Video Authentication- An Overview
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paper_title: Classification of video tampering methods and countermeasures using digital watermarking

paper_content:

The development and spread of multimedia services require authentication techniques to prove the originality and integrity of multimedia data and (or) to localize the alterations made on the media. A wide variety of authentication techniques have been proposed in the literature, but most studies have been primarily focused on still images. In this paper, we will mainly address video authentication. We first summarize the classification of video tampering methods. Based on our proposed classification, the quality of existing authentication techniques can be evaluated. We then propose our own authentication system to combat those tampering methods. The comparison of two basic authentication categories, fragile watermark and digital signature, are made and the need for combining them are discussed. Finally, we address some issues on authenticating a broad sense video, the mixture of visual, audio and text data.
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paper_title: Classification of video tampering methods and countermeasures using digital watermarking

paper_content:

The development and spread of multimedia services require authentication techniques to prove the originality and integrity of multimedia data and (or) to localize the alterations made on the media. A wide variety of authentication techniques have been proposed in the literature, but most studies have been primarily focused on still images. In this paper, we will mainly address video authentication. We first summarize the classification of video tampering methods. Based on our proposed classification, the quality of existing authentication techniques can be evaluated. We then propose our own authentication system to combat those tampering methods. The comparison of two basic authentication categories, fragile watermark and digital signature, are made and the need for combining them are discussed. Finally, we address some issues on authenticating a broad sense video, the mixture of visual, audio and text data.
---
paper_title: Integrating SVM classification with SVD watermarking for intelligent video authentication

paper_content:

In law enforcement applications such as surveillance and forensics, video is often presented as evidence. It is therefore of paramount importance to establish the authenticity and reliability of the video data. This paper presents an intelligent video authentication algorithm which integrates learning based Support Vector Machine classification with Singular Value Decomposition watermarking. During video capture and storage, intrinsic local correlation information is extracted from the frames and embedded in the frames at local levels. Tamper detection and classification is performed using the inherent video information and embedded correlation information. The proposed algorithm is independent of the choice of watermark and does not require any key to store. Further, it is robust to global tampering such as frame addition and removal, local attacks such as object alteration and can differentiate between acceptable operations and malicious tampering. Experiments are performed on an extensive database which contains non-tampered videos and videos with several types of tampering. The results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms existing video authentication algorithms.
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paper_title: Content-dependent video authentication by self-watermarking in color space

paper_content:

A plausible motivation for video tampering is to alter the sequence of events. This goal can be achieved by re-indexing attacks such as frame removal, insertion, or shuffling. In this work, we report on the development of an algorithm to identify and, subject to certain limitations, reverse such acts. At the heart of the algorithm lies the concept of a frame-pair [f,f*]. Frame-pairs are unique in two ways. The first frame is the basis for watermarking of the second frame sometime in the future. A key that is unique to the location of frame f governs frame-pair temporal separation. Watermarking is done by producing a low resolution version of 24-bit frame, spreading it, and then embedding it in the color space of f*. As such, watermarking f* is tantamount to embedding a copy of frame f in a future frame. Having tied one frame, in content and timing, to another frame downstream, frame removal and insertion can be identified and, subject to certain limitations, reversed.
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paper_title: Three dimensional sub-band coding of video

paper_content:

A novel coding scheme has been developed which is based on multidimensional subband coding. The digital video signal is filtered and sub-sampled in all three dimensions (temporally, horizontally and vertically) to yield the subbands, from which the input signal can be losslessly reconstructed in the absence of coding loss. The subbands can be more efficiently coded than the input signal in terms of compression and quality, because the restricted information in each band allows well-tailored encoding. The computational complexity of this coding scheme compares favorably to DCT with interframe prediction and inter/intra frame DPCM. The scheme has an architectural structure suitable for parallel implementation, and it yields high compression with sustained good quality. >
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paper_title: Structural digital signature for image authentication: an incidental distortion resistant scheme

paper_content:

The existing digital data verification methods are able to detect regions that have been tampered with, but are too fragile to resist incidental manipulations. This paper proposes a new digital signature scheme which makes use of an image's contents (in the wavelet transform domain) to construct a structural digital signature (SDS) for image authentication. The characteristic of the SDS is that it can tolerate content-preserving modifications while detecting content-changing modifications. Many incidental manipulations, which were detected as malicious modifications in the previous digital signature verification or fragile watermarking schemes, can be bypassed in the proposed scheme. Performance analysis is conducted and experimental results show that the new scheme is indeed superb for image authentication.
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paper_title: New Directions in Cryptography

paper_content:

Two kinds of contemporary developments in cryptography are examined. Widening applications of teleprocessing have given rise to a need for new types of cryptographic systems, which minimize the need for secure key distribution channels and supply the equivalent of a written signature. This paper suggests ways to solve these currently open problems. It also discusses how the theories of communication and computation are beginning to provide the tools to solve cryptographic problems of long standing.
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paper_title: Compression tolerant image authentication

paper_content:

It is straightforward to apply general schemes for authenticating digital data to the problem of authenticating digital images. However, such a scheme would not authenticate images that have undergone lossy compression, even though they may not have been manipulated otherwise. We propose a scheme for authenticating the visual content of digital images. This scheme is robust to compression noise, but will detect deliberate manipulation of the image-data. The proposed scheme is based on the extraction of feature-points from the image. These feature-points are defined so as to be relatively unaffected by lossy compression. The set of feature-points from a given image is encrypted using public key encryption, to generate the digital signature of the image. Authenticity is verified by comparing the feature-points of the image in question, with those recovered from the previously computed digital signature.
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paper_title: Video authentication with self-recovery

paper_content:

Digital video has become increasingly susceptible to spatio-temporal manipulations as a result of recent advances in video editing tools. In this paper, we propose a secure and flexible fragile digital video authentication watermark which also enables the self-recovery of video content after malicious manipulations. In the proposed block-based method, the watermark payload of a block is composed of two parts: authentication and recovery packets. The authentication packet is a digital signature with a special structure and carries the spatio-temporal position of the block. The digital signature guarantees the authenticity and integrity of the block as well as the recovery packet, whereas the localization information prevents possible cut & paste attacks. On the other hand, the recovery packet contains a highly compressed version of a spatio-temporally distant block. This information enables the recovery of the distant block, upon detection of tampering by its authentication packet. A spatio-temporal interleaving scheme and a simple multiple description coding mechanism increase the probability of self recovery by diffusing recovery information throughout the sequence. Finally, watermark payload is embedded by least significant bit modulation.
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paper_title: Compressed Domain Authentication of Live Video

paper_content:

Video authentication techniques generally do not allow any form of manipulation, thus making it impractical for adaptation operations. Moreover, conventional way to adapt and authenticate compressed video content is to perform cascaded decoding and re-encoding operations in some trusted intermediary nodes. In this paper, we propose an authentication scheme for live H.264 encoded video bitstream to verify integrity at the receiver's side. The proposed design utilizes MPEG-21 gBSD for hard authentication in the compressed domain. The scheme uses content-based authentication data which is derived from a hash value and embeds a fragile watermark. System design and proof of concept implementation approach along with the performance evaluation is presented in detail.
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paper_title: H.264 Video Authentication Based on Semi-fragile Watermarking

paper_content:

In the paper, we propose a system that uses H.264 video compressed and semi-fragile video watermarking to reach video recording automatically. In recent years, H.264 is a new advanced video compressed standard. It provides high compression efficiency and compress quality, compress the standard for the video compressed of new generation. Digital data is easy to be altered. One of the most important things is to prevent the data to be illegally used. We propose a system, watermark authentication code is used block sub-band index and coefficient modulation to embed in the quantized AC coefficient of I Frame. Using number of block corresponding to reach video data authentication. The experimental results show that the proposed system can detect the area of altered illegally. Additionally, results show that watermark embedding preserves the perceptual quality of the video.
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paper_title: A Dynamic Watermarking Scheme for Color Image Authentication

paper_content:

Image authentication has achieved a sharp attention now a day due to broad availability of internet services. Maldistribution and illegal copying of image, volatiles the authenticity of image-ownership. In this regard we’ve already proposed different fragile color image watermarking frameworks for embedding a color watermark within a color host image. In current communication we are proposing technique which will ensure the complete authentication of ownership in a dynamic manner. The proposed framework will form the watermark from the host image itself by combining the unique zone of the host image, and then it will be embedded to the host image with our already reported LSB scheme. In proposed watermarking framework, it allows a user with an appropriate secret key and a hash function to verify the authencity, integrity and ownership of an image. If a forger performs the watermark extraction with an incorrect key and inappropriate hash function, the user obtains an image that resembles noise. In this manner we are providing an integrated solution for ownership authentication where the watermark is unique for that particular host image, thus the authentication is ensured in an efficient way. At the watermark extraction end, we’ve used blind extraction method, i.e., neither the host image nor the watermark image is required at the time of watermark extraction.
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paper_title: A New Introduction towards Invisible Image Watermarking on Color Image

paper_content:

Easy availability of internet, together with relatively inexpensive digital recording and storage peripherals has created an era where duplication, unauthorized use and maldistribution of digital content has become easier. To prevent unauthorized use, misappropriation, misrepresentation; authentication of multimedia contents achieved a broad attention in recent days. In this regard we've already introduced a technique for invisible image watermarking for color image authentication. In this paper we propose a method for embedding color watermark image to color host image in a more efficient manner. We introduce a new arena of embedding color watermark image to different positions of color host image in this paper. The host image is simply divided into some blocks so that as per our proposed technique we are able to embed watermark at LSB of all such blocks. and perceptually it is entirely invisible to Human Visual System. In proposed watermarking framework, it allows a user with an appropriate secret key and a hash function to verify the authencity, integrity and ownership of an image. If the user performs the watermark extraction with an incorrect key and inappropriate hash function, the user obtains an image that resembles noise. So that authencity will not be preserved even if a single pixel of the image is changed. This embedding method is beneficial to us at the watermark extraction end. We are using blind extraction method. At the time of extraction the watermark can easily be resolved combining LSB from different blocks of the watermarked image.
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paper_title: Digital video authentication with motion vector watermarking

paper_content:

As the sophistication and proliferation of digital media continues to increase, so to do methods which seek to compromise data integrity. Digital authentication can be a critical component to ensuring reliability and security in digital video surveillance platforms. A robust method of encoding video can provide authentication ensuring that data has not been compromised and is still reliable. By watermarking motion vectors in a video stream, it is possible to authenticate said video and ensure it has not been compromised. Our proposed authentication scheme provides a secure method of ensuring data integrity that is simple to encode yet difficult to emulate. The proposed method is not computationally complex, produces almost no visual distortion, and can be accomplished in real-time.
---
paper_title: Classification of video tampering methods and countermeasures using digital watermarking

paper_content:

The development and spread of multimedia services require authentication techniques to prove the originality and integrity of multimedia data and (or) to localize the alterations made on the media. A wide variety of authentication techniques have been proposed in the literature, but most studies have been primarily focused on still images. In this paper, we will mainly address video authentication. We first summarize the classification of video tampering methods. Based on our proposed classification, the quality of existing authentication techniques can be evaluated. We then propose our own authentication system to combat those tampering methods. The comparison of two basic authentication categories, fragile watermark and digital signature, are made and the need for combining them are discussed. Finally, we address some issues on authenticating a broad sense video, the mixture of visual, audio and text data.
---
paper_title: Content-dependent video authentication by self-watermarking in color space

paper_content:

A plausible motivation for video tampering is to alter the sequence of events. This goal can be achieved by re-indexing attacks such as frame removal, insertion, or shuffling. In this work, we report on the development of an algorithm to identify and, subject to certain limitations, reverse such acts. At the heart of the algorithm lies the concept of a frame-pair [f,f*]. Frame-pairs are unique in two ways. The first frame is the basis for watermarking of the second frame sometime in the future. A key that is unique to the location of frame f governs frame-pair temporal separation. Watermarking is done by producing a low resolution version of 24-bit frame, spreading it, and then embedding it in the color space of f*. As such, watermarking f* is tantamount to embedding a copy of frame f in a future frame. Having tied one frame, in content and timing, to another frame downstream, frame removal and insertion can be identified and, subject to certain limitations, reversed.
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paper_title: A new semi-fragile image authentication framework combining ECC and PKI infrastructures

paper_content:

Presents a new semi-fragile framework aiming at extending public key signature scheme from message level to content level. The content signing procedure includes signature generation and watermark embedding while the content authentication procedure includes watermark extraction and signature verification. One main unique contribution is the novel use of error correction coding (ECC) to address the incidental distortions caused by some acceptable manipulations such as lossy compression. Another unique feature is integration of PKI security infrastructure and the hashing mechanism to achieve security and short signatures/watermarks. In the signing procedure, block-based invariant features are extracted from the image content and then encoded by ECC to obtain their corresponding parity check bits (PCB). All PCBs are then embedded back into image as watermarks for the purpose of authentication and locating content alteration. In addition, codewords are concatenated, hashed and finally signed by content owner's private key to generate a global cryptographic signature. The authentication procedure is the inverse procedure of signing except using content owner's public key for signature verification.
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paper_title: Chaotic Watermarking for Video Authentication in Surveillance Applications

paper_content:

Installing video cameras in public facilities for surveillance becomes more and more popular. This paper proposes a novel authentication scheme based on chaotic semi-fragile watermarking. The timing information of video frames is modulated into the parameters of a chaotic system. The system output, which is a noise-like signal, is used as a watermark and embedded into the block-based discrete cosine transform domain. The embedded information is demodulated by a maximum likelihood estimator. Temporal tampering can be detected by the mismatch between the extracted and the observed timing information. In addition, the deviation of the extracted watermark from the original one allows us to locate spatial tampering. It is shown that the proposed scheme can satisfy the peculiar requirements of authenticating a digital video surveillance system.
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paper_title: A semi-fragile watermarking system for MPEG video authentication

paper_content:

Video authentication is expected to prove the integrity of the content. Common authentication techniques do not allow any form of manipulation, thus making it impractical for some applications such as transcoding. In this paper, we shall propose an authentication scheme which can survive the bit-rate-conversion transcoding methods by using public, imperceptible semi-fragile watermark. Nowadays, videos are only available in compressed format in many applications. We will focus on the authentication of MPEG video. We will first provide a new classification of video tampering methods. Based on that, we shall propose our own authentication system. The proposed approach has a good locality corresponding to MPEG structure.
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paper_title: Resolving Rightful Ownerships with Invisible Watermarking Techniques : Limitations , Attacks , and Implications

paper_content:

Digital watermarks have been proposed as a means for copyright protection of multimedia data. We address the capability of invisible watermarking schemes to resolve copyright ownership. We show that, in certain applications, rightful ownership cannot be resolved by current watermarking schemes alone. Specifically, we attack existing techniques by providing counterfeit watermarking schemes that can be performed on a watermarked image to allow multiple claims of rightful ownership. In the absence of standardization and specific requirements imposed on watermarking procedures, anyone can claim ownership of any watermarked image. In order to protect against the counterfeiting techniques that we develop, we examine the properties necessary for resolving ownership via invisible watermarking. We introduce and study invertibility and quasi-invertibility of invisible watermarking techniques. We propose noninvertible watermarking schemes, and subsequently give examples of techniques that we believe to be nonquasi-invertible and hence invulnerable against more sophisticated attacks proposed in the paper. The attacks and results presented in the paper, and the remedies proposed, further imply that we have to carefully reevaluate the current approaches and techniques in invisible watermarking of digital images based on application domains, and rethink the promises, applications and implications of such digital means of copyright protection.
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paper_title: Authentication with distortion criteria

paper_content:

In a variety of applications, there is a need to authenticate content that has experienced legitimate editing in addition to potential tampering attacks. We develop one formulation of this problem based on a strict notion of security, and characterize and interpret the associated information-theoretic performance limits. The results can be viewed as a natural generalization of classical approaches to traditional authentication. Additional insights into the structure of such systems and their behavior are obtained by further specializing the results to Bernoulli and Gaussian cases. The associated systems are shown to be substantially better in terms of performance and/or security than commonly advocated approaches based on data hiding and digital watermarking. Finally, the formulation is extended to obtain efficient layered authentication system constructions.
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paper_title: Forensic video investigation with real-time digitized uncompressed video image sequences

paper_content:

In this paper, we describe the use and processing of image sequences for forensic investigations. For real-time digitization and storage of uncompressed movie files we use a computer equipped with a disk array system. The number of tape playbacks is minimized, while the use of still image/pause options of the VCR can be avoided completely.
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paper_title: Integrating SVM classification with SVD watermarking for intelligent video authentication

paper_content:

In law enforcement applications such as surveillance and forensics, video is often presented as evidence. It is therefore of paramount importance to establish the authenticity and reliability of the video data. This paper presents an intelligent video authentication algorithm which integrates learning based Support Vector Machine classification with Singular Value Decomposition watermarking. During video capture and storage, intrinsic local correlation information is extracted from the frames and embedded in the frames at local levels. Tamper detection and classification is performed using the inherent video information and embedded correlation information. The proposed algorithm is independent of the choice of watermark and does not require any key to store. Further, it is robust to global tampering such as frame addition and removal, local attacks such as object alteration and can differentiate between acceptable operations and malicious tampering. Experiments are performed on an extensive database which contains non-tampered videos and videos with several types of tampering. The results show that the proposed algorithm outperforms existing video authentication algorithms.
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paper_title: The Nature of Statistical Learning Theory

paper_content:

Setting of the learning problem consistency of learning processes bounds on the rate of convergence of learning processes controlling the generalization ability of learning processes constructing learning algorithms what is important in learning theory?.
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paper_title: Authentication of Sequences with the SL2 Hash Function: Application to Video Sequences

paper_content:

This paper presents an interesting application of the Tillich-Zfunction TZ. In particular, we emphasize the concatenation property of this one-way hash function, i.e. TZ(S j T) = TZ(S)TZ(T) where S and T are two binary strings. This property is combined with a multisignature scheme in a journalism context. The aim is to authenticate reports or interviews.
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paper_title: Key-frame extraction and shot retrieval using nearest feature line (NFL)

paper_content:

Query by key frame or video example is a convenient and often effective way to search in video database. This paper proposes a new approach to support such searches. The main contribution of the proposed approach is the consideration of both feature extraction and distance computation as a whole process. With a video shot represented by key-frames corresponding to feature points in a feature space, a new metric is defined to measure the distance between a query image and a shot based on the concept of Nearest Feature Line (NFL). We propose to use the “breakpoints” of feature trajectory of a video shot as the key frames and use the lines passing through these points to represent the shot. When combined with the NFL method, it helps to achieve a better performance, as evidenced by experiments.
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paper_title: Motion trajectory based video authentication

paper_content:

With the relentless digitization of commercial media, it is increasingly susceptible to the violation of its intellectual property rights. We address the issue of authenticating digital video in this paper by presenting a novel technique based on motion trajectory and cryptographic secret sharing. Given a video, we segment it into shots and select the key frames in a shot based on the motion trajectory. We then consider these key frames as shares of a secret-sharing scheme for color images. We then reconstruct the secret corresponding to these shares. This secret frame is deemed as the secret key of this shot. Utilizing the secret keys of all the shots, we hierarchically construct the master key for the entire video by recursively employing the same method of color image sharing. Any modifications in a shot or in the important content of a shot will be reflected as changes in the computed master key. Thus, any video can be authenticated by comparing its computed master key with the original master key. The advantages of the proposed technique are that we take the correlation among the video frames into account, all authentication data is encapsulated within the master key, and this master key authentication information need not be embedded into the video. Thus the video quality is not affected by the auxiliary authentication information.
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paper_title: Extraction of key frames from videos by optimal color composition matching and polygon simplification

paper_content:

A video sequence is first mapped to a sequence of points in a semi-metric space that forms a polyline. We require only that a semi-distance between pairs of points be defined that need not satisfy the triangle inequality. By simplifying the polyline, we obtain a small set of the most relevant key frames that is representative of the whole video sequence. The degree of the simplification is either determined automatically or selected by the user. Using our technique, a viewer can browse a video at the level of summarization that suits his patience level. Applications include the creation of a smart fast-forward function for digital VCRs, and the automatic creation of short summaries or trailers that can be used as previews before videos are downloaded from the Web.
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paper_title: Key-frame extraction and shot retrieval using nearest feature line (NFL)

paper_content:

Query by key frame or video example is a convenient and often effective way to search in video database. This paper proposes a new approach to support such searches. The main contribution of the proposed approach is the consideration of both feature extraction and distance computation as a whole process. With a video shot represented by key-frames corresponding to feature points in a feature space, a new metric is defined to measure the distance between a query image and a shot based on the concept of Nearest Feature Line (NFL). We propose to use the “breakpoints” of feature trajectory of a video shot as the key frames and use the lines passing through these points to represent the shot. When combined with the NFL method, it helps to achieve a better performance, as evidenced by experiments.
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Title: Video Authentication- An Overview

Section 1: INTRODUCTION
Description 1: Describe the significance of information in society, challenges posed by digital manipulation, and the need for video authentication in various applications.

Section 2: VIDEO TAMPERING
Description 2: Explain what video tampering is, the ease with which it can be done using modern tools, and the challenges it presents.

Section 3: Video Tampering Attacks
Description 3: Enumerate various types of video tampering attacks, discuss their classifications, and explain the importance of detecting the types and locations of malicious tampering.

Section 4: AUTHENTICATION TECHNIQUES
Description 4: Define what video authentication is, explain the general process of a video authentication system, and describe the desired properties of an effective authentication system.

Section 5: Classification of Authentication Techniques
Description 5: Discuss the broad categories of video authentication techniques including digital signature based techniques, watermark based techniques, intelligent techniques, and other authentication techniques.

Section 6: Digital Signature
Description 6: Detail how digital signature techniques work for video authentication, their robustness, application, and specific implementations with examples.

Section 7: Watermarking
Description 7: Explain the use of watermarking in video authentication, different watermarking techniques, and their applications along with examples.

Section 8: Intelligent Techniques
Description 8: Describe intelligent techniques that utilize databases and machine learning for video authentication, and provide examples of their implementation and advantages.

Section 9: Other Authentication Techniques
Description 9: Cover other miscellaneous video authentication techniques that do not fall under the categories of digital signatures, watermarking, or intelligent techniques.

Section 10: CHALLENGING SCENARIOS FOR VIDEO AUTHENTICATION
Description 10: Explore specific challenging scenarios in video authentication, such as event-based surveillance systems, frame dropping issues, and identify the limitations of conventional techniques in these contexts.

Section 11: SUMMARY
Description 11: Summarize the discussed techniques, their strengths, and weaknesses, particularly noting the growing importance of intelligent techniques in video authentication.

Section 12: CONCLUSION
Description 12: Conclude by emphasizing the importance of developing robust and comprehensive video authentication techniques to meet the demands of varying applications and future challenges.