e-Diplomacy: a Systematic Literature Review
---
paper_title: Foreign Ministries and the Information Revolution: Going Virtual?

paper_content:

Anchored in new institutionalist approaches in political science, the book provides a comparative in-depth analysis of information technology effects in the foreign ministries of Canada, Norway and Slovakia.
---
paper_title: Virtuality, diplomacy, and the foreign ministry: Does foreign affairs and international trade Canada need a “V Tower”?

paper_content:

Along that ever shorter road from heresy to liturgy, it is no longer news that the much heralded revolution in information and communication technologies (ICTs) has transformed the practice of diplomacy, the management of the foreign ministry, and the nature of foreign service. Less clear, however, is where all of this is going, what it may mean for practitioners, and how Canada is performing vis-a-vis the international competition. The purpose of this paper is to address these questions, and to focus on
---
paper_title: India's New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power and the Limits of Government Action

paper_content:

Abstract Over the past decade, India has invested significant resources in public diplomacy, using traditional and new approaches to build and leverage its soft power. This article examines the reasons for this investment, the various forms of public diplomacy India employs, and the effectiveness of its efforts to shape public opinion. It finds that Indian investment in public diplomacy is partly a response to concerns about the perceived growth of Chinese soft power and partly a function of changed beliefs in the foreign policy-making elite about the uses of new social media. It also finds that India9s new public diplomacy seems to have met with some––albeit patchy––success in augmenting its soft power.
---
paper_title: Social Media at State: Power, Practice, and Conceptual Limits for US Public Diplomacy

paper_content:

Social media technologies represent a significant development for US public diplomacy: both in practice and in conceptualization. This article analyzes policy discourse regarding social media's role in US public diplomacy to characterize conceptual development of US public diplomacy practice. It critically assesses US strategic arguments for technology and public diplomacy, the relation of public diplomacy to traditional diplomacy after the so-called “public diplomacy 2.0” turn, and how the collaborative potential of these developments complicate the utility of soft power to justify public diplomacy.
---
paper_title: Discovering Digital Diplomacy: The Case of Mediatization in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland

paper_content:

The increasing importance of media, especially digital media, in society has been studied widely, from identity formation to activist movements. In international relations studies digital media’s impact has focused considerably on public diplomacy 2.0. This focus has caused a more holistic view of digital diplomacy to be neglected. This study explores how digital media’s impacts as a part of mediatization are seen within the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. Semi-structured interviews with 11 officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were conducted. These led to the creation of three thematic fields. The first one looks into how the agency of the Ministry is seen to be impacted by digitalization. The second section looks into how community building is seen as essential. And the third part investigated how the ministry evaluates the impacts of digitalization on other ministries of foreign affairs in the light of its own experience. The finding is that the ministry is expanding into a new digital sphere and that in the process of so doing the Ministry is not a tabula rasa, but it mirrors the cultural and political context of the country within the online sphere.
---
paper_title: Digital diplomacy in GCC countries: Strategic communication of Western embassies on Twitter

paper_content:

Abstract Drawing upon online communication research, this study identifies six effective communication strategies for social media-based diplomacy on Twitter: interactive, personalized, positive, relevant, and transparent communication among a broad network of stakeholders. By using an extensive mix-method design (i.e., combining a manual content and automated network analyses, N = 4438 tweets), this research examines to what extent these communication strategies are adopted on Twitter by Western embassies active in countries from the Gulf Cooperation Council. We found that embassies are not utilizing social media to its full potential. Although embassies are transparent, use positive sentiment in their online communication and post relevant information to their stakeholders, they hardly engage in direct interactive and personal communication, and only reach out to a limited group of stakeholders. We recommend embassies to put more emphasis on two-way interactive communication with a vast variety of stakeholders.
---
paper_title: The Long Road to Public Diplomacy 2.0: The Internet in US Public Diplomacy

paper_content:

The United States has a long history of deploying new technology as a mechanism for public diplomacy (the conduct of foreign policy by engagement with foreign publics) but it was relatively slow to make full use of the on-line technologies known as Web 2.0. This essay reviews the early work of the US Information Agency (1953–1999) in the field of computer and on-line communications, noting the compatibility of a networking approach to USIA's institutional culture. The essay then traces the story forward into the work of the units within the US Department of State which took over public diplomacy functions in 1999. The article argues that this transition deserves a large part of the blame for the difficulty which the risk-averse State Department displayed in embracing first the web and then the full range of qualities associated with Web 2.0. The State Department has emphasized one-way broadcast media rather than two-way relational media and functions connected with listening and exchange diplomacy were subordinated to advocacy. The essay also notes the challenge of a non-diplomatic agency—the Department of Defense—playing a dominant role in digital and other forms of outreach at some points in the process. The essay ends by noting the recent evolution of the State Department's approach to digital media and the emergence of a non-governmental model for American digital outreach (known by the acronym SAGE) which may overcome many of the institutional limits experienced thus far and provide a way to bring together the relational priorities of the New Public Diplomacy with the relational capacities of Web 2.0 technology.
---
paper_title: Cyber Public Diplomacy as China's Smart Power Strategy in an Information Age: Case Study of Anti-Carrefour Incident in 2008

paper_content:

AbstractThe Internet and related technologies have played a decisive role in both enhancing productivity in business and facilitating the sociopolitical development of the last decade of the twentieth century. The increase in use of these highly networked modern technologies is also leading to the rise of many new global issues. In the case of China, the government is attempting to use this new technology to bridge the digital divide with the developed world and leapfrog into the advanced information industry. At the same time it is also developing information policies to suit its political interests. This article argues that China's promotion of information is by its nature a "softpower" strategy, and further that this strategy has become one of China's most important governing mechanisms in the modern Information Age.This article begins with a general literature review on notions of softpower, smart power, and public diplomacy, laying the foundation for the subsequent discussion on China's application of these tools into its governance. It further focuses on China's emerging state-society relations in the Internet Age, focusing largely from citizens' online participation. To approach this issue, a case study of the "Anti-Carrefour Incident" is examined to show China's smart power strategy as incorporating both softpower and public diplomacy. Along with the rising power of citizens' discourse power, the effectiveness and constraint of China's smart power in the modern era of globalisation are also discussed.Keywords: softpower, smart power, public diplomacy, cyber public diplomacy, anti-Carrefour incidentJEL classification: F51, F59, N45(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)1. Introduction: Understanding SoftPower, Smart Power and Public DiplomacyIn 1990 Joseph Nye proposed the idea of "softpower" with the publication of SoftPower: The Means to Success in World Politics.1 This book led to a wave of discussion on softpower in the field of international relations. Nye classified softpower as the ability to affect others behaviour and accomplish individual aims. Hard power on the other hand aims to achieve goals through the use or threat of force. The softpower resources of a nation lie in its culture (their appeal to others), political values (when they are consistent both home and abroad), and its diplomacy (when it is legal, and has moral authority). Nye and Melissen indicated that softpower should be promoted through the use of "public diplomacy", while Mark Leonard showed how softpower and public diplomacy are intricately linked with his three dimensions of public diplomacy in news management, strategic communications, and relationship building, all being forms of softpower as described by Nye. Nye further argued that countries should not depend solely on either hard power or softpower; instead they should integrate both of these forms of power to create "smart power"2 as the new tool of public diplomacy.3Public diplomacy as a tool of governance was first proposed by Murrow, the former minister of the US Information Agency (USIA), commonly considered to be the propaganda mouthpiece of the government. In a 1963 speech, Murrow stated that the difference between public diplomacy and traditional diplomacy was that the actors are not merely the government, but also non-governmental individuals or organizations. Following from this, Manheim re-classified diplomacy as having four distinct forms in government to government, diplomat to diplomat, people to people, and government to people, and emphasized that public diplomacy should be treated as an important part of foreign affairs.Evan Potter indicated that, "Public diplomacy4 is the behaviour through which a government attempts to affect the opinion of people or elites from other countries, aiming to make the actions of the target country favourable for the concerned government. To promote their national objectives and gain benefits for the public, governments use several methods such as international broadcasting, cultivation of foreign reporters and scholars, cultural activities, educational exchanges and scholarships, planned visits and meetings, and publications". …
---
paper_title: Public diplomacy meets social media: : A study of the U.S. Embassy's blogs and micro-blogs

paper_content:

With the evolution of communication technologies, traditional public diplomacy is transforming. This study examines the practice of the U.S. Embassy's public diplomatic communication via social media, namely Chinese mainstream blogging and micro-blogging, sites using Tencent for a case study. This study analyzes the embassy's blog and micro-blog entries and an interview with the embassy's public diplomacy officer. Based on the content analysis and interview, this study discerns the key features of the U.S. Embassy's public diplomatic communication using social media and further suggests that the common values and interests related to the global public as well as experience-sharing and relationship-building might become the focus of new public diplomacy research.
---
paper_title: Virtuality, diplomacy, and the foreign ministry: Does foreign affairs and international trade Canada need a “V Tower”?

paper_content:

Along that ever shorter road from heresy to liturgy, it is no longer news that the much heralded revolution in information and communication technologies (ICTs) has transformed the practice of diplomacy, the management of the foreign ministry, and the nature of foreign service. Less clear, however, is where all of this is going, what it may mean for practitioners, and how Canada is performing vis-a-vis the international competition. The purpose of this paper is to address these questions, and to focus on
---
paper_title: India's New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power and the Limits of Government Action

paper_content:

Abstract Over the past decade, India has invested significant resources in public diplomacy, using traditional and new approaches to build and leverage its soft power. This article examines the reasons for this investment, the various forms of public diplomacy India employs, and the effectiveness of its efforts to shape public opinion. It finds that Indian investment in public diplomacy is partly a response to concerns about the perceived growth of Chinese soft power and partly a function of changed beliefs in the foreign policy-making elite about the uses of new social media. It also finds that India9s new public diplomacy seems to have met with some––albeit patchy––success in augmenting its soft power.
---
paper_title: Public Diplomacy 2.0: A Case Study of the US Digital Outreach Team

paper_content:

The internet is enabling new approaches to public diplomacy. The US Digital Outreach Team (DOT) is one such initiative, aiming to engage directly with citizens in the Middle East by posting messages about US foreign policy on internet forums. This case study assesses the DOT's work. Does this method provide a promising move towards a more interactive and individualized approach to connecting with the Middle East? What are the strategic challenges faced by "public diplomacy 2.0?"
---
paper_title: Discovering Digital Diplomacy: The Case of Mediatization in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland

paper_content:

The increasing importance of media, especially digital media, in society has been studied widely, from identity formation to activist movements. In international relations studies digital media’s impact has focused considerably on public diplomacy 2.0. This focus has caused a more holistic view of digital diplomacy to be neglected. This study explores how digital media’s impacts as a part of mediatization are seen within the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. Semi-structured interviews with 11 officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were conducted. These led to the creation of three thematic fields. The first one looks into how the agency of the Ministry is seen to be impacted by digitalization. The second section looks into how community building is seen as essential. And the third part investigated how the ministry evaluates the impacts of digitalization on other ministries of foreign affairs in the light of its own experience. The finding is that the ministry is expanding into a new digital sphere and that in the process of so doing the Ministry is not a tabula rasa, but it mirrors the cultural and political context of the country within the online sphere.
---
paper_title: The Long Road to Public Diplomacy 2.0: The Internet in US Public Diplomacy

paper_content:

The United States has a long history of deploying new technology as a mechanism for public diplomacy (the conduct of foreign policy by engagement with foreign publics) but it was relatively slow to make full use of the on-line technologies known as Web 2.0. This essay reviews the early work of the US Information Agency (1953–1999) in the field of computer and on-line communications, noting the compatibility of a networking approach to USIA's institutional culture. The essay then traces the story forward into the work of the units within the US Department of State which took over public diplomacy functions in 1999. The article argues that this transition deserves a large part of the blame for the difficulty which the risk-averse State Department displayed in embracing first the web and then the full range of qualities associated with Web 2.0. The State Department has emphasized one-way broadcast media rather than two-way relational media and functions connected with listening and exchange diplomacy were subordinated to advocacy. The essay also notes the challenge of a non-diplomatic agency—the Department of Defense—playing a dominant role in digital and other forms of outreach at some points in the process. The essay ends by noting the recent evolution of the State Department's approach to digital media and the emergence of a non-governmental model for American digital outreach (known by the acronym SAGE) which may overcome many of the institutional limits experienced thus far and provide a way to bring together the relational priorities of the New Public Diplomacy with the relational capacities of Web 2.0 technology.
---
paper_title: Cyber Public Diplomacy as China's Smart Power Strategy in an Information Age: Case Study of Anti-Carrefour Incident in 2008

paper_content:

AbstractThe Internet and related technologies have played a decisive role in both enhancing productivity in business and facilitating the sociopolitical development of the last decade of the twentieth century. The increase in use of these highly networked modern technologies is also leading to the rise of many new global issues. In the case of China, the government is attempting to use this new technology to bridge the digital divide with the developed world and leapfrog into the advanced information industry. At the same time it is also developing information policies to suit its political interests. This article argues that China's promotion of information is by its nature a "softpower" strategy, and further that this strategy has become one of China's most important governing mechanisms in the modern Information Age.This article begins with a general literature review on notions of softpower, smart power, and public diplomacy, laying the foundation for the subsequent discussion on China's application of these tools into its governance. It further focuses on China's emerging state-society relations in the Internet Age, focusing largely from citizens' online participation. To approach this issue, a case study of the "Anti-Carrefour Incident" is examined to show China's smart power strategy as incorporating both softpower and public diplomacy. Along with the rising power of citizens' discourse power, the effectiveness and constraint of China's smart power in the modern era of globalisation are also discussed.Keywords: softpower, smart power, public diplomacy, cyber public diplomacy, anti-Carrefour incidentJEL classification: F51, F59, N45(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)1. Introduction: Understanding SoftPower, Smart Power and Public DiplomacyIn 1990 Joseph Nye proposed the idea of "softpower" with the publication of SoftPower: The Means to Success in World Politics.1 This book led to a wave of discussion on softpower in the field of international relations. Nye classified softpower as the ability to affect others behaviour and accomplish individual aims. Hard power on the other hand aims to achieve goals through the use or threat of force. The softpower resources of a nation lie in its culture (their appeal to others), political values (when they are consistent both home and abroad), and its diplomacy (when it is legal, and has moral authority). Nye and Melissen indicated that softpower should be promoted through the use of "public diplomacy", while Mark Leonard showed how softpower and public diplomacy are intricately linked with his three dimensions of public diplomacy in news management, strategic communications, and relationship building, all being forms of softpower as described by Nye. Nye further argued that countries should not depend solely on either hard power or softpower; instead they should integrate both of these forms of power to create "smart power"2 as the new tool of public diplomacy.3Public diplomacy as a tool of governance was first proposed by Murrow, the former minister of the US Information Agency (USIA), commonly considered to be the propaganda mouthpiece of the government. In a 1963 speech, Murrow stated that the difference between public diplomacy and traditional diplomacy was that the actors are not merely the government, but also non-governmental individuals or organizations. Following from this, Manheim re-classified diplomacy as having four distinct forms in government to government, diplomat to diplomat, people to people, and government to people, and emphasized that public diplomacy should be treated as an important part of foreign affairs.Evan Potter indicated that, "Public diplomacy4 is the behaviour through which a government attempts to affect the opinion of people or elites from other countries, aiming to make the actions of the target country favourable for the concerned government. To promote their national objectives and gain benefits for the public, governments use several methods such as international broadcasting, cultivation of foreign reporters and scholars, cultural activities, educational exchanges and scholarships, planned visits and meetings, and publications". …
---

Title: e-Diplomacy: a Systematic Literature Review

Section 1: INTRODUCTION
Description 1: Write an introduction that discusses the emergence of e-Diplomacy, its current state, the scope and limitations of existing definitions, and the aim of this paper.

Section 2: RESEARCH METHOD
Description 2: Describe the systematic literature review method used in this study, detailing each phase from initial search to final selection of relevant studies.

Section 3: FINDINGS
Description 3: Present the findings by classifying the relevant studies into categories based on publication focus, geographical region, and methodology. Include a profiling table for a summary of key findings and contributions of each paper.

Section 4: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Description 4: Discuss the implications of the findings, highlight the limitations of the existing studies, and provide recommendations for future research. Conclude by summarizing the main insights and contributions of the paper.

Section 5: RESEARCH CONTRIBUTION
Description 5: Explain how this study contributes to the field of e-Diplomacy by providing a comprehensive summary of current research, and how the profiling table and findings can be useful for other researchers.