Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks in Marine Environment Monitoring: A Survey
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paper_title: Early Detection and Monitoring of Forest Fire with a Wireless Sensor Network System

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This work presents a low-rate wireless personal area network-based sensor network for early detection and monitoring of forest fires. The system has been designed to perform different parameter measurements at different tree heights, depending on the forest relief. Thereby, it is possible to know how fire affects the soil mantle, stems and treetops, as well as to detect underground fires. Measures of power consumption confirm the feasibility of the implementation of this sensor network. Using a duty cycle of 0.33% and with the selected low-voltage-low-power compliant sensors, the network operating life is greater than one year.
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paper_title: Reliability and Availability Evaluation of Wireless Sensor Networks for Industrial Applications

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Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) currently represent the best candidate to be adopted as the communication solution for the last mile connection in process control and monitoring applications in industrial environments. Most of these applications have stringent dependability (reliability and availability) requirements, as a system failure may result in economic losses, put people in danger or lead to environmental damages. Among the different type of faults that can lead to a system failure, permanent faults on network devices have a major impact. They can hamper communications over long periods of time and consequently disturb, or even disable, control algorithms. The lack of a structured approach enabling the evaluation of permanent faults, prevents system designers to optimize decisions that minimize these occurrences. In this work we propose a methodology based on an automatic generation of a fault tree to evaluate the reliability and availability of Wireless Sensor Networks, when permanent faults occur on network devices. The proposal supports any topology, different levels of redundancy, network reconfigurations, criticality of devices and arbitrary failure conditions. The proposed methodology is particularly suitable for the design and validation of Wireless Sensor Networks when trying to optimize its reliability and availability requirements.
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paper_title: Design of a Water Environment Monitoring System Based on Wireless Sensor Networks

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A water environmental monitoring system based on a wireless sensor network is proposed. It consists of three parts: data monitoring nodes, data base station and remote monitoring center. This system is suitable for the complex and large-scale water environment monitoring, such as for reservoirs, lakes, rivers, swamps, and shallow or deep groundwaters. This paper is devoted to the explanation and illustration for our new water environment monitoring system design. The system had successfully accomplished the online auto-monitoring of the water temperature and pH value environment of an artificial lake. The system's measurement capacity ranges from 0 to 80 °C for water temperature, with an accuracy of ±0.5 °C; from 0 to 14 on pH value, with an accuracy of ±0.05 pH units. Sensors applicable to different water quality scenarios should be installed at the nodes to meet the monitoring demands for a variety of water environments and to obtain different parameters. The monitoring system thus promises broad applicability prospects.
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paper_title: Adaptive monitoring of marine disasters with intelligent mobile sensor networks

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Accidents and sabotages are kinds of environmental disasters that constitute a growing threat to marine ecosystems. Recent events disclosed to the public audience the importance of developing methodologies and systems that can accurately and continuously monitor such events. Sensor networks have been successfully applied to early warning and environmental monitoring both in terrestrial and marine contexts. In this paper we propose an architecture for continuous monitoring of marine disasters. After the detection of suspect substances in a sea area by means of its concentration in water, the first goal of this approach is to follow the contour of actual affected area by means of reconfigurable sensor networks and a centralized intelligent system. Such systems are able to estimate substance concentrations (functions that variate in space and time) by means of advanced geostatistical techniques, mobile sensor devices and evolutionary computing.
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paper_title: A system for monitoring marine environments based on Wireless Sensor Networks

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In this paper a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) for monitoring a coastal shallow water marine environment is presented. The study area is located in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon, situated in the Southeast of Spain, separated of the Mediterranean Sea by La Manga, a narrow piece of land of 22 km long and crossed by three channels that regulate the water circulation between the lagoon and the Mediterranean Sea. In order to know hydrodynamic performances of the lagoon and other oceanographic parameters a WSN has been developed. It is composed of several sensor nodes or buoys. These sensor nodes take oceanographic data and send them to the sink node using wireless communication. The description of this system, the buoy prototype and the user application are presented in this paper.
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paper_title: Middleware: middleware challenges and approaches for wireless sensor networks

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Using middleware to bridge the gap between applications and low-level constructs is a novel approach to resolving many wireless sensor network issues and enhancing application development. This survey discusses representative WSN middleware, presenting the state of the research
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paper_title: Effective design of WSNs: From the lab to the real world

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Distributed environmental monitoring with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is one of the most challenging research activities faced by the embedded system community in the last decade. Here, the need for pervasive, reliable and accurate monitoring systems has pushed the research towards the realization of credible deployments able to survive in harsh environments for long time. Design an effective WSN requires a good piece of engineer work, not to mention the research contribution needed to provide a credible deployment. As a matter of fact, to solve our application, we are looking for a monitoring framework scalable, adaptive with respect to topological changes in the network, power-aware in its middleware components and endowed with energy harvesting mechanisms to grant a long lifetime for the network. The paper addresses all main aspects related to the design of a WSN ranging from the -possible- need of an ad-hoc embedded system, to sensing, local and remote transmission, data storage and visualization; particular attention will be devoted to energy harvesting and management aspects at the unit and network level. Two applications, namely monitoring the marine environment and forecasting the collapse of rock faces in mountaineering areas will be the experimental leitmotiv of the presentation.
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paper_title: Monitoring Animal Behaviour and Environmental Interactions Using Wireless Sensor Networks, GPS Collars and Satellite Remote Sensing

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Remote monitoring of animal behaviour in the environment can assist in managing both the animal and its environmental impact. GPS collars which record animal locations with high temporal frequency allow researchers to monitor both animal behaviour and interactions with the environment. These ground-based sensors can be combined with remotely-sensed satellite images to understand animal-landscape interactions. The key to combining these technologies is communication methods such as wireless sensor networks (WSNs). We explore this concept using a case-study from an extensive cattle enterprise in northern Australia and demonstrate the potential for combining GPS collars and satellite images in a WSN to monitor behavioural preferences and social behaviour of cattle.
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paper_title: Distributed Event Detection in Wireless Sensor Networks for Disaster Management

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Recently, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have become mature enough to go beyond being simple fine-grained continuous monitoring platforms and become one of the enabling technologies for disaster early-warning systems. Event detection functionality of WSNs can be of great help and importance for (near) real-time detection of, for example, meteorological natural hazards and wild and residential fires. From the data-mining perspective, many real world events exhibit specific patterns, which can be detected by applying machine learning (ML) techniques. In this paper, we introduce ML techniques for distributed event detection in WSNs and evaluate their performance and applicability for early detection of disasters, specifically residential fires. To this end, we present a distributed event detection approach incorporating a novel reputation-based voting and the decision tree and evaluate its performance in terms of detection accuracy and time complexity.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks for environmental research: A survey on limitations and challenges

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Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have permeated the entire fabric of academic disciplines that greatly rely on control and decision-making processes such as medical health care, agriculture, ecology and industrial automation. In ecology, an infrastructure consisting of networks of interconnected sensors can provide in-situ high-precision monitoring of natural phenomena at a large-scale. Moreover, WSNs provide a number of advantages to ecoinformatics such as the possibility of constructing quality datasets that coupled to machine learning-based prediction systems, can be used for ecological and process modelling. In this manuscript, we present a survey on recent WSNs based on several fields related to environmental research e.g. ecoinformatics, precision agriculture and wildlife observation. Finally, we have focused on the identification of limitations and open problems therein.
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paper_title: ENERGY EFFICIENT COVERAGE PROBLEMS IN WIRELESS Ad Hoc SENSOR NETWORKS

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Coverage is a typical problem in wireless sensor networks to fulfil the issued sensing tasks. In general, sensing coverage represents how well an area is monitored by sensors. The quality of a sensor network can be reflected by the levels of coverage and connectivity that it offers. The coverage problem has been studied extensively, especially when combined with connectivity and energy efficiency. Constructing a connected fully covered, and energy efficient sensor network is valuable for real world applications due to the limited resources of sensor nodes. In this paper, we survey recent contributions addressing energyefficient coverage problems in the context of static WASNs, networks in which sensor nodes do not move once they are deployed and present in some detail of the algorithms, assumptions, and results. A comprehensive comparison among these approaches is given from the perspective of design objectives, assumptions, algorithm attributes and related results.
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paper_title: Wireless Sensor Networks for Oceanographic Monitoring: A Systematic Review

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Monitoring of the marine environment has come to be a field of scientific interest in the last ten years. The instruments used in this work have ranged from small-scale sensor networks to complex observation systems. Among small-scale networks, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are a highly attractive solution in that they are easy to deploy, operate and dismantle and are relatively inexpensive. The aim of this paper is to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to the use of WSNs in oceanographic monitoring. The literature is systematically reviewed to offer an overview of the present state of this field of study and identify the principal resources that have been used to implement networks of this kind. Finally, this article details the challenges and difficulties that have to be overcome if these networks are to be successfully deployed.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks in intelligent transportation systems

