchannels. OSU is developing desorbers using fractals that operate similar to a thermal inkjet printer. The principles of the concepts are presented along with experimental results from testing prototype devices operating with ammonia-water at conditions consistent with ammonia-water heat pump cycles. Potential for additional size and weight reductions is discussed. One application target calls for a 150 Watt portable cooling system for the individual soldier that weighs less than 6 pounds and more preferably less than 4 pounds.
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paper_title: Review on gas–liquid separations in microchannel devices

paper_content:

Abstract Separations are indispensable to most chemical processes, regardless of operational scale. In the field of chemical microprocess engineering, separations have so far attracted rather limited attention compared to reactive processes, although increasingly more research is directed towards this area. Microstructured devices offer the opportunity of intensifying transport processes associated with separation operations by providing high ratios of contact areas to volume, short transport distances and high driving force gradients. These attributes have so far been exploited for various microseparations. In this review, we focus on separations where gas and liquid phases are present, and in particular on absorption, stripping and distillation. Two main approaches for contacting the two phases have been employed: continuous and dispersed phase contactors. Removal of components from gas mixtures by absorption and stripping of volatiles from liquid mixtures have been achieved in falling film devices, thin porous plate microcontactors, as well as in dispersed flow systems. Distillation has been performed in microchannel devices, utilizing capillary, centrifugal and gravity forces, vacuum or carrier gas.
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paper_title: Methanol production FPSO plant concept using multiple microchannel unit operations

paper_content:

Abstract Remote, offshore gas reserves have long been a challenging deepwater petroleum resource to tap. Natural gas in many offshore regions is plentiful, but lacks access to the market because of the logistical challenges and costs. Most large offshore gas discoveries are capped, and gas associated with oil production is re-injected into the reservoir or is flared. A more attractive option is to convert the gas into a liquid product on a floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessel. However, some conventional process technologies are not well suited for operation on floating vessels that are highly space and weight constrained and may challenge vessel stability during inclement weather. Microchannel process technology units under development offer intensified processes that are suitable for offshore production of methanol from natural gas; thereby capitalizing on vast, untapped natural gas reserves. Microchannel process technology is typically applied to individual or a few unit operations, but rarely to an entire chemical plant – inclusive of multiple reactors, phase separation, and distillation for product purification – where each is a microchannel-based unit operation configured into a novel system.
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paper_title: Zero‐gravity distillation utilizing the heat pipe principle (micro‐distillation)

paper_content:

Separation of ethanol-water and methanol-water mixtures has been accomplished experimentally using a horizontal zero-gravity distillation column. A countercurrent flow between liquid and vapor phases was established utilizing the principle of the heat pipe. The concentration profile along the column has been investigated with various product rates. A high degree of separation was achieved in a relatively short column lined with capillary wicks. The flexible column orientation can also be a tremendous advantage as compared to the necessarily vertical operation of the conventional distillation columns.
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paper_title: Micro-separation of fluid systems: A state-of-the-art review

paper_content:

Abstract Micro-separation technology is based on the application of micro-structured equipment units. Such units contain structured elements with micro-scale dimensions. They are necessary for the implementation of classical downstream unit operations within the overall micro-scale production process. However, the development of micro-separation units for fluid mixtures faces substantial difficulties. This article gives an overview of current research activities in the field of micro-separation technology focusing on the unit operations extraction, absorption/desorption, distillation, as well as particle or droplets sorting. In addition, some examples are given for a combined application of different micro-separation operations. Both advantages and limitations of micro-separation operations are highlighted.
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paper_title: Microscale technology and biocatalytic processes: opportunities and challenges for synthesis.

paper_content:

Despite the expanding presence of microscale technology in chemical synthesis and energy production as well as in biomedical devices and analytical and diagnostic tools, its potential in biocatalytic processes for pharmaceutical and fine chemicals, as well as related industries, has not yet been fully exploited. The aim of this review is to shed light on the strategic advantages of this promising technology for the development and realization of biocatalytic processes and subsequent product recovery steps, demonstrated with examples from the literature. Constraints, opportunities, and the future outlook for the implementation of these key green engineering methods and the role of supporting tools such as mathematical models to establish sustainable production processes are discussed.
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paper_title: Distillation in microchemical systems using capillary forces and segmented flow

paper_content:

Distillation is a ubiquitous method of separating liquid mixtures based on differences in volatility. Performing such separations in microfluidic systems is difficult because interfacial forces dominate over gravitational forces. We describe distillation in microchemical systems and present an integrated silicon device capable of separating liquid mixtures based on boiling point differences. Microfluidic distillation is realized by establishing vapor–liquid equilibrium during segmented flow. Enriched vapor in equilibrium with liquid is then separated using capillary forces, and thus enabling a single-stage distillation operation. Design criteria for operation of on-chip distillation is set forth, and the working principle demonstrated by separation of binary mixtures of 50 : 50 mol% MeOH–toluene and 50 : 50 mol% DCM–toluene at 70.0 °C. Analysis of vapor condensate and liquid exiting a single-stage device gave MeOH mole fractions of 0.22 ± 0.03 (liquid) and 0.79 ± 0.06 (vapor). Similarly, DCM mole fractions were estimated to be 0.16 ± 0.07 (liquid) and 0.63 ± 0.05 (vapor). These experimental results were consistent with phase equilibrium predictions.
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paper_title: An industrial view of process intensification

paper_content:

An integrated approach in chemical research and development, and chemical engineering is currently re-emerging under the label process intensification in academia as well as in industry. The promise of process intensification, as already expressed in the late 1970s, is to significantly increase the economic and ecological efficiency of chemical production routes. However, the rate of adoption in the chemical industry has been generally low and only a few examples have been reported since then. This paper addresses micro process technology, which is recognized as one important approach for process intensification in the chemical and process industry. It is particularly well suited for fast and extremely exothermic reactions enabling almost perfect process control. This feature could pave the way for considerable process improvements with regard to specific applications. A brief illustration of the advantages for gas-phase reactions is given. The incorporation of appropriately designed microstructured catalytic wall reactors within conventional partial oxidation production plants is presented.
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paper_title: Microreactor Technology and Continuous Processes in the Fine Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industry: Is the Revolution Underway?

paper_content:

Microreactors have shown their ability to improve chemical processes and routes; however, their integration into chemical production processes depends not only on technical advances. Cost issues and productions logistics play a crucial role, too, and are highlighted with two different case studies. Economical drivers for the pharmaceutical industry are described with emphasis on future development of microprocess engineering.
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paper_title: Hydrodynamics and mass transfer characteristics in gas–liquid flow through a rectangular microchannel

paper_content:

Abstract Researches on two-phase transfer and reaction processes in microchannnels are important to the design of multiphase microchemical systems. In the present work, hydrodynamics and mass transfer characteristics in cocurrent gas–liquid flow through a horizontal rectangular microchannel with a hydraulic diameter of 667 μ m have been investigated experimentally. Liquid side volumetric mass transfer coefficients were measured by absorbing pure CO 2 into water and a 0.3 M NaHCO 3 / 0.3 M Na 2 CO 3 buffer solution. Interfacial areas were determined by absorbing pure CO 2 into a 1 M NaOH solution. Two-phase flow patterns and pressure drop data were also obtained and analyzed. This paper shows that two-phase frictional pressure drop in the microchannel can be well predicted by the Lockhart–Martinelli method if we use a new correlation of C value in the Chisholm's equation. Liquid side volumetric mass transfer coefficient and interfacial area as high as about 21 s - 1 and 9000 m 2 / m 3 , respectively, can be achieved in the microchannel. Generally, liquid side volumetric mass transfer coefficient increases with the increasing superficial liquid or gas velocity, which can be described satisfactorily by the developed empirical correlations. A comparison of mass transfer performance among different gas–liquid contactors reveals that the gas–liquid microchannel contactor of this study can provide at least one or two orders of magnitude higher liquid side volumetric mass transfer coefficients and interfacial areas than the others.
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paper_title: Novel micro-distillation column for process development

paper_content:

The design, manufacture and testing of a novel flat micro-distillation column is presented. The unit was operated in a horizontal orientation with unit ends regulated to the boiling point temperatures of the pure compounds. Metal foam was used as a distillation packing on the bottom of the unit. The operation of the unit was studied with a mixture of n-hexane and cyclohexane. Operating conditions were stable and a height equivalent to a theoretical plate of 13 mm was observed. The unit presented in this paper seems to be an viable option as a building block of a micro-scale chemical process.
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paper_title: Experimental investigation on a membrane distillation based micro-separator

paper_content:

Abstract In this work a novel micro-separator combining the sweep gas membrane distillation principle with micro-fluidic channels was designed and tested for the separation of a mixture of methanol and water with a low to high methanol concentration. The performance of the new separation device was studied with different liquid–vapor/gas membrane contactors with respect to the separation factor and the distillate flux rate by varying the relevant operating parameters of the process like the methanol concentration in the feed (5–70 wt.%), the feed temperature (40–65 °C), the feed flow rate (up to 30 ml/min), and the flow rate of the inert carrier gas nitrogen (up to 600 ml/min at standard conditions). For all performed experiments, the feasibility of the separation has been proved and the possibility to separate mixtures with high methanol concentration by using a membrane distillation based micro-separator has been for the first time reported. The inert gas flow rate was identified as the crucial operating parameter influencing the separation performance of the micro-separator. In addition, the selection of an appropriate membrane liquid–vapor/gas contactor was found to be an important design parameter for the reduction of temperature polarization effects. Finally, the novel micro-separator offers the possibility for screening different polymeric hydrophobic/oleophobic micro-porous membranes, showing their potential and limitations as liquid–vapor/gas contactors for the separation of an aqueous mixture with a low to high methanol concentration.
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paper_title: Experimental demonstration of rotating spiral microchannel distillation

paper_content:

A prototype device using a rotating spiral microchannel to produce multistage distillation has been designed and used to separate 2,2-dimethylbutane from an initial 50:50 mixture with 2-methyl-2-butene. Distillation or other phase-contacting processes in microchannels requires a strategy for handling surface forces so that the phases can interact in a controlled manner and efficient mass transfer can take place. The rotating spiral approach uses centrifugal force to maintain segregation of the phases into parallel-flowing liquid and vapour layers. When centrifugal force is opposed by pressure gradient along the channel, these layers can flow counter currently. Changing rotation rate and pressure allows adjustment of the phase flow rates and the contacting layer thicknesses. Thus, it is possible to control the phase contacting and take full advantage of the rapid mass transfer that is potentially available for small microchannel dimensions. This efficient contact can be maintained over long channel distances, allowing a large number of separation stages to be reached. A further advantage of the rotating spiral approach is that the mass transfer is augmented by secondary motions produced by Coriolis force. The paper describes the design of the prototype device, including flow and thermal aspects, and presents results for a simple binary distillation. The results obtained demonstrate the practical feasibility of rotating spiral contacting and provide initial quantitative data that are used to evaluate the performance achieved by the prototype device.
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paper_title: Scale-up of Process Intensifying Falling Film Microreactors to Pilot Production Scale

paper_content:

Microstructured reactors with their benefits especially concerning enhanced mass and heat transfer represent a means for process intensification. A broadly used microstructured lab tool in the area of gas/liquid contacting is the Falling Film Microreactor (FFMR) developed by IMM in which liquid films of a few tens of micrometer thickness and interfacial areas of up to 20,000 m 2 /m 3 combined with an effective heat exchange can be obtained. Now the concept of the Falling Film Microreactor has been developed further with regard to increasing throughput in order to reach pilot production level and as a basis for future production scale throughput. Therefore, two different prototypes with a more than tenfold larger structured surface area have been developed and realized. The feasibility of a corresponding increase of throughput has been demonstrated for the oxidation of an organic compound using oxygen which is closely linked to an industrial relevant reaction and additionally by the absorption of CO2 in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution. Naturally, process optimisation itself also contributes to the efforts to increase throughput. Therefore, in parallel the oxidation reaction has been optimised both varying process parameters (temperature, flow rates, pressure) and reactor parameters (microchannel width and depth) in the original, standard Falling Film Microreactor. Conducting experiments at 10 bar instead of ambient pressure and using a reaction plate with 1200 µm x 400 µm channels instead of 600 µm x 200 µm channels lead to an increase in conversion. These investigations also encourage repetition, setter and exploring more challenging process conditions and thereby following the concept of “novel chemistry”.
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paper_title: Vacuum membrane distillation on a microfluidic chip

paper_content:

A multilayered microfluidic chip used for vacuum membrane distillation is designed, fabricated and tested by rectification of a water–methanol mixture.
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paper_title: Review of the applications of microreactors

paper_content:

Microreactors offer excellent mass and heat transfer performance for extraction and multiphase reactions. They provide a powerful tool for process intensification and micro scale processing. This paper reviews the structures of microreactors and units, and their applications on the synthesis of nanoparticles, organics, polymers and biosubstances. The structural evolution and properties of the commercialized and lab-made microreactors are introduced in detail. Recent developments of the fabrication, structures and applications of micro-structured reactors are highlighted. The promising direction in science and technology for future microreaction technology is also discussed.
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paper_title: Development of multistage distillation in a microfluidic chip

paper_content:

Although there has been a lot of work on the development of microchemical processing systems such as micro-reactors and micro-sensors, little attention has been paid to micro-separation units, and in particular, microscale distillation. In this paper, various silicon–glass microscale distillation chips with different channel configurations were fabricated and tested. A temperature gradient was setup across the chip by heating and cooling the two ends. The feed was located at the middle of the microchannel. Arrays of micropillars were incorporated in order to guide the liquid flow. It was found that the separation performance was promoted by increasing the length of the microchannel. However, this created an imbalance of the liquid flows at the two sides of the microchannel and caused flooding. This hydrodynamic limitation was addressed by incorporating micropillars on both sides of the channel. The most efficient microdistillation chip consisted of a microchannel with 600 microns width and 40 cm length. Experimental results showed high efficiency for the separation of a 50 mol% acetone–water mixture when the heating and cooling temperature were 95 °C and 42 °C respectively. The concentrations of acetone were 3 mol% in the bottom stream and 95 mol% in the distillate, which was equivalent to at least 4 equilibrium stages at total reflux conditions. Furthermore, a 50 mol% methanol–toluene mixture was separated into nearly pure toluene in the bottom stream and 75 mol% methanol in the distillate. The performance of the microdistillation unit was reproducible in repeated tests.
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paper_title: Energy conservation through heat transfer enhancement techniques

paper_content:

Enhanced heat transfer surfaces have been successfully used in the heat transfer industry to obtain more compact and efficient units. Conservation of the useful part of energy (exergy) can be reached through higher heat transfer than that for standard surfaces and flow configurations. There are numerous ways for heat transfer augmentation which have been marketed or tested in laboratories. In this paper, we review some of the passive techniques for single-phase flow. One of the most promising heat transfer enhancement techniques is the compound augmentation method, in which different enhancement techniques are used simultaneously. Extended performance evaluation criteria (PEC) equations for enhanced heat transfer surfaces based on the entropy production theorem are developed to include the effect of fluid temperature variation along the length of a tubular heat exchanger and assess two objectives simultaneously. The need for this more comprehensive treatment of PEC compared to previous references is illustrated by the analysis of heat transfer and friction characteristics of ten spirally corrugated tubes. These PEC are used to assess the multiplicative effect when a corrugated tube is combined with twisted tape insert. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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paper_title: Innovative scaling strategies for a fast development of apparatuses by modular process engineering

paper_content:

Abstract The process industries are facing multiple challenges like product differentiation, shorter life cycles and market volatilities. Transformable production concepts as an answer to these challenges need a fast development of apparatuses for a short time to market but traditional scaling strategies are time and cost consuming. In contrast, innovative scaling strategies by modular process engineering promise faster scaling with less effort. The innovative scaling strategies proposed in this article include a combination of sizing-up, equaling-up and numbering-up in three main pathways. These strategies are shown and applied to examples of heat transfer, reaction and separation tasks with fluid-fluid and fluid-solid phase boundary coming from different scales.
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paper_title: How the filter press is meeting today's demands

paper_content:

Abstract Michael Price, Edwards & Jones, UK, and David Shaw, USF, USA, chronicle the developments in the design and operation of the filter press that have turned it into a high-tech system suitable for a variety, of complex filtration applications.
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paper_title: Development and characterization of a modular absorption column for transformable plants

paper_content:

Abstract The process industry is facing twofold challenges: market challenges like volatile demands and portfolios on the one hand and challenges in process engineering like long development times and partly oversized equipment on the other hand. Therefore production concepts containing respective apparatuses with increased flexibility, like transformable plants with modular devices, become important to handle the volatilities. Due to the modular construction capacity can be increased either by equalling up from general structures or by numbering up equipment. In this way a smart scale-up of the modular system becomes feasible. Thereby only the single module has to be analysed and the time-to-market is reduced. One main challenge of this smart scale-up of modular devices includes an equal distribution of the feed flow into every single module. In this contribution first experimental studies on a newly developed packed absorption module with rectangular cross section are compared to a conventional packed column. For each kind of apparatus, modular and conventional, the results of measurements include a random packing (Pall Ring 25 M) and a structured packing (Raschig™ Super-Pak 250). Comparing the experimental results between a packed absorption module and conventional packed columns the feasibility of this new, modular apparatus can be shown. Concerning structured packings, the module behaves in the same range compared to conventional packed columns. Although the single module exhibits the expected losses in capacity for the gas and liquid load, it reveals results in the same range for the mass transfer efficiency considering the reduced cross-section. In summary, the modular absorption column represents a promising approach for the implementation of a modular multiphase unit into transformable production plants.
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paper_title: Mehrstrom‐Wärmeaustauscher als gelötete Aluminium‐Plattenapparate – Stand des Wissens

paper_content:

Multi-flow heat exchangers as soldered aluminium plate equipment – State of the art. Soldered aluminium plate heat exchangers are the most frequently used pieces of equipment for heat exchange between clean fluids in cryogenic and low temperature processes. Equipment of this type combines high flexibility in the flow arrangement, high heating surface densities (up to 1400 m2/m3), low pressure drops, and low production costs. This article provides a survey of the present state of the art of their manufacture and thermal dimensioning. In conclusion, new developments are treated.
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paper_title: Flexibility for Absorption and Distillation Columns

paper_content:

The flexibility of absorption and distillation columns is limited by macroscopic fluid dynamic phenomena like flooding, entrainment, weeping or dewetting. The design of those columns is a crucial task and depends on the separation task, the needed capacity and the fluid dynamic boundaries. An enhancement in flexibility is necessary to face upcoming challenges in chemical industry, including increasing uncertainties in material and energy supply or product demand. Results show that an increased flexibility is either possible by means of internal structuring or modularization of the columns. Both measures have a potential to enhance capacity flexibility of absorption and distillation columns.
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paper_title: Dividing wall column for industrial multi purpose use

paper_content:

Abstract Dividing wall columns (DWC) for the distillation of multicomponent mixtures have received much attention in the past 15 years and have experienced a booming development. Since DWC demand higher efforts in equipment design and process control they are predominantly used in continuously operated dedicated production plants and spread only over a limited number of chemical companies. No open literature can be found where DWC are used in multi-purpose plants. The distillation equipment in those plants, typically batch wise operated, has to show a high degree of flexibility – an attribute that hardly seems to fit for dividing wall columns. Lonza set up the worldwide first multi-purpose DWC on the production site in Visp that fully meets the demands of a steadily changing production environment characterized by several different production campaigns, processes and products produced in the same plant throughout a year. This paper reports on the equipment design and the specific technical solutions that had to be implemented in order to satisfy the harsh specifications of multi-purpose production. Particular attention is put on the modelling and simulation of the column and the control scheme that has been applied. The paper contributes a new approach for setting up a flowsheet simulation that overcomes the frequently occurring problems in convergence and enhances robustness of the simulation. Since the launch of the column several different processes were successfully operated in this equipment. In each single case we directly transferred the process concept from simulation to the plant without piloting. The launch and operation of the column are explained in detail and finally the simulation results are compared to real operation data from the production.
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paper_title: Dividing wall columns in chemical process industry: A review on current activities

paper_content:

In spite of being an energy intensive process, distillation remains the most important separation method in the chemical process industry. Especially for the separation of mixtures with three or more components, the total energy requirement and the capital cost are very high. In this respect, dividing wall columns (DWCs) represent a very promising technology allowing a significant energy requirement reduction. This article reviews current industrial applications of DWCs and related research activities, including column configuration, design, modelling and control issues. Furthermore, the application of DWCs for azeotropic, extractive and reactive distillation is highlighted.
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paper_title: Dividing wall column—A breakthrough towards sustainable distilling

paper_content:

Dividing wall column (DWC) is a single shell, fully thermally coupled distillation column capable of separating mixtures of three or more components into high purity products. Compared to conventional columns-in-series and/or in-parallel configurations a DWC requires much less energy, capital and space. This makes DWC to something that corresponds with the present day idea of sustainable process technology. Based on published papers and patent literature this paper aims to give a complete overview of the work done so far on the research and implementation of DWCs, from early ideas on thermal coupling of distillation columns to practical issues that needed to be solved for their successful implementation. Approaches to short-cut and rigorous simulation, optimization, and control are highlighted, with particular focus on column internals and dimensioning, which is only conceptually considered in academic publications. A survey of relevant patents is included providing information on equipment innovations and application areas of industrial interest. Finally authors look at what is needed on research and engineering side to enable maximization of potential gains by building DWCs for obtaining four or even more products containing two or more partition walls in parallel, which is something not yet attempted in industrial practice.
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paper_title: Dividing wall columns: Fundamentals and recent advances

paper_content:

Abstract Different distillation sequences for the separation of near-ideal multicomponent mixtures have been proposed in the past. These sequences included both conventional and thermally coupled distillations. Investigations of these sequences based on thermodynamics and steady-state simulations aimed for identifying the economic and energetic favourable configuration. Dividing wall columns have shown to be superior to conventional distillation sequences in certain cases. For this reason dividing wall columns gained increasing application in the last years. More than 90 applications in production scale are known. The advantages are obvious. Depending on the case considered the energy and investment costs are reduced up to 30% compared to conventional technologies. The footprint is significantly smaller. Also advantageous is the higher flexibility of these systems in comparison to conventional column sequences. For temperature-sensitive products the thermal stress is reduced since the product is reboiled only once. Especially for high price products the product quality can be raised by simultaneously increasing the separation yield. An overview about fundamentals, applications, limitations and recent advances will be given in the paper.
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paper_title: Distillation Tray Fundamentals

paper_content:

Preface Acknowledgements Nomenclature 1. Some general considerations 2. Bubbles, froth, spray and foam 3. Clear liquid height, dispersion height and density 4. Pressure drop 5. Maximum capacity 6. Weeping 7. Tray efficiency 8. Point efficiency 9. relationship between point efficiency and tray efficiency 10. Prediction on efficiency for multicomponent mixtures Appendix A. Horizontal momentum balance over the exit calming zone Appendix B. Apparent Murphree vapour-phase tray efficiency in the presence of entrainment and weeping References Index.
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paper_title: Residence time and fluid mixing on commercial scale sieve trays

paper_content:

A fiber optic technique was used to obtain point residence time distributions at several points on an 8 ft. diam. sieve tray in hydrocarbon service. Residence time patterns were obtained over a wide range of vapor and liquid loadings with the isopropyl alcohol–water system and at both ends of the cyclohexane toluene system. The data reveal severe flow nonuniformities on the tray including nonuniform velocity distribution and retrograde flow near the column walls. The reasons for this behavior are discussed.
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paper_title: Flexibility for Absorption and Distillation Columns

paper_content:

The flexibility of absorption and distillation columns is limited by macroscopic fluid dynamic phenomena like flooding, entrainment, weeping or dewetting. The design of those columns is a crucial task and depends on the separation task, the needed capacity and the fluid dynamic boundaries. An enhancement in flexibility is necessary to face upcoming challenges in chemical industry, including increasing uncertainties in material and energy supply or product demand. Results show that an increased flexibility is either possible by means of internal structuring or modularization of the columns. Both measures have a potential to enhance capacity flexibility of absorption and distillation columns.
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Title: Flexibility Options for Absorption and Distillation to Adapt to Raw Material Supply and Product Demand Uncertainties: A Review

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: Provide an overview of the challenges faced by the chemical industry, including uncertainties in raw material supply and demand volatilities, and the need for flexibility in production processes.

Section 2: Classification of Boundary Conditions and Flexibility Types
Description 2: Classify the types of flexibility needed, the frequency of their occurrences, and the relevant positions along the value chain, including capacity, product, and location flexibility.

Section 3: Transformable Production Concepts
Description 3: Introduce the concept of transformable, modular production paradigms and discuss prototypes and real-world applications that address flexibility, re-configurability, and standardization in manufacturing.

Section 4: Flexible Apparatus Concepts
Description 4: Discuss the various flexible apparatus concepts suitable for enhancing flexibility in chemical production, focusing on modular plants and unit operations, specifically absorption and distillation.

Section 5: Flexibility by Modular Small-Scale Apparatus Concepts with Examples from Absorption and Distillation
Description 5: Present examples of small-scale modular apparatus concepts for absorption and distillation, highlighting lab-scale solutions, micro-structured devices, and their scalability.

Section 6: Flexibility by Modularization on Technical-Scale Shown within Absorption
Description 6: Discuss modular absorption columns on a technical scale, including design, scalability, and experimental evaluations of hydrodynamics and mass transfer efficiencies.

Section 7: Product Flexibility of Distillation Columns for Multi-Purpose Applications
Description 7: Explore the use of dividing wall columns (DWC) in multi-purpose plants for flexible separation of multicomponent mixtures, design approaches, and energy and cost efficiency.

Section 8: Capacity Flexibility of Distillation Columns by Segmentation of the Apparatus
Description 8: Examine the concept of internal segmentation in large-scale distillation columns to enhance capacity flexibility, including design considerations and simulation results.

Section 9: Conclusions
Description 9: Summarize the article's findings on the importance of flexibility in the chemical industry and the potential of modular, transformable production concepts and apparatuses to meet these challenges.