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12	Anarchism	Anarchism is a political philosophy and movement that seeks to abolish all institutions that perpetuate authority, coercion, or hierarchy, primarily targeting the state and capitalism. Anarchism advocates for the replacement of the state with stateless societies and voluntary free associations. A historically left-wing movement, anarchism is usually described as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement (libertarian socialism). Although traces of anarchist ideas are found all throughout history, modern anarchism emerged from the Enlightenment. During the latter half of the 19th and the first decades of the 20th century, the anarchist movement flourished in most parts of the world and had a significant role in workers' struggles for emancipation. Various anarchist schools of thought formed during this period. Anarchists have taken part in several revolutions, most notably in the Paris Commune, the Russian Civil War and the Spanish Civil War, whose end marked the end of the classical era of anarchism. In the last decades of the 20th and into the 21st century, the anarchist movement has been resurgent once more, growing in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists employ diverse approaches, which may be generally divided into revolutionary and evolutionary strategies; there is significant overlap between the two. Evolutionary methods try to simulate what an anarchist society might be like, but revolutionary tactics, which have historically taken a violent turn, aim to overthrow authority and the state. Many facets of human civilization have been influenced by anarchist theory, critique, and praxis. Etymology, terminology, and definition is an example of a writer who added to anarchist theory without using the exact term.]] The etymological origin of anarchism is from the Ancient Greek anarkhia (ἀναρχία), meaning "without a ruler", composed of the prefix an- ("without") and the word arkhos ("leader" or "ruler"). The suffix -ism denotes the ideological current that favours anarchy. Anarchism appears in English from 1642 as anarchisme and anarchy from 1539; early English usages emphasised a sense of disorder. Various factions within the French Revolution labelled their opponents as anarchists, although few such accused shared many views with later anarchists. Many revolutionaries of the 19th century such as William Godwin (1756–1836) and Wilhelm Weitling (1808–1871) would contribute to the anarchist doctrines of the next generation but did not use anarchist or anarchism in describing themselves or their beliefs. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist () was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865), marking the formal birth of anarchism in the mid-19th century. Since the 1890s and beginning in France, libertarianism has often been used as a synonym for anarchism; its use as a synonym is still common outside the United States. Some usages of libertarianism refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, and free-market anarchism in particular is termed libertarian anarchism. While the term libertarian has been largely synonymous with anarchism, its meaning has more recently been diluted by wider adoption from ideologically disparate groups, including both the New Left and libertarian Marxists, who do not associate themselves with authoritarian socialists or a vanguard party, and extreme cultural liberals, who are primarily concerned with civil liberties. Additionally, some anarchists use libertarian socialist to avoid anarchism's negative connotations and emphasise its connections with socialism. Anarchism is broadly used to describe the anti-authoritarian wing of the socialist movement. anarchist historian Daniel Guérin described it as a synonym for libertarian socialism, and wrote that anarchism "is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State." In his many works on anarchism, historian Noam Chomsky describes anarchism, alongside libertarian Marxism, as the libertarian wing of socialism.\|groupnb}} Anarchism is contrasted to socialist forms which are state-oriented or from above. Scholars of anarchism generally highlight anarchism's socialist credentials and criticise attempts at creating dichotomies between the two. Some scholars describe anarchism as having many influences from liberalism, and being both liberal and socialist but more so. Many scholars reject anarcho-capitalism as a misunderstanding of anarchist principles. Peter Marshall states that "[i]n general anarchism is closer to socialism than liberalism. ... Anarchism finds itself largely in the socialist camp, but it also has outriders in liberalism. It cannot be reduced to socialism, and is best seen as a separate and distinctive doctrine." According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas", referring to anarcho-capitalism, "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." Jennings adds that "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community." Nicolas Walter wrote that "anarchism does derive from liberalism and socialism both historically and ideologically. ... In a sense, anarchists always remain liberals and socialists, and whenever they reject what is good in either they betray anarchism itself. ... We are liberals but more so, and socialists but more so." Michael Newman includes anarchism as one of many socialist traditions, especially the more socialist-aligned tradition following Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin. Brian Morris argues that it is "conceptually and historically misleading" to "create a dichotomy between socialism and anarchism."\|groupnb}} While opposition to the state is central to anarchist thought, defining anarchism is not an easy task for scholars, as there is a lot of discussion among scholars and anarchists on the matter, and various currents perceive anarchism slightly differently. and etymology (negation of rulers).\|groupnb}} Major definitional elements include the will for a non-coercive society, the rejection of the state apparatus, the belief that human nature allows humans to exist in or progress toward such a non-coercive society, and a suggestion on how to act to pursue the ideal of anarchy. History Pre-modern era (), whose Republic inspired Peter Kropotkin]] The most notable precursors to anarchism in the ancient world were in China and Greece. In China, philosophical anarchism (the discussion on the legitimacy of the state) was delineated by Taoist philosophers Zhuang Zhou and Laozi. Alongside Stoicism, Taoism has been said to have had "significant anticipations" of anarchism. Anarchic attitudes were also articulated by tragedians and philosophers in Greece. Aeschylus and Sophocles used the myth of Antigone to illustrate the conflict between laws imposed by the state and personal autonomy. Socrates questioned Athenian authorities constantly and insisted on the right of individual freedom of conscience. Cynics dismissed human law (nomos) and associated authorities while trying to live according to nature (physis). Stoics were supportive of a society based on unofficial and friendly relations among its citizens without the presence of a state. In medieval Europe, there was no anarchistic activity except some ascetic religious movements. These, and other Muslim movements, later gave birth to religious anarchism. In the Sasanian Empire, Mazdak called for an egalitarian society and the abolition of monarchy, only to be soon executed by Emperor Kavad I. In Basra, religious sects preached against the state. In Europe, various religious sects developed anti-state and libertarian tendencies. Renewed interest in antiquity during the Renaissance and in private judgment during the Reformation restored elements of anti-authoritarian secularism in Europe, particularly in France. Enlightenment challenges to intellectual authority (secular and religious) and the revolutions of the 1790s and 1848 all spurred the ideological development of what became the era of classical anarchism. Modern era During the French Revolution, partisan groups such as the Enragés and the saw a turning point in the fermentation of anti-state and federalist sentiments. The first anarchist currents developed throughout the 18th century as William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England, morally delegitimising the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France. By the late 1870s, various anarchist schools of thought had become well-defined and a wave of then-unprecedented globalisation occurred from 1880 to 1914. This era of classical anarchism lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War and is considered the golden age of anarchism. and allied himself with the federalists in the First International before his expulsion by the Marxists.]] Drawing from mutualism, Mikhail Bakunin founded collectivist anarchism and entered the International Workingmen's Association, a class worker union later known as the First International that formed in 1864 to unite diverse revolutionary currents. The International became a significant political force, with Karl Marx being a leading figure and a member of its General Council. Bakunin's faction (the Jura Federation) and Proudhon's followers (the mutualists) opposed state socialism, advocating political abstentionism and small property holdings. After bitter disputes, the Bakuninists were expelled from the International by the Marxists at the 1872 Hague Congress. Anarchists were treated similarly in the Second International, being ultimately expelled in 1896. Bakunin predicted that if revolutionaries gained power by Marx's terms, they would end up the new tyrants of workers. In response to their expulsion from the First International, anarchists formed the St. Imier International. Under the influence of Peter Kropotkin, a Russian philosopher and scientist, anarcho-communism overlapped with collectivism. Anarcho-communists, who drew inspiration from the 1871 Paris Commune, advocated for free federation and for the distribution of goods according to one's needs. By the turn of the 20th century, anarchism had spread all over the world. It was a notable feature of the international syndicalist movement. In China, small groups of students imported the humanistic pro-science version of anarcho-communism. Tokyo was a hotspot for rebellious youth from East Asian countries, who moved to the Japanese capital to study. In Latin America, Argentina was a stronghold for anarcho-syndicalism, where it became the most prominent left-wing ideology. During this time, a minority of anarchists adopted tactics of revolutionary political violence, known as propaganda of the deed. The dismemberment of the French socialist movement into many groups and the execution and exile of many Communards to penal colonies following the suppression of the Paris Commune favoured individualist