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Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) offer the potential to significantly improve the efficiency of existing transportation systems. Currently, collecting traffic data for traffic planning and management is achieved mostly through wired sensors. The equipment and maintenance cost and time-consuming installations of existing sensing systems prevent large-scale deployment of real-time traffic monitoring and control. Small wireless sensors with integrated sensing, computing, and wireless communication capabilities offer tremendous advantages in low cost and easy installation. In this paper, we first survey existing WSN technologies for intelligent transportation systems (ITSs), including sensor technologies, energy-efficient networking protocols, and applications of sensor networks for parking lot monitoring, traffic monitoring, and traffic control. Then, we present new methods on applying WSNs in traffic modeling and estimation and traffic control, and show their improved performance over existing solutions. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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paper_title: Sensor Networking in Aquatic Environments - Experiences and New Challenges

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In this paper we present the design and implemen tation of a small-scale marine sensor network. The network monitors the temperature in the Baltic Sea on different heights from the water surface down to the bottom. Unlike many other wireless sensor networks, this network contains both a wired and a wireless part. One of the major challenges is that the network is hard to access after its deployment and hence both hard- and software must be robust and reliable. We also present the design of an advanced buoy system featuring a diving unit that achieves a better vertical resolution and discuss remaining challenges of sensor networking in aquatic environments.
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paper_title: Privacy preservation in wireless sensor networks: A state-of-the-art survey

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Much of the existing work on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has focused on addressing the power and computational resource constraints of WSNs by the design of specific routing, MAC, and cross-layer protocols. Recently, there have been heightened privacy concerns over the data collected by and transmitted through WSNs. The wireless transmission required by a WSN, and the self-organizing nature of its architecture, makes privacy protection for WSNs an especially challenging problem. This paper provides a state-of-the-art survey of privacy-preserving techniques for WSNs. In particular, we review two main categories of privacy-preserving techniques for protecting two types of private information, data-oriented and context-oriented privacy, respectively. We also discuss a number of important open challenges for future research. Our hope is that this paper sheds some light on a fruitful direction of future research for privacy preservation in WSNs.
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paper_title: Monitoring and classifying animal behavior using ZigBee-based mobile ad hoc wireless sensor networks and artificial neural networks

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Animal welfare is an issue of great importance in modern food production systems. Because animal behavior provides reliable information about animal health and welfare, recent research has aimed at designing monitoring systems capable of measuring behavioral parameters and transforming them into their corresponding behavioral modes. However, network unreliability and high-energy consumption have limited the applicability of those systems. In this study, a 2.4-GHz ZigBee-based mobile ad hoc wireless sensor network (MANET) that is able to overcome those problems is presented. The designed MANET showed high communication reliability, low energy consumption and low packet loss rate (14.8%) due to the deployment of modern communication protocols (e.g. multi-hop communication and handshaking protocol). The measured behavioral parameters were transformed into the corresponding behavioral modes using a multilayer perceptron (MLP)-based artificial neural network (ANN). The best performance of the ANN in terms of the mean squared error (MSE) and the convergence speed was achieved when it was initialized and trained using the Nguyen-Widrow and Levenberg-Marquardt back-propagation algorithms, respectively. The success rate of behavior classification into five classes (i.e. grazing, lying down, walking, standing and others) was 76.2% (@s"m"e"a"n=1.06) on average. The results of this study showed an important improvement regarding the performance of the designed MANET and behavior classification compared to the results of other similar studies.
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paper_title: Vision-based user-centric light control for smart environments

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Smart homes are conceptualized as environments responsive to a user's presence and actions, and adaptive to user preferences and context. Visual information plays an enabling role in smart home applications such as interfaces and gesture control. This paper reports on the use of cameras and a distributed processing method for automated control of lights in a smart home. The proposed optimization formulations maintain the user's comfort while reducing the energy cost of lights. Information from camera sensors provides occupancy reasoning and human activity analysis. By detecting the user's position and activity, and employing light utility functions as constraints, the system optimizes the light setting for the user's satisfaction in the occupied area. Additionally, to reduce the transmission energy and bandwidth, we also propose an ellipsoid approximation (EA) method for occupancy reasoning by a camera network. By applying the EA method, the network nodes can aggregate the observed data progressively and maintain a fixed transmitted data length. Simulations on the occupancy results from experiments are provided to verify the proposed algorithms.
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paper_title: A Study on Vehicle Detection and Tracking Using Wireless Sensor Networks

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Wireless Sensor network (WSN) is an emerging technology and has great potential to be employed in critical situations. The development of wireless sensor networks was originally motivated by military applications like battlefield surveillance. However, Wireless Sensor Networks are also used in many areas such as Industrial, Civilian, Health, Habitat Monitoring, Environmental, Military, Home and Office application areas. Detection and tracking of targets (eg. animal, vehicle) as it moves through a sensor network has become an increasingly important application for sensor networks. The key advantage of WSN is that the network can be deployed on the fly and can operate unattended, without the need for any pre-existing infrastructure and with little maintenance. The system will estimate and track the target based on the spatial differences of the target signal strength detected by the sensors at different locations. Magnetic and acoustic sensors and the signals captured by these sensors are of present interest in the study. The system is made up of three components for detecting and tracking the moving objects. The first component consists of inexpensive off-the shelf wireless sensor devices, such as MicaZ motes, capable of measuring acoustic and magnetic signals generated by vehicles. The second component is responsible for the data aggregation. The third component of the system is responsible for data fusion algorithms. This paper inspects the sensors available in the market and its strengths and weakness and also some of the vehicle detection and tracking algorithms and their classification. This work focuses the overview of each algorithm for detection and tracking and compares them based on evaluation parameters.
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paper_title: Study on precision agriculture monitoring framework based on WSN

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The wireless sensor networks (WSN) is one of the most significant technologies in the 21st century. In recent years, achievements in micro-sensor technology and low-power electronics make WSN become into realities in applications. This paper describes a real-deployment of WSN based greenhouse management which is designed and implemented to realize modern precision agriculture. The proposed system can monitor the greenhouse environments, control greenhouse equipment, and provide various and convenient services to consumers with hand-held devices such as a PDA living a farming village. This paper discusses the advantages of using management strategy along wireless sensor-actor network technology for such cost-effective and environmental friendly greenhouse management.
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paper_title: Using wireless sensor networks to support intelligent transportation systems

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In this paper we propose a system architecture for enabling mobile nodes to query a largely deployed wireless sensor network in an intelligent transportation system scenario. We identify three different types of nodes in the network: mobile sinks (i.e. the nodes moving and querying the WSN), vice-sinks (i.e. nodes able to communicate directly with mobile sinks) and ordinary sensor nodes (i.e. nodes sensing a phenomenon and communicating in a multihop fashion). We present protocols and algorithms specifically tailored to such a scenario, in particular at the MAC and network layers. Such a reference architecture well covers situations in which WSNs deployed in a parking place or along a road, provide to cars information on the conditions of the surrounding environment. We introduce and analyse a simple geographic routing protocol and two different load balancing techniques. The performance of the proposed solutions is evaluated through extensive simulations. The simple geographic routing is compared to load balancing techniques. Results support the capability of the proposed solutions to enable the introduction of novel intelligent transportation system applications.
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paper_title: Design of a Multifunctional Wireless Sensor for In-Situ Monitoring of Debris Flows

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Debris flows carrying saturated solid materials in water flowing downslopes often cause severe damage to the lives and properties in their path. Close monitoring and early warning are imperative to save lives and reduce damage. Current debris-flow-monitoring systems usually install sensor equipment along the riverbanks and mountain slopes to detect debris flows and track their data. Unfortunately, most of this equipment indirectly collects data only from a distance. So far, there is no way to understand what is happening inside a debris flow and to collect its internal parameters, not to mention doing this in real time. To answer this challenge, this paper presents a novel multifunctional wireless sensor for monitoring debris flows. The core idea is to let these sensors drift with the debris flow, to collect flow information as they move along, and to wirelessly transmit the collected data to base stations in real time. The design of such a sensor needs to address many challenging issues, including cost, deployment efforts, long-term standby, and fast reaction. This paper addresses these issues and reports our evaluation results.
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paper_title: Wired and wireless sensor networks for industrial applications

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Distributed architectures for industrial applications are a new opportunity to realize cost-effective, flexible, scalable and reliable systems. Direct interfacing of sensors and actuators to the industrial communication network improves the system performance, because process data and diagnostics can be simultaneously available to many systems and also shared on the Web. However, sensors, especially low-cost ones, cannot use standard communication protocols suitable for computers and PLCs. In fact, sensors typically require a cyclic, isochronous and hard real-time exchange of few data, whereas PCs and PLCs exchange a large amount of data with soft real-time constrains. Looking at the industrial communication systems, this separation is clearly visible: several fieldbuses have been designed for specific sensor application areas, whereas high-level industrial equipments use wired/wireless Ethernet and Internet technologies. Recently, traditional fieldbuses were replaced by Real-Time Ethernet protocols, which are ''extended'' versions of Ethernet that meet real-time operation requirements. Besides, real-time wireless sensor networking seems promising, as demonstrated by the growing research activities. In this paper, an overview of the state-of-art of real-time sensor networks for industrial applications is presented. Particular attention has been paid to the description of methods and instrumentation for performance measurement in this kind of architectures.
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paper_title: Connectivity and coverage maintenance in wireless sensor networks

