A review of the applicability of OR and AI scheduling techniques in practice
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paper_title: Manufacturing Planning and Control Systems

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The book is well-known for having the most current coverage available. A "non-numerical" approach is used with thoroughly integrated real applications. The Third Edition will provide complete integration of JIT concepts and techniques, continued use of real-world examples, and improved organization and style. There is more coverage of global factors, human issues, and strategic issues. The book also provides an introduction to production planning and control, as well as coverage of more advanced topics.
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paper_title: A review of capicity planning techniques within standard software packages

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This paper gives a review of capacity planning techniques from which today's standard software packages for production control make their choice. The following techniques are discussed in the paper: four variants of the rough cut capacity check, capacity requirements planning with infinite and finite loading, input/output planning without and with individual work orders, and a number of sequencing techniques. An important issue throughout the paper is the concept of robustness and nervousness of planning techniques, Aspects of interaction between techniques and human planners arc given. The human planner is still an important factor in capacity planning.
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paper_title: A review of production planning and scheduling in smaller manufacturing companies in the UK

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Abstract This paper briefly reviews recent published work in the area of production planning and control, in the context of attempting to determine the extent to which it is likely to contribute to the needs of the user community, especially smaller manufacturing enterprises. A sample questionnaire survey is then described in detail. Its aims were to establish current practice and to identify factors which influence production planning and control and, especially scheduling, in real manufacturing organizations. This is supported by four mini-case descriptions. The paper concludes with a short discussion of an approach to bridging the gap between theory and practice, and to the development of software to support schedulers in smaller organizations.
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paper_title: Job-Shop Scheduling Theory: What Is Relevant?

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The theoretical approach of OR and AI to scheduling often is not applicable to the dynamic characteristics of the actual situation. A preliminary field study is used to illustrate that the basic theoretical approach does not represent the reality of open job-shop scheduling, and its applicability is limited to those situations that are fundamentally static and behave like the models. Better understanding and modeling of the scheduling situation is needed.
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paper_title: Dynamic job shop scheduling: A survey of simulation research

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Scheduling of job shops has been extensively researched over the last three decades and it continues to attract the interests of both academic researchers and practitioners. This paper provides a state-of-the-art survey of the simulation-based research on dynamic job shop scheduling with a distinct emphasis on two important aspects. First, job-shop simulation modeling and experimental considerations are discussed with a review of the different approaches taken in the literature. Second, a review of the different studies is provided with a focus on their findings on the job shop performance criteria of interest. This paper is aimed at both practicing managers and researchers in the area of job shop scheduling because of the following considerations: 1. (i) The number of factors that characterize a job shop is very large and there is considerable variation in modeling and experimentation across the vast number of studies reported. Important research findings relevant to these issues reviewed in this paper would facilitate comparison of the currently available research results and their extension or application to other situations.2. (ii) A review of the various studies focusing on some of the more important performance criteria should help practitioners in the selection of scheduling rules to match the criterion particularly relevant to their shops.3. (iii) Recent studies which have modeled job shops as dual-resource constrained systems and assembly shops have been included in this survey for a more comprehensive coverage. A detailed bibliography is included and every effort has been made to make the survey up-to-date.
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paper_title: Heuristic scheduling systems : with applications to production systems and project management

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Partial table of contents: PRELIMINARIES. Approaches to Scheduling. Book Summary. ONE-MACHINE PROBLEMS. Single Machine: Foundations. Mathematical Solution Methods: New Directions. Single Machine: Timing. MULTI-MACHINE PROBLEMS. Embedded Problems. Parallel Machines/Batch Machines. Shop Routing. FLOW SHOPS AND JOB SHOPS. Scheduling Flow Shops: Makespan. Scheduling Job Shops: Basic Methods. PROJECT SCHEDULING AND MANAGEMENT. Network Project Scheduling. Resource-Constrained Project Scheduling. OTHER ISSUES. Model Extensions. Planning, Scheduling, and Control. Appendices. Index.
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paper_title: Single machine scheduling research

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This paper reviews static scheduling research on single machine for the last three decades. One hundred seventy one papers were found on this topic after an extensive search in the English language periodicals. These papers are classified on the basis of the objective functions and constraints. Contribution of each paper is analyzed in terms of its theoretical and computational results. An analysis of the literature on the basis of number of articles published in each year, in each category, in different journals and by different authors has also been provided. This reveals several interesting facts about the developments in single machine scheduling (SMS) research and its future.
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paper_title: Behind the screen: DSS from an OR point of view