political expression and acts. Even though many anarchists distanced themselves from these terrorist acts, infamy came upon the movement and attempts were made to prevent anarchists immigrating to the US, including the Immigration Act of 1903, also called the Anarchist Exclusion Act. Illegalism was another strategy which some anarchists adopted during this period. ]] Despite concerns, anarchists enthusiastically participated in the Russian Revolution in opposition to the White movement, especially in the Makhnovshchina; however, they met harsh suppression after the Bolshevik government had stabilised, including during the Kronstadt rebellion. Several anarchists from Petrograd and Moscow fled to Ukraine, before the Bolsheviks crushed the anarchist movement there too. With the anarchists being repressed in Russia, two new antithetical currents emerged, namely platformism and synthesis anarchism. The former sought to create a coherent group that would push for revolution while the latter were against anything that would resemble a political party. Seeing the victories of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War, many workers and activists turned to communist parties, which grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the United States, members of major syndicalist movements such as the General Confederation of Labour and the Industrial Workers of the World left their organisations and joined the Communist International. In the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39, anarchists and syndicalists (CNT and FAI) once again allied themselves with various currents of leftists. A long tradition of Spanish anarchism led to anarchists playing a pivotal role in the war, and particularly in the Spanish Revolution of 1936. In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist-inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain, where they collectivised the land. The Soviet Union provided some limited assistance at the beginning of the war, but the result was a bitter fight between communists and other leftists in a series of events known as the May Days, as Joseph Stalin asserted Soviet control of the Republican government, ending in another defeat of anarchists at the hands of the communists. Post-WWII support efforts for workers to form cooperatives is exemplified in this sewing cooperative.]] By the end of World War II, the anarchist movement had been severely weakened. The 1960s witnessed a revival of anarchism, likely caused by a perceived failure of Marxism–Leninism and tensions built by the Cold War. During this time, anarchism found a presence in other movements critical towards both capitalism and the state such as the anti-nuclear, environmental, and peace movements, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the New Left. It also saw a transition from its previous revolutionary nature to provocative anti-capitalist reformism. Anarchism became associated with punk subculture as exemplified by bands such as Crass and the Sex Pistols. The established feminist tendencies of anarcha-feminism returned with vigour during the second wave of feminism. Black anarchism began to take form at this time and influenced anarchism's move from a Eurocentric demographic. This coincided with its failure to gain traction in Northern Europe and its unprecedented height in Latin America. Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence within anti-capitalist, anti-war and anti-globalisation movements. Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Group of Eight and the World Economic Forum. During the protests, ad hoc leaderless anonymous cadres known as black blocs engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. Other organisational tactics pioneered at this time include affinity groups, security culture and the use of decentralised technologies such as the Internet. A significant event of this period was the confrontations at the 1999 Seattle WTO conference. Anarchist ideas have been influential in the development of the Zapatistas in Mexico and the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, more commonly known as Rojava, a de facto autonomous region in northern Syria. While having revolutionary aspirations, many contemporary forms of anarchism are not confrontational. Instead, they are trying to build an alternative way of social organization (following the theories of dual power), based on mutual interdependence and voluntary cooperation. Scholar Carissa Honeywell takes the example of Food Not Bombs group of collectives, to highlight some features of how contemporary anarchist groups work: direct action, working together and in solidarity with those left behind. While doing so, Food Not Bombs provides consciousness raising about the rising rates of world hunger and suggest policies to tackle hunger, ranging from de-funding the arms industry to addressing Monsanto seed-saving policies and patents, helping farmers, and resisting the commodification of food and housing. Honeywell also emphasizes that contemporary anarchists are interested in the flourishing not only of humans, but non-humans and the environment as well. Honeywell argues that their analysis of capitalism and governments results in anarchists rejecting representative democracy and the state as a whole. Schools of thought <span class"anchor" id"Branches"></span> Anarchist schools of thought have been generally grouped into two main historical traditions, social anarchism and individualist anarchism, owing to their different origins, values and evolution. The individualist current emphasises negative liberty in opposing restraints upon the free individual, while the social current emphasises positive liberty in aiming to achieve the free potential of society through equality and social ownership. In a chronological sense, anarchism can be segmented by the classical currents of the late 19th century and the post-classical currents (anarcha-feminism, green anarchism, and post-anarchism) developed thereafter. Beyond the specific factions of anarchist movements which constitute political anarchism lies philosophical anarchism which holds that the state lacks moral legitimacy, without necessarily accepting the imperative of revolution to eliminate it. A component especially of individualist anarchism, philosophical anarchism may tolerate the existence of a minimal state but claims that citizens have no moral obligation to obey government when it conflicts with individual autonomy. Backgrounds as diverse as Objectivism and Kantianism relevantly advance arguments in favor of philosophical anarchism, including Wolff's defense of anarchism against formal methods for legitimating it. Anarchism pays significant attention to moral arguments since ethics have a central role in anarchist philosophy. Anarchism's emphasis on anti-capitalism, egalitarianism, and for the extension of community and individuality sets it apart from anarcho-capitalism and other types of economic libertarianism. Anarchism is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum, though many reject state authority from conservative principles, such as anarcho-capitalists. Much of its economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist, libertarian, and radical interpretations of left-wing and socialist politics such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism, and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist economic theories. As anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a single particular worldview, many anarchist types and traditions exist and varieties of anarchy diverge widely. One reaction against sectarianism within the anarchist milieu was anarchism without adjectives, a call for toleration and unity among anarchists first adopted by Fernando Tarrida del Mármol in 1889 in response to the bitter debates of anarchist theory at the time. Belief in political nihilism has been espoused by anarchists. Despite separation, the various anarchist schools of thought are not seen as distinct entities but rather as tendencies that intermingle and are connected through a set of shared principles such as autonomy, mutual aid, anti-authoritarianism and decentralisation. Classical is the primary proponent of mutualism and influenced many future individualist anarchist and social anarchist thinkers.]] Inceptive currents among classical anarchist currents were mutualism and individualism. They were followed by the major currents of social anarchism (collectivist, communist and syndicalist). They differ on organisational and economic aspects of their ideal society. Mutualism is an 18th-century economic theory that was developed into anarchist theory by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Its aims include "abolishing the state", reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and monetary reform of both credit and currency that would be regulated by a bank of the people. Mutualism has been retrospectively characterised as ideologically situated between individualist and collectivist forms of anarchism. In What Is Property? (1840), Proudhon first characterised his goal as a "third form of society, the synthesis of communism and property." Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary socialist form of anarchism commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin. Collectivist anarchists advocate collective ownership of the means of production which is theorised to be achieved through violent revolution and that workers be paid according to time worked, rather than goods being distributed according to need as in communism. Collectivist anarchism arose alongside Marxism but rejected the dictatorship of the proletariat despite the stated Marxist goal of a collectivist stateless society. Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism that advocates a communist society with common ownership of the means of production, held by a federal network of voluntary associations, with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Anarcho-communism developed from radical socialist currents after the French Revolution but was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. It was later expanded upon in the theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin, whose specific style would go onto become the dominating view of anarchists by the late 19th century. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of anarchism that views labour syndicates as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society democratically self-managed by workers. The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are direct action, workers' solidarity and workers' self-management. Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasise the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants. Early influences on individualist forms of anarchism include William Godwin, Max Stirner, and Henry David Thoreau. Through many countries, individualist anarchism attracted a small yet diverse following of Bohemian artists and intellectuals as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation. Post-classical and contemporary (right) are two prominent contemporary anarchist authors, with Zerzan being a prominent voice within anarcho-primitivism and Jarach a notable advocate of post-left anarchy.]] Anarchist principles undergird contemporary radical social movements of the left. Interest in the anarchist movement developed alongside momentum in the anti-globalisation movement, whose leading activist networks were anarchist in orientation. As the movement shaped 21st century radicalism, wider embrace of anarchist principles signaled a revival of interest. Anarchism has continued to generate many philosophies and movements, at times eclectic, drawing upon various sources and combining disparate concepts to create new philosophical approaches. The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within contemporary currents. Contemporary news coverage which emphasizes black bloc demonstrations has reinforced anarchism's historical association with chaos and violence. Its publicity has also led more scholars in fields such as anthropology and history to engage with the anarchist movement, although contemporary anarchism favours actions over academic theory. Various anarchist groups, tendencies, and schools of thought exist today, making it difficult to describe the contemporary anarchist movement. While theorists and activists have established "relatively stable constellations of anarchist principles", there is no consensus on which principles are core and commentators describe multiple anarchisms, rather than a singular anarchism, in which common principles are shared between schools of anarchism while each group prioritizes those principles differently. Gender equality can be a common principle, although it ranks as a higher priority to anarcha-feminists than anarcho-communists. Anarchists are generally committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism." Anarchist schools disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed. The principle of equal liberty is closer to anarchist political ethics in that it transcends both the liberal and socialist traditions. This entails that liberty and equality cannot be implemented within the state, resulting in the questioning of all forms of domination and hierarchy. Tactics Anarchists' tactics take various forms but in general serve two major goals, namely, to first oppose the Establishment and secondly to promote anarchist ethics and reflect an anarchist vision of society, illustrating the unity of means and ends. A broad categorisation can be made between aims to destroy oppressive states and institutions by revolutionary means on one hand and aims to change society through evolutionary means on the other. Evolutionary tactics embrace nonviolence and take a gradual approach to anarchist aims, although there is significant overlap between the two. Anarchist tactics have shifted during the course of the last century. Anarchists during the early 20th century focused more on strikes and militancy while contemporary anarchists use a broader array of approaches. Classical era is a controversial subject among anarchists as shown by anarchist Leon Czolgosz assassinating William McKinley.]] During the classical era, anarchists had a militant tendency. Not only did they confront state armed forces, as in Spain and Ukraine, but some of them also employed terrorism as propaganda of the deed. Assassination attempts were carried out against heads of state, some of which were successful. Anarchists also took part in revolutions. Many anarchists, especially the Galleanists, believed that these attempts would be the impetus for a revolution against capitalism and the state. Many of these attacks were done by individual assailants and the majority took place in the late 1870s, the early 1880s and the 1890s, with some still occurring in the early 1900s. Their decrease in prevalence was the result of further judicial power and of targeting and cataloging by state institutions. Anarchist perspectives towards violence have always been controversial. Anarcho-pacifists advocate for non-violence means to achieve their stateless, nonviolent ends. Other anarchist groups advocate direct action, a tactic which can include acts of sabotage or terrorism. This attitude was quite prominent a century ago when seeing the state as a tyrant and some anarchists believing that they had every right to oppose its oppression by any means possible. Emma Goldman and Errico Malatesta, who were proponents of limited use of violence, stated that violence is merely a reaction to state violence as a necessary evil. Anarchists took an active role in strike actions, although they tended to be antipathetic to formal syndicalism, seeing it as reformist. They saw it as a part of the movement which sought to overthrow the state and capitalism. Anarchists also reinforced their propaganda within the arts, some of whom practiced naturism and nudism. Those anarchists also built communities which were based on friendship and were involved in the news media. Revolutionary "]] In the current era, Italian anarchist Alfredo Bonanno, a proponent of insurrectionary anarchism, has reinstated the debate on violence by rejecting the nonviolence tactic adopted since the late 19th century by Kropotkin and other prominent anarchists afterwards. Both Bonanno and the French group The Invisible Committee advocate for small, informal affiliation groups, where each member is responsible for their own actions but works together to bring down oppression using sabotage and other violent means against state, capitalism, and other enemies. Members of The Invisible Committee were arrested in 2008 on various charges, terrorism included. Overall, contemporary anarchists are much less violent and militant than their ideological ancestors. They mostly engage in confronting the police during demonstrations and riots, especially in countries such as Canada, Greece, and Mexico. Militant black bloc protest groups are known for clashing with the police; however, anarchists not only clash with state operators, they also engage in the struggle against fascists, racists, and other bigots, taking anti-fascist action and mobilizing to prevent hate rallies from happening. Evolutionary Anarchists commonly employ direct action. This can take the form of disrupting and protesting against unjust hierarchy, or the form of self-managing their lives through the creation of counter-institutions such as communes and non-hierarchical collectives. Decision-making is often handled in an anti-authoritarian way, with everyone having equal say in each decision, an approach known as horizontalism. Contemporary-era anarchists have been engaging with various grassroots movements that are more or less based on horizontalism, although not explicitly anarchist, respecting personal autonomy and participating in mass activism such as strikes and demonstrations. In contrast with the "big-A Anarchism" of the classical era, the newly coined term "small-a anarchism" signals their tendency not to base their thoughts and actions on classical-era anarchism or to refer to classical anarchists such as Peter Kropotkin and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon to justify their opinions. Those anarchists would rather base their thought and praxis on their own experience, which they will later theorize. The concept of prefigurative politics is enacted by many contemporary anarchist groups, striving to embody the principles, organization and tactics of the changed social structure they hope to bring about. As part of this the decision-making process of small anarchist affinity groups plays a significant tactical role. Anarchists have employed various methods to build a rough consensus among members of their group without the need of a leader or a leading group. One way is for an individual from the group to play the role of facilitator to help achieve a consensus without taking part in the discussion themselves or promoting a specific point. Minorities usually accept rough consensus, except when they feel the proposal contradicts anarchist ethics, goals and values. Anarchists usually form small groups (5–20 individuals) to enhance autonomy and friendships among their members. These kinds of groups more often than not interconnect with each other, forming larger networks. Anarchists still support and participate in strikes, especially wildcat strikes as these are leaderless strikes not organised centrally by a syndicate. As in the past, newspapers and journals are used, and anarchists have gone online to spread their message. Anarchists have found it easier to create websites because of distributional and other difficulties, hosting electronic libraries and other portals. Anarchists were also involved in developing various software that are available for free. The way these hacktivists work to develop and distribute resembles the anarchist ideals, especially when it comes to preserving users' privacy from state surveillance. Anarchists organize themselves to squat and reclaim public spaces. During important events such as protests and when spaces are being occupied, they are often called Temporary Autonomous Zones (TAZ), spaces where art, poetry, and surrealism are blended to display the anarchist ideal. As seen by anarchists, squatting is a way to regain urban space from the capitalist market, serving pragmatical needs and also being an exemplary direct action. Acquiring space enables anarchists to experiment with their ideas and build social bonds. Adding up these tactics while having in mind that not all anarchists share the same attitudes towards them, along with various forms of protesting at highly symbolic events, make up a carnivalesque atmosphere that is part of contemporary anarchist vividity. Key issues <!-- In the interest of restricting article length, these overview summaries are meant to be brief. Thank you. --> As anarchism is a philosophy that embodies many diverse attitudes, tendencies, and schools of thought, disagreement over questions of values, ideology, and tactics is common. Its diversity has led to widely different uses of identical terms among different anarchist traditions which has created a number of definitional concerns in anarchist theory. The compatibility of capitalism, nationalism, and religion with anarchism is widely disputed, and anarchism enjoys complex relationships with ideologies such as communism, collectivism, Marxism, and trade unionism. Anarchists may be motivated by humanism, divine authority, enlightened self-interest, veganism, or any number of alternative ethical doctrines. Phenomena such as civilisation, technology (e.g. within anarcho-primitivism), and the democratic process may be sharply criticised within some anarchist tendencies and simultaneously lauded in others. The state <!