Human Performance on Insight Problem Solving: A Review
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paper_title: The Nature of Insight

paper_content:

Part 1 Introduction: the search for insight - grappling with gestalt psychology's unanswered questions, Richard E. Mayer insight and problem solving, Roger L. Dominowski and Pamela Dallob. Part 2 the puzzle-problem approach: demystification of cognitive insight - opportunistic assimilation and the prepared-mind perspective, Colleen M. Seifert et al the suddenness of insight, Janet E. Davidson prolegomena to theories of insight in problem solving - a taxonomy of problems, Robert W. Weisberg cognitive and affective components of insight, Mary L. Gick and Robert S. Lockhart getting into and out of mental ruts - a theory of fixation, incubation, and insight, Steven M. Smith. Part 3 The invention-based approach: creative insight and preinventive forms, Ronald A. Finke constraints on thinking in insight and invention, Matthew I. Isaak and Marcel Adam Just. Part 4 the great-minds approach: creative insight - the social dimension of a solitary moment, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Keith Sawyer how scientists really reason - scientific reasoning in real-world laboratories, Kevin Dunbar insight and affect in the history of science, Howard E. Gruber the inception of insight, Maria F. Ippolito and Ryan D. Tweney. Part 5 the metaphors-of-mind approach: foresight in insight? a Darwinian answer, Dean Keith Simonton insight in minds and genes, David N. Perkins an investment perspective on creative insight, Robert J. Sternberg and Todd I. Lubart. Epilogue: putting insight into perspective, Jonathan W. Schooler et al.
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paper_title: Incubation in Insight Problem Solving

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A break in the attentive activity devoted to a problem may eventually facilitate the solution process. This phenomenon is known by the name incubation. A new hypothesis regarding the incubation mechanism is suggested. It is based on analysis of the structure of insight problems and their solution process. According to this hypothesis, no activity takes place during the break. The break's only function is to divert the solver's attention from the problem, thus releasing her mind from the grip of a false organizing assumption. This enables the solver to apply a new organizing assumption to the problem's components upon returning to the problem. The numbers of experimental studies that confirm the existence of the incubation phenomenon, and those that do not support it, are roughly equal, thus the primary experimental aim of the study is to improve the methodology of manipulating the break. This was done by starting the break only after an impasse has been reached. The results indicate that the break improve...
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paper_title: Testing two cognitive theories of insight

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Insight in problem solving occurs when the problem solver fails to see how to solve a problem and then-"aha!"-there is a sudden realization how to solve it. Two contemporary theories have been proposed to explain insight. The representational change theory (e.g., G. Knoblich, S. Ohlsson, & G. E. Rainey, 2001) proposes that insight occurs through relaxing self-imposed constraints on a problem and by decomposing chunked items in the problem. The progress monitoring theory (e.g., J. N. MacGregor, T. C. Ormerod, & E. P. Chronicle, 2001) proposes that insight is only sought once it becomes apparent that the distance to the goal is unachievable in the moves remaining. These 2 theories are tested in an unlimited move problem, to which neither theory has previously been applied. The results lend support to both, but experimental manipulations to the problem suggest that the representational change theory is the better indicator of performance. The findings suggest that testable opposing predictions can be made to examine theories of insight and that the use of eye movement data is a fruitful method of both examining insight and testing theories of insight.
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paper_title: Metacognition and insight during problem solving : comment on metcalfe

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Metcalfe (1986a, 1986b; Metcalfe & Weibe, 1987) used two types of metacognitive judgments, prediction of solution and rating of warmth, to support the claim that there is a nonincremental process corresponding to the Gestalt notion of insight that occurs in the solution of certain sorts of problems. However, there are logical and empirical issues that can be raised about Metcalfe's analysis and conclusions : a) Metcalfe's finding that Ss cannot predict their performance on «insight» problems does not not logically necessitate that solutions to such problems occur in sudden bursts of insight, b) Metcalfe's feeling-of-warmth data for insight problems are problematic as support for her hypothesis, and c) Metcalfe's definition of insight is circular and does not further our understanding of problem solving
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paper_title: Constraint Relaxation and Chunk Decomposition in Insight Problem Solving

paper_content:

Insight problem solving is characterized by impasses, states of mind in which the thinker does not know what to do next. The authors hypothesized that impasses are broken by changing the problem representation, and 2 hypothetical mechanisms for representational change are described: the relaxation of constraints on the solution and the decomposition of perceptual chunks. These 2 mechanisms generate specific predictions about the relative difficulty of individual problems and about differential transfer effects. The predictions were tested in 4 experiments using matchstick arithmetic problems. The results were consistent with the predictions. Representational change is a more powerful explanation for insight than alternative hypotheses, if the hypothesized change processes are specified in detail. Overcoming impasses in insight is a special case of the general need to override the imperatives of past experience in the face of novel conditions.
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paper_title: Theory Driven Hints in the Cheap Necklace Problem: A Preliminary Investigation

paper_content:

In this paper we conducted three experiments using the cheap necklace problem, which is regarded as an insight problem. The effects of two hints derived from two contemporary theoretical accounts of insight—Criterion for Satisfactory Progress theory (CSP) and Representational Change Theory (RCT)—were investigated. In Experiment 1, 78 participants made a single attempt at the problem, and significantly fewer participants given the CSP hint used an incorrect (maximizing) first move than participants given the RCT hint or control participants given no hint, Fisher’s exact test for 2x3 table, p = .029, with an approximation in χ² effect size, phi = .340. Experiment 2 explored the performance of 60 participants in the same hint conditions over ten problem-solving trials. The number of trials to solution was significantly fewer in the CSP hint condition than in the control condition, t(30) = 2.23, p = .033, η² = .14; this was not so for the RCT hint condition, t(30) = .44, p = .666, η² = .006. Furthermore, there were significantly fewer incorrect (maximizing) first moves in the CSP hint condition than in the other two conditions, F(2, 59) = 15.31, p < .001, η² = .35. The CSP hint here appears to promote the exploration of the problem space, such that the correct move may be found. The lack of effect of the RCT hint suggests in preliminary fashion that representational change may not be the primary cognitive process required to solve the cheap necklace problem. However, in Experiment 3 with 110 participants, the CSP and RCT hints were combined yielding a 75% solution rate over a 34.88% solution rate in the control condition, χ²(1) = 16.03, p < .001, phi = .402. This result indicates that perhaps aspects from both theories are employed during the problem solving process.
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paper_title: Premonitions of Insight Predict Impending Error

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Five experiments explored the dynamic metacognitions that accompany the problem- and anagramsolving processes. Subjects repeatedly rated how "warm" or close they were to solution. High feelings of warmth before an answer indicated that the answer would be incorrect. Moderately low warmth ratings characterized correct responses. The data suggest that the high warmth ratings may result from a process wherein subjects convince themselves that an inelegant but plausible (wrong) answer is correct. No gradual rationalization process precedes the correct response to insight problems. The warmth-rating data also indicate that when the correct answer was given to the problems and anagrams used in this study, there was usually a subjectively catastrophic insight process. In this article, I investigate dynamic metacognitions that lead up to the production of correct or incorrect solutions in solving insight problems and anagrams. A technique is used in which subjects are asked to give judgments about how close they feel to the solution of problems—call ed feeling-of-wa rmth judgments—repeatedly during the course of problem solving. These judgments are called "warmth" judgments after the searching game in which one person hides an object and then directs others who do not know where the object is by telling them that
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paper_title: Promoting Insightful Problem Solving

paper_content:

This work assessed whether insightful problem solving could be trained. Specifically, we tested whether solutions to a heterogeneous set of verbal insight problems could be promoted. A training scheme was developed to promote the application of mechanisms that underlie the process of restructuring. Training across the five experiments consisted of different combinations of the following training techniques: advance strategic instructions, varying amounts of practice, practice with different types of feedback, and problem comparison. Results from all five experiments showed that training can promote solutions to verbal insight problems. Facilitation effects ranged from a 14%–24% gain in overall solution rates relative to no-treatment controls. This work demonstrated that insightful problem solving could be trained at a relatively high level of generality.
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paper_title: Thoughts Beyond Words: When Language Overshadows Insight

paper_content:

Four experiments examined whether verbalization can interfere with insight problem solving. In Experiment 1, Ss were interrupted during problem solving and asked either to verbalize their strategies (retrospective verbalization) or engage in an unrelated activity (control). Ss in the retrospective verbalization condition were significantly less successful than control subjects at solving the problems. Experiment 2 replicated the finding of Experiment 1 and demonstrated that the control Ss' advantage was not due to any beneficial effect of the interruption. In Experiment 3, concurrent, nondirective verbalization impaired the solving of insight problems but had no effect on noninsight problems. In Experiment 4, the effect of concurrent verbalization on insight was maintained even when Ss were encouraged to consider alternative approaches. Together, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that verbalization can result in the disruption of nonreportable processes that are critical to achieving insight solutions.
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paper_title: New approaches to demystifying insight

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After a person has become stuck on a problem, they sometimes achieve a clear and sudden solution through insight – the so-called Aha! experience. Because of its distinctive experience, the origins and characteristics of insight have received considerable attention historically in psychological research. However, despite considerable progress in characterizing insight, the underlying mechanisms remain mysterious. We argue that research on insight could be greatly advanced by supplementing traditional insight research, which depends on a few complex problems, with paradigms common in other domains of cognitive science. We describe a large set of mini-insight problems to which multiple methods can be applied, together with subjective reports to identify insight problem-solving. Behavioral priming and neuroimaging methods are providing evidence about what, where, and how neural activity occurs during insight. Such evidence constrains theories of component processes, and will help to demystify insight.
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paper_title: Teaching students to solve insight problems: Evidence for domain specificity in creativity training

paper_content:

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate whether insight problem solving depends on domain‐specific or domain‐general problem‐solving skills, that is, whether people think in terms of conceptually different types of insight problems. In Study 1, participants sorted insight problems into categories. A cluster analysis revealed 4 main categories of insight problems: verbal, mathematical, spatial, and a combination of verbal or spatial. In Studies 2 and 3, participants received training in how to solve verbal, spatial, or mathematical problems, or all 3 types. They were taught that solutions to verbal insight problems lie in defining and analyzing the terms in the problem, solutions to mathematical insight problems lie in a novel approach to numbers, or solutions to spatial insight problems lie in removing a self‐imposed constraint. In both studies, the spatial trained group performed better than the verbal trained group on spatial problems but not on other types of problems. These findings ...
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paper_title: Intuition in insight and non-insight problem solving

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People’s metacognitions, both before and during problem solving, may be of importance in motivating and guiding problem-solving behavior. These metacognitions could also be diagnostic for distinguishing among different classes of problems, each perhaps controlled by different cognitive processes. In the present experiments, intuitions on classic insight problems were compared with those on noninsight and algebra problems. The findings were as follows: (1) subjective feeling of knowing predicted performance on algebra problems but not on insight problems; (2) subjects’ expectations of performance greatly exceeded their actual performance, especially on insight problems; (3) normative predictions provided a better estimate of individual performance than did subjects’ own predictions, especially on the insight problems; and, most importantly, (4) the patterns-of-warmth ratings, which reflect subjects’ feelings of approaching solution, differed for insight and noninsight problems. Algebra problems and noninsight problems showed a more incremental pattern over the course of solving than did insight problems. In general, then, the data indicated that noninsight problems were open to accurate predictions of performance, whereas insight problems were opaque to such predictions. Also, the phenomenology of insight-problem solution was characterized by a sudden, unforeseen flash of illumination. We propose that the difference in phenomenology accompanying insight and noninsight problem solving, as empirically demonstrated here, be used to define insight.
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paper_title: The use of verbal protocols as data: an analysis of insight in the candle problem.

paper_content:

In the present study, we examined the use of verbal protocols as data in the study of the cognitive processes underlying insight. Fifty-eight Temple University undergraduates attempted to solve Duncker’s (1945) candle problem either silently or while thinking aloud. Solution rates, solving times, and solution types were comparable between conditions, suggesting thatverbal overshadowing (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993) did not occur when the participants attempted to solve the candle problem. Subsequent analysis of verbal protocols provided a catalogue of solutions generated by the participants, as well as empirical support for the occurrence of impasse and restructuring. Although restructuring was present in the majority of protocols, including those of the participants who later produced the box solution, the presence of impasse occurred with less frequency and was not associated with production of the box solution. These results provide information concerning how the candle problem is solved and suggest that verbalization can be used to examine how individuals solve insight problems and to evaluate existing theories of insight.
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paper_title: Aha! Insight experience correlates with solution activation in the right hemisphere

paper_content:

In one experiment, we tested for an association between semantic activation in the right hemisphere (RH) and left hemisphere (LH) and the Aha! experience when people recognize solutions to insight-like problems. The compound remote associate problems used in this experiment sometimes evoke an Aha! experience and sometimes do not. On each trial, participants (N = 44) attempted to solve these problems and, after 7 sec, named a target word, made a solution decision, and rated their insight experience of recognizing the solution. As in prior studies, the participants demonstrated more solution priming for solutions presented to the left visual field-RH (lvf-RH) than for solutions presented to the right visual field-LH (rvf-LH). As was predicted, following unsolved problems the participants showed greater priming for solutions that they rated as evoking an insight experience on the subsequent solution decision than for solutions that did not evoke an insight experience. This association was stronger for solutions presented to the lvf-RH than for those presented to the rvf-LH. These results tie the subjective experience of insight to an objective measure-semantic priming-and suggest that people have an Aha! experience in part because they already had semantic activation that could lead them to recognize the solution quickly. We believe semantic activation in both hemispheres cooperatively contributes to problem solving, but weak solution activation that contributes to the Aha! experience is more likely to occur in the RH than in the LH.
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paper_title: Constraint Relaxation and Chunk Decomposition in Insight Problem Solving

paper_content:

Insight problem solving is characterized by impasses, states of mind in which the thinker does not know what to do next. The authors hypothesized that impasses are broken by changing the problem representation, and 2 hypothetical mechanisms for representational change are described: the relaxation of constraints on the solution and the decomposition of perceptual chunks. These 2 mechanisms generate specific predictions about the relative difficulty of individual problems and about differential transfer effects. The predictions were tested in 4 experiments using matchstick arithmetic problems. The results were consistent with the predictions. Representational change is a more powerful explanation for insight than alternative hypotheses, if the hypothesized change processes are specified in detail. Overcoming impasses in insight is a special case of the general need to override the imperatives of past experience in the face of novel conditions.
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paper_title: Normative data for 144 compound remote associate problems.

paper_content:

We have developed and tested 144 compound remote associate problems. Across eight experiments, 289 participants were given four time limits (2 sec, 7 sec, 15 sec, or 30 sec) for solving each problem. This paper provides a brief overview of the problems and normative data regarding the percentage of participants solving, and mean time-to-solution for, each problem at each time limit. These normative data can be used in selecting problems on the basis of difficulty or mean time necessary for reaching a solution.
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paper_title: Promoting Insightful Problem Solving

paper_content:

This work assessed whether insightful problem solving could be trained. Specifically, we tested whether solutions to a heterogeneous set of verbal insight problems could be promoted. A training scheme was developed to promote the application of mechanisms that underlie the process of restructuring. Training across the five experiments consisted of different combinations of the following training techniques: advance strategic instructions, varying amounts of practice, practice with different types of feedback, and problem comparison. Results from all five experiments showed that training can promote solutions to verbal insight problems. Facilitation effects ranged from a 14%–24% gain in overall solution rates relative to no-treatment controls. This work demonstrated that insightful problem solving could be trained at a relatively high level of generality.
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paper_title: What makes an insight problem? the roles of heuristics, goal conception, and solution recoding in knowledge-lean problems

paper_content:

Four experiments investigated transformation problems with insight characteristics. In Experiment 1, performance on a version of the 6-coin problem that had a concrete and visualizable solution followed a hill-climbing heuristic. Experiment 2 demonstrated that the difficulty of a version of the problem that potentially required insight for solution stems from the same hill-climbing heuristic, which creates an implicit conceptual block. Experiment 3 confirmed that the difficulty of the potential insight solution is conceptual, not procedural. Experiment 4 demonstrated the same principles of move selection on the 6-coin problem and the 10-coin (triangle) problem. It is argued that hill-climbing heuristics provide a common framework for understanding transformation and insight problem solving. Post-solution recoding may account for part of the phenomenology of insight.
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paper_title: Categories of insight and their correlates: An exploration of relationships among classic-type insight problems, rebus puzzles, remote associates and esoteric analogies

paper_content:

A central question in creativity concerns how insightful ideas emerge. Anecdotal examples of insightful scientific and technical discoveries include Goodyear’s discovery of the vulcanization of rubber, and Mendeleev’s realization that there may be gaps as he tried to arrange the elements into the Periodic Table. Although most people would regard these discoveries as insightful, cognitive psychologists have had difficulty in agreeing on whether such ideas resulted from insights or from conventional problem solving processes. One area of wide agreement among psychologists is that insight involves a process of restructuring. If this view is correct, then understanding insight and its role in problem solving will depend on a better understanding of restructuring and the characteristics that describe it. This article proposes and tests a preliminary classification of insight problems based on several restructuring characteristics: the need to redefine spatial assumptions, the need to change defined forms, the degree of misdirection involved, the difficulty in visualizing a possible solution, the number of restructuring sequences in the problem, and the requirement for figure-ground type reversals. A second purpose of the study was to compare performance on classic spatial insight problems with two types of verbal tests that may be related to insight, the Remote Associates Test (RAT), and rebus puzzles. In doing so, we report on the results of a survey of 172 business students at the University of Waikato in New Zealand who completed classic-type insight, RAT and rebus problems.
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paper_title: Aha! Insight experience correlates with solution activation in the right hemisphere

paper_content:

In one experiment, we tested for an association between semantic activation in the right hemisphere (RH) and left hemisphere (LH) and the Aha! experience when people recognize solutions to insight-like problems. The compound remote associate problems used in this experiment sometimes evoke an Aha! experience and sometimes do not. On each trial, participants (N = 44) attempted to solve these problems and, after 7 sec, named a target word, made a solution decision, and rated their insight experience of recognizing the solution. As in prior studies, the participants demonstrated more solution priming for solutions presented to the left visual field-RH (lvf-RH) than for solutions presented to the right visual field-LH (rvf-LH). As was predicted, following unsolved problems the participants showed greater priming for solutions that they rated as evoking an insight experience on the subsequent solution decision than for solutions that did not evoke an insight experience. This association was stronger for solutions presented to the lvf-RH than for those presented to the rvf-LH. These results tie the subjective experience of insight to an objective measure-semantic priming-and suggest that people have an Aha! experience in part because they already had semantic activation that could lead them to recognize the solution quickly. We believe semantic activation in both hemispheres cooperatively contributes to problem solving, but weak solution activation that contributes to the Aha! experience is more likely to occur in the RH than in the LH.
---
paper_title: Teaching students to solve insight problems: Evidence for domain specificity in creativity training

paper_content:

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate whether insight problem solving depends on domain‐specific or domain‐general problem‐solving skills, that is, whether people think in terms of conceptually different types of insight problems. In Study 1, participants sorted insight problems into categories. A cluster analysis revealed 4 main categories of insight problems: verbal, mathematical, spatial, and a combination of verbal or spatial. In Studies 2 and 3, participants received training in how to solve verbal, spatial, or mathematical problems, or all 3 types. They were taught that solutions to verbal insight problems lie in defining and analyzing the terms in the problem, solutions to mathematical insight problems lie in a novel approach to numbers, or solutions to spatial insight problems lie in removing a self‐imposed constraint. In both studies, the spatial trained group performed better than the verbal trained group on spatial problems but not on other types of problems. These findings ...
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paper_title: Constraint Relaxation and Chunk Decomposition in Insight Problem Solving

paper_content:

Insight problem solving is characterized by impasses, states of mind in which the thinker does not know what to do next. The authors hypothesized that impasses are broken by changing the problem representation, and 2 hypothetical mechanisms for representational change are described: the relaxation of constraints on the solution and the decomposition of perceptual chunks. These 2 mechanisms generate specific predictions about the relative difficulty of individual problems and about differential transfer effects. The predictions were tested in 4 experiments using matchstick arithmetic problems. The results were consistent with the predictions. Representational change is a more powerful explanation for insight than alternative hypotheses, if the hypothesized change processes are specified in detail. Overcoming impasses in insight is a special case of the general need to override the imperatives of past experience in the face of novel conditions.
---
paper_title: Normative data for 144 compound remote associate problems.

paper_content:

We have developed and tested 144 compound remote associate problems. Across eight experiments, 289 participants were given four time limits (2 sec, 7 sec, 15 sec, or 30 sec) for solving each problem. This paper provides a brief overview of the problems and normative data regarding the percentage of participants solving, and mean time-to-solution for, each problem at each time limit. These normative data can be used in selecting problems on the basis of difficulty or mean time necessary for reaching a solution.
---
paper_title: Promoting Insightful Problem Solving

paper_content:

This work assessed whether insightful problem solving could be trained. Specifically, we tested whether solutions to a heterogeneous set of verbal insight problems could be promoted. A training scheme was developed to promote the application of mechanisms that underlie the process of restructuring. Training across the five experiments consisted of different combinations of the following training techniques: advance strategic instructions, varying amounts of practice, practice with different types of feedback, and problem comparison. Results from all five experiments showed that training can promote solutions to verbal insight problems. Facilitation effects ranged from a 14%–24% gain in overall solution rates relative to no-treatment controls. This work demonstrated that insightful problem solving could be trained at a relatively high level of generality.
---
paper_title: Thoughts Beyond Words: When Language Overshadows Insight

paper_content:

Four experiments examined whether verbalization can interfere with insight problem solving. In Experiment 1, Ss were interrupted during problem solving and asked either to verbalize their strategies (retrospective verbalization) or engage in an unrelated activity (control). Ss in the retrospective verbalization condition were significantly less successful than control subjects at solving the problems. Experiment 2 replicated the finding of Experiment 1 and demonstrated that the control Ss' advantage was not due to any beneficial effect of the interruption. In Experiment 3, concurrent, nondirective verbalization impaired the solving of insight problems but had no effect on noninsight problems. In Experiment 4, the effect of concurrent verbalization on insight was maintained even when Ss were encouraged to consider alternative approaches. Together, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that verbalization can result in the disruption of nonreportable processes that are critical to achieving insight solutions.
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paper_title: The nature of restructuring in insight: An individual-differences approach

paper_content:

The insightful problem-solving process has been proposed to involve three main phases: an initial representation phase, in which the solver inappropriately represents the problem; an initial search through the faulty problem space that may lead to impasse; and a postimpasse restructuring phase. Some theories propose that the restructuring phase involves controlled search processes, whereas other theories propose that restructuring is achieved through the automatic redistribution of activation in long-term memory. In this study, we used correlations between working memory (WM) span measures and problemsolving success to test the predictions of these different theories. One group of participants received a set of insight problems that allowed for a large initial faulty search space, whereas another group received a matched set that constrained the initial faulty search space in order to isolate the restructuring phase of the insightful process. The results suggest that increased ability to control attention (as measured by WM span tasks) predicts an individual’s ability to successfully solve problems that involve both the initial search phase and the restructuring phase. However, individual differences in ability to control attention do not predict success on problems that isolate the restructuring phase. These results are interpreted as supporting an automatic-redistribution-of-activation account of restructuring.
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paper_title: Teaching students to solve insight problems: Evidence for domain specificity in creativity training

paper_content:

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate whether insight problem solving depends on domain‐specific or domain‐general problem‐solving skills, that is, whether people think in terms of conceptually different types of insight problems. In Study 1, participants sorted insight problems into categories. A cluster analysis revealed 4 main categories of insight problems: verbal, mathematical, spatial, and a combination of verbal or spatial. In Studies 2 and 3, participants received training in how to solve verbal, spatial, or mathematical problems, or all 3 types. They were taught that solutions to verbal insight problems lie in defining and analyzing the terms in the problem, solutions to mathematical insight problems lie in a novel approach to numbers, or solutions to spatial insight problems lie in removing a self‐imposed constraint. In both studies, the spatial trained group performed better than the verbal trained group on spatial problems but not on other types of problems. These findings ...
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paper_title: Analogical problem solving

paper_content:

Abstract The use of an analogy from a semantically distant domain to guide the problemsolving process was investigated. The representation of analogy in memory and processes involved in the use of analogies were discussed theoretically and explored in five experiments. In Experiment I oral protocols were used to examine the processes involved in solving a problem by analogy. In all experiments subjects who first read a story about a military problem and its solution tended to generate analogous solutions to a medical problem (Duncker's “radiation problem”), provided they were given a hint to use the story to help solve the problem. Transfer frequency was reduced when the problem presented in the military story was substantially disanalogous to the radiation problem, even though the solution illustrated in the story corresponded to an effective radiation solution (Experiment II). Subjects in Experiment III tended to generate analogous solutions to the radiation problem after providing their own solutions to the military problem. Subjects were able to retrieve the story from memory and use it to generate an analogous solution, even when the critical story had been memorized in the context of two distractor stories (Experiment IV). However, when no hint to consider the story was given, frequency of analogous solutions decreased markedly. This decrease in transfer occurred when the story analogy was presented in a recall task along with distractor stories (Experiment IV), when it was presented alone, and when it was presented in between two attempts to solve the problem (Experiment V). Component processes and strategic variations in analogical problem solving were discussed. Issues related to noticing analogies and accessing them in memory were also examined, as was the relationship of analogical reasoning to other cognitive tasks.
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paper_title: When Shoes Become Hammers: Goal-Derived Categorization Training Enhances Problem-Solving Performance.

paper_content:

Problem-solving theories have not examined how solvers navigate their knowledge to interpret problem situations or to plan strategies toward goals. In this article, the author argues that success in problem solving depends on the solver's ability to construct goal-derived categories, namely categories that are formed ad hoc to serve goals during the instantiation of problem frames. Experiment 1 (N = 140) showed improved problem-solving performance after training to construct goal-derived categories. Experiment 2 (N = 80) demonstrated that effects of training in category construction can be obtained without participants being explicitly informed regarding the relevance of training to problem solving. These studies suggest that problem solving is a dynamic expression of goal-directed cognition and provide evidence for the involvement of categorization in problem-solving processes.
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paper_title: The use of verbal protocols as data: an analysis of insight in the candle problem.

paper_content:

In the present study, we examined the use of verbal protocols as data in the study of the cognitive processes underlying insight. Fifty-eight Temple University undergraduates attempted to solve Duncker’s (1945) candle problem either silently or while thinking aloud. Solution rates, solving times, and solution types were comparable between conditions, suggesting thatverbal overshadowing (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993) did not occur when the participants attempted to solve the candle problem. Subsequent analysis of verbal protocols provided a catalogue of solutions generated by the participants, as well as empirical support for the occurrence of impasse and restructuring. Although restructuring was present in the majority of protocols, including those of the participants who later produced the box solution, the presence of impasse occurred with less frequency and was not associated with production of the box solution. These results provide information concerning how the candle problem is solved and suggest that verbalization can be used to examine how individuals solve insight problems and to evaluate existing theories of insight.
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paper_title: When insight just won't come: The failure of visual cues in the nine-dot problem

paper_content:

The nine-dot problem is a classic in the field of human problem solving. Cognitive accounts of the problem's difficulty have been criticized on the grounds that the experimental methods on which they rely for support involve a qualitative change to the task requirements of the problem. The three experiments reported here utilize visual and visual-procedural hints to examine the notion that its difficulty is rooted in a mismatch between problem shape and solution shape. Experiment 1 demonstrated that a perceptual cue to the shape of the solution in the form of shading gave rise to only minimal improvements in performance; an additional hint about the relevance of the shading gave rise to modest, but not statistically significant, improvements. Experiment 2 replicated these findings against an additional control condition in which a solely verbal hint to violate the perceptual boundary of the problem shape was given. Furthermore, when both the verbal and visual hints were provided, performance improved only slightly. Experiment 3 provided participants with experience in producing the shape of the correct solution in problem variants closely related to the nine-dot problem. Performance on the transfer task, the basic nine-dot problem, remained at floor, however. These data suggest that visual constraint relaxation is unlikely to be the sole process by which the insight required to find a solution is achieved. The results are interpreted in terms of a previously proposed computational model of performance.
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paper_title: Swinging into thought: Directed movement guides insight in problem solving

paper_content:

Can directed actions unconsciously influence higher order cognitive processing? We investigated how movement interventions affected participants’ ability to solve a classic insight problem. The participants attempted to solve Maier’s two-string problem while occasionally taking exercise breaks during which they moved their arms either in a manner related to the problem’s solution (swing group) or in a manner inconsistent with the solution (stretch group). Although most of the participants were unaware of the relationship between their arm movement exercises and the problem-solving task, the participants who moved their arms in a manner that suggested the problem’s solution were more likely to solve the problem than were those who moved their arms in other ways. Consistent with embodied theories of cognition, these findings show that actions influence thought and, furthermore, that we can implicitly guide people toward insight by directing their actions.
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paper_title: Theory Driven Hints in the Cheap Necklace Problem: A Preliminary Investigation

paper_content:

In this paper we conducted three experiments using the cheap necklace problem, which is regarded as an insight problem. The effects of two hints derived from two contemporary theoretical accounts of insight—Criterion for Satisfactory Progress theory (CSP) and Representational Change Theory (RCT)—were investigated. In Experiment 1, 78 participants made a single attempt at the problem, and significantly fewer participants given the CSP hint used an incorrect (maximizing) first move than participants given the RCT hint or control participants given no hint, Fisher’s exact test for 2x3 table, p = .029, with an approximation in χ² effect size, phi = .340. Experiment 2 explored the performance of 60 participants in the same hint conditions over ten problem-solving trials. The number of trials to solution was significantly fewer in the CSP hint condition than in the control condition, t(30) = 2.23, p = .033, η² = .14; this was not so for the RCT hint condition, t(30) = .44, p = .666, η² = .006. Furthermore, there were significantly fewer incorrect (maximizing) first moves in the CSP hint condition than in the other two conditions, F(2, 59) = 15.31, p < .001, η² = .35. The CSP hint here appears to promote the exploration of the problem space, such that the correct move may be found. The lack of effect of the RCT hint suggests in preliminary fashion that representational change may not be the primary cognitive process required to solve the cheap necklace problem. However, in Experiment 3 with 110 participants, the CSP and RCT hints were combined yielding a 75% solution rate over a 34.88% solution rate in the control condition, χ²(1) = 16.03, p < .001, phi = .402. This result indicates that perhaps aspects from both theories are employed during the problem solving process.
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paper_title: The Influence and Value of Analogical Thinking During New Product Ideation

paper_content:

Abstract Although both the academic and the trade literature have widely acknowledged the need to foster the development of more-innovative products, little empirical research has examined the cognitive processes underlying the creation of these novel product concepts. In this research, three empirical studies examine how analogical thinking influences the idea-generation stage of the new product development process. The first study uses the verbal protocols of real-world industrial designers to trace the role of analogy in the context of a new product development task, and the second and third studies use an experimental approach to assess the effectiveness of different ideation strategies and conditions. Findings from these studies indicate that the originality of the resulting product design is influenced by the extent of analogical transfer, the type of analogies used, and the presence of external primes. In addition, these studies reveal a positive relationship between the originality of the product ...
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paper_title: The Role of Content and Abstract Information in Analogical Transfer

paper_content:

Analogical transfer in problem solving is one example of analogical cognition, which also includes metaphors, similes, and case-based reasoning. The dominant theories in this area posit that abstract schemata mediate transfer (K. J. Holyoak, 1984a, 1985) or that problem solving by means of analogy is accomplished through application of the formal or deep structural characteristics of one problem to another (D. Gentner, 1983, 1989). More recently, exemplar-based accounts (D. L. Medin & B. H. Ross, 1989; B. H. Ross, 1987) have emphasized problem content and exemplar-specific details in the various stages of transfer. The present article reviews research on analogical transfer and analyzes the theoretical models in light of this evidence
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paper_title: Analogical problem solving

paper_content:

Abstract The use of an analogy from a semantically distant domain to guide the problemsolving process was investigated. The representation of analogy in memory and processes involved in the use of analogies were discussed theoretically and explored in five experiments. In Experiment I oral protocols were used to examine the processes involved in solving a problem by analogy. In all experiments subjects who first read a story about a military problem and its solution tended to generate analogous solutions to a medical problem (Duncker's “radiation problem”), provided they were given a hint to use the story to help solve the problem. Transfer frequency was reduced when the problem presented in the military story was substantially disanalogous to the radiation problem, even though the solution illustrated in the story corresponded to an effective radiation solution (Experiment II). Subjects in Experiment III tended to generate analogous solutions to the radiation problem after providing their own solutions to the military problem. Subjects were able to retrieve the story from memory and use it to generate an analogous solution, even when the critical story had been memorized in the context of two distractor stories (Experiment IV). However, when no hint to consider the story was given, frequency of analogous solutions decreased markedly. This decrease in transfer occurred when the story analogy was presented in a recall task along with distractor stories (Experiment IV), when it was presented alone, and when it was presented in between two attempts to solve the problem (Experiment V). Component processes and strategic variations in analogical problem solving were discussed. Issues related to noticing analogies and accessing them in memory were also examined, as was the relationship of analogical reasoning to other cognitive tasks.
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paper_title: Opening Up the Solution Space: The Role of Analogical Thinking for Breakthrough Product Innovation

paper_content:

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the approach of analogical thinking for product innovation. We collected data on projects from four engineering firms where analogical thinking was successfully applied for the development of breakthrough innovations. Results show that abstracting the problem by in-depth technical and contextual analysis is pivotal when searching for analogical solutions. Furthermore, the chances of identifying highly novel analogous solutions are increased if the problem is abstracted to the level of its structural similarities to other settings. We also found that the identification of structural similarities is supported when firms not only rely on the cognitive abilities of the individual but also employ an active search based on abstract search terms. Based on these insights, we propose a process model for the development of product innovations by means of analogical thinking.
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paper_title: Promoting Insightful Problem Solving

paper_content:

This work assessed whether insightful problem solving could be trained. Specifically, we tested whether solutions to a heterogeneous set of verbal insight problems could be promoted. A training scheme was developed to promote the application of mechanisms that underlie the process of restructuring. Training across the five experiments consisted of different combinations of the following training techniques: advance strategic instructions, varying amounts of practice, practice with different types of feedback, and problem comparison. Results from all five experiments showed that training can promote solutions to verbal insight problems. Facilitation effects ranged from a 14%–24% gain in overall solution rates relative to no-treatment controls. This work demonstrated that insightful problem solving could be trained at a relatively high level of generality.
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paper_title: Teaching students to solve insight problems: Evidence for domain specificity in creativity training

paper_content:

Abstract: The purpose of this research was to investigate whether insight problem solving depends on domain‐specific or domain‐general problem‐solving skills, that is, whether people think in terms of conceptually different types of insight problems. In Study 1, participants sorted insight problems into categories. A cluster analysis revealed 4 main categories of insight problems: verbal, mathematical, spatial, and a combination of verbal or spatial. In Studies 2 and 3, participants received training in how to solve verbal, spatial, or mathematical problems, or all 3 types. They were taught that solutions to verbal insight problems lie in defining and analyzing the terms in the problem, solutions to mathematical insight problems lie in a novel approach to numbers, or solutions to spatial insight problems lie in removing a self‐imposed constraint. In both studies, the spatial trained group performed better than the verbal trained group on spatial problems but not on other types of problems. These findings ...
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paper_title: When Shoes Become Hammers: Goal-Derived Categorization Training Enhances Problem-Solving Performance.

paper_content:

Problem-solving theories have not examined how solvers navigate their knowledge to interpret problem situations or to plan strategies toward goals. In this article, the author argues that success in problem solving depends on the solver's ability to construct goal-derived categories, namely categories that are formed ad hoc to serve goals during the instantiation of problem frames. Experiment 1 (N = 140) showed improved problem-solving performance after training to construct goal-derived categories. Experiment 2 (N = 80) demonstrated that effects of training in category construction can be obtained without participants being explicitly informed regarding the relevance of training to problem solving. These studies suggest that problem solving is a dynamic expression of goal-directed cognition and provide evidence for the involvement of categorization in problem-solving processes.
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paper_title: Multiple causes of difficulty in insight: the case of the nine-dot problem.

paper_content:

Theories of insight problems are often tested by formulating hypotheses about the particular difficulties of individual insight problems. Such evaluations often implicitly assume that there is a single difficulty. We argue that the quantitatively small effects of many studies arise because the difficulty of many insight problems is determined by multiple factors, so the removal of 1 factor has limited effect on the solution rate. Difficulties can reside either in problem perception, in prior knowledge, or in the processing of the problem information. We support this multiple factors perspective through 3 experiments on the 9-dot problem (N.R.F. Maier, 1930). Our results lead to a significant reformulation of the classical hypothesis as to why this problem is difficult. The results have general implications for our understanding of insight problem solving and for the interpretation of data from studies that aim to evaluate hypotheses about the sources of difficulty of particular insight problems.
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paper_title: Recognizing, defining, and representing problems.

paper_content:

What are the problems that you are currently trying to solve in your life? Most of us have problems that have been posed to us (e.g., assignments from our supervisors). But we also recognize problems on our own (e.g., you might have noticed the need for additional parking space in the city where you work). After identifying the existence of a problem, we must define its scope and goals. The problem of parking space is often seen as a need for more parking lots or parking garages. However, in order to solve this problem creatively, it may be useful to turn it around and redefine it as a problem of too many vehicles requiring a space in which to sit during the workday. In that case, you may be prompted to redefine the problem: You decide to organize a carpool among people who use downtown parking lots and institute a daytime local taxi service using these privately owned vehicles. Thus, you solve the problem not as you originally posed it but as you later reconceived it. Problem solving does not usually begin with a clear statement of the problem; rather, most problems must be identified in the environment; then they must be defined and represented mentally. The focus of this chapter is on these early stages of problem solving: problem recognition, problem definition, and problem representation. THE PROBLEM-SOLVING CYCLE Psychologists have described the problem-solving process in terms of a cycle (Bransford & Stein, 1993; Hayes, 1989; Sternberg, 1986).
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paper_title: Thoughts Beyond Words: When Language Overshadows Insight

paper_content:

Four experiments examined whether verbalization can interfere with insight problem solving. In Experiment 1, Ss were interrupted during problem solving and asked either to verbalize their strategies (retrospective verbalization) or engage in an unrelated activity (control). Ss in the retrospective verbalization condition were significantly less successful than control subjects at solving the problems. Experiment 2 replicated the finding of Experiment 1 and demonstrated that the control Ss' advantage was not due to any beneficial effect of the interruption. In Experiment 3, concurrent, nondirective verbalization impaired the solving of insight problems but had no effect on noninsight problems. In Experiment 4, the effect of concurrent verbalization on insight was maintained even when Ss were encouraged to consider alternative approaches. Together, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that verbalization can result in the disruption of nonreportable processes that are critical to achieving insight solutions.
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paper_title: The use of verbal protocols as data: an analysis of insight in the candle problem.

paper_content:

In the present study, we examined the use of verbal protocols as data in the study of the cognitive processes underlying insight. Fifty-eight Temple University undergraduates attempted to solve Duncker’s (1945) candle problem either silently or while thinking aloud. Solution rates, solving times, and solution types were comparable between conditions, suggesting thatverbal overshadowing (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993) did not occur when the participants attempted to solve the candle problem. Subsequent analysis of verbal protocols provided a catalogue of solutions generated by the participants, as well as empirical support for the occurrence of impasse and restructuring. Although restructuring was present in the majority of protocols, including those of the participants who later produced the box solution, the presence of impasse occurred with less frequency and was not associated with production of the box solution. These results provide information concerning how the candle problem is solved and suggest that verbalization can be used to examine how individuals solve insight problems and to evaluate existing theories of insight.
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paper_title: Verbalization and problem solving: Insight and spatial factors

paper_content:

Original article can be found at: http://www.bpsjournals.co.uk/ Copyright The British Psychological Society
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paper_title: Working Memory and Insight in the Nine-Dot Problem

paper_content:

In the present article, we examine the contribution of working memory (WM) to solution of the nine-dot problem, a classic insight problem. Prior research has generally demonstrated a limited role for WM in the solution of insight problems, which are typically assumed to be solved without conscious planning. However, MacGregor, Ormerod, and Chronicle (2001) proposed an information-processing model that solves the nine-dot problem by relying on a visual WM mechanism, which they term lookahead. In the present research, we examine whether performance on the nine-dot problem is indeed predicted by WM capacity. The results indicated that spatial WM capacity predicted the tendency to draw lines outside the configuration of dots and predicted the solution on a hint-aided version of the problem. Furthermore, within those solving the problem, higher spatial WM capacity was also related to faster solutions. The results support the information-processing model and suggest a more essential role for WM and planning in insight problem solving than has previously been acknowledged.
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paper_title: The nature of restructuring in insight: An individual-differences approach

paper_content:

The insightful problem-solving process has been proposed to involve three main phases: an initial representation phase, in which the solver inappropriately represents the problem; an initial search through the faulty problem space that may lead to impasse; and a postimpasse restructuring phase. Some theories propose that the restructuring phase involves controlled search processes, whereas other theories propose that restructuring is achieved through the automatic redistribution of activation in long-term memory. In this study, we used correlations between working memory (WM) span measures and problemsolving success to test the predictions of these different theories. One group of participants received a set of insight problems that allowed for a large initial faulty search space, whereas another group received a matched set that constrained the initial faulty search space in order to isolate the restructuring phase of the insightful process. The results suggest that increased ability to control attention (as measured by WM span tasks) predicts an individual’s ability to successfully solve problems that involve both the initial search phase and the restructuring phase. However, individual differences in ability to control attention do not predict success on problems that isolate the restructuring phase. These results are interpreted as supporting an automatic-redistribution-of-activation account of restructuring.
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paper_title: Metacognition and insight during problem solving : comment on metcalfe

paper_content:

Metcalfe (1986a, 1986b; Metcalfe & Weibe, 1987) used two types of metacognitive judgments, prediction of solution and rating of warmth, to support the claim that there is a nonincremental process corresponding to the Gestalt notion of insight that occurs in the solution of certain sorts of problems. However, there are logical and empirical issues that can be raised about Metcalfe's analysis and conclusions : a) Metcalfe's finding that Ss cannot predict their performance on «insight» problems does not not logically necessitate that solutions to such problems occur in sudden bursts of insight, b) Metcalfe's feeling-of-warmth data for insight problems are problematic as support for her hypothesis, and c) Metcalfe's definition of insight is circular and does not further our understanding of problem solving
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paper_title: Thoughts Beyond Words: When Language Overshadows Insight

paper_content:

Four experiments examined whether verbalization can interfere with insight problem solving. In Experiment 1, Ss were interrupted during problem solving and asked either to verbalize their strategies (retrospective verbalization) or engage in an unrelated activity (control). Ss in the retrospective verbalization condition were significantly less successful than control subjects at solving the problems. Experiment 2 replicated the finding of Experiment 1 and demonstrated that the control Ss' advantage was not due to any beneficial effect of the interruption. In Experiment 3, concurrent, nondirective verbalization impaired the solving of insight problems but had no effect on noninsight problems. In Experiment 4, the effect of concurrent verbalization on insight was maintained even when Ss were encouraged to consider alternative approaches. Together, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that verbalization can result in the disruption of nonreportable processes that are critical to achieving insight solutions.
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paper_title: Evidence for Incremental Restructuring in a Spatial Insight Problem

paper_content:

Evidence for Incremental Restructuring in a Spatial Insight Problem Patrick J. Cushen (pcushe2@uic.edu) Jennifer Wiley (jwiley@uic.edu) Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Chicago 1007 W. Harrison St. (M/C 285), Chicago, IL 60607 USA Keywords: problem solving; insight Results Introduction Despite much research, the exact nature of restructuring in insight remains unclear. Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) originally offered evidence towards insight occurring suddenly. Other researchers, though, have suggested that it occurs incrementally. In a think-aloud analysis of insight problem solving, Fleck and Weisberg (2004) noted that solvers regularly demonstrated a number of smaller restructurings before reaching solution. Durso, Rea, and Dayton (1994) attempted to track restructuring by having participants rate the relatedness of word pairs while solving a riddle. They found that solvers rated solution-relevant word pairs as becoming gradually more similar as they approached solution. This study investigated whether evidence towards incremental solution could be found by having participants rate the importance of problem features while solving a spatial insight problem. Additionally, we tested the assumption that having subjects rate primarily relevant-to- solution features would affect the pattern of restructuring. A repeated measures analysis of variance revealed that solvers’ ratings of important items increased linearly, F (1,19) = 30.46, p < .05, and ratings of unimportant items decreased linearly with time, F (1,19) = 23.37, p < .05, as shown in Figure 2. Subjects given the partial rating task also provided higher ratings for the important items overall, F (1,19) = 5.08, p < .05. Method Figure 2: Mean importance ratings of important items and unimportant items as a function of time and group. Thirty-eight undergraduates from the University of Illinois at Chicago participated in this experiment for course credit. Participants received the “Triangle of Coins” spatial insight problem shown in Figure 1. Every minute, subjects indicated how important certain problem features were going to be to solution. In one condition, solvers rated all problem features on importance. In the second condition, solvers rated only 3 problem features, 2 of which were important (items 1 & 10 in the figure below) and 1 which was not important (item 5). As in Durso et al, subjects’ ratings were summarized by their initial and final ratings, and ratings from the two timepoints before solution. The distance between the initial and Final-2 timepoints varied based on how long the subject took to complete the problem. Conclusion These results provide evidence towards an incremental account of insight, with subjects showing a linear increase in ratings of important-for-solution items and a decrease in ratings of unimportant items as they approached solution. The difference between rating conditions suggests that the partial rating condition may have provided solvers with hints toward the solution, as these subjects considered the important items to be generally more important. References Figure 1: Triangle of Coins Problem. Make the triangle point to the bottom of the page by moving only 3 “coins.” Durso, F.T., Rea, C.B., & Dayton, T (1994). Graph- theoretic confirmation of restructuring during insight. Psychological Science, 5, 94-98. Fleck, J.I, & Weisberg, R.W. (2004). The use of verbal protocols as data: An analysis of insight in the candle problem. Memory & Cognition, 32, 990-1006. Metcalfe, J., & Wiebe, D. (1983). Intuition in insight and noninsight problem solving. Memory & Cognition, 15,
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paper_title: New approaches to demystifying insight

paper_content:

After a person has become stuck on a problem, they sometimes achieve a clear and sudden solution through insight – the so-called Aha! experience. Because of its distinctive experience, the origins and characteristics of insight have received considerable attention historically in psychological research. However, despite considerable progress in characterizing insight, the underlying mechanisms remain mysterious. We argue that research on insight could be greatly advanced by supplementing traditional insight research, which depends on a few complex problems, with paradigms common in other domains of cognitive science. We describe a large set of mini-insight problems to which multiple methods can be applied, together with subjective reports to identify insight problem-solving. Behavioral priming and neuroimaging methods are providing evidence about what, where, and how neural activity occurs during insight. Such evidence constrains theories of component processes, and will help to demystify insight.
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paper_title: Intuition in insight and non-insight problem solving

paper_content:

People’s metacognitions, both before and during problem solving, may be of importance in motivating and guiding problem-solving behavior. These metacognitions could also be diagnostic for distinguishing among different classes of problems, each perhaps controlled by different cognitive processes. In the present experiments, intuitions on classic insight problems were compared with those on noninsight and algebra problems. The findings were as follows: (1) subjective feeling of knowing predicted performance on algebra problems but not on insight problems; (2) subjects’ expectations of performance greatly exceeded their actual performance, especially on insight problems; (3) normative predictions provided a better estimate of individual performance than did subjects’ own predictions, especially on the insight problems; and, most importantly, (4) the patterns-of-warmth ratings, which reflect subjects’ feelings of approaching solution, differed for insight and noninsight problems. Algebra problems and noninsight problems showed a more incremental pattern over the course of solving than did insight problems. In general, then, the data indicated that noninsight problems were open to accurate predictions of performance, whereas insight problems were opaque to such predictions. Also, the phenomenology of insight-problem solution was characterized by a sudden, unforeseen flash of illumination. We propose that the difference in phenomenology accompanying insight and noninsight problem solving, as empirically demonstrated here, be used to define insight.
---
paper_title: The use of verbal protocols as data: an analysis of insight in the candle problem.

paper_content:

In the present study, we examined the use of verbal protocols as data in the study of the cognitive processes underlying insight. Fifty-eight Temple University undergraduates attempted to solve Duncker’s (1945) candle problem either silently or while thinking aloud. Solution rates, solving times, and solution types were comparable between conditions, suggesting thatverbal overshadowing (Schooler, Ohlsson, & Brooks, 1993) did not occur when the participants attempted to solve the candle problem. Subsequent analysis of verbal protocols provided a catalogue of solutions generated by the participants, as well as empirical support for the occurrence of impasse and restructuring. Although restructuring was present in the majority of protocols, including those of the participants who later produced the box solution, the presence of impasse occurred with less frequency and was not associated with production of the box solution. These results provide information concerning how the candle problem is solved and suggest that verbalization can be used to examine how individuals solve insight problems and to evaluate existing theories of insight.
---
paper_title: Function of hippocampus in "insight" of problem solving.

paper_content:

Since the work of Wolfgang Kohler, the process of "insight" in problem solving has been the subject of considerable investigation. Yet, the neural correlates of "insight" remain unknown. Theoretically, "insight" means the reorientation of one's thinking, including breaking of the unwarranted "fixation" and forming of novel, task-related associations among the old nodes of concepts or cognitive skills. Processes closely related to these aspects have been implicated in the hippocampus. In this research, the neural correlates of "insight" were investigated using Japanese riddles, by imaging the answer presentation and comprehension events, just after participants failed to resolve them. The results of event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis demonstrated that the right hippocampus was critically highlighted and that a wide cerebral cortex was also involved in this "insight" event. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first neuroirnaging study to have investigated the neural correlates of "insight" in problem solving. (C) 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
---
paper_title: Eye Movements and Problem Solving: Guiding Attention Guides Thought

paper_content:

Overt visual attention during diagram-based problem solving, as measured by eye movements, has been used in numerous studies to reveal critical aspects of the problem-solving process that traditional measures like solution time and accuracy cannot address. In Experiment 1, we used this methodology to show that particular fixation patterns correlate with success in solving the tumor-and-lasers radiation problem. Given this correlation between attention to a particular diagram feature and problem-solving insight, we investigated participants' cognitive sensitivity to perceptual changes in that diagram feature. In Experiment 2, we found that perceptually highlighting the critical diagram component, identified in Experiment 1, significantly increased the frequency of correct solutions. Taking a situated perspective on cognition, we suggest that environmentally controlled perceptual properties can guide attention and eye movements in ways that assist in developing problem-solving insights that dramatically imp...
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paper_title: Normative data for 144 compound remote associate problems.

paper_content:

We have developed and tested 144 compound remote associate problems. Across eight experiments, 289 participants were given four time limits (2 sec, 7 sec, 15 sec, or 30 sec) for solving each problem. This paper provides a brief overview of the problems and normative data regarding the percentage of participants solving, and mean time-to-solution for, each problem at each time limit. These normative data can be used in selecting problems on the basis of difficulty or mean time necessary for reaching a solution.
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paper_title: Right hemisphere contributions to creative problem solving: Converging evidence for divergent thinki

paper_content:

A memory array is made up of rows and columns of memory elements. Each memory element includes a known type of variable threshold insulated gate field effect transistor characterized by electrically controllable conduction thresholds established by potentials applied between the respective gate electrodes and substrates. Each of the variable threshold transistors in a given row has its gate electrode connected to a word line common to that row and its drain electrode capacitively coupled to the same word line. Each of the variable threshold transistors in a given column has its source electrode connected to a bit line common to that column. Information is written into the memory by first setting all of the variable threshold transistors to a given threshold and then reversing the threshold of certain variable threshold transistors selected in accordance with the information to be stored. Information is read out of the memory by means of a two-part readout cycle in which all of the variable threshold transistors corresponding to a selected word are subjected to a sampling pulse during which time actual readout occurs; then to a restoration pulse which subjects the variable threshold transistors corresponding to the selected word to potentials opposite to that of the sampling pulse.
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paper_title: The Prepared Mind Neural Activity Prior to Problem Presentation Predicts Subsequent Solution by Sudden Insight

paper_content:

Insight occurs when problem solutions arise suddenly and seem obviously correct, and is associated with an ''Aha!'' experience. Prior theorizing concerning preparation that facilitates insight focused on solvers' problem-specific knowledge. We hypothesized that a dis- tinct type of mental preparation, manifested in a distinct brain state, would facilitate insight problem solving inde- pendently of problem-specific knowledge. Consistent with this hypothesis, neural activity during a preparatory interval before subjects saw verbal problems predicted which problems they would subsequently solve with, versus without, self-reported insight. Specifically, electroenceph- alographic topography and frequency (Experiment 1) and functional magnetic resonance imaging signal (Experi- ment 2) both suggest that mental preparation leading to insight involves heightened activity in medial frontal areas associated with cognitive control and in temporal areas associated with semantic processing. The results for electroencephalographic topography suggest that non- insight preparation, in contrast, involves increased occipital activity consistent with an increase in externally directed visual attention. Thus, general preparatory mechanisms modulate problem-solving strategy.
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paper_title: New approaches to demystifying insight

paper_content:

After a person has become stuck on a problem, they sometimes achieve a clear and sudden solution through insight – the so-called Aha! experience. Because of its distinctive experience, the origins and characteristics of insight have received considerable attention historically in psychological research. However, despite considerable progress in characterizing insight, the underlying mechanisms remain mysterious. We argue that research on insight could be greatly advanced by supplementing traditional insight research, which depends on a few complex problems, with paradigms common in other domains of cognitive science. We describe a large set of mini-insight problems to which multiple methods can be applied, together with subjective reports to identify insight problem-solving. Behavioral priming and neuroimaging methods are providing evidence about what, where, and how neural activity occurs during insight. Such evidence constrains theories of component processes, and will help to demystify insight.
---
paper_title: Neural Activity When People Solve Verbal Problems with Insight

paper_content:

People sometimes solve problems with a unique process called insight, accompanied by an “Aha!” experience. It has long been unclear whether different cognitive and neural processes lead to insight versus noninsight solutions, or if solutions differ only in subsequent subjective feeling. Recent behavioral studies indicate distinct patterns of performance and suggest differential hemispheric involvement for insight and noninsight solutions. Subjects solved verbal problems, and after each correct solution indicated whether they solved with or without insight. We observed two objective neural correlates of insight. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (Experiment 1) revealed increased activity in the right hemisphere anterior superior temporal gyrus for insight relative to noninsight solutions. The same region was active during initial solving efforts. Scalp electroencephalogram recordings (Experiment 2) revealed a sudden burst of high-frequency (gamma-band) neural activity in the same area beginning 0.3 s prior to insight solutions. This right anterior temporal area is associated with making connections across distantly related information during comprehension. Although all problem solving relies on a largely shared cortical network, the sudden flash of insight occurs when solvers engage distinct neural and cognitive processes that allow them to see connections that previously eluded them.
---
paper_title: Function of hippocampus in "insight" of problem solving.

paper_content:

Since the work of Wolfgang Kohler, the process of "insight" in problem solving has been the subject of considerable investigation. Yet, the neural correlates of "insight" remain unknown. Theoretically, "insight" means the reorientation of one's thinking, including breaking of the unwarranted "fixation" and forming of novel, task-related associations among the old nodes of concepts or cognitive skills. Processes closely related to these aspects have been implicated in the hippocampus. In this research, the neural correlates of "insight" were investigated using Japanese riddles, by imaging the answer presentation and comprehension events, just after participants failed to resolve them. The results of event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis demonstrated that the right hippocampus was critically highlighted and that a wide cerebral cortex was also involved in this "insight" event. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first neuroirnaging study to have investigated the neural correlates of "insight" in problem solving. (C) 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
---
paper_title: The right hemisphere maintains solution-related activation for yet-to-be-solved problems

paper_content:

In five experiments, we examined the time course of hemispheric differences in solution activation for insight-like problems. We propose that solving insight problems requires retrieval of unusual interpretations of problem elements, and that right-hemisphere (RH) coarse semantic coding is more likely than left-hemisphere (LH) fine semantic coding to maintain semantic activation of such interpretations. In four experiments, participants attempted word problems for 7 sec (Experiments 1A and 1B) or 2 sec (Experiments 2A and 2B), and 750 msec later responded to lateralized target words. After 7 sec of solving effort, Experiment 1A participants showed greater solution-related priming (i.e., they named solutions faster than unrelated words) for left visual field-RH (lvf-RH) targets than for right visual field-LH (rvf-LH) targets, and Experiment 1B participants made faster solution decisions on target words presented to the RH, as previously demonstrated following 15 sec of effort. After 2 sec of solving effort in Experiment 2A, women showed symmetric solution-related priming, although men showed a slight lvf-RH advantage in priming; and in Experiment 2B participants made equally quick solution decisions for targets presented to the LH and to the RH. In Experiment 3, participants viewed the problems for 1,250 msec then named lateralized target words; they showed symmetric solution-related priming. These experiments demonstrate solution activation initially in both hemispheres, but maintained solution activation only in the RH.
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Title: Human Performance on Insight Problem Solving: A Review
Section 1: Introduction: What Is Insight?
Description 1: This section introduces the concept of insight problem solving, explores what differentiates it from non-insight problems, and discusses its importance in creativity and scientific discoveries.

Section 2: Theoretical Accounts
Description 2: This section reviews the detailed theoretical accounts of insight proposed during the period covered by this review, discussing different perspectives and models.

Section 3: Classic Problems
Description 3: This section provides an overview of various classic insight problems that have been widely used in research, including their characteristics and limitations.

Section 4: Recent Problems
Description 4: This section explores more recent sources of insight problems that promise larger and more homogenous sets of stimuli, such as Matchstick Arithmetic Problems, Compound Remote Associates (CRAs), and Rebus Puzzles.

Section 5: Research Leading to the Classification of Problems
Description 5: This section investigates how insight problems are classified, discussing different classification schemes and the levels of difficulty inherent in different problems.

Section 6: Theories Facilitating Insight
Description 6: This section delves into various theoretical factors that facilitate insight problem solving, such as hints, analogical transfer, and training.

Section 7: Theories on Metacognition and Verbal Protocol
Description 7: This section discusses how verbal protocols and metacognitive processes can aid or hinder insight problem-solving performance.

Section 8: Theories on Individual Differences
Description 8: This section examines how individual differences, such as working memory capacity and cognitive flexibility, influence performance on insight problems.

Section 9: Performance Measurement in Research
Description 9: This section details the metrics used to assess performance in insight problem solving, including solution rates, time to solution, and feeling-of-warmth ratings.

Section 10: Neuroimaging
Description 10: This section reviews studies that have investigated the neural underpinnings of insight problem solving using techniques like fMRI and EEG.

Section 11: Future Directions and Suggestions
Description 11: This section highlights open questions and suggests future research directions, focusing on individual differences, neuroscience, classification of new problems, and the conscious versus unconscious processes involved in insight.

Section 12: Conclusions
Description 12: This section concludes the review, summarizing key findings and emphasizing the complexity of the insight problem-solving process while outlining the challenges and potential future research directions.

Appendix: Solutions to example problems
Description 13: This section provides solutions to the example problems mentioned throughout the review.