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Interactive planning systems are a relatively new phenomenon in the practice of operations research. We review the role of quantitative models and methods and the need for man-machine interaction in practical planning situations. We specify a number of desirable functional requirements of an interactive planning system, and discuss the graphical user interface and the use of various representations. We comment on the types of solution strategies involved and relate some of our own experience.
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paper_title: Expert systems in production scheduling: lessons from a failed implementation

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Abstract This article describes an attempt to implement an expert system for production scheduling in a small manufacturing company. The approach adopted was to attempt to capture the heuristics and constraints used by the human scheduler in the form of a set of production rules that would be capable of imitating the human scheduler's behavior and eventually replace him. The implementation was eventually abandoned in favor of the introduction of a highly simplified version of the system to be used only in the decision support role, which was also unsuccessful. The reasons behind the failure are identified and discussed, and are found to relate to the following: underestimation of the complexity of the knowledge acquisition problem and the rate of change of the knowledge base; failure to adequately conceptualize the relationship between the human scheduler and the system; inadequate representation of uncertainty in scheduling parameters; the difficulty of the scheduler in adapting to an unfamiliar representation of the problem space, and lack of attention to deliberately simplifying the manufacturing operation before the introduction of the system.
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paper_title: Expert systems in production scheduling

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Abstract One area of computer-related studies that has recently been receiving considerable publicity is the development of expert systems. The more noteworthy applications of this approach to problem-solving are still in engineering and the natural sciences, but a growing number of applications to problems in business management are beginning to appear. This paper reviews recent research and discusses the applicability of an ‘expert system’ approach to problems in production scheduling.
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paper_title: Ironies of Automation

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Abstract This paper discusses the ways in which automation of industrial processes may expand rather than eliminate problems with the human operator. Some comments will be made on methods of alleviating these problems within the 'classic' approach of leaving the operator with responsibility for abnormal conditions, and on the potential for continued use of the human operator for on-line decision-making within human-computer collaboration.
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paper_title: An investigation of the applicability of expert systems to job shop scheduling

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Although the job shop scheduling (JSS) problem is of eminent practical importance and has received considerable attention by both industry and academia, because of its complexity, it still remains an enigma. Artificial Intelligence holds the potential for providing solutions to complex problems, such as the JSS problem. However, due to the magnitude of the JSS problem, search techniques are not computationally feasible. Expert Systems, though, have been successfully applied to problems of this type. The development of an expert system, however, implies the availability of an expert. Regrettably, such experts are not readily available in the JSS environment. The approach presented in this paper involves the use of computer simulation models of a job shop to train subjects so that they are capable of effective scheduling, and then extracting the knowledge of these “experts” to develop an expert system.
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paper_title: Differences in Task Performance as a Function of Type of Feedback: Learning‐Oriented Versus Performance‐Oriented Feedback1

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A laboratory study was conducted to examine the effects of learning-oriented versus performance-oriented feedback of task performance. The research also examined the role of self-efficacy as a moderator. Subjects were college students participating for course credit. The task involved using a computerized simulation of the Space Shuttle's Remote Manipulation System (RMS). Results provided evidence of the beneficial effects of learning-oriented feedback on performance for the performance dimension addressed in the feedback. Results also provided evidence that self-efficacy moderates the effects of feedback type (learning-oriented versus performance-oriented) on the performance dimension addressed in the feedback. Results are discussed in terms of the cuing and directional functions of feedback and the processes through which feedback influences performance.
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paper_title: A quantitative field study of the decision behaviour of four shopfloor schedulers

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In this article the decision behaviour of four production schedulers in a truck manufacturing company is investigated by means of a quantitative model. The model consists of there parts: performance variables, action variables and disturbance variables. The outcomes show that there is a large difference between schedulers that apparently have the same type of decision problem. Another interesting finding is that some scheduling actions work positively in the short term, but negatively over a longer term. Other results, along with methodological issues of quantitative research, are discussed.
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paper_title: 'Common sense' realities of planning and scheduling in printed circuit board production

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The researchers conducted an indepth field project to study the planning and scheduling process in the printed circuit board industry. The formal versus informal scheduling practices are compared, and several aspects of the scheduling situation discussed. Heuristics and techniques used to address instability in the manufacturing system are presented. Instability refers to the manufacturing state when expected or unexpected changes are encountered—e.g. changes in policies, procedures, or a machine fails. The ability to encode the heuristics as a formal model or computer program and have the heuristics mechanically applied is also discussed. The study also provides insights regarding the existence and nature of scheduler expertise.
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paper_title: Impact of Process and Outcome Feedback on the Relation of Goal Setting to Task Performance.