-- Important! Strive to explain how anarchists perceive authority and oppression and why they reject them. Jun (2019), p. 41. --> opposing state-waged war]] Objection to the state and its institutions is a sine qua non of anarchism. Anarchists consider the state as a tool of domination and believe it to be illegitimate regardless of its political tendencies. Instead of people being able to control the aspects of their life, major decisions are taken by a small elite. Authority ultimately rests solely on power, regardless of whether that power is open or transparent, as it still has the ability to coerce people. Another anarchist argument against states is that the people constituting a government, even the most altruistic among officials, will unavoidably seek to gain more power, leading to corruption. Anarchists consider the idea that the state is the collective will of the people to be an unachievable fiction due to the fact that the ruling class is distinct from the rest of society. Specific anarchist attitudes towards the state vary. Robert Paul Wolff believed that the tension between authority and autonomy would mean the state could never be legitimate. Bakunin saw the state as meaning "coercion, domination by means of coercion, camouflaged if possible but unceremonious and overt if need be." A. John Simmons and Leslie Green, who leaned toward philosophical anarchism, believed that the state could be legitimate if it is governed by consensus, although they saw this as highly unlikely. Beliefs on how to abolish the state also differ. Gender, sexuality, and free love As gender and sexuality carry along them dynamics of hierarchy, many anarchists address, analyse, and oppose the suppression of one's autonomy imposed by gender roles. protests, symbols, and flags]] Sexuality was not often discussed by classical anarchists but the few that did felt that an anarchist society would lead to sexuality naturally developing. Sexual violence was a concern for anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, who opposed age-of-consent laws, believing they would benefit predatory men. A historical current that arose and flourished during 1890 and 1920 within anarchism was free love. In contemporary anarchism, this current survives as a tendency to support polyamory, relationship anarchy, and queer anarchism. Free love advocates were against marriage, which they saw as a way of men imposing authority over women, largely because marriage law greatly favoured the power of men. The notion of free love was much broader and included a critique of the established order that limited women's sexual freedom and pleasure. Those free love movements contributed to the establishment of communal houses, where large groups of travelers, anarchists and other activists slept in beds together. Free love had roots both in Europe and the United States; however, some anarchists struggled with the jealousy that arose from free love. Anarchist feminists were advocates of free love, against marriage, and pro-choice (using a contemporary term), and had a similar agenda. Anarchist and non-anarchist feminists differed on suffrage but were supportive of one another. During the second half of the 20th century, anarchism intermingled with the second wave of feminism, radicalising some currents of the feminist movement and being influenced as well. By the latest decades of the 20th century, anarchists and feminists were advocating for the rights and autonomy of women, gays, queers and other marginalised groups, with some feminist thinkers suggesting a fusion of the two currents. With the third wave of feminism, sexual identity and compulsory heterosexuality became a subject of study for anarchists, yielding a post-structuralist critique of sexual normality. Some anarchists distanced themselves from this line of thinking, suggesting that it leaned towards an individualism that was dropping the cause of social liberation. Education {\|class"wikitable" style"border: none; float: right;" \|+ Anarchist vs. statist perspectives on education<br/>}} \|- !scope="col"\| !scope="col"\|Anarchist education !scope="col"\|State education \|- \|Concept \|\| Education as self-mastery \|\| Education as service \|- \|Management \|\| Community based \|\| State run \|- \|Methods \|\| Practice-based learning \|\| Vocational training \|- \|Aims \|\| Being a critical member of society \|\| Being a productive member of society \|} The interest of anarchists in education stretches back to the first emergence of classical anarchism. Anarchists consider proper education, one which sets the foundations of the future autonomy of the individual and the society, to be an act of mutual aid. Anarchist writers such as William Godwin (Political Justice) and Max Stirner ("The False Principle of Our Education") attacked both state education and private education as another means by which the ruling class replicate their privileges. In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free thinker Francisco Ferrer established the Escuela Moderna in Barcelona as an opposition to the established education system which was dictated largely by the Catholic Church. Ferrer's approach was secular, rejecting both state and church involvement in the educational process while giving pupils large amounts of autonomy in planning their work and attendance. Ferrer aimed to educate the working class and explicitly sought to foster class consciousness among students. The school closed after constant harassment by the state and Ferrer was later arrested. Nonetheless, his ideas formed the inspiration for a series of modern schools around the world. Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy, who published the essay Education and Culture, also established a similar school with its founding principle being that "for education to be effective it had to be free." In a similar token, A. S. Neill founded what became the Summerhill School in 1921, also declaring being free from coercion. Anarchist education is based largely on the idea that a child's right to develop freely and without manipulation ought to be respected and that rationality would lead children to morally good conclusions; however, there has been little consensus among anarchist figures as to what constitutes manipulation. Ferrer believed that moral indoctrination was necessary and explicitly taught pupils that equality, liberty and social justice were not possible under capitalism, along with other critiques of government and nationalism. Late 20th century and contemporary anarchist writers (Paul Goodman, Herbert Read, and Colin Ward) intensified and expanded the anarchist critique of state education, largely focusing on the need for a system that focuses on children's creativity rather than on their ability to attain a career or participate in consumerism as part of a consumer society. Contemporary anarchists such as Ward claim that state education serves to perpetuate socioeconomic inequality. While few anarchist education institutions have survived to the modern-day, major tenets of anarchist schools, among them respect for child autonomy and relying on reasoning rather than indoctrination as a teaching method, have spread among mainstream educational institutions. Judith Suissa names three schools as explicitly anarchists' schools, namely the Free Skool Santa Cruz in the United States which is part of a wider American-Canadian network of schools, the Self-Managed Learning College in Brighton, England, and the Paideia School in Spain. The arts is a notable example of blending anarchism and the arts.]] The connection between anarchism and art was quite profound during the classical era of anarchism, especially among artistic currents that were developing during that era such as futurists, surrealists and others. In literature, anarchism was mostly associated with the New Apocalyptics and the neo-romanticism movement. In music, anarchism has been associated with music scenes such as punk. Anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Herbert Read stated that the border between the artist and the non-artist, what separates art from a daily act, is a construct produced by the alienation caused by capitalism and it prevents humans from living a joyful life. Other anarchists advocated for or used art as a means to achieve anarchist ends. In his book Breaking the Spell: A History of Anarchist Filmmakers, Videotape Guerrillas, and Digital Ninjas, Chris Robé claims that "anarchist-inflected practices have increasingly structured movement-based video activism." Throughout the 20th century, many prominent anarchists (Peter Kropotkin, Emma Goldman, Gustav Landauer and Camillo Berneri) and publications such as Anarchy wrote about matters pertaining to the arts. Three overlapping properties made art useful to anarchists. It could depict a critique of existing society and hierarchies, serve as a prefigurative tool to reflect the anarchist ideal society and even turn into a means of direct action such as in protests. As it appeals to both emotion and reason, art could appeal to the whole human and have a powerful effect. The 19th-century neo-impressionist movement had an ecological aesthetic and offered an example of an anarchist perception of the road towards socialism. In Les chataigniers a Osny by anarchist painter Camille Pissarro, the blending of aesthetic and social harmony is prefiguring an ideal anarchistic agrarian community. Criticism The most common critique of anarchism is the assertion that humans cannot self-govern and so a state is necessary for human survival. Philosopher Bertrand Russell supported this critique, stating that "[p]eace and war, tariffs, regulations of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, the preservation of a just system of distribution: these, among others, are functions which could hardly be performed in a community in which there was no central government." Another common criticism of anarchism is that it fits a world of isolation in which only the small enough entities can be self-governing; a response would be that major anarchist thinkers advocated anarchist federalism. Another criticism of anarchism is the belief that it is inherently unstable: that an anarchist society would inevitably evolve back into a state. Thomas Hobbes and other early social contract theorists argued that the state emerges in response to natural anarchy to protect the people's interests and keep order. Philosopher Robert Nozick argued that a "night-watchman state", or minarchy, would emerge from anarchy through the process of an invisible hand, in which people would exercise their liberty and buy protection from protection agencies, evolving into a minimal state. Anarchists reject these criticisms by arguing that humans in a state of nature would not just be in a state of