Children in the information technology design process: A review of theories and their applications
---
paper_title: The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology

paper_content:

This paper suggests a framework for understanding the roles that children can play in the technology design process, particularly in regards to designing technologies that support learning. Each role, user, tester, informant and design partner has been defined based upon a review of the literature and the author's own laboratory research experiences. This discussion does not suggest that any one role is appropriate for all research or development needs. Instead, by understanding this framework the reader may be able to make more informed decisions about the design processes they choose to use with children in creating new technologies. This paper will present for each role a historical overview, research and development methods, as well as the strengths, challenges and unique contributions associated with children in the design process.
---
paper_title: Cooperative inquiry: developing new technologies for children with children

paper_content:

In todays homes and schools, children are emerging as frequentand experienced users of technology [3, 14]. As this trendcontinues, it becomes increasingly important to ask if we arefulfilling the technology needs of our children. To answer thisquestion, I have developed a research approach that enables youngchildren to have a voice throughout the technology developmentprocess. In this paper, the techniques of cooperativeinquiry will be described along with a theoretical frameworkthat situates this work in the HCI literature. Two examples oftechnology resulting from this approach will be presented, alongwith a brief discussion on the design-centered learning ofteam researchers using cooperative inquiry.
---
paper_title: Children as Our Technology Design Partners

paper_content:

+ To be published in Fall 1998 by Morgan Kaufmann as a chapter in the book: The Design of Children’s Technology: How We Design, What We Design and Why, edited by Allison Druin. ABSTRACT “That’s silly!” “I’m bored!” “I like that!” “Why do I have to do this?” “What is this for?” These are all important responses and questions that come from children. As our design partners in developing new technologies, children can offer bluntly honest views of their world. They have their own likes, dislikes, and needs that are not the same as adults’ (Druin, Stewart, Proft, Bederson, & Hollan, 1997). As the development of new technologies for children becomes commonplace in industry and university research labs, children’s input into the design and development process is critical. We need to establish new development methodologies that enable us to stop and listen, and learn to collaborate with children of all ages. In the chapter that follows, a discussion of new research methodologies will be presented.
---
paper_title: The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology

paper_content:

This paper suggests a framework for understanding the roles that children can play in the technology design process, particularly in regards to designing technologies that support learning. Each role, user, tester, informant and design partner has been defined based upon a review of the literature and the author's own laboratory research experiences. This discussion does not suggest that any one role is appropriate for all research or development needs. Instead, by understanding this framework the reader may be able to make more informed decisions about the design processes they choose to use with children in creating new technologies. This paper will present for each role a historical overview, research and development methods, as well as the strengths, challenges and unique contributions associated with children in the design process.
---
paper_title: Designing for or designing with? Informant design for interactive learning environments

paper_content:

The value of involving people as ‘users’ or ‘participants’ in the design process is increasingly becoming a point of debate. In this paper we describe a new framework, called ‘informant design’, which advocates efficiency of input from different people: maximizing the value of contributions tlom various informants and design team members at different stages of the design process. To illustrate how this can be achieved we describe a project that uses children and teachers as informants at difTerent stages to help us design an interactive learning environment for teaching ecology.
---
paper_title: Learner-centered design: the challenge for HCI in the 21st century

paper_content:

In the 1980's a major transformation took place in the computing world: attention was finally being paid to making computers easier-to-use. You know the history: in the 1970's folks at Xerox were exploring so-called personal computers and developing graphical, point-and-click interfaces. The goal was to make using computers less cognitively taxing, there- by permitting the user to focus more mental cycles on getting the job done. For some time people had recognized that there would be benefits if users could interact with computers using visual cues and motor movements instead of testu- al/linguistic strings. However, computer cycles were costly; they could hardly be wasted on supporting a non-textual interface. There was barely enough zorch (i.e., computer power, measured in your favorite unit) to simply calculate the payroll.
---
paper_title: Learner-centered design: the challenge for HCI in the 21st century

paper_content:

In the 1980's a major transformation took place in the computing world: attention was finally being paid to making computers easier-to-use. You know the history: in the 1970's folks at Xerox were exploring so-called personal computers and developing graphical, point-and-click interfaces. The goal was to make using computers less cognitively taxing, there- by permitting the user to focus more mental cycles on getting the job done. For some time people had recognized that there would be benefits if users could interact with computers using visual cues and motor movements instead of testu- al/linguistic strings. However, computer cycles were costly; they could hardly be wasted on supporting a non-textual interface. There was barely enough zorch (i.e., computer power, measured in your favorite unit) to simply calculate the payroll.
---
paper_title: The role of usability research in designing children's computer products

paper_content:

A flexible pipe joint comprising a cylindrical tie member for tieing the ends of pipes together and a flexible envelope for fluid flow conduction between the pipes. The tie member comprises a plurality of annular series of parallel tie bars arranged co-axially and there is adjustable mounting means for the tie member in the envelope for enabling the tie member to accommodate misalignment of the pipes on installation. Further misalignment produced by thermal expansion of the pipes is accommodated by the tie member by uniform flexing of the tie bars.
---
paper_title: Designing a Digital Library for Young Children: An Intergenerational Partnership

paper_content:

ABSTRACT As more information resources become accessible using computers, our digital interfaces to those resources need to be appropriate for all people. However when it comes to digital libraries, the interfaces have typically been designed for older children or adults. Therefore, we have begun to develop a digital library interface developmentally appropriate for young children (ages 5–10 years old). Our prototype system we now call “SearchKids” offers a graphical interface for querying, browsing and reviewing search results. This paper describes our motivation for the research, the design partnership we established between children and adults, our design process, the technology outcomes of our current work, and the lessons we have learned. Categories and Subject Descriptors H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User Interfaces - graphical user interfaces, interaction styles, screen design, user-centered design. H.3.7 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Digital Libraries - user issues. H.3.3 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Information Search and Retrieval - query formulation. D.2.1 [Software Engineering]: Requirements/Specifications - elicitation methods. General Terms Design, Human Factors.
---
paper_title: Children's Use of the Yahooligans! Web Search Engine : I. Cognitive, Physical, and Affective Behaviors on Fact-based Search Tasks

paper_content:

This study reports on the first part of a research project that investigated children’s cognitive, affective, and physical behaviors as they use the Yahooligans! search engine to find information on a specific search task. Twenty-two seventh-grade science children from a middle school located in Knoxville, Tennessee participated in the project. Their cognitive and physical behaviors were captured using Lotus ScreenCam, a Windowsbased software package that captures and replays activities recorded in Web browsers, such as Netscape. Their affective states were captured via a one-on-one exit interview. A new measure called “Web Traversal Measure” was developed to measure children’s “weighted” traversal effectiveness and efficiency scores, as well as their quality moves in Yahooligans! Children’s prior experience in using the Internet/Web and their knowledge of the Yahooligans! interface were gathered via a questionnaire. The findings provided insights into children’s behaviors and success, as their weighted traversal effectiveness and efficiency scores, as well as quality moves. Implications for user training and system design are discussed.
---
paper_title: KidPad: a design collaboration between children, technologists, and educators

paper_content:

We established an interdisciplinmy, intergenemtional collaboration in the fidl of 1995, between the University of New Mexico’s Computer Science Departmen4 the College of Fducatiou and local Albuquerque elementary school children. The goal of this reaeamh was to develop an expressive digital medium with an intuitive zooming - to support a learning environment tbr children. In the _ of this eollaboratio~ design methodologies that support a child’s role in the development of new technologies WE explored. What follows is a summary of our iterative design experience, collaboration, and the results of the resuch to date.
---
paper_title: Children as Our Technology Design Partners

paper_content:

+ To be published in Fall 1998 by Morgan Kaufmann as a chapter in the book: The Design of Children’s Technology: How We Design, What We Design and Why, edited by Allison Druin. ABSTRACT “That’s silly!” “I’m bored!” “I like that!” “Why do I have to do this?” “What is this for?” These are all important responses and questions that come from children. As our design partners in developing new technologies, children can offer bluntly honest views of their world. They have their own likes, dislikes, and needs that are not the same as adults’ (Druin, Stewart, Proft, Bederson, & Hollan, 1997). As the development of new technologies for children becomes commonplace in industry and university research labs, children’s input into the design and development process is critical. We need to establish new development methodologies that enable us to stop and listen, and learn to collaborate with children of all ages. In the chapter that follows, a discussion of new research methodologies will be presented.
---
paper_title: Designing Web Usability

paper_content:

Preface. 1. Introduction: Why Web Usability? 2. Page Design. 3. Content Design. 4. Site Design. 5. Intranet Design. 6. Accessibility for Users with Disabilities. 7. International Use: Serving A Global Audience. 8. Future Predictions: The Only Web Constant Is Change. 9. Conclusion: Simplicity in Web Design. Recommended Readings. Index.
---
paper_title: Children Design Their Interfaces for Web Search Engines: A Participatory Approach

paper_content:

This study involved eleven seventh-grade children in designing interfaces for Web search engines that meet their needs. Using a participatory approach, children drew interfaces and articulated their purposes. The layouts of these interfaces varied, but the features/capabilities described in them were similar. These were, keyword searching with instructions; natural language/phrase. . .
---
paper_title: The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology

paper_content:

This paper suggests a framework for understanding the roles that children can play in the technology design process, particularly in regards to designing technologies that support learning. Each role, user, tester, informant and design partner has been defined based upon a review of the literature and the author's own laboratory research experiences. This discussion does not suggest that any one role is appropriate for all research or development needs. Instead, by understanding this framework the reader may be able to make more informed decisions about the design processes they choose to use with children in creating new technologies. This paper will present for each role a historical overview, research and development methods, as well as the strengths, challenges and unique contributions associated with children in the design process.
---
paper_title: The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology

paper_content:

This paper suggests a framework for understanding the roles that children can play in the technology design process, particularly in regards to designing technologies that support learning. Each role, user, tester, informant and design partner has been defined based upon a review of the literature and the author's own laboratory research experiences. This discussion does not suggest that any one role is appropriate for all research or development needs. Instead, by understanding this framework the reader may be able to make more informed decisions about the design processes they choose to use with children in creating new technologies. This paper will present for each role a historical overview, research and development methods, as well as the strengths, challenges and unique contributions associated with children in the design process.
---
paper_title: Designing Web Usability

paper_content:

Preface. 1. Introduction: Why Web Usability? 2. Page Design. 3. Content Design. 4. Site Design. 5. Intranet Design. 6. Accessibility for Users with Disabilities. 7. International Use: Serving A Global Audience. 8. Future Predictions: The Only Web Constant Is Change. 9. Conclusion: Simplicity in Web Design. Recommended Readings. Index.
---
paper_title: An Applied Ethnographic Method for Redesigning User Interfaces

paper_content:

Methods for observing software users in the workplace will become increasingly important as the number of people using computers grows and developers improve existing systems. Successful redesigns rely, in part, on complete and accurate evaluations of the existing systems. Based on our evaluation experience, we have derived a set of practical guidelines to be used by designers in preparing for the evaluation, performing the field study, analyzing the data, and reporting the findings. By providing a general framework based on ethnographic research, we hope to reduce the likelihood of some common problems, such as overlooking important information and misinterpreting observations. Examples from our ongoing work with the Maryland Department of Juvenile Justice are used to illustrate the proposed guidelines.
---
paper_title: The role of usability research in designing children's computer products

paper_content:

A flexible pipe joint comprising a cylindrical tie member for tieing the ends of pipes together and a flexible envelope for fluid flow conduction between the pipes. The tie member comprises a plurality of annular series of parallel tie bars arranged co-axially and there is adjustable mounting means for the tie member in the envelope for enabling the tie member to accommodate misalignment of the pipes on installation. Further misalignment produced by thermal expansion of the pipes is accommodated by the tie member by uniform flexing of the tie bars.
---
paper_title: Cooperative inquiry: developing new technologies for children with children

paper_content:

In todays homes and schools, children are emerging as frequentand experienced users of technology [3, 14]. As this trendcontinues, it becomes increasingly important to ask if we arefulfilling the technology needs of our children. To answer thisquestion, I have developed a research approach that enables youngchildren to have a voice throughout the technology developmentprocess. In this paper, the techniques of cooperativeinquiry will be described along with a theoretical frameworkthat situates this work in the HCI literature. Two examples oftechnology resulting from this approach will be presented, alongwith a brief discussion on the design-centered learning ofteam researchers using cooperative inquiry.
---
paper_title: Designing Web Usability

paper_content:

Preface. 1. Introduction: Why Web Usability? 2. Page Design. 3. Content Design. 4. Site Design. 5. Intranet Design. 6. Accessibility for Users with Disabilities. 7. International Use: Serving A Global Audience. 8. Future Predictions: The Only Web Constant Is Change. 9. Conclusion: Simplicity in Web Design. Recommended Readings. Index.
---
paper_title: The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology

paper_content:

This paper suggests a framework for understanding the roles that children can play in the technology design process, particularly in regards to designing technologies that support learning. Each role, user, tester, informant and design partner has been defined based upon a review of the literature and the author's own laboratory research experiences. This discussion does not suggest that any one role is appropriate for all research or development needs. Instead, by understanding this framework the reader may be able to make more informed decisions about the design processes they choose to use with children in creating new technologies. This paper will present for each role a historical overview, research and development methods, as well as the strengths, challenges and unique contributions associated with children in the design process.
---
paper_title: Designing a Digital Library for Young Children: An Intergenerational Partnership

paper_content:

ABSTRACT As more information resources become accessible using computers, our digital interfaces to those resources need to be appropriate for all people. However when it comes to digital libraries, the interfaces have typically been designed for older children or adults. Therefore, we have begun to develop a digital library interface developmentally appropriate for young children (ages 5–10 years old). Our prototype system we now call “SearchKids” offers a graphical interface for querying, browsing and reviewing search results. This paper describes our motivation for the research, the design partnership we established between children and adults, our design process, the technology outcomes of our current work, and the lessons we have learned. Categories and Subject Descriptors H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User Interfaces - graphical user interfaces, interaction styles, screen design, user-centered design. H.3.7 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Digital Libraries - user issues. H.3.3 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Information Search and Retrieval - query formulation. D.2.1 [Software Engineering]: Requirements/Specifications - elicitation methods. General Terms Design, Human Factors.
---
paper_title: KidPad: a design collaboration between children, technologists, and educators

paper_content:

We established an interdisciplinmy, intergenemtional collaboration in the fidl of 1995, between the University of New Mexico’s Computer Science Departmen4 the College of Fducatiou and local Albuquerque elementary school children. The goal of this reaeamh was to develop an expressive digital medium with an intuitive zooming - to support a learning environment tbr children. In the _ of this eollaboratio~ design methodologies that support a child’s role in the development of new technologies WE explored. What follows is a summary of our iterative design experience, collaboration, and the results of the resuch to date.
---
paper_title: Designing a Digital Library for Young Children: An Intergenerational Partnership

paper_content:

ABSTRACT As more information resources become accessible using computers, our digital interfaces to those resources need to be appropriate for all people. However when it comes to digital libraries, the interfaces have typically been designed for older children or adults. Therefore, we have begun to develop a digital library interface developmentally appropriate for young children (ages 5–10 years old). Our prototype system we now call “SearchKids” offers a graphical interface for querying, browsing and reviewing search results. This paper describes our motivation for the research, the design partnership we established between children and adults, our design process, the technology outcomes of our current work, and the lessons we have learned. Categories and Subject Descriptors H.5.2 [Information Interfaces and Presentation]: User Interfaces - graphical user interfaces, interaction styles, screen design, user-centered design. H.3.7 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Digital Libraries - user issues. H.3.3 [Information Storage and Retrieval]: Information Search and Retrieval - query formulation. D.2.1 [Software Engineering]: Requirements/Specifications - elicitation methods. General Terms Design, Human Factors.
---
paper_title: Designing a children's digital library with and for children

paper_content:

This paper describes preliminary work carried out to design a children's digital library of stories and poems with and for children aged 11-14 years old. We describe our experience in engaging children as design partners, and propose a digital library environment and design features to provide an engaging, successful learning experience for children using it for collaborative writing.
---
paper_title: Children's Use of the Yahooligans! Web Search Engine : I. Cognitive, Physical, and Affective Behaviors on Fact-based Search Tasks

paper_content:

This study reports on the first part of a research project that investigated children’s cognitive, affective, and physical behaviors as they use the Yahooligans! search engine to find information on a specific search task. Twenty-two seventh-grade science children from a middle school located in Knoxville, Tennessee participated in the project. Their cognitive and physical behaviors were captured using Lotus ScreenCam, a Windowsbased software package that captures and replays activities recorded in Web browsers, such as Netscape. Their affective states were captured via a one-on-one exit interview. A new measure called “Web Traversal Measure” was developed to measure children’s “weighted” traversal effectiveness and efficiency scores, as well as their quality moves in Yahooligans! Children’s prior experience in using the Internet/Web and their knowledge of the Yahooligans! interface were gathered via a questionnaire. The findings provided insights into children’s behaviors and success, as their weighted traversal effectiveness and efficiency scores, as well as quality moves. Implications for user training and system design are discussed.
---
paper_title: Design criteria for children’s web portals: The users speak out

paper_content:

Four focus groups were held with young Web users (10 to 13 years of age) to explore design criteria for Web portals. The focus group participants commented upon four existing portals designed with young users in mind: Ask Jeeves for Kids, KidsClick, Lycos Zone, and Yahooligans! This article reports their first impressions on using these portals, their likes and dislikes, and their suggestions for improvements. Design criteria for children's Web portals are elaborated based upon these comments under four headings: portal goals, visual design, information architecture, and personalization. An ideal portal should cater for both educational and entertainment needs, use attractive screen designs based especially on effective use of color, graphics, and animation, provide both keyword search facilities and browsable subject categories, and allow individual user personalization in areas such as color and graphics.
---
paper_title: Children Design Their Interfaces for Web Search Engines: A Participatory Approach

paper_content:

This study involved eleven seventh-grade children in designing interfaces for Web search engines that meet their needs. Using a participatory approach, children drew interfaces and articulated their purposes. The layouts of these interfaces varied, but the features/capabilities described in them were similar. These were, keyword searching with instructions; natural language/phrase. . .
---
paper_title: The role of usability research in designing children's computer products

paper_content:

A flexible pipe joint comprising a cylindrical tie member for tieing the ends of pipes together and a flexible envelope for fluid flow conduction between the pipes. The tie member comprises a plurality of annular series of parallel tie bars arranged co-axially and there is adjustable mounting means for the tie member in the envelope for enabling the tie member to accommodate misalignment of the pipes on installation. Further misalignment produced by thermal expansion of the pipes is accommodated by the tie member by uniform flexing of the tie bars.
---
paper_title: Designing for or designing with? Informant design for interactive learning environments

paper_content:

The value of involving people as ‘users’ or ‘participants’ in the design process is increasingly becoming a point of debate. In this paper we describe a new framework, called ‘informant design’, which advocates efficiency of input from different people: maximizing the value of contributions tlom various informants and design team members at different stages of the design process. To illustrate how this can be achieved we describe a project that uses children and teachers as informants at difTerent stages to help us design an interactive learning environment for teaching ecology.
---
paper_title: Designing a children's digital library with and for children

paper_content:

This paper describes preliminary work carried out to design a children's digital library of stories and poems with and for children aged 11-14 years old. We describe our experience in engaging children as design partners, and propose a digital library environment and design features to provide an engaging, successful learning experience for children using it for collaborative writing.
---

Title: Children in the Information Technology Design Process: A Review of Theories and Their Applications

Section 1: Introduction
Description 1: Provide an overview of the evolution of design theories in commercial software companies, focusing on the importance of understanding user needs and the role of usability. Mention the aim of the paper to explore design theories and studies involving children in the design process.

Section 2: Design theories and children
Description 2: Discuss the adaptation and adoption of design theories for children's technology development.

Section 3: User-centered design
Description 3: Explain the history and process of user-centered design, its focus on user impact, methods employed, and its advantages and drawbacks when applied to children.

Section 4: Participatory design
Description 4: Describe the origins of participatory design, its principles, techniques, and suitability for involving children in the design process.

Section 5: Cooperative inquiry
Description 5: Outline the cooperative inquiry approach developed by Druin, its combination of techniques from different methodologies, and its application in working with children as full design partners.

Section 6: Informant design
Description 6: Introduce informant design, developed by Scaife and colleagues to address issues with user-centered and participatory approaches, and explain its phases and application with children.

Section 7: Learner-centered design
Description 7: Present learner-centered design as proposed by Soloway et al., focusing on scaffolding techniques, and discuss its adaptation for children as active participants in the design process.

Section 8: Designing for children and children as designers
Description 8: Review the debate on involving children in the design process, highlighting arguments for and against, and the benefits and challenges of including children as designers.

Section 9: The role of children in the design process
Description 9: Define the four roles children can play in the design process as identified by Druin: user, tester, informant, and design partner, detailing their impact and involvement.

Section 10: Usability
Description 10: Discuss the concept of usability within the context of software design, its definitions, attributes, and significance in creating user-centered technologies.

Section 11: Usability studies and children
Description 11: Address the importance of usability studies specifically for children's software, challenges, and methodologies for involving children in these studies.

Section 12: Children as designers in practice
Description 12: Provide examples of projects where children have been involved as designers, discussing methodologies, outcomes, and the impact on the final products.

Section 13: Conclusion
Description 13: Summarize the findings on the importance and methods of involving children in the design process, acknowledging both benefits and drawbacks, and suggest areas for further research.