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One of the main design challenges for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is to obtain long system lifetime without sacrificing system original performance such as communication connectivity and sensing coverage. A large number of sensor nodes are deployed in redundant fashion in dense sensor networks, which lead to higher energy consumption. We propose a distributed framework for energy efficient connectivity and coverage maintenance in WSNs. In our framework, each sensor makes self-scheduling to separately control the states of RF and sensing unit based on dynamic coordinated reconstruction mechanism. A novel energy-balanced distributed connected dominating set algorithm is presented to make connectivity maintenance; and also a distributed node sensing scheduling is brought forward to maintain the network coverage according to the surveillance requirements. We implemented our framework by C++ programming, and the simulation results show that our framework outperforms several related work by considerably improving the energy performance of sensor networks to effectively extend network lifetime.
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paper_title: Towards an Optimal Network Topology in Wireless Sensor Networks: A Hybrid Approach

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As the demand for wireless sensor networks increases in both military and civilian sector, the need for a stable networking scheme has increased. Wireless sensor network, or WSN, must be robust networks capable of handling many adverse conditions. If these adverse conditions cannot be handled effectively they can result in data loss and under extreme conditions total network failure. Through the use of a hybrid network topology, WSN can be stable and reliable throughout the life of the node. The paper introduces the new proposed network topology in a WSN environment called leader-based enhanced butterfly (LEB) network which is based on our previous work, enhanced butterfly network. The proposed network guarantees the maximum reaching steps of n+1 in the ⎣2⋅2 n ⎦ nodes. And also, in order to demonstrate the
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paper_title: Prototype autonomous mini-buoy for use in a wireless networked, ocean surface sensor array

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We report the design, prototype construction and initial testing of a small minibuoy that is aimed at use in a coordinated, wireless networked array of buoys for near-surface ocean sensing. This vehicle is designed to fill the gap between larger ocean surface vessels and/or moored buoys and subsurface gliders. The size and cost is low enough that these versatile sensor platforms can be deployed easily and in quantity. Since these minibuoys are mobile, they can keep station in currents as large as 25 cm/s or move as an adaptive, coordinated sensor array for high resolution in both time and space. The buoy is about 74 cm (29 in) long, 41 cm (16 in) wide (max) and weighs about 14.5 kg (32 lbs); hence, it can be deployed easily from small craft. Deployment times are about 1 to 2 days or more - longer with solar power. The buoy structure is fiberglass and PVC with two 2 W DC motors. Control is done with GPS and magnetic heading sensors and a PID scheme to maintain course. Communication is via a 900 MHz system with a range of 1 to 2 km and plans for a longer range HF/VHF or satellite system. The initial sensor system is designed for ocean hyperspectral observations as surface truth for airborne system calibration and validation and other ocean color applications. Acoustic, wave, air & water temperature sensors as well as GPS are included. The Mark I prototype has been successfully tested in a pool with manual control.
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paper_title: A demonstration of wireless sensing for long term monitoring of water quality

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At a time when technological advances are providing new sensor capabilities, novel network capabilities, long-range communications technologies and data interpreting and delivery formats via the World Wide Web, we never before had such opportunities to sense and analyse the environment around us. However, the challenges exist. While measurement and detection of environmental pollutants can be successful under laboratory-controlled conditions, continuous in-situ monitoring remains one of the most challenging aspects of environmental sensing. This paper describes the development and test of a multi-sensor hetrogenous real-time water monitoring system. A multi-sensor system was deployed in the River Lee Co. Cork, Ireland to monitor water quality parameters such as pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity and dissolved oxygen. The R. Lee comprises of a tidal water system that provides an interesting test site to monitor. The multi-sensor system set-up is described and results of the sensor deployment and the various challenges are discussed.
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paper_title: A low cost reconfigurable sensor network for coastal monitoring

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Sensor networks have experienced a fast development and extended their fields of application since their appearance for military uses. The monitoring of physical parameters in natural habitats is a typical application for assessing the risks of worsening the ecosystem. Among natural environments with scientific interest, there are the coastlines in front of cities whose industrial activities impact on them, such as San Jorge Gulf, Chubut, Argentina. For that, a low cost wireless sensor network is being developed in order to deploy nodes over the coastline for measuring physical parameters, providing a large coverage area of study. In this paper the node architecture based on reconfigurable mixed signals array called PSoC® (Programmable System on Chip) from Cypress® is presented. The use of these devices allow, on the one hand, to easily interface with sensors and communication devices by using a single chip and, on the other hand, to reprogram the hardware while the system is running allowing to perform different functions or being able to improve their performance in a remote way.
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paper_title: A system for monitoring marine environments based on Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

In this paper a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) for monitoring a coastal shallow water marine environment is presented. The study area is located in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon, situated in the Southeast of Spain, separated of the Mediterranean Sea by La Manga, a narrow piece of land of 22 km long and crossed by three channels that regulate the water circulation between the lagoon and the Mediterranean Sea. In order to know hydrodynamic performances of the lagoon and other oceanographic parameters a WSN has been developed. It is composed of several sensor nodes or buoys. These sensor nodes take oceanographic data and send them to the sink node using wireless communication. The description of this system, the buoy prototype and the user application are presented in this paper.
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paper_title: Multi-modal sensor networks for more effective sensing in Irish coastal and freshwater environments

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The world's oceans represent a vital resource to global economies and there exists huge economic opportunity that remains unexploited. However along with this huge potential there rests a responsibility into understanding the effects various developments may have on our natural ecosystem. This along with a variety of other issues necessitates a need for continuous and reliable monitoring of the marine and freshwater environment. The potential for innovative technology development for marine and freshwater monitoring and knowledge generation is huge and recent years have seen huge leaps forward in relation to the development of sensor technology for such purposes. However despite the advancements there are still a number of issues. In our research we advocate a multi-modal approach to create smarter more efficient monitoring networks, while enhancing the use of in-situ wireless sensor networks (WSNs). In particular we focus on the use of visual sensors, modelled outputs and context information to support a conventional in-situ wireless sensor network creating a multi-modal environmental monitoring network. Here we provide an overview of a selection of our work in relation to the use of visual sensing through networked cameras or satellite imagers in three very diverse test sites — a river catchment, a busy port and a coastal environment.
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paper_title: Integration of micro-sensor technology and remote sensing for monitoring coastal water quality in a municipal beach and other areas in Cyprus

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The proposed project has as main objective the monitoring of coastal waters using satellite remote sensing and wireless ::: sensor technology employed on a buoy with emphasis firstly in municipal beaches and further to areas that a systematic ::: sampling is required. Satellite remote sensing has the advantage of using remote sensing data to assess the quality of ::: water bodies has proven to be successful not only in inland waters but to coastal water areas as shown by several others ::: conducted studies. Reflectance signature of municipal coastal water is monitored using a GER 1500 field spectroradiometer. ::: Simultaneous measurements of turbidity, temperature have been acquired. Cross-validation of measurements ::: of water quality both from micro-sensor and remote sensing are planned to be undertaken. An overall methodology that ::: integrates both micro-sensor technology and satellite remote sensing is presented.
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paper_title: SEA-LABS: a wireless sensor network for sustained monitoring of coral reefs

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This paper describes SEA-LABS (Sensor Exploration Apparatus utilizing Low-power Aquatic Broadcasting System), a low-cost, power-efficient Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) for sustained, real-time monitoring of shallow water coral reefs. The system is designed to operate in remote, hard-to-access areas of the world, which limits the ability to perform on-site data retrieval and periodic system maintenance (e.g., battery replacement/recharging). SEA-LABS thus provides a customized solution to shallow-water environmental monitoring addressing the trade-offs between power conservation and the system's functional requirements, namely data sensing and processing as well as real-time, wireless communication. We present SEA-LABS' architecture and its current implementation. Finally, we share our experience deploying SEA-LABS in the Monterey Bay.
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paper_title: A layered approach to in situ data management on a wireless sensor network

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A multi-layered algorithm is proposed that provides a scalable and adaptive method for handling data on a wireless sensor network. Statistical tests, local feedback and global genetic style material exchange ensure limited resources, such as battery and bandwidth, are used efficiently by manipulating data at the source and important features in the time series are not lost when compression needs to be made. The approach leads to a more 'hands off' implementation which is demonstrated by a real world oceanographic deployment of the system.
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paper_title: A Hierarchical Communication Architecture for Oceanic Surveillance Applications