war. Anarcho-primitivists in particular argue that humans were better off in a state of nature in small tribes living close to the land, while anarchists in general argue that the negatives of state organization, such as hierarchies, monopolies and inequality, outweigh the benefits. Philosophy lecturer Andrew G. Fiala composed a list of common arguments against anarchism which includes critiques such as that anarchism is innately related to violence and destruction, not only in the pragmatic world, such as at protests, but in the world of ethics as well. Secondly, anarchism is evaluated as unfeasible or utopian since the state cannot be defeated practically. This line of arguments most often calls for political action within the system to reform it. The third argument is that anarchism is self-contradictory as a ruling theory that has no ruling theory. Anarchism also calls for collective action while endorsing the autonomy of the individual, hence no collective action can be taken. Lastly, Fiala mentions a critique towards philosophical anarchism of being ineffective (all talk and thoughts) and in the meantime capitalism and bourgeois class remains strong. Philosophical anarchism has met the criticism of members of academia following the release of pro-anarchist books such as A. John Simmons' Moral Principles and Political Obligations. Law professor William A. Edmundson authored an essay to argue against three major philosophical anarchist principles which he finds fallacious. Edmundson says that while the individual does not owe the state a duty of obedience, this does not imply that anarchism is the inevitable conclusion and the state is still morally legitimate. In The Problem of Political Authority, Michael Huemer defends philosophical anarchism, claiming that "political authority is a moral illusion." One of the earliest criticisms is that anarchism defies and fails to understand the biological inclination to authority. Joseph Raz states that the acceptance of authority implies the belief that following their instructions will afford more success. Raz believes that this argument is true in following both authorities' successful and mistaken instruction. Anarchists reject this criticism because challenging or disobeying authority does not entail the disappearance of its advantages by acknowledging authority such as doctors or lawyers as reliable, nor does it involve a complete surrender of independent judgment. Anarchist perception of human nature, rejection of the state, and commitment to social revolution has been criticised by academics as naive, overly simplistic, and unrealistic, respectively. Classical anarchism has been criticised for relying too heavily on the belief that the abolition of the state will lead to human cooperation prospering. Friedrich Engels, considered to be one of the principal founders of Marxism, criticised anarchism's anti-authoritarianism as inherently counter-revolutionary because in his view a revolution is by itself authoritarian. Academic John Molyneux writes in his book Anarchism: A Marxist Criticism that "anarchism cannot win", believing that it lacks the ability to properly implement its ideas. The Marxist criticism of anarchism is that it has a utopian character because all individuals should have anarchist views and values. According to the Marxist view, that a social idea would follow directly from this human ideal and out of the free will of every individual formed its essence. Marxists state that this contradiction was responsible for their inability to act. In the anarchist vision, the conflict between liberty and equality was resolved through coexistence and intertwining. Anarcho-communist Albert Meltzer acknowledged "Marx's quite sensible analysis" that anarchism was the movement of formerly self-employed, independent-minded, individualistic, intrepid, advanced craftsmen and artisans who had been ruined by capitalistic industrialization or even war and then driven to factories; even so, they refused to subject themselves to factory discipline, party leadership, and State control, were prone to violence when frustrated, and advocated seizing factories only to break down mass production and return to craftsmanship. See also * Outline of anarchism * List of anarchist movements by region * List of anarchist political ideologies * List of books about anarchism * List of films dealing with anarchism Anarchist communities * List of stateless societies * List of intentional communities * List of self-managed social centers References Explanatory notes Citations General and cited sources Primary sources * Secondary sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!-- to revisit, p. 508+ --> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Tertiary sources * * * * * * * }} * * * }} Further reading * * * * * Criticism of philosophical anarchism. * * * A defence of philosophical anarchism, stating that "both kinds of 'anarchism' [i.e. philosophical and political anarchism] are philosophical and political claims." * * * Anarchistic popular fiction novel.<!-- Gifford 2019, p 580. --> * * * * An argument for philosophical anarchism. * * External links <!-- Attention! The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size. PLEASE only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general, is somewhat noteworthy, and has consensus on the talkpage. Links to sites which cover anarchist submovements will be routinely moved to subarticles to keep this article free of clutter. --> * [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu Anarchy Archives] – an online research center on the history and theory of anarchism. }} Category:Anti-capitalism Category:Anti-fascism Category:Economic ideologies Category:Far-left politics Category:Left-wing politics Category:Libertarian socialism Category:Libertarianism Category:Political culture Category:Political ideologies Category:Political movements Category:Social theories Category:Socialism	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism	2025-04-05T18:25:13.545598
39	Albedo	: the map shows the difference between the amount of sunlight Greenland reflected in the summer of 2011 versus the average percent it reflected between 2000 and 2006. Some areas reflect close to 20 percent less light than a decade ago.]] Albedo ( ; ) is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity J<sub>e</sub> to the irradiance E<sub>e</sub> (flux per unit area) received by a surface. The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun). While directional-hemispherical reflectance factor is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given for the spectrum in which most solar energy reaches the surface (between 0.3 and 3 μm). This spectrum includes visible light (0.4–0.7 μm), which explains why surfaces with a low albedo appear dark (e.g., trees absorb most radiation), whereas surfaces with a high albedo appear bright (e.g., snow reflects most radiation). Ice–albedo feedback is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of ice caps, glaciers, and sea ice alters the albedo and surface temperature of a planet. Ice is very reflective, therefore it reflects far more solar energy back to space than the other types of land area or open water. Ice–albedo feedback plays an important role in global climate change. Albedo is an important concept in climate science. Terrestrial albedo {\| class="wikitable floatright" \|+ Sample albedos \|- ! Surface ! Typical <br />albedo \|- \| Fresh asphalt \|\| 0.04 \|- \|Open ocean \|0.06 \|- \| Worn asphalt \|\| 0.12 0.09 to 0.15 \|- \| Green grass \|\| 0.25 \|- \| New concrete \|\| 0.55 \|} Any albedo in visible light falls within a range of about 0.9 for fresh snow to about 0.04 for charcoal, one of the darkest substances. Deeply shadowed cavities can achieve an effective albedo approaching the zero of a black body. When seen from a distance, the ocean surface has a low albedo, as do most forests, whereas desert areas have some of the highest albedos among landforms. Most land areas are in an albedo range of 0.1 to 0.4. The average albedo of Earth is about 0.3. White-sky, black-sky, and blue-sky albedo For land surfaces, it has been shown that the albedo at a particular solar zenith angle θ<sub>i</sub> can be approximated by the proportionate sum of two terms: * the directional-hemispherical reflectance at that solar zenith angle, <math>{\bar \alpha(\theta_i)}</math>, sometimes referred to as black-sky albedo, and * the bi-hemispherical reflectance, <math>\bar{ \bar \alpha}</math>, sometimes referred to as white-sky albedo. with <math>{1-D}</math> being the proportion of direct radiation from a given solar angle, and <math>{D}</math> being the proportion of diffuse illumination, the actual albedo <math>{\alpha}</math> (also called blue-sky albedo) can then be given as: :<math>\alpha = (1 - D) \bar\alpha(\theta_i) + D \bar{\bar\alpha}.</math> This formula is important because it allows the albedo to be calculated for any given illumination conditions from a knowledge of the intrinsic properties of the surface.]] Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. Human impacts to "the physical properties of the land surface can perturb the climate by altering the Earth’s radiative energy balance" even on a small scale or when undetected by satellites. Urbanization generally decreases albedo (commonly being 0.01–0.02 lower than adjacent croplands), which contributes to global warming. Deliberately increasing albedo in urban areas can mitigate the urban heat island effect. An estimate in 2022 found that on a global scale, "an albedo increase of 0.1 in worldwide urban areas would result in a cooling effect that is equivalent to absorbing ~44 Gt of CO<sub>2</sub> emissions." Intentionally enhancing the albedo of the Earth's surface, along with its daytime thermal emittance, has been proposed as a solar radiation management strategy to mitigate energy crises and global warming known as passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC). Efforts toward widespread implementation of PDRCs may focus on maximizing the albedo of surfaces from very low to high values, so long as a thermal emittance of at least 90% can be achieved. The tens of thousands of hectares of greenhouses in Almería, Spain form a large expanse of whitened plastic roofs. A 2008 study found that this anthropogenic change lowered the local surface area temperature of the high-albedo area, although changes were localized. Examples of terrestrial albedo effects sunlight relative to various surface conditions]] Illumination Albedo is not directly dependent on the illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through melting of reflective ice). However, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics. Insolation effects The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the Arctic and Antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, whereas areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect.Climate and weather s such as the ice-albedo feedback) or inhibit (negative feedbacks) warming.]] Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather. The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds. Albedo–temperature feedback When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass, soil, or ocean, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. Snow Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica, snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (referred to as the ice–albedo positive feedback). In Switzerland, the citizens have been protecting their glaciers with large white tarpaulins to slow down the ice melt. These large white sheets are helping to reject the rays from the sun and defecting the heat. Although this method is very expensive, it has been shown to work, reducing snow and ice melt by 60%. Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important for global warming. Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions.Small-scale effectsAlbedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. Solar photovoltaic effects Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10% for vertically (90°) mounted systems, but such effects were substantially lower for systems with lower surface tilts. Spectral albedo strongly affects the performance of bifacial solar cells where rear surface performance gains of over 20% have been observed for c-Si cells installed above healthy vegetation. An analysis on the bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) provided effective albedo values for simulating the performance of seven photovoltaic materials mounted on three common photovoltaic system topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. Trees Forests generally have a low albedo because the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis. For this reason, the greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In other words: The climate change mitigation effect of carbon sequestration by forests is partially counterbalanced in that reforestation can decrease the reflection of sunlight (albedo). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover, albedo reduction may be significant enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. Mid-to-high-latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, thus contributing to warming. Modeling that compares the effects of albedo differences between forests and grasslands suggests that expanding the land area of forests in temperate zones offers only a temporary mitigation benefit. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. Water Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations. At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. Clouds Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies.Aerosol effectsAerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. Black carbon Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m<sup>−2</sup>, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m<sup>−2</sup>. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. Astronomical albedo is darker than Saturn even though they receive the same amount of sunlight. This is due to a difference in albedo (0.22 versus 0.499 in geometric albedo).]]In astronomy, the term albedo can be defined in several different ways, depending upon the application and the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation involved. Optical or visual albedo The albedos of planets, satellites and minor planets such as asteroids can be used to infer much about their properties. The study of albedos, their dependence on wavelength, lighting angle ("phase angle"), and variation in time composes a major part of the astronomical field of photometry. For small and far objects that cannot be resolved by telescopes, much of what we know comes from the study of their albedos. For example, the absolute albedo can indicate the surface ice content of outer Solar System objects, the variation of albedo with phase angle gives information about regolith properties, whereas unusually high radar albedo is indicative of high metal content in asteroids. Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, has one of the highest known optical albedos of any body in the Solar System, with an albedo of 0.99. Another notable high-albedo body is Eris, with an albedo of 0.96. Many small objects in the outer Solar System and asteroid belt have low albedos down to about 0.05. A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. Such a dark surface is thought to be indicative of a primitive and heavily space weathered surface containing some organic compounds. The overall albedo of the Moon is measured to be around 0.14, but it is strongly directional and non-Lambertian, displaying also a strong opposition effect. \|- \| Mars \| 0.170 \|- \| Jupiter \| 0.538 and also 0.503±0.012 <math display"block">A\left ( \frac{1329\times10^{-H/5}}{D} \right ) ^2,</math> where <math>A</math> is the astronomical albedo, <math>D</math> is the diameter in kilometers, and <math>H</math> is the absolute magnitude. Radar albedo In planetary radar astronomy, a microwave (or radar) pulse is transmitted toward a planetary target (e.g. Moon, asteroid, etc.) and the echo from the target is measured. In most instances, the transmitted pulse is circularly polarized and the received pulse is measured in the same sense of polarization as the transmitted pulse (SC) and the opposite sense (OC). The echo power is measured in terms of radar cross-section, <math>{\sigma}_{OC}</math>, <math>{\sigma}_{SC}</math>, or <math>{\sigma}_{T}</math> (total power, SC + OC) and is equal to the cross-sectional area of a metallic sphere (perfect reflector) at the same distance as the target that would return the same echo power. \|- \| Avg. C-type asteroid \| 0.13 \|- \| Comet P/2005 JQ5 \| 0.02 \|} The values reported for the Moon, Mercury, Mars, Venus, and Comet P/2005 JQ5 are derived from the total (OC+SC) radar albedo reported in those references. Relationship to surface bulk density In the event that most of the echo is from first surface reflections (<math>\hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} < 0.1</math> or so), the OC radar albedo is a first-order approximation of the Fresnel reflection coefficient (aka reflectivity) :<math>\rho = \begin{cases} 3.20 \text{ g cm}^{-3} \ln \left( \frac{1 + \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}}{1 - \sqrt{0.83 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC}}} \right) & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} \le 0.07 \\ (6.944 \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} + 1.083) \text{ g cm}^{-3} & \text{for } \hat{\sigma}_\text{OC} > 0.07 \end{cases}</math>. History The term albedo was introduced into optics by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his 1760 work Photometria. See also <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO --> * Bio-geoengineering * Cool roof * Daisyworld * Emissivity * Exitance * Global dimming * Ice–albedo feedback * Irradiance * Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation * Opposition surge * Polar see-saw * Radar astronomy * Solar radiation management <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> References External links * [https://sites.google.com/site/albedoproject/home Albedo Project] * [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Albedo Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060505132944/http://www-modis.bu.edu/brdf/product.html NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site] * [https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1bVUcTBiZ1B7KhcnYeJiz-zFmpzGtrele?usp=sharing Ocean surface albedo look-up-table] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081125082044/http://www.eumetsat.int/Home/Main/Access_to_Data/Meteosat_Meteorological_Products/Product_List/SP_1125489019643?l=en Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080523151225/http://jeff.medkeff.com/astro/lunar/obs_tech/albedo.htm A discussion of Lunar albedos] * [http://www.tvu.com/metalreflectivityLR.jpg reflectivity of metals (chart)] Category:Land surface effects on climate Category:Climate change feedbacks Category:Climate forcing Category:Climatology Category:Electromagnetic radiation Category:Meteorological quantities Category:Radiometry Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics) Category:Radiation Category:1760s neologisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albedo	2025-04-05T18:25:14.057726
290	A	A-sharp}} ]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[]\|[] [] \|}} \|unicode=U+0041, U+0061 \|alphanumber = 1 \|fam1=<hiero>F1</hiero> \|fam2\|fam3 \|fam4\|fam5Α α \|fam6=𐌀 \|fam7\|usageperiodpresent \|children=}} \|sisters \|associates=a(x), ae, eau, au \|direction=Left-to-right \|image=Latin_letter_A.svg \|imageclass=skin-invert-image }} A, or a, is the first letter and the first vowel letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, and others worldwide. Its name in English is a (pronounced ), plural aes. It is similar in shape to the Ancient Greek letter alpha, from which it derives. The uppercase version consists of the two slanting sides of a triangle, crossed in the middle by a horizontal bar. The lowercase version is often written in one of two forms: the double-storey and single-storey . The latter is commonly used in handwriting and fonts based on it, especially fonts intended to be read by children, and is also found in italic type. In English, a is the indefinite article, with the alternative form an. Name In English, the name of the letter is the long A sound, pronounced . Its name in most other languages matches the letter's pronunciation in open syllables. in European languages. and can differ phonetically between , , and depending on the language.