A Survey on Eye-Gaze Tracking Techniques
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paper_title: Selective activation of visual cortex neurons by fixational eye movements: Implications for neural coding

paper_content:

During normal vision, when subjects attempt to fix their gaze on a small stimulus feature, small fixational eye movements persist. We have recorded the impulse activity of single neurons in primary visual cortex (V1) of macaque monkeys while their fixational eye movements moved the receptive-field activating region (AR) over and around a stationary stimulus. Three types of eye movement activation were found. (1) Saccade cells discharged when a fixational saccade moved the AR onto the stimulus, off the stimulus, or across the stimulus. (2) Position/drift cells discharged during the intersaccadic (drift) intervals and were not activated by saccades that swept the AR across the stimulus without remaining on it. To activate these neurons, it was essential that the AR be placed on the stimulus and many of these cells were selective for the sign of contrast. They had smaller ARs than the other cell types. (3) Mixed cells fired bursts of activity immediately following saccades and continued to fire at a lower rate during intersaccadic intervals. The tendency of each neuron to fire transient bursts or sustained trains of impulses following saccades was strongly correlated with the transiency of its response to stationary flashed stimuli. For one monkey, an extraretinal influence accompanying fixational saccades was identified. During natural viewing, the different eye movement classes probably make different contributions to visual processing. Position/drift neurons are well suited for coding spatial details of the visual scene because of their small AR size and their selectivity for sign of contrast and retinal position. However, saccade neurons transmit information that is ambiguous with respect to the spatial details of the retinal image because they are activated whether the AR lands on a stimulus contour, or the AR leaves or crosses the contour and lands in another location. Saccade neurons may be involved in constructing a stable world in spite of incessant retinal image motion, as well as in suppressing potentially confusing input associated with saccades.
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paper_title: Twenty years of eye typing: systems and design issues

paper_content:

Eye typing provides a means of communication for severely handicapped people, even those who are only capable of moving their eyes. This paper considers the features, functionality and methods used in the eye typing systems developed in the last twenty years. Primary concerned with text production, the paper also addresses other communication related issues, among them customization and voice output.
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paper_title: Improving the Performance of Iris Recogniton System Using Eyelids and Eyelashes Detection and Iris Image Enhancement

paper_content:

Iris recognition gets more and more attention for its high accuracy rate. However, the iris images are often occluded by eyelids and eyelashes partly and if these noises can't be removed the performance of iris recognition system will be degraded badly. On the other hand low contrast and non-uniform brightness will also increase the difficulty of feature extraction and matching. In this paper an efficient method for eyelids and eyelashes detection and iris image enhancement is described which includes two parts mainly. In the first part, eight eyelids/eyelashes models are presented and different model corresponds to different eyelids and eyelashes type. The real eyelids/eyelashes areas can be detected by comparing the variation of every sub-block of each eyelids/eyelashes model. The second part is iris enhancement, in this part the background illumination of the normalized iris image is estimated and subtracted from it. Then histogram equalizing and viener filtering are implemented to enhance the normalized iris image. In order to evaluate the necessity of this method an iris recognition algorithm based on 1D gabor filter is developed and results are encouraging in CASIA 1.0 iris images sets.
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paper_title: Drowsiness detection based on visual signs: blinking analysis based on high frame rate video

paper_content:

In this paper, an algorithm for drivers' drowsiness detection based on visual signs that can be extracted from the analysis of a high frame rate video is presented. A study of different visual features on a consistent database is proposed to evaluate their relevancy to detect drowsiness by data-mining. Then, an algorithm that merges the most relevant blinking features (duration, percentage of eye closure, frequency of the blinks and amplitude-velocity ratio) using fuzzy logic is proposed. This algorithm has been tested on a huge dataset representing 60 hours of driving from 20 different drivers. The main advantage of this algorithm is that it is independent from the driver and it does not need to be tuned. Moreover, it provides good results with more than 80% of good detections of drowsy states
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paper_title: Eye Tracking Methodology Theory And Practice

paper_content:

Thank you very much for downloading eye tracking methodology theory and practice. Maybe you have knowledge that, people have search hundreds times for their chosen novels like this eye tracking methodology theory and practice, but end up in malicious downloads. Rather than reading a good book with a cup of coffee in the afternoon, instead they are facing with some malicious bugs inside their desktop computer. eye tracking methodology theory and practice is available in our digital library an online access to it is set as public so you can get it instantly. Our book servers saves in multiple countries, allowing you to get the most less latency time to download any of our books like this one. Kindly say, the eye tracking methodology theory and practice is universally compatible with any devices to read.
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paper_title: Eye movements and familiarity effects in visual search

paper_content:

Familiarity with the distractors around an unfamiliar target facilitates visual search. Three Experiments examined whether the effect occurs because fixations are (a) shorter and fewer, (b) shorter, but more abundant, (c) equally long, but fewer, or (d) longer, but fewer when distractors are familiar. Results indicated comparably long, but fewer fixations when distractors are familiar. Hence, the theory that unfamiliar distractors need longer processing is discounted. In a fourth Experiment, a gaze-contingent moving window paradigm was used to control peripheral processing. Results revealed a wider span of effective processing for familiar distractors. A hypothesis based on low-level physiological processes is introduced to account for the familiarity effect.
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paper_title: Eye tracking in web search tasks: design implications

paper_content:

An eye tracking study was conducted to evaluate specific design features for a prototype web portal application. This software serves independent web content through separate, rectangular, user-modifiable portlets on a web page. Each of seven participants navigated across multiple web pages while conducting six specific tasks, such as removing a link from a portlet. Specific experimental questions included (1) whether eye tracking-derived parameters were related to page sequence or user actions preceding page visits, (2) whether users were biased to traveling vertically or horizontally while viewing a web page, and (3) whether specific sub-features of portlets were visited in any particular order. Participants required 2-15 screens, and from 7-360+ seconds to complete each task. Based on analysis of screen sequences, there was little evidence that search became more directed as screen sequence increased. Navigation among portlets, when at least two columns exist, was biased towards horizontal search (across columns) as opposed to vertical search (within column). Within a portlet, the header bar was not reliably visited prior to the portlet's body, evidence that header bars are not reliably used for navigation cues. Initial design recommendations emphasized the need to place critical portlets on the left and top of the web portal area, and that related portlets do not need to appear in the same column. Further experimental replications are recommended to generalize these results to other applications.
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paper_title: What you look at is what you get: eye movement-based interaction techniques

paper_content:

In seeking hitherto-unused methods by which users and computers can communicate, we investigate the usefulness of eye movements as a fast and convenient auxiliary user-to-computer communication mode. The barrier to exploiting this medium has not been eye-tracking technology but the study of interaction techniques that incorporate eye movements into the user-computer dialogue in a natural and unobtrusive way. This paper discusses some of the human factors and technical considerations that arise in trying to use eye movements as an input medium, describes our approach and the first eye movement-based interaction techniques that we have devised and implemented in our laboratory, and reports our experiences and observations on them.
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paper_title: Use of virtual reality as therapeutic tool for behavioural exposure in the ambit of social anxiety disorder treatment

paper_content:

We hereby present a study whose aim is to evaluate the efficiency and flexibility of virtual reality as a therapeutic tool in the confines of a social phobia behavioural therapeutic program. Our research protocol, accepted by the ethical commission of the cantonal hospices’ psychiatry service, is identical in content and structure for each patient. This study’s second goal is to use the confines of virtual exposure to objectively evaluate a specific parameter present in social phobia, namely eye contact avoidance, by using an eye-tracking system. Analysis of our results shows that there is a tendency to improvement in both the questionnaires and eye contact avoidance.
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paper_title: System for assisted mobility using eye movements based on electrooculography

paper_content:

This paper describes an eye-control method based on electrooculography (EOG) to develop a system for assisted mobility. One of its most important features is its modularity, making it adaptable to the particular needs of each user according to the type and degree of handicap involved. An eye model based on electroculographic signal is proposed and its validity is studied. Several human-machine interfaces (HMI) based on EOG are commented, focusing our study on guiding and controlling a wheelchair for disabled people, where the control is actually effected by eye movements within the socket. Different techniques and guidance strategies are then shown with comments on the advantages and disadvantages of each one. The system consists of a standard electric wheelchair with an on-board computer, sensors and a graphic user interface run by the computer. On the other hand, this eye-control method can be applied to handle graphical interfaces, where the eye is used as a mouse computer. Results obtained show that this control technique could be useful in multiple applications, such as mobility and communication aid for handicapped persons.
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paper_title: Eye Tracking Methodology Theory And Practice

paper_content:

Thank you very much for downloading eye tracking methodology theory and practice. Maybe you have knowledge that, people have search hundreds times for their chosen novels like this eye tracking methodology theory and practice, but end up in malicious downloads. Rather than reading a good book with a cup of coffee in the afternoon, instead they are facing with some malicious bugs inside their desktop computer. eye tracking methodology theory and practice is available in our digital library an online access to it is set as public so you can get it instantly. Our book servers saves in multiple countries, allowing you to get the most less latency time to download any of our books like this one. Kindly say, the eye tracking methodology theory and practice is universally compatible with any devices to read.
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paper_title: Remote Measurement of Eye Direction Allowing Subject Motion Over One Cubic Foot of Space

paper_content:

The remote oculometer is a new instrument for the remote measurement of eye direction and pupil diameter. The electrooptical sensor unit is located several feet from the subject, who is free to move the eye being sensed throughout 1 ft 3 of space. The video processing is performed in real time by a standard minicomputer. The oculometer processor (minicomputer) provides automatic calibration and linearization to each subject and can, supply the output eye-direction information in the form of either fixation-point coordinates on any specified fixation plane, azimuth and elevation, or direction cosines.The oculometer measures line-of-sight to an accuracy of 1° for eye rotation angles, relative to the sensor unit, of from 0° to + 30° elevation and from -30 ° to + 30 ° azimuth.
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paper_title: Eye gaze tracking using an active stereo head

paper_content:

In the eye gaze tracking problem, the goal is to determine where on a monitor screen a computer user is looking, ie., the gaze point. Existing systems generally have one of two limitations: either the head must remain fixed in front of a stationary camera, or, to allow for head motion, the user must wear an obstructive device. We introduce a 3D eye tracking system where the head motion is allowed without the need for markers or worn devices. We use a pair of stereo systems: a wide angle stereo system detects the face and steers an active narrow FOV stereo system to track the eye at high resolution. For high resolution tracking, the eye is modeled in 3D, including the corneal ball, pupil and fovea. We discuss the calibration of the stereo systems, the eye model, eye detection and tracking, and we close with an evaluation of the accuracy of the estimated gaze point on the monitor.
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paper_title: Nonlinear Eye Gaze Mapping Function Estimation via Support Vector Regression

paper_content:

We propose a novel method for tracking eye gaze that allows natural head movement. Most existing remote eye gaze trackers cannot work under natural head movement due to the difficulty of building a gaze mapping function that can incorporate head motion information. Therefore, the user is required to hold his/her head unnaturally still, possibly with the use of chin-rest. In addition, before each usage of the tracking system, a cumbersome calibration procedure must be performed to obtain a gaze mapping function. Our proposed method significantly improves the conventional Pupil Center Corneal Refection (PCCR) technique to permit natural head movement and to minimize calibration. Support vector regression (SVR) is used to construct a highly nonlinear generalized gaze mapping function that accounts for head movement. As the head moves naturally in front of the camera, the associated gaze mapping function with each new head position will be obtained automatically by the learned generalized gaze mapping function. Once learned, the generalized gaze mapping function can be used by other users via a simple personal adaptation without retraining. Experiments for multiple users show that eye gaze can be estimated accurately under natural head movement via the proposed technique.
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paper_title: Pointing with the eyes: Gaze estimation using a static/active camera system and 3D iris disk model

paper_content:

The ability to capture the direction the eyes point in while the subject is a distance away from the camera offers the potential for intuitive human-computer interfaces, allowing for a greater interactivity, more intelligent HCI behavior, and increased flexibility. In this paper, we present a two-camera system that detects the face from a fixed, wide-angle camera, estimates a rough location for the eye region using an eye detector based on topographic features, and directs another active pan-tilt-zoom camera to focus in on this eye region. We also propose a novel eye gaze estimation approach for point-of-regard (PoG) tracking on a large viewing screen. To allow for greater head pose freedom, we developed a new calibration approach to find the 3D eyeball location, eyeball radius, and fovea position. Moreover, we map both the iris center and iris contour points to the eyeball sphere (creating a 3D iris disk) to get the optical axis; we then rotate the fovea accordingly and compute our final, visual axis gaze direction. We intend to integrate this gaze estimation approach with our two-camera system, permitting natural, non-intrusive, pose-invariant PoG estimation in distance and allowing user translational freedom without resorting to infrared or complex hardware setups such as stereo-cameras or “smart rooms.”
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paper_title: Implicit Calibration of a Remote Gaze Tracker

paper_content:

We describe a system designed to monitor the gaze of a user working naturally at a computer workstation. The system consists of three cameras situated between the keyboard and the monitor. Free head movements are allowed within a three-dimensional volume approximately 40 centimeters in diameter. Two fixed, wide-field "face" cameras equipped with active-illumination systems enable rapid localization of the subject's pupils. A third steerable "eye" camera has a relatively narrow field of view, and acquires the images of the eyes which are used for gaze estimation. Unlike previous approaches which construct an explicit three-dimensional representation of the subject's head and eye, we derive mappings for steering control and gaze estimation using a procedure we call implicit calibration. Implicit calibration is performed by collecting a "training set" of parameters and associated measurements, and solving for a set of coefficients relating the measurements back to the parameters of interest. Preliminary data on three subjects indicate an median gaze estimation error of ap-proximately 0.8 degree.
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paper_title: Detecting eye position and gaze from a single camera and 2 light sources

paper_content:

We introduce a new method for computing the 3D position of an eye and its gaze direction from a single camera and at least two near infra-red light sources. The method is based on the theory of spherical optical surfaces and uses the Gullstrand model of the eye to estimate the positions of the center of the cornea and the center of the pupil in 3D. The direction of gaze can then be computed from the vector connecting these two points. The point of regard can also be computed from the intersection of the direction of gaze with an object in the scene. We have simulated this model using ray traced images of the eye, and obtained very promising results. The major contribution of this new technique over current eye tracking technology is that the system does not require to be calibrated with the user before each user session, and it allows for free head motion.
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paper_title: In the Eye of the Beholder: A Survey of Models for Eyes and Gaze

paper_content:

Despite active research and significant progress in the last 30 years, eye detection and tracking remains challenging due to the individuality of eyes, occlusion, variability in scale, location, and light conditions. Data on eye location and details of eye movements have numerous applications and are essential in face detection, biometric identification, and particular human-computer interaction tasks. This paper reviews current progress and state of the art in video-based eye detection and tracking in order to identify promising techniques as well as issues to be further addressed. We present a detailed review of recent eye models and techniques for eye detection and tracking. We also survey methods for gaze estimation and compare them based on their geometric properties and reported accuracies. This review shows that, despite their apparent simplicity, the development of a general eye detection technique involves addressing many challenges, requires further theoretical developments, and is consequently of interest to many other domains problems in computer vision and beyond.
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paper_title: In the Eye of the Beholder: A Survey of Models for Eyes and Gaze

paper_content:

Despite active research and significant progress in the last 30 years, eye detection and tracking remains challenging due to the individuality of eyes, occlusion, variability in scale, location, and light conditions. Data on eye location and details of eye movements have numerous applications and are essential in face detection, biometric identification, and particular human-computer interaction tasks. This paper reviews current progress and state of the art in video-based eye detection and tracking in order to identify promising techniques as well as issues to be further addressed. We present a detailed review of recent eye models and techniques for eye detection and tracking. We also survey methods for gaze estimation and compare them based on their geometric properties and reported accuracies. This review shows that, despite their apparent simplicity, the development of a general eye detection technique involves addressing many challenges, requires further theoretical developments, and is consequently of interest to many other domains problems in computer vision and beyond.
---
paper_title: Remote Measurement of Eye Direction Allowing Subject Motion Over One Cubic Foot of Space

paper_content:

The remote oculometer is a new instrument for the remote measurement of eye direction and pupil diameter. The electrooptical sensor unit is located several feet from the subject, who is free to move the eye being sensed throughout 1 ft 3 of space. The video processing is performed in real time by a standard minicomputer. The oculometer processor (minicomputer) provides automatic calibration and linearization to each subject and can, supply the output eye-direction information in the form of either fixation-point coordinates on any specified fixation plane, azimuth and elevation, or direction cosines.The oculometer measures line-of-sight to an accuracy of 1° for eye rotation angles, relative to the sensor unit, of from 0° to + 30° elevation and from -30 ° to + 30 ° azimuth.
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paper_title: In Search of Salience: A Response-time and Eye-movement Analysis of Bookmark Recognition

paper_content:

Bookmarks are a valuable webpage re-visitation technique, but it is often difficult to find desired items in extensive bookmark collections. This experiment used response-time measures and eye-movement tracking to investigate how different information structures within bookmarks influence their salience and recognizability. Participants were presented with a series of news websites. The task following presentation of each site was to find the bookmark indexing the previously-seen page as quickly as possible. The Informational Structure of bookmarks was manipulated (top-down vs. bottom-up verbal organizations), together with the Number of Informational Cues present (one, two or three). Only this latter factor affected gross search times: Two cues were optimal, one cue was highly sub-optimal. However, more detailed eye-movement analyses of fixation behaviour on target items revealed interactive effects of both experimental factors, suggesting that the efficacy of bookmark recognition is crucially dependent on having an optimal combination of information quantity and information organization.
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Title: A Survey on Eye-Gaze Tracking Techniques

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: Introduce the topic of eye-gaze tracking, its significance, applications, and the difference between eye tracking and gaze tracking, including intrusive and non-intrusive systems.

Section 2: Methods of Eye Tracking
Description 2: Describe the various methods of eye tracking, including Electro-Oculography, Sceleral Search Coils, Infrared Oculography, and Video Oculography.

Section 3: Electro-Oculography
Description 3: Explain the electro-oculography method, how it works, and its advantages and disadvantages.

Section 4: Sceleral Search Coils
Description 4: Detail the sceleral search coils method, its working principle, and its usage scenarios.

Section 5: Infrared Oculography
Description 5: Elaborate on the infrared oculography method, its sub-categories, advantages, and limitations.

Section 6: Video Oculography
Description 6: Discuss video-based eye tracking, how it operates, its categories (single-camera and multi-camera eye trackers), and their respective hardware setups.

Section 7: Single Camera Eye Tracker
Description 7: Describe the single-camera eye tracker, including its mechanism and examples of implementation.

Section 8: Multi-camera Eye Tracker
Description 8: Explain the multi-camera eye tracker, its functionality, and examples from literature.

Section 9: Methods of Gaze Tracking
Description 9: Introduce the methods for obtaining gaze data from video-based eye tracking, including feature-based and appearance-based gaze estimation.

Section 10: Feature-based Gaze Estimation
Description 10: Describe feature-based gaze estimation, focusing on identifying and tracking eye features, including model-based and interpolation-based approaches.

Section 11: Appearance-based Gaze Estimation
Description 11: Explain appearance-based methods, their working principles, and advantages.

Section 12: Summary and Conclusion
Description 12: Summarize the findings, discuss the current state and challenges of eye-gaze tracking, and suggest future research directions.