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The interest in monitoring applications using underwater sensor networks has been growing in recent years. The severe communication restrictions imposed by underwater channels make that efficient monitoring be a challenging task. Though a lot of research has been conducted on underwater sensor networks, there are only few concrete applications to a real-world case study. In this work, hence, we propose a general three tier architecture leveraging low cost wireless technologies for acoustic communications between underwater sensors and standard technologies, Zigbee and Wireless Fidelity (WiFi), for water surface communications. We have selected a suitable Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, after making a comparison with some common MAC protocols. Thus the performance of the overall system in terms of Signals Discarding Rate (SDR), signalling delay at the surface gateway as well as the percentage of true detection have been evaluated by simulation, pointing out good results which give evidence in applicability’s favour.
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paper_title: Wireless sensor networks in coastal marine environments: a study case outcome

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In this paper the results of an experimental wireless sensor network application in a coastal shallow water marine environment are presented. The study focuses on the practical aspects of deployment, data gathering and retrieval events. The trial sensor network was used to retrieve temperature and illuminance data from the seabed of Moreton Bay, Australia. The application described possesses features and implements technical solutions that distinguish it from previous deployments. For example, the particular mooring system maintains the buoys horizontal on the water's surface even in strong tidal current conditions, thus enabling reliable communication at 2.4 GHz. In this application, the underwater sensors were wired to surface wireless nodes, and this arrangement led to various difficulties in the network's deployment, maintenance and retrieval phases. For this reason, the knowledge acquired through this experience is presented in this paper to provide insight into, and to further stress, the importance of using fully wireless systems in monitoring applications for the marine environment.
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paper_title: Architecture of wireless sensor network for monitoring aquatic environment of marine shellfish

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Aquatic environment monitoring plays an important role in the artificial breeding of marine shellfish. Wireless sensor network (WSN) is an efficient approach for monitoring large-scale coastal beach with densely distributed smart nodes. Combined with a project of aquatic environment monitoring and assessment of marine shellfish in Zhejiang province, China, a new structure of WSN combining network clustering and route enhancing is proposed with the aim at facilitating node deployment in offshore and tidal zone and regular network maintenance. The topology of wireless sensing cluster, hard- and soft- design of wireless node and routing enhancement are elaborated. The testing result shows that the proposed scheme has the capability of robust data transmission. The method proposed in the paper is also suitable for other water quality monitoring system.
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paper_title: IEEE 802.15.4 based wireless monitoring of pH and temperature in a fish farm

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In the last years the number of papers related to wireless sensor networks has increased substantially. Most of them focus in raising issues as routing algorithms, network lifetime, and more recently, Multiple Input Multiple Output wireless networks. In contrast with all those studies, we present a practical application of wireless networks: The sensing of the pH and temperature for a fish farm. The application requires two different kind of modules: the sensor itself and the wireless module. The sensor collect and transmit the information to a wireless module using a wired connection. Once the information reaches the wireless node, it is forwarded to the central unit through a wireless protocol. The central unit starts and manages the network, as well as stores all the received data. The sensor module includes an pH sensor based on a specially designed ISFET and a commercial temperature sensor. The wireless node collects the sensed data by means of an asynchronous wired serial polling communication. The use of this kind of protocol allows to connect a single master with multiple slaves. In our particular case, we have connected one master with four slaves using a transmission rate of 9600 b/s. The wireless transmission follows the standard IEEE 802.15.4, and implements the routing protocol based on the ZigBee standard. The number of nodes distributed in the fish farm has been limited to 30 while the maximum number of hops to 6. Moreover, between the MAC and the routing layer an energy management layer have been included. This layer reduces the power consumption of the wireless network using an RF activity duty cycle for the reception stage at the final end device of around 0.02%.
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paper_title: A Low-Cost Sensor Buoy System for Monitoring Shallow Marine Environments

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Monitoring of marine ecosystems is essential to identify the parameters that determine their condition. The data derived from the sensors used to monitor them are a fundamental source for the development of mathematical models with which to predict the behaviour of conditions of the water, the sea bed and the living creatures inhabiting it. This paper is intended to explain and illustrate a design and implementation for a new multisensor monitoring buoy system. The system design is based on a number of fundamental requirements that set it apart from other recent proposals: low cost of implementation, the possibility of application in coastal shallow-water marine environments, suitable dimensions for deployment and stability of the sensor system in a shifting environment like the sea bed, and total autonomy of power supply and data recording. The buoy system has successfully performed remote monitoring of temperature and marine pressure (SBE 39 sensor), temperature (MCP9700 sensor) and atmospheric pressure (YOUNG 61302L sensor). The above requirements have been satisfactorily validated by operational trials in a marine environment. The proposed buoy sensor system thus seems to offer a broad range of applications.
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paper_title: Design of a Wireless Sensor Network for Long-term, In-Situ Monitoring of an Aqueous Environment

paper_content:

An aqueous sensor network is described consisting of an array of sensor nodes that can be randomly distributed throughout a lake or drinking water reservoir. The data of an individual node is transmitted to the host node via acoustic waves using intermediate nodes as relays. Each node of the sensor network is a data router, and contains sensors capable of measuring environmental parameters of interest. Depending upon the required application, each sensor node can be equipped with different types of physical, biological or chemical sensors, allowing long-term, wide area, in situ multi-parameter monitoring. In this work the aqueous sensor network is described, with application to pH measurement using magnetoelastic sensors. Beyond ensuring drinking water safety, possible applications for the aqueous sensor network include advanced industrial process control, monitoring of aquatic biological communities, and monitoring of waste-stream effluents.
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paper_title: OceanSense: A practical wireless sensor network on the surface of the sea

paper_content:

In this paper, we present a practical wireless sensor network for environmental monitoring (OceanSense) deployed on the sea. The system is mainly composed of TelosB motes, which are deployed on the surface of the sea collecting environmental data, such as temperature, light and RSSI from the testbed. The motes communicate with a base station, which transmits collected data to a visualization system running on a database server. The data can be accessed using a browser-based web application. The OceanSense has been running for more than half a year, providing environmental monitoring data for further study.
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paper_title: Sensor Networking in Aquatic Environments - Experiences and New Challenges

paper_content:

In this paper we present the design and implemen tation of a small-scale marine sensor network. The network monitors the temperature in the Baltic Sea on different heights from the water surface down to the bottom. Unlike many other wireless sensor networks, this network contains both a wired and a wireless part. One of the major challenges is that the network is hard to access after its deployment and hence both hard- and software must be robust and reliable. We also present the design of an advanced buoy system featuring a diving unit that achieves a better vertical resolution and discuss remaining challenges of sensor networking in aquatic environments.
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paper_title: Water monitoring system using Wireless Sensor Network (WSN): Case study of Kuwait beaches

paper_content:

Firstly it is needed to realize Wireless Sensors Networks (WSN); we can define it as the most important technologies in the new century. during the last decades there was many achievements especially in the field of micro sensor technology and the low power electronics have made WSNs and the reality of applications, WSNs enabled a great amount of the surveillance and supervision applications, especially for the hostile and the critical environments, such as the process of monitoring the sea. We are presented software and hardware platforms of the augmented sensor networks which should be connected in a temporal way to the back-end infrastructures to store the data storage and the interaction of the users, and it make a special use for the actuators or the devices which are considered a rich and special computing resource to manage a complex signal processing tasks. In our proposed solution, we attempt to deploy the sensors of the network which is used on the sea surface shall monitor the water characteristics such as temperature, PH, dissolved oxygen, etc., and provide various convenient services for end users who can manage the data via a website with spreadsheet from a long distance or applications in a console terminal. This project introduces the architecture of a WSN system, the hardware of the node, data acquisition, data processing with gateway, and data visualization. The schemes which are considered traditional one depend on the intensive work of the labor and the expensive hardware. We presented better solutions with special sensors to measure the characteristics of the water in Kuwait.
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paper_title: Group-based underwater wireless sensor network for marine fish farms

paper_content:

The amount of uneaten feed and fecal waste generated by the fish in marine fish farms causes the damage of the fauna and flora, and it also reduces the economic benefits because the wastage of the uneaten food. In this paper, we propose an underwater group-based sensor network in order to quantify accurately the amount of pollution deposited on the seabed. First, an analytical model let us know the best location to place the sensor nodes. Our group-based wireless sensor network (WSN) proposal could also determine the amount of food that is wasted while it measures the amount of deposits generated. We describe the mobility of the nodes and how operates the group-based protocol and we show several simulations in order to view the load traffic and to verify the correct operation of the WSN.
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paper_title: LakeNet: An Integrated Sensor Network for Environmental Sensing in Lakes

paper_content:

Field investigations in the hydrologic sciences often are limited by the ability to collect data at the high spatiotemporal resolution necessary to build accurate predictive models or to control complex engineered systems in real time. Here, we describe LakeNet, an embedded wireless sensor network constructed by an interdisciplinary team of hydrogeologists, environmental engineers, and electrical engineers at the University of Notre Dame. Off-the-shelf temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH probes are suspended from floating, waterproof cases with electronics, forming sensor pods. Wireless transmission to relay stations and a PC gateway enable researchers to interact with the network remotely to alter sampling patterns, download data, and analyze data trends using the gateway's recursive processing of raw data. LakeNet functions as a “smart” network, in which each pod is aware of surrounding pods. Ongoing research will allow in-network computation to detect change points in the data stream, thus triggering...
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paper_title: OceanSense: Monitoring the Sea with Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