}} History The earliest known ancestor of A is aleph—the first letter of the Phoenician alphabet—where it represented a glottal stop , as Phoenician only used consonantal letters. In turn, the ancestor of aleph may have been a pictogram of an ox head in proto-Sinaitic script influenced by Egyptian hieroglyphs, styled as a triangular head with two horns extended. When the ancient Greeks adopted the alphabet, they had no use for a letter representing a glottal stop—so they adapted sign to represent the vowel , calling the letter by the similar name alpha. In the earliest Greek inscriptions dating to the 8th century BC following the Greek Dark Ages, the letter rests upon its side. However, in the later Greek alphabet it generally resembles the modern capital form—though many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The Etruscans brought the Greek alphabet to the Italian Peninsula, and left the form of alpha unchanged. When the Romans adopted the Etruscan alphabet to write Latin, the resulting form used in the Latin script would come to be used to write many other languages, including English. {\| class="wikitable" \|- style="background-color:#EEE;text-align:center" ! scope="col" \| Egyptian ! scope="col" \| Proto-Sinaitic ! scope="col" \| Proto-Canaanite ! scope="col" \| Phoenician ! scope="col" \| Western Greek ! scope="col" \| Etruscan ! scope="col" \| Latin \|- style="background-color:white;text-align:center" \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|} Typographic variants of the lowercase letter ]] s include a double-storey and single-storey .]] During Roman times, there were many variant forms of the letter A. First was the monumental or lapidary style, which was used when inscribing on stone or other more permanent media. There was also a cursive style used for everyday or utilitarian writing, which was done on more perishable surfaces. Due to the perishable nature of these surfaces, there are not as many examples of this style as there are of the monumental, but there are still many surviving examples of different types of cursive, such as majuscule cursive, minuscule cursive, and semi-cursive minuscule. Variants also existed that were intermediate between the monumental and cursive styles. The known variants include the early semi-uncial, the uncial, and the later semi-uncial. {\| cellspacing"8" cellpadding"0" \|- style="text-align:center" \|Blackletter \| Uncial \|- style="text-align:center" \| Roman \| Italic \| Script \|} At the end of the Roman Empire (5th century AD), several variants of the cursive minuscule developed through Western Europe. Among these were the semi-cursive minuscule of Italy, the Merovingian script in France, the Visigothic script in Spain, and the Insular or Anglo-Irish semi-uncial or Anglo-Saxon majuscule of Great Britain. By the ninth century, the Caroline script, which was very similar to the present-day form, was the principal form used in book-making, before the advent of the printing press. This form was derived through a combining of prior forms. 15th-century Italy saw the formation of the two main variants that are known today. These variants, the Italic and Roman forms, were derived from the Caroline Script version. The Italic form , also called script a, is often used in handwriting; it consists of a circle with a vertical stroke on its right. In the hands of medieval Irish and English writers, this form gradually developed from a 5th-century form resembling the Greek letter tau . The Roman form is found in most printed material, and consists of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule form . In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the uncial version shown. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. Graphic designers refer to the Italic and Roman forms as single-decker a and double decker a respectively. Italic type is commonly used to mark emphasis or more generally to distinguish one part of a text from the rest set in Roman type. There are some other cases aside from italic type where script a , also called Latin alpha, is used in contrast with Latin , such as in the International Phonetic Alphabet. Use in writing systems {\| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" \|+ Pronunciation of by language ! width"5em" scope"col" \| Orthography ! scope="col" \| Phonemes \|- ! scope="row" \| (Pinyin) \| \|- ! scope="row" \| English \| , , , , , , \|- ! scope="row" \| French \| , \|- ! scope="row" \| German \| , \|- ! scope="row" \| Portuguese \| , \|- ! scope="row" \| Saanich \| \|- ! scope="row" \| Spanish \| \|- ! scope="row" \| Turkish \| \|} {\| class="wikitable mw-collapsible" \|+ Cross-linguistic variation of pronunciation ! Phone !! Orthography \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align: center" \| \| Chuvash, French, German, Indonesian, Italian, Malay, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Stavangersk Norwegian, Swedish, Tagalog, Turkish, Utrecht Dutch \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Dutch (doubled), German \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Afrikaans, Bulgarian, Spanish \|- ! scope="row" \| \| New Zealand English, Lithuanian, Limburgish (doubled), Luxembourgish \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Catalan, Czech, French, Northern England English, Terengganu Malay, Polish \|- ! scope="row" \| \| West Frisian (doubled) \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align: center" \| \| Bashkir, Spanish, Dutch, Finnish, French, Kaingang, Limburgish, Norwegian, Russian, West Frisian \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Afrikaans (doubled), Danish, German, Southern England English, Kurdish, Norwegian \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Luxembourgish \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align: center" \| \| Southern England English, Hungarian, Kedah Malay \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Hungarian \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Swedish \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Maastrichtian Limburgish, Ulster Irish \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Danish, English, Russian, Zeta–Raška Serbo-Croatian \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Australian English, Bulgarian, Central Catalan, Emilian, Galician, Lithuanian, Portuguese, Tagalog, Ukrainian \|- ! scope="row" \| \| Mapudungun \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| New Zealand English, Perak Malay \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Chemnitz German, Transylvanian Romanian \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Chemnitz German \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Southern England English \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| English, Eastern Catalan \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| Saanich \|- ! scope"row" style"text-align:center" \| \| English \|} English In modern English orthography, the letter represents at least seven different vowel sounds, here represented using the vowels of Received Pronunciation, with effects of ignored and mergers in General American mentioned where relevant: the near-open front unrounded vowel as in pad the open back unrounded vowel as in father—merged with as in General American—which is closer to its original Latin and Greek sound the open back rounded vowel (merged with as in General American) in was and what the open-mid back rounded vowel in water the diphthong as in ace and major, usually when is followed by one, or occasionally two, consonants and then another vowel letter—this results from Middle English lengthening followed by the Great Vowel Shift a schwa in many unstressed syllables, as in about, comma, solar The double sequence does not occur in native English words, but is found in some words derived from foreign languages such as Aaron and aardvark. However, occurs in many common digraphs, all with their own sound or sounds, particularly , , , , and . is the third-most-commonly used letter in English after and , as well as in French; it is the second most common in Spanish, and the most common in Portuguese. represents approximately 8.2% of letters as used in English texts; the figure is around 7.6% in French 11.5% in Spanish, and 14.6% in Portuguese. Other languages In most languages that use the Latin alphabet, denotes an open unrounded vowel, such as , , or . An exception is Saanich, in which —and the glyph —stands for a close-mid front unrounded vowel . Other systems * In the International Phonetic Alphabet, is used for the open front unrounded vowel, is used for the open central unrounded vowel, and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. * In X-SAMPA, is used for the open front unrounded vowel and is used for the open back unrounded vowel. Other uses * When using base-16 notation, A or a is the conventional numeral corresponding to the number 10. * In algebra, the letter a along with various other letters of the alphabet is often used to denote a variable, with various conventional meanings in different areas of mathematics. In 1637, René Descartes "invented the convention of representing unknowns in equations by x, y, and z, and knowns by a, b, and c", and this convention is still often followed, especially in elementary algebra. * In geometry, capital Latin letters are used to denote objects including line segments, lines, and rays A capital A is also typically used as one of the letters to represent an angle in a triangle, the lowercase a representing the side opposite angle A. * A is often used to denote something or someone of a better or more prestigious quality or status: A−, A or A+, the best grade that can be assigned by teachers for students' schoolwork; "A grade" for clean restaurants; A-list celebrities, A1 at Lloyd's for shipping, etc. Such associations can have a motivating effect, as exposure to the letter A has been found to improve performance, when compared with other letters. * A is used to denote size, as in a narrow size shoe, or a small cup size in a brassiere. Related characters Latin alphabet * : a ligature of originally used in Latin * with diacritics: Å å Ǻ ǻ Ḁ ḁ ẚ Ă ă Ặ ặ Ắ ắ Ằ ằ Ẳ ẳ Ẵ ẵ Ȃ ȃ Â â Ậ ậ Ấ ấ Ầ ầ Ẫ ẫ Ẩ ẩ Ả ả Ǎ ǎ Ⱥ ⱥ Ȧ ȧ Ǡ ǡ Ạ ạ Ä ä Ǟ ǟ À à Ȁ ȁ Á á Ā ā Ā̀ ā̀ Ã ã Ą ą Ą́ ą́ Ą̃ ą̃ A̲ a̲ ᶏ Phonetic alphabet symbols related to A—the International Phonetic Alphabet only uses lowercase, but uppercase forms are used in some other writing systems: * : Latin alpha, represents an open back unrounded vowel in the IPA : Latin small alpha with a retroflex hook sometimes encoded with Unicode subscripts and superscripts : Subscript small a is used in Indo-European studies : Small letter a reversed-schwa is used in the Teuthonista phonetic transcription system : Glottal A, used in the transliteration of Ugaritic Derived signs, symbols and abbreviations * : ordinal indicator * : Ångström sign * : turned capital letter A, used in predicate logic to specify universal quantification ("for all") * : At sign * : Argentine austral * : anarchy symbol Ancestor and sibling letters * }}: Phoenician aleph, from which the following symbols originally derive: }}: Greek letter alpha, from which the following letters derive: * }}: Cyrillic letter A * }}: Coptic letter alpha * : Old Italic A, the ancestor of modern Latin A ** }}: Runic letter ansuz, which probably derives from old Italic A * }}: Gothic letter aza * }}: Armenian letter ayb Other representations Computing <span class"anchor" id"Computing codes"></span> The Latin letters and have Unicode encodings and . These are the same code points as those used in ASCII and ISO 8859. There are also precomposed character encodings for and with diacritics, for most of those listed above; the remainder are produced using combining diacritics. Variant forms of the letter have unique code points for specialist use: the alphanumeric symbols set in mathematics and science, Latin alpha in linguistics, and halfwidth and fullwidth forms for legacy CJK font compatibility. The Cyrillic and Greek homoglyphs of the Latin have separate encodings and . Other Notes References Bibliography * * }} * * * * * * * External links * [http://members.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionaryclassic/chapters/pix/alphabet.gif History of the Alphabet] * Category:ISO basic Latin letters Category:Vowel letters	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A	2025-04-05T18:25:15.113626