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Previous studies have demonstrated the interactive effects of goal setting and feedback. The present study examined process and outcome feedback as moderators of the relation of goal setting to performance, task-strategy quality, appropriateness of information search, effort, and self-confidence. Using a stock-investment computer simulation, 85 students worked under experimental conditions in which goals and process and outcome feedback were varied in a completely crossed factorial design. Results support the hypothesis that both process and outcome feedback interact with goal setting to enhance performance. In addition, the interaction of goal setting and process feedback was more strongly related to the quality of information search and task strategy than the interaction of goal setting and outcome feedback; the latter was more strongly related to self-confidence and effort than was the interaction between goal setting and process feedback. We discuss the results in terms of expanding the role of studying feedback in research on goal setting. Feedback and goal setting have become integral management tools because they are thought to serve both informational and motivational functions that enhance an individual's work performance (Kopelman, 1986; Locke, Cartledge, & Koeppel, 1968). Feedback can provide information about the correctness, accuracy, and adequacy of work behaviors. Motivationally, feedback may be necessary for instilling a sense of competence, accomplishment, and control in workers (Bandura, 1977; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Likewise, the beneficial effect of specific and challenging goals on an individual's task performance is a well-documented phenomenon (Locke, Shaw,
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paper_title: Why we still use our heads instead of formulas: Toward an integrative approach.

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This review begins with a discussion of Meehl's (1957) query regarding when to use one's head (i.e., intuition) instead of the formula (i.e., statistical or mechanical procedure) for clinical prediction. It then describes the controversy that ensued and analyzes the complexity and contemporary relevance of the question itself. Going beyond clinical inference, it identifies select cognitive biases and constraints that cause decision errors, and proposes remedial correctives. Given that the evidence shows cognition to be flawed, the article discusses the linear regression, Bayesian, signal detection, and computer approaches as possible decision aids. Their cost-benefit trade-offs, when used either alone or as complements to one another, are examined and evaluated. The critique concludes with a note of cautious optimism regarding the formula's future role as a decision aid and offers several interim solutions.
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paper_title: Measuring the Quality of Manufacturing Schedules

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The understanding of what constitutes a “good” production schedule is central to the development and evaluation of automated scheduling systems and their implementation in real-world factories. In this paper we describe a number of different aspects of this problem and show that it is in fact a very complex problem in its own right. After reviewing work in this area to date, we suggest a new approach which tries to reduce the complexity of the task. We illustrate our approach with an application to evaluating schedules for a semiconductor wafer fabrication facility.
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paper_title: Differences in Task Performance as a Function of Type of Feedback: Learning‐Oriented Versus Performance‐Oriented Feedback1

paper_content:

A laboratory study was conducted to examine the effects of learning-oriented versus performance-oriented feedback of task performance. The research also examined the role of self-efficacy as a moderator. Subjects were college students participating for course credit. The task involved using a computerized simulation of the Space Shuttle's Remote Manipulation System (RMS). Results provided evidence of the beneficial effects of learning-oriented feedback on performance for the performance dimension addressed in the feedback. Results also provided evidence that self-efficacy moderates the effects of feedback type (learning-oriented versus performance-oriented) on the performance dimension addressed in the feedback. Results are discussed in terms of the cuing and directional functions of feedback and the processes through which feedback influences performance.
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paper_title: In one word: Not from experience ☆

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Abstract Studies on clinical inference show that people do not always improve their judgments with experience. This paper argues that the expectation that they will improve is mistaken and founded on an incorrect conception of the nature of experience. Changing this conception towards a more adequate one along the lines suggested by Popper (1963) leads to a far more pessimistic view about people's ability to learn from experience, a view that is in closer corrrespondence with the facts from studies on clinical judgement. The paper also reviews results from psychological studies concerned with people's ability to learn from experience in probabilistic situations. These studies show that people have a number of biases which prevent them from using the information which experience provides. Examples of such biases are the tendency to use confirmatory evidence, assumptions about causality, and disregard of negative information. The paper argues that these biases can be understood in terms of the kind of information that people actually have to use when learning from experience outside the laboratory.
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paper_title: When Feedback is Ignored: Disutility of Outcome Feedback

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Institute for Marketing and Consumer Research,The Free University, West Berlin, West GermanyFollowing Hammond, McClelland, and Mumpower (1980), two types of feedbackare conceptualized—outcome feedback and cognitive feedback The latter is herehypothesized as having either predictive or explanatory value Using security analystsparticipating in a security analysis decision simulation, the hypothesis that, incontrast to poorer performing decision makers, better performing decision makersare more likely to ignore outcome-only feedback was confirmed (r = —.48, p =02). Implications for theory revision and future research are discussed
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paper_title: Expert systems in production scheduling: lessons from a failed implementation

paper_content:

Abstract This article describes an attempt to implement an expert system for production scheduling in a small manufacturing company. The approach adopted was to attempt to capture the heuristics and constraints used by the human scheduler in the form of a set of production rules that would be capable of imitating the human scheduler's behavior and eventually replace him. The implementation was eventually abandoned in favor of the introduction of a highly simplified version of the system to be used only in the decision support role, which was also unsuccessful. The reasons behind the failure are identified and discussed, and are found to relate to the following: underestimation of the complexity of the knowledge acquisition problem and the rate of change of the knowledge base; failure to adequately conceptualize the relationship between the human scheduler and the system; inadequate representation of uncertainty in scheduling parameters; the difficulty of the scheduler in adapting to an unfamiliar representation of the problem space, and lack of attention to deliberately simplifying the manufacturing operation before the introduction of the system.
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paper_title: A decision support system for operational production scheduling

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Abstract In this paper we describe a Decision Support System for dynamic job shop scheduling environments. The supported decision situation includes several real-life features which are disregarded by conventional scheduling models. The system supports the planner in constructing efficient and effective schedules. The efficiency is guaranteed by algorithmic procedures and the effectiveness by interactive manipulation techniques. The due data achievement is the objective of the algorithmic support, but other objectives can be achieved by means of the control functions which allow the user to direct the decision process.
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paper_title: Expert systems in production scheduling

paper_content:

Abstract One area of computer-related studies that has recently been receiving considerable publicity is the development of expert systems. The more noteworthy applications of this approach to problem-solving are still in engineering and the natural sciences, but a growing number of applications to problems in business management are beginning to appear. This paper reviews recent research and discusses the applicability of an ‘expert system’ approach to problems in production scheduling.
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paper_title: Mapping perceptual and cognitive processing for the effective use of graphical displays in shop floor scheduling tasks

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Research in the area of information displays has indicated that graphical displays may increase performance on certain complex decision-making tasks. This research investigates the cognitive processing of the displayed information in addition to the traditional perceptual processing of the displayed information. It is hypothesized that type of task and the level of cognitive processing exhibited by the human performing the task will affect the type of graphical display associated with higher performance. Results indicate that the integral display facilitates better performance for the scheduling task in which integration of the information is required. @ 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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paper_title: The human planning and scheduling role in advanced manufacturing systems: an emerging human factors domain

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Advanced manufacturing technology is quickly displacing humans from the factory floor, but relatively little is known about how much responsibility humans should retain over plant operation. Scheduling operations are particularly critical to maintaining overall manufacturing system performance, and many researchers argue that humans should be retained in the control loop for this task. This paper critically reviews work done over the last 25 years on human scheduling abilities. The increasing amount of empirical work on human scheduling ability is widely dispersed, and many researchers are not aware of one another's work. Current work on manufacturing scheduling, field studies, and laboratory work on human scheduling abilities are reviewed. Methodological and conceptual problems are highlighted. The intention is to provide a sounder basis for future research on the human scheduling role by providing knowledge of what has been examined in the past and an awareness of the important issues for the future
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Title: A Review of the Applicability of OR and AI Scheduling Techniques in Practice

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: Provide an overview of the concept of scheduling, its significance in production systems, and the scarcity of practical implementations despite extensive research. Outline the scope and structure of the paper.

Section 2: The Applicability of OR Techniques
Description 2: Discuss the history and development of operations research (OR) techniques in scheduling, their simplifications and limitations, and the challenges faced in practical implementations.

Section 3: The Applicability of AI Techniques
Description 3: Explore the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques in scheduling, their potential benefits over OR techniques, and the similar challenges and issues faced during practical implementations.

Section 4: Manual Scheduling
Description 4: Examine the human role in scheduling, highlighting the expertise and heuristics used by human schedulers to manage production systems and handle uncertainties.

Section 5: Use of Techniques by Humans
Description 5: Investigate why human schedulers often prefer manual methods over decision techniques, discussing factors such as performance feedback, cognitive limitations, and transparency of techniques.

Section 6: Use of Display Types by Humans
Description 6: Review the research on various display types used in scheduling, particularly the effectiveness of graphical representations like GANTT charts, and their impact on scheduling performance.

Section 7: Discussion
Description 7: Summarize the limitations and shortcomings of current scheduling techniques, both OR and AI, in practice. Emphasize the need for comprehensive research, better organizational embedding, and understanding the human factors and characteristics influencing scheduling success.