In this project, we explore the possibility of deploying networked sensors on the Ocean's surface, to monitor depth and temperature, as well as other valuable environmental parameters. Sea depth monitoring is a critical task to ensure the safe operation of harbors. Traditional schemes largely rely on labor-intensive work and expensive hardware. We present a new solution for measuring the sea depth with Restricted Floating Sensors. To address the problem of node localization on the changeable sea environment, we propose Perpendicular Intersection (PI), a novel mobile-assisted localization scheme. In the OceanSense project, we propose the concept of passive diagnosis as well as the PAD approach which is both lightweight and adaptive to network dynamics. The OceanSense system has been working for over 16 months and provides large amounts of valuable data about the sea.
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paper_title: A novel design of water environment monitoring system based on WSN

paper_content:

The importance of maintaining good water environment highlights the increasing need for advanced technologies. This paper proposes a novel design of water environment monitoring system based on wireless sensor networks (WSN). The system consists of three parts: sensor nodes; sink nodes and data monitoring center. The sensor nodes can be constructed with arbitrary parameter or multi-parameter sensor modules such as PH, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity and temperature. The measurement capacity ranges from 0 to 14 on PH value; from 0∼20mg/L on DO; from 0∼2S/cm on conductivity. The sink nodes communicate with the local or remote data monitoring center by RS232 or 3G/GPRS. The performance shows the system can be effectively applied to some water area such as aquiculture, lake and river for distributed water environment automatic monitoring.
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paper_title: Implementation study of a home position monitoring system for marine environment

paper_content:

According to requirements of marine observation environment, a kind of real-time data collection architecture in marine monitoring system, based on wireless sensor network, is proposed in this paper. The architecture is a two-level in-situ monitoring technology: the high level taking GPS as an absolute in-situ and the lower level taking wireless sensor array as a relative in-situ. The buoyages and base station equip with costly GPS, while a large numbers of sensor nodes equip with the cheap RF SOC. In wireless sensors network, we propose a position estimating algorithm that allows sensors to determine their location without any centralized computation. In addition, PEA provides a location verification mechanism that verifies the location claims of the sensors before data collection. We show that PEA bounds the ability of an attacker to spoof sensors' locations, with relatively low density deployment of reference points. We confirm the PEA against attacks analytically and via simulations. And a novel entropy-based incremental fuzzy clustering algorithm is designed to cluster real-time datum efficiently and gives attention to realtime while improving clustering accuracy by applying a series of improved policies. Results of simulation experiments show that proposed algorithm is adaptive to the requirements of marine observation.
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paper_title: Wireless Sensor Network for Localized Maritime Monitoring

paper_content:

In this paper, we propose a novel routing algorithm for maritime monitoring of short term events where large area monitoring relies on small buoys drifting along with local currents. The objective of this algorithm is to improve communication where scalable mobile networks are optimized by taking into consideration a weight function based on remaining energy and relative distance between buoys. To improve wide area communication, amplified transmitters were selected. Therefore route optimization requires a different approach, as transmission requires more power than reception. We present two new approaches for message routing, where relay selection depends on a weight advertised periodically, and calculated through remaining energy and route distance to sink. The first approach uses a single route, while the second approach balances its load by using different routes selected in proportion to route weight. In both cases, the algorithms show improvements over single-hop and greedy approaches. Moreover, the second solution shows a more efficient message distribution through relay nodes that ultimately results in lower latency.
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paper_title: A framework for disaster management system and WSN protocol for rescue operation

paper_content:

On the way of ubiquitous computing, there are lots of research works for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) development. But very few works among of these huge research works specially consider disaster mitigation and rescue operation after disaster. Considering the effects of disaster, we have to develop a data collection framework for disaster mitigation and rescue operation; and a lower delay based energy efficient WSN protocol for data dissemination from disaster areas as well. In this paper, we propose a data collection framework for disaster mitigation and rescue operation. In addition, a WSN protocol for rescue operation is proposed in this paper. We simulate the performance of the protocol based on proposed framework and compare the performance of the protocol with that of SENDROM [1] system protocol, where our proposed protocol outperforms the SENDROM protocol.
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paper_title: A layered approach to in situ data management on a wireless sensor network

paper_content:

A multi-layered algorithm is proposed that provides a scalable and adaptive method for handling data on a wireless sensor network. Statistical tests, local feedback and global genetic style material exchange ensure limited resources, such as battery and bandwidth, are used efficiently by manipulating data at the source and important features in the time series are not lost when compression needs to be made. The approach leads to a more 'hands off' implementation which is demonstrated by a real world oceanographic deployment of the system.
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paper_title: WSN dynamic clustering for oil slicks monitoring

paper_content:

Clustering algorithms for wireless sensor networks are known as application-dependent. In the framework of the oil slicks monitoring in marine environment, this paper describes the modeling of a node implementing a dedicated dynamic partitioning algorithm, using a specific metric for which simulation provides optimal weights for combining various parameters (energy, density, mobility).
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paper_title: An Improved MAC Protocal for Marine- Environment Monitoring WSN System

paper_content:

To meet the demand of the energy consumption, transmission bandwidth, high reliability and real-time transmission for marine-environment monitoring networks, we propose a Real-Time Data Duty Cycle Adaptive (RDDCA) algorithm to improve the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of IEEE802.15.4 wireless communication standard, and design an architecture of Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) with star topology WSN system for monitoring marine-environment based on the RDDCA algorithm. Through the proposed system with sensor nodes, remote sensing terminals and data center, the states of the sensor nodes can be judged dynamically. The decision of whether to change the duty cycle of the transmission data can be made in the Marine-environment remote sensing terminals. Simulations performed in Network Simulation Version 2 (NS2) show that the star topology based RDDCA algorithm for WSN system can achieve the demands of the marine-environment monitoring applications. Comparing with traditional IEEE802.15.4 standard, it is found that the performance is improved significantly in energy consumption, sensor nodes lifetime, network throughput and real-time performance.
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paper_title: Wireless Sensor Networks for Environmental Monitoring Applications: A Design Framework

paper_content:

With the advances in wireless communication technologies, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are becoming more and more attractive because they can provide services that are not possible or not feasible before. In this paper, we address the design issues of an important type of WSN, i.e., WSNs that enable environmental monitoring applications. We first provide an overview and analysis for our ongoing research project about the WSN for coastal area acoustic monitoring. Based on the analysis, we then propose a novel framework that can be used to guide the design of future WSNs that provide environmental monitoring services. The focus of the framework is the network layer design. In our framework, we consider that 1) the future WSN shall be heterogeneous, 2) the network layer design shall better meet the requirements of applications and services, 3) the network layer design shall be able to utilize advanced wireless communication technologies, and 4) the network layer can provide the monitoring functionality.
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paper_title: IEEE 802.15.4 based wireless monitoring of pH and temperature in a fish farm

paper_content:

In the last years the number of papers related to wireless sensor networks has increased substantially. Most of them focus in raising issues as routing algorithms, network lifetime, and more recently, Multiple Input Multiple Output wireless networks. In contrast with all those studies, we present a practical application of wireless networks: The sensing of the pH and temperature for a fish farm. The application requires two different kind of modules: the sensor itself and the wireless module. The sensor collect and transmit the information to a wireless module using a wired connection. Once the information reaches the wireless node, it is forwarded to the central unit through a wireless protocol. The central unit starts and manages the network, as well as stores all the received data. The sensor module includes an pH sensor based on a specially designed ISFET and a commercial temperature sensor. The wireless node collects the sensed data by means of an asynchronous wired serial polling communication. The use of this kind of protocol allows to connect a single master with multiple slaves. In our particular case, we have connected one master with four slaves using a transmission rate of 9600 b/s. The wireless transmission follows the standard IEEE 802.15.4, and implements the routing protocol based on the ZigBee standard. The number of nodes distributed in the fish farm has been limited to 30 while the maximum number of hops to 6. Moreover, between the MAC and the routing layer an energy management layer have been included. This layer reduces the power consumption of the wireless network using an RF activity duty cycle for the reception stage at the final end device of around 0.02%.
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paper_title: Group-based underwater wireless sensor network for marine fish farms

paper_content:

The amount of uneaten feed and fecal waste generated by the fish in marine fish farms causes the damage of the fauna and flora, and it also reduces the economic benefits because the wastage of the uneaten food. In this paper, we propose an underwater group-based sensor network in order to quantify accurately the amount of pollution deposited on the seabed. First, an analytical model let us know the best location to place the sensor nodes. Our group-based wireless sensor network (WSN) proposal could also determine the amount of food that is wasted while it measures the amount of deposits generated. We describe the mobility of the nodes and how operates the group-based protocol and we show several simulations in order to view the load traffic and to verify the correct operation of the WSN.
---
paper_title: Cooperative Hybrid ARQ in Solar Powered Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

Abstract Energy harvesters are used in today’s Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) to harvest energy from the environment. Although an energy harvester can provide a supply source with a much greater lifetime than a battery, the amount of available energy for an energy harvesting system is a random variable. Furthermore, the proper management of energy harvesters has a considerable impact on reliability. It has been observed that cooperative error control mechanisms like Cooperative Automatic Repeat Request (C-ARQ) and Cooperative Hybrid ARQ (C-HARQ) can be used for improving the energy management and reliability in Energy Harvesting WSNs (EH-WSNs). Recently, the impact of C-ARC mechanism has been considered in an energy harvesting system (GAP4S), however, GAP4S is an EH-WSN powered by microwave with linear recharge rate and unbounded storage capacity. This work evaluates the effect of C-HARC using a new method of relay node selection in EH-WSNs which are powered by the solar energy and have variable recharge rates. Furthermore, a comparative study of C-ARQ and C-HARQ mechanisms, considering the impact of variations in transmission rate and packet error probability on the energy consumption, is provided. The results show that C-HARQ outperforms C-ARQ under the same conditions and the energy consumption of a relay node in C-HARQ is 50% less than the one in C-ARQ.
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paper_title: Undersea wireless sensor network for ocean pollution prevention

paper_content:

The ability to effectively communicate underwater has numerous applications, such as oceanographic data collection, pollution monitoring, disaster prevention, assisted navigation, tactical surveillance applications, and exploration of natural underwater sea resources. In this paper, we have developed a completely decentralized ad-hoc wireless sensor network for the ocean pollution detection. We mainly emphasize on the deployment of sensors, protocol stack, the synchronization algorithm and the routing algorithm in order to maximize the lifetime of the network and also to improve its Quality of Service (QoS).
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paper_title: Development of Data Video Base Station in Water Environment Monitoring Oriented Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

Water environment monitoring system based on wireless sensor networks (WSNs) consists of three parts: data monitoring nodes, date video base station and remote monitoring center. For the sake of realizing to monitor large range waters such as reservoir, wetland, lake, river and ocean etc, the monitoring system has the function of perception, acquisition, processing and transmission for video-information in key areas and various water environment parameters, such as water temperature, PH, turbidity, electric conductivity, dissolved oxygen and so on. As the gateway between those data monitoring nodes and CDMA network, the data video base station is communication center in the monitoring network. Based on ARM-DSP double processors architecture, the date video base station for water environment monitoring is studied and its software and hardware is designed in this paper. Moreover, by means of ZigBee and CDMA wireless transmission technology, the base station realizes data bidirectional communication between the sensor networks and the remote monitoring center. It well meets the need of remote real time water environment monitoring system and also has wide application prospect in industrial control, smart home, medical telemetry and intelligent traffic, etc.
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paper_title: Wave monitoring with wireless sensor networks

paper_content:

Real-time collection of wave information is required for short and long term investigations of natural coastal processes. Current wave monitoring techniques use only point-measurements, which are practical where the bathymetry is relatively uniform. We propose a wave monitoring method that is suitable for places with varying bathymetry, such as coral reefs. Our solution uses a densely deployed wireless sensor network, which allows for a high spatial resolution and 3D monitoring and analysis of the waves. The wireless sensor nodes are equipped with low-cost, low-power, MEMS-based inertial sensing. We report on lab experiments with a Ferris wheel contraption, which is a technique used in practice to evaluate and calibrate the state-of-the-art wave monitoring solutions.
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paper_title: A Robotic Sensor Network for monitoring carp in Minnesota lakes

paper_content:

Robotic Sensor Networks (RSNs) find increasing use in environmental monitoring as RSNs can collect data from obscure, hard-to-reach places over long periods of time. This work reports progress in building a network of small, light-weight robotic rafts which will be used to monitor common carp tagged with radio transmitters across Minnesota lakes. We describe the design and architecture of the robotic raft, and demonstrate the robustness of our waypoint navigation algorithm through field tests conducted in various lakes. We also present results from experiments aimed towards localizing tagged fish.
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paper_title: Monitoring Wireless Sensor Network using Android based Smart Phone Application

paper_content:

Wireless Sensor Network application's is use in detection of natural calamities like forest fire detection, flood detection, , earth quick early detection ,snow detection, traffic congestion and various other applications. However still it fails to provide dynamism in detection of sensing data. Centralized Computing is a profitable extension of computing resources which offer scalable resources to its users over the communication network. It work as software and provides data access and storage services which don't need the information of the end users physical location and the systems configuration that provides the computing resources. Android based Smart phone application, integration of all this technologies makes the availability of data dynamically at mobile phone on one click. Keywords: Wireless Sensor Network, sensor mote, Centralized Computing, Android.
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paper_title: An ocean observatory sensor network application

paper_content:

We describe our implementation of a novel deep ocean sensor network, the MBARI Free Ocean CO 2 Enrichment (FOCE). FOCE is a system designed for installation in the deep ocean to enable manipulative experiments that explore the impact of deep ocean increase in CO 2 and resulting pH change on ocean biogeochemistry and ecology. This system uses control feedback and pH sensors to inject CO 2 into a small volume of seawater, thus creating a controlled environment per science requirements. To implement this system, we utilized the MBARI-developed network middleware known as “SIAM”, which provides a standardized interface to instruments on a sensor network. For the FOCE application we integrated Open Source DataTurbine (OSDT) into SIAM. OSDT provides asynchronous communication links between distributed components, and is particularly well-suited to streaming instrument data. Combined with the existing synchronous SIAM framework, these features enabled a straightforward and efficient architecture for our application. We describe how we achieved our goals of software reuse of infrastructure and instrument services, instrument-in-the-loop control, and rapid assembly of a scalable end-to-end sensor network system.
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paper_title: Biofouling protection for marine environmental sensors

paper_content:

These days, many marine autonomous environ- ment monitoring networks are set up in the world. These sys- tems take advantage of existing superstructures such as off- shore platforms, lightships, piers, breakwaters or are placed on specially designed buoys or underwater oceanographic structures. These systems commonly use various sensors to measure parameters such as dissolved oxygen, turbidity, con- ductivity, pH or fluorescence. Emphasis has to be put on the long term quality of measurements, yet sensors may face very short-term biofouling effects. Biofouling can disrupt the quality of the measurements, sometimes in less than a week. Many techniques to prevent biofouling on instrumentation are listed and studied by researchers and manufacturers. Very few of them are implemented on instruments and of those very few have been tested in situ on oceanographic sensors for deployment of at least one or two months. This paper presents a review of techniques used to protect against biofouling of in situ sensors and gives a short list and description of promising techniques.
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paper_title: Wireless Sensor Networks for Oceanographic Monitoring: A Systematic Review

paper_content:

Monitoring of the marine environment has come to be a field of scientific interest in the last ten years. The instruments used in this work have ranged from small-scale sensor networks to complex observation systems. Among small-scale networks, Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are a highly attractive solution in that they are easy to deploy, operate and dismantle and are relatively inexpensive. The aim of this paper is to identify, appraise, select and synthesize all high quality research evidence relevant to the use of WSNs in oceanographic monitoring. The literature is systematically reviewed to offer an overview of the present state of this field of study and identify the principal resources that have been used to implement networks of this kind. Finally, this article details the challenges and difficulties that have to be overcome if these networks are to be successfully deployed.
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paper_title: Antifouling strategies for marine and riverine sensors.

paper_content:

Traditionally, water quality has been monitored by sampling and lab based analysis. However, there are disadvantages associated with this method, for example, deterioration of samples with time, limited sampling points, limited temporal monitoring. This has provided impetus for the development of sensors which can be deployed from remote locations over extended deployment periods. However, a major limitation of these systems is their vulnerability to biofouling. This review outlines the research that has been carried out on strategies for the protection of marine and riverine sensors against fouling.
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paper_title: Methods for Reducing Biofouling of Moored Optical Sensors

paper_content:

Biofouling is one of the primary limiting factors in terms of measurement accuracy and deployment longevity for oceanographic studies involving autonomous sampling. Copper can significantly reduce marine fouling for long-term optical sensor deployments in coastal and open-ocean environments. Copper can effectively replace previously used highly toxic chemical antifoulant methods. Copper-based antifouling systems can be employed with three types of optical sensors: 1) open, 2) enclosed or semienclosed, and 3) shuttered. Copper plates on open-faced backscattering sensors can enable deployment periods of longer than 60 days in coastal waters without biofouling. In addition, copper tubing on nine-wavelength absorption-attenuation meters (ac-9s) has extended measurement capabilities from about 10 days to greater than 60 days with no signs of biofouling in coastal waters. Implementation of copper shutters on optical sensors in open-ocean waters off Japan has resulted in extended deployment periods (410 days and possibly longer) for optical measurements whereas previous optical measurements in the open ocean were typically degraded within several weeks to at most a few months due to biofouling.
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paper_title: ANTIFOULING TECHNOLOGY-PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE STEPS TOWARDS EFFICIENT AND ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY ANTIFOULING COATINGS

paper_content:

Abstract The imminent ban of environmentally harmful tributyltin (TBT)-based paint products has been the cause of a major change in the antifouling paint industry. In the past decade, several tin-free products have reached the commercial market, and claimed their effectiveness as regards the prevention of marine biofouling on ships in an environmentally friendly manner. The main objective of this review is to describe these products in as much detail as possible based on the knowledge available in the open literature. This knowledge has been supplemented by means of performance data provided, upon request, by some of the paint-producing companies. An exhaustive review of the historical development of antifouling systems and a detailed characterisation of sea water are also included. The need for studies on the behaviour of chemically active paints under different sea water conditions is emphasised. In addition, the most common booster biocides used to replace TBT-containing compounds are listed and described. It must be stressed that there is still a lack of knowledge of their potential environmental side effects. The current interest in providing innovative antifouling technologies based on an improved understanding of the biological principles of the biofouling process is also considered in this review. From the analysis of the factors affecting the biofouling process, the interference with the settlement and attachment mechanisms is the most promising environmentally benign option. This can be accomplished in two main ways: imitation of the natural antifouling processes and modification of the characteristics of the substrate. The former mostly focuses on the study of the large amount of secondary metabolites secreted by many different marine organisms to control the fouling on their surfaces. The many obstacles that need to be overcome for the success of this research are analysed. The potential development of broad-spectrum efficient coatings based on natural antifoulants is far from commercialisation. However, exploitation of a weakening of biofouling adhesion by means of the non-stick and fouling-release concepts is at a rather advanced stage of development. The main advantages and drawbacks of these systems are presented along with a brief introduction to their scientific basis. Finally, other alternatives, which may eventually give rise to an efficient and environmentally benign antifouling system, are outlined.
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paper_title: Biofouling protection for marine environmental sensors

paper_content:

These days, many marine autonomous environ- ment monitoring networks are set up in the world. These sys- tems take advantage of existing superstructures such as off- shore platforms, lightships, piers, breakwaters or are placed on specially designed buoys or underwater oceanographic structures. These systems commonly use various sensors to measure parameters such as dissolved oxygen, turbidity, con- ductivity, pH or fluorescence. Emphasis has to be put on the long term quality of measurements, yet sensors may face very short-term biofouling effects. Biofouling can disrupt the quality of the measurements, sometimes in less than a week. Many techniques to prevent biofouling on instrumentation are listed and studied by researchers and manufacturers. Very few of them are implemented on instruments and of those very few have been tested in situ on oceanographic sensors for deployment of at least one or two months. This paper presents a review of techniques used to protect against biofouling of in situ sensors and gives a short list and description of promising techniques.
---
paper_title: Optimization of an energy harvesting buoy for coral reef monitoring

paper_content:

The sustainable management of coastal and offshore ecosystems, such as for example coral reef environments, requires an energy efficient collection of accurate data across various temporal and spatial scales. To suitably address the energy supply of marine sensors, in this paper a novel energy harvesting device is proposed, based on a Tubular Permanent MagnetLinear Generator (TPM-LiG). The application is related to the sea wave energy conversion for small sensorized buoy. The optimization process is developed by means of evolutionary computation techniques. The advantage of these algorithms is in the wide exploration of the variables space and in the effective exploitation of the fitness function. The algorithm has been tested on a benchmark case and then applied to the optimization of a power-buoy prototype which has been realized in laboratory with potential significant implications in future marine environment applications.
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paper_title: A Low-Cost Sensor Buoy System for Monitoring Shallow Marine Environments

paper_content:

Monitoring of marine ecosystems is essential to identify the parameters that determine their condition. The data derived from the sensors used to monitor them are a fundamental source for the development of mathematical models with which to predict the behaviour of conditions of the water, the sea bed and the living creatures inhabiting it. This paper is intended to explain and illustrate a design and implementation for a new multisensor monitoring buoy system. The system design is based on a number of fundamental requirements that set it apart from other recent proposals: low cost of implementation, the possibility of application in coastal shallow-water marine environments, suitable dimensions for deployment and stability of the sensor system in a shifting environment like the sea bed, and total autonomy of power supply and data recording. The buoy system has successfully performed remote monitoring of temperature and marine pressure (SBE 39 sensor), temperature (MCP9700 sensor) and atmospheric pressure (YOUNG 61302L sensor). The above requirements have been satisfactorily validated by operational trials in a marine environment. The proposed buoy sensor system thus seems to offer a broad range of applications.
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paper_title: A system for monitoring marine environments based on Wireless Sensor Networks

paper_content:

In this paper a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) for monitoring a coastal shallow water marine environment is presented. The study area is located in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon, situated in the Southeast of Spain, separated of the Mediterranean Sea by La Manga, a narrow piece of land of 22 km long and crossed by three channels that regulate the water circulation between the lagoon and the Mediterranean Sea. In order to know hydrodynamic performances of the lagoon and other oceanographic parameters a WSN has been developed. It is composed of several sensor nodes or buoys. These sensor nodes take oceanographic data and send them to the sink node using wireless communication. The description of this system, the buoy prototype and the user application are presented in this paper.
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paper_title: Constructing transmitting interface of running parameters of small-scaled wind-power electricity generator with WSN modules

paper_content:

The main purpose of this paper was to explore strategies of how to design the interface with brand-new techniques for collecting running parameters of small-scaled wind-power electricity generators as well as its monitoring and controlling Graphic Interface System software. Affected by shortage of oil energy, the whole world was positively developing renewable energy such as solar, wind-power, biologic, tide etc. For Taiwan, the renewable energy policy was actively pushed by government and civic organizations, and how to encourage industrial manufacturers to invest the related technologies of renewable energy; furthermore, to research and develop advanced techniques in this field so that those techniques could create another prosperous business for Taiwan after 3C business. In this study, WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) and its related modules such as ZigBee and Bluetooth would be combined together to construct transmitting interface of running parameters of small-scaled wind-power electricity generator. The study content included building ZigBee wireless network, communication interfaces of ZigBee and Bluetooth with microprocessor, coding and decoding techniques of ZigBee and Bluetooth, and software programming of graphic interface system (GIS). This study was sponsored by Taiwan Education Ministry under Teaching Superiority Project, and the system implemented in real wind-power electricity generator system and the research outcomes has been proved to be very successful and stable.
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paper_title: Optimization of an energy harvesting buoy for coral reef monitoring

paper_content:

The sustainable management of coastal and offshore ecosystems, such as for example coral reef environments, requires an energy efficient collection of accurate data across various temporal and spatial scales. To suitably address the energy supply of marine sensors, in this paper a novel energy harvesting device is proposed, based on a Tubular Permanent MagnetLinear Generator (TPM-LiG). The application is related to the sea wave energy conversion for small sensorized buoy. The optimization process is developed by means of evolutionary computation techniques. The advantage of these algorithms is in the wide exploration of the variables space and in the effective exploitation of the fitness function. The algorithm has been tested on a benchmark case and then applied to the optimization of a power-buoy prototype which has been realized in laboratory with potential significant implications in future marine environment applications.
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paper_title: Effective design of WSNs: From the lab to the real world

paper_content:

Distributed environmental monitoring with wireless sensor networks (WSNs) is one of the most challenging research activities faced by the embedded system community in the last decade. Here, the need for pervasive, reliable and accurate monitoring systems has pushed the research towards the realization of credible deployments able to survive in harsh environments for long time. Design an effective WSN requires a good piece of engineer work, not to mention the research contribution needed to provide a credible deployment. As a matter of fact, to solve our application, we are looking for a monitoring framework scalable, adaptive with respect to topological changes in the network, power-aware in its middleware components and endowed with energy harvesting mechanisms to grant a long lifetime for the network. The paper addresses all main aspects related to the design of a WSN ranging from the -possible- need of an ad-hoc embedded system, to sensing, local and remote transmission, data storage and visualization; particular attention will be devoted to energy harvesting and management aspects at the unit and network level. Two applications, namely monitoring the marine environment and forecasting the collapse of rock faces in mountaineering areas will be the experimental leitmotiv of the presentation.
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paper_title: An Adaptive System for Optimal Solar Energy Harvesting in Wireless Sensor Network Nodes

paper_content:

The success of wireless sensor networks and their pervasive use is somehow constrained by energy supply which, generally provided by batteries, is a finite resource. Energy harvesting mechanisms must hence be taken into account to grant a long time operational life, with solar energy being the most interesting one in outdoor deployments due to its relatively high power density. In this paper we propose a low-power maximum power point tracker (MPPT) circuit specifically designed for wireless sensor nodes (hence effective, flexible, low cost and power-aware), i.e., a power transferring circuit for optimally conveying solar energy into rechargeable batteries even in not optimal weather conditions. High efficiency is granted by an ad hoc adaptive algorithm which, by keeping the MPPT electronics in its optimal working point, maximizes energy transfer from the solar cell to the batteries. The suggested implementation is particularly effective in critical weather conditions where traditional solutions do not work and is characterized by a flexible enough design for immediately hosting, in a plug in fashion, different solar panels and battery typologies.
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paper_title: The availability and reliability of wireless multi-hop networks with stochastic link failures

paper_content:

The network reliability and availability in wireless multi-hop networks can be inadequate due to radio induced interference. It is therefore common to introduce redundant nodes. This paper provides a method to forecast how the introduction of redundant nodes increases the reliability and availability of such networks. For simplicity, it is assumed that link failures are stochastic and independent, and the network can be modelled as a random graph. First, the network reliability and availability of a static network with a planned topology is explored. This analysis is relevant to mesh networks for public access, but also provides insight into the reliability and availability behaviour of other categories of wireless multi-hop networks. Then, by extending the analysis to also consider random geometric graphs, networks with nodes that are randomly distributed in a metric space are also investigated. Unlike many other random graph analyses, our approach allows for advanced link models where the link failure probability is continuously decreasing with an increasing distance between the two nodes of the link. In addition to analysing the steady-state availability, the transient reliability behaviour of wireless multi-hop networks is also found. These results are supported by simulations.
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paper_title: Assuring system reliability in wireless sensor networks via verification and validation

paper_content:

Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have been widely used for monitoring applications. However, due to the rigorous deployment environment, reliable operation of WSNs is difficult to guarantee. Thus, the assurance of WSN reliability should be concerned in order to measure physical quantities correctly and effectively, as well as to maximize the lifetime of the system. In this paper, concerns of WSN reliability and assurance measures have been discussed via a systematic reliability checking flow. Furthermore, issues about reliability assurance and certification are also raised for the future development of WSNs.
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paper_title: Reliability and Availability Evaluation of Wireless Sensor Networks for Industrial Applications

paper_content:

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) currently represent the best candidate to be adopted as the communication solution for the last mile connection in process control and monitoring applications in industrial environments. Most of these applications have stringent dependability (reliability and availability) requirements, as a system failure may result in economic losses, put people in danger or lead to environmental damages. Among the different type of faults that can lead to a system failure, permanent faults on network devices have a major impact. They can hamper communications over long periods of time and consequently disturb, or even disable, control algorithms. The lack of a structured approach enabling the evaluation of permanent faults, prevents system designers to optimize decisions that minimize these occurrences. In this work we propose a methodology based on an automatic generation of a fault tree to evaluate the reliability and availability of Wireless Sensor Networks, when permanent faults occur on network devices. The proposal supports any topology, different levels of redundancy, network reconfigurations, criticality of devices and arbitrary failure conditions. The proposed methodology is particularly suitable for the design and validation of Wireless Sensor Networks when trying to optimize its reliability and availability requirements.
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paper_title: Poly: A reliable and energy efficient topology control protocol for wireless sensor networks

paper_content:

Energy efficiency and reliability are the two important requirements for mission-critical wireless sensor networks. In the context of sensor topology control for routing and dissemination, Connected Dominating Set (CDS) based techniques proposed in prior literature provide the most promising efficiency and reliability. In a CDS-based topology control technique, a backbone - comprising a set of highly connected nodes - is formed which allows communication between any arbitrary pair of nodes in the network. In this paper, we show that formation of a polygon in the network provides a reliable and energy-efficient topology. Based on this observation, we propose Poly, a novel topology construction protocol based on the idea of polygons. We compare the performance of Poly with three prominent CDS-based topology construction protocols namely CDS-Rule K, Energy-efficient CDS (EECDS) and A3. Our simulation results demonstrate that Poly performs consistently better in terms of message overhead and other selected metrics. We also model the reliability of Poly and compare it with other CDS-based techniques to show that it achieves better connectivity under highly dynamic network topologies.
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paper_title: Wireless Sensor Network Reliability and Security in Factory Automation: A Survey

paper_content:

Industries can benefit a lot from integrating sensors in industrial plants, structures, machinery, shop floors, and other critical places and utilizing their sensing and monitoring power, communicating and processing abilities to deliver sensed information. Proper use of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) can lower the rate of catastrophic failures, and improve the efficiency and productivity of factory operations. Ensuring reliability and providing adequate security in these crucial services provided by WSNs will reinforce their acceptability as a viable and dependable technology in the factory and industrial domain. In this paper, we examine the reliability and security challenges of WSNs and survey their practicality for industrial adoption. We discuss the unique characteristics that distinguish the factory environment from the rest, elaborate on security and reliability issues with their respective solution measures, and analyze the existing WSN architectures and standards. A number of challenges and interesting research issues have emerged from this study and have been reported for further investigation.
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paper_title: Computing reliability and message delay for Cooperative wireless distributed sensor networks subject to random failures

paper_content:

One of the most compelling technological advances of this decade has been the advent of deploying wireless networks of heterogeneous smart sensor nodes for complex information gathering tasks. A wireless distributed sensor network (DSN) is a self-organizing , ad-hoc network of a large number of cooperative intelligent sensor nodes. Due to the limited power of sensor nodes, energy-efficient DSN are essentially multi-hop networks. The self-organizing capabilities, and the cooperative operation of DSN allow for forming reliable clusters of sensors deployed near, or at, the sites of target phenomena. Reliable monitoring of a phenomenon (or event detection) depends on the collective data provided by the target cluster of sensors, and not on any individual node. The failure of one or more nodes may not cause the operational data sources to be disconnected from the data sinks (command nodes or end user stations). However, it may increase the number of hops a data message has to go through before reaching its destination (and subsequently increase the message delay). In this paper, we focus on two related problems: computing a measure for the reliability of DSN, and computing a measure for the expected & the maximum message delay between data sources (sensors) & data sinks in an operational DSN. Given an estimation of the failure probabilities of the sensors, as well as the intermediate nodes (nodes used to relay messages between data sources, and data sinks), we use a probabilistic graph to model DSN. We define the DSN reliability as the probability that there exists an operating communication path between the sink node, and at least one operational sensor in a target cluster. We show that both problems are #P-hard for arbitrary networks. We then present two algorithms for computing the reliability, and the expected message delay for arbitrary networks. We also consider two special cases where efficient (polynomial time) algorithms are developed. Finally, we present some numerical results that demonstrate some of the applications of our algorithms.
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Title: Applications of Wireless Sensor Networks in Marine Environment Monitoring: A Survey

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: This section introduces the concept of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) and their application in various fields, including marine environment monitoring, highlighting the technological advancements and inherent challenges.

Section 2: Overview
Description 2: This section provides an overview on the application of WSNs in marine environment monitoring, including different application areas, common architectures of WSN-based marine monitoring systems, sensor node architecture, sensing parameters and sensors, and related wireless communication technologies.

Section 3: Application Areas
Description 3: This section describes the various application areas of WSN-based marine environment monitoring such as water quality monitoring, ocean sensing and monitoring, coral reef monitoring, and marine fish farm monitoring, detailing the specific requirements for each area.

Section 4: General Sensor Node
Description 4: This section presents the architecture and main modules of a general sensor node in marine environment monitoring systems, including the sensing module, central processing module, wireless transceiver module, and power supply module.

Section 5: Sensing Parameters and Sensors
Description 5: This section lists and describes the physical and chemical sensors used in marine environment monitoring systems, their operating principles, and selection criteria based on deployment area, measurement range, accuracy, resolution, power consumption, and intended deployment time.

Section 6: Wireless Communication Technologies
Description 6: This section explores the different network topologies and wireless communication technologies used in WSNs, such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, WiFi, GSM, GPRS, and WiMAX, and discusses the factors influencing the choice of topology and communication technology.

Section 7: State-of-the-Art Review
Description 7: This section presents a comprehensive review of related projects, systems, applications, network routing mechanisms, algorithms, approaches, and techniques on marine environment monitoring based on wireless sensor networks.

Section 8: Related Projects, Systems and Applications
Description 8: This section summarizes different WSN projects, systems and applications proposed for monitoring marine environments, focusing on their key features and specific uses.

Section 9: Specific Networks, Routing Mechanisms and Algorithms
Description 9: This section reviews specific networks, routing mechanisms, protocols, and algorithms proposed for WSN-based marine environment monitoring, their performance, and validation methods.

Section 10: Specific Techniques and Approaches
Description 10: This section discusses the specific techniques and approaches developed for marine environment monitoring using WSNs, such as multi-modal event monitoring, video sensing, decentralized ad-hoc networks, wave monitoring, and biofouling protection techniques.

Section 11: Research Challenges and Opportunities
Description 11: This section discusses the challenges and opportunities in the deployment and operation of WSNs in marine environment monitoring, including oceanographic sensors protection, advanced buoy design, energy harvesting system design, and system stability and reliability.

Section 12: Conclusions
Description 12: This section provides concluding remarks on the current state and future prospects of using wireless sensor networks for marine environment monitoring, summarizing the survey findings and identifying potential areas for further research.