303	Alabama	}} (We dare defend our rights) \| anthem = "Alabama" \| image_map = Alabama in United States.svg \| seat = Montgomery \| LargestCity = Huntsville \| LargestMetro = Greater Birmingham \| LargestCounty = Jefferson \| area_total_km2 = 135,765 \| area_total_sq_mi = 52,419 \| area_land_km2 = 131,426 \| area_land_sq_mi = 50,744 \| area_water_km2 = 4,338 \| area_water_sq_mi = 1,675 \| area_water_percent = 3.2 \| area_rank = 30th \| length_km = 531 \| length_mi = 330 \| width_km = 305 \| width_mi = 190 \| Latitude = 30°11' N to 35° N \| Longitude = 84°53' W to 88°28' W \| elevation_m = 150 \| elevation_ft = 500 \| elevation_max_m = 735.5 \| elevation_max_ft = 2,413 \| elevation_max_point Mount Cheaha \| elevation_min_m = 0 \| elevation_min_ft = 0 \| elevation_min_point Gulf of Mexico * English 95.1% * Spanish 3.1% \| population_demonym Alabamian, Alabaman \| population_rank = 24th \| population_as_of = 2024 \| 2010Pop 5,157,699 \| MedianHouseholdIncome $ (2<span>0</span>23) \| 2020DensityUS = 99.2 \| 2020Density = 38.3 \| population_density_rank = 27th \| IncomeRank = 44th \| Former = Alabama Territory \| AdmittanceDate = December 14, 1819 \| AdmittanceOrder = 22nd \| Governor = Kay Ivey (R) \| Lieutenant Governor = Will Ainsworth (R) \| Legislature = Alabama Legislature \| Upperhouse = Senate \| Lowerhouse = House of Representatives \| Judiciary = Supreme Court of Alabama \| Senators = Tommy Tuberville (R)Katie Britt (R) \| Representative = 5 Republicans2 Democrats \| timezone1 = Central \| utc_offset1 = – 06:00 \| timezone1_DST = CDT \| utc_offset1_DST = – 05:00 \| timezone1_location = Entire state (legally) \| timezone2 = Eastern \| utc_offset2 = – 05:00 \| timezone2_DST = EDT \| utc_offset2_DST = – 04:00 \| timezone2_location = Phenix City area (unofficially) \| iso_code = US-AL \| postal_code = AL \| TradAbbreviation = Ala. \| website = https://alabama.gov \| Capital \| Representatives }} Alabama the beautiful,Where America finds its voice,Sweet Home Alabama \|soil= Bama \|image_route= Alabama 3.svg \|image_quarter= 2003 AL Proof.png \|quarter_release_date= 2003 }} Alabama ( ) is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th largest by area, and the 24th-most populous of the 50 U.S. states. Alabama is nicknamed the Yellowhammer State, after the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie" and the "Cotton State". The state has diverse geography, with the north dominated by the mountainous Tennessee Valley and the south by Mobile Bay, a historically significant port. Alabama's capital is Montgomery, and its largest city by population and area is Huntsville. Its oldest city is Mobile, founded by French colonists (Alabama Creoles) in 1702 as the capital of French Louisiana. Greater Birmingham is Alabama's largest metropolitan area and its economic center. Politically, as part of the Deep South, or "Bible Belt", Alabama is a predominantly conservative state and is known for its Southern culture. Within Alabama, American football, particularly at the college level, plays a major part of the state's culture. Originally home to many native tribes, present-day Alabama was a Spanish territory beginning in the sixteenth century until the French acquired it in the early eighteenth century. The British won the territory in 1763 until losing it in the American Revolutionary War. Spain held Mobile as part of Spanish West Florida until 1813. In December 1819, Alabama was recognized as a state. During the antebellum period, Alabama was a major producer of cotton and widely used African American slave labor. In 1861, the state seceded from the United States to become part of the Confederate States of America, with Montgomery acting as its first capital, and rejoined the Union in 1868. Following the American Civil War, Alabama would suffer decades of economic hardship, in part due to agriculture and a few cash crops being the main driver of the state's economy. Similar to other former slave states, Alabamian legislators employed Jim Crow laws from the late 19th century up until the 1960s. High-profile events such as the Selma to Montgomery marches made the state a major focal point of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s. During and after World War II, Alabama grew as the state's economy diversified with new industries. In 1960, the establishment of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville helped boost Alabama's economic growth by developing a local aerospace industry. Alabama's economy in the 21st century is based on automotive, finance, tourism, manufacturing, aerospace, mineral extraction, healthcare, education, retail, and technology. Etymology The name of the Alabama River and state is derived from the Alabama people, a Muskogean-speaking tribe whose members lived just below the confluence of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers on the upper reaches of the river. In the Alabama language, the word for a person of Alabama lineage is (or variously or in different dialects; the plural form is ). The word's spelling varies significantly among historical sources. The first usage appears in three accounts of the Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540: Garcilaso de la Vega used , while the Knight of Elvas and Rodrigo Ranjel wrote Alibamu and Limamu, respectively, in transliterations of the term. The use of state names derived from Native American languages is common in the U.S. An estimated 26 states have names of Native American origin. Sources disagree on the word's meaning. Some scholars suggest the word comes from the Choctaw (meaning 'plants' or 'weeds') and (meaning 'to cut', 'to trim', or 'to gather'). The meaning may have been 'clearers of the thicket' referring to clearing land for cultivation An 1842 article in the Jacksonville Republican proposed it meant 'Here We Rest'. The agrarian Mississippian culture covered most of the state from 1000 to 1600 AD, with one of its major centers built at what is now the Moundville Archaeological Site in Moundville, Alabama. This is the second-largest complex of the classic Middle Mississippian era, after Cahokia in present-day Illinois, which was the center of the culture. Analysis of artifacts from archaeological excavations at Moundville were the basis of scholars' formulating the characteristics of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC). Contrary to popular belief, the SECC appears to have no direct links to Mesoamerican culture but developed independently. The Ceremonial Complex represents a major component of the religion of the Mississippian peoples; it is one of the primary means by which their religion is understood. Among the historical tribes of Native American people living in present-day Alabama at the time of European contact were the Cherokee, an Iroquoian language people; and the Muskogean-speaking Alabama (Alibamu), Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Koasati. While part of the same large language family, the Muskogee tribes developed distinct cultures and languages. European settlement The Spanish were the first Europeans to reach Alabama during their exploration of North America in the 16th century. The expedition of Hernando de Soto passed through Mabila and other parts of the state in 1540. More than 160 years later, the French founded the region's first European settlement at Old Mobile in 1702. The city was moved to the current site of Mobile in 1711. This area was claimed by the French from 1702 to 1763 as part of La Louisiane. Thomas Bassett, a loyalist to the British monarchy during the Revolutionary era, was one of the earliest white settlers in the state outside Mobile. He settled in the Tombigbee District during the early 1770s. The district's boundaries were roughly limited to the area within a few miles of the Tombigbee River and included portions of what is today southern Clarke County, northernmost Mobile County, and most of Washington County. What are now Baldwin and Mobile counties became part of Spanish West Florida in 1783, part of the independent Republic of West Florida in 1810, and finally part of the Mississippi Territory in 1812. Most of what is now the northern two-thirds of Alabama was known as the Yazoo lands beginning during the British colonial period. It was claimed by the Province of Georgia from 1767 onwards. Following the American Revolutionary War, it remained a part of Georgia, although heavily disputed. With the exception of the area around Mobile and the Yazoo lands, what is now the lower one-third of Alabama was made part of the Mississippi Territory when it was organized in 1798. The Yazoo lands were added to the territory in 1804, following the Yazoo land scandal. Spain kept a claim on its former Spanish West Florida territory in what would become the coastal counties until the Adams–Onís Treaty officially ceded it to the U.S. in 1819. Before Mississippi's admission to statehood on December 10, 1817, the more sparsely settled eastern half of the territory was separated and named the Alabama Territory. The United States Congress created the Alabama Territory on March 3, 1817. St. Stephens, now abandoned, served as the territorial capital from 1817 to 1819. Alabama was admitted as the 22nd state on December 14, 1819, with Congress selecting Huntsville as the site for the first Constitutional Convention. From July5 to August 2, 1819, delegates met to prepare the new state constitution. Huntsville served as temporary capital from 1819 to 1820, when the seat of government moved to Cahaba in Dallas County. Cahaba, now a ghost town, was the first permanent state capital from 1820 to 1825. The Alabama Fever land rush was underway when the state was admitted to the Union, with settlers and land speculators pouring into the state to take advantage of fertile land suitable for cotton cultivation. Part of the frontier in the 1820s and 1830s, its constitution provided for universal suffrage for white men. From 1826 to 1846, Tuscaloosa served as Alabama's capital. On January 30, 1846, the Alabama legislature announced it had voted to move the capital city from Tuscaloosa to Montgomery. The first legislative session in the new capital met in December 1847. A new capitol building was erected under the direction of Stephen Decatur Button of Philadelphia. The first structure burned down in 1849, but was rebuilt on the same site in 1851. This second capitol building in Montgomery remains to the present day. It was designed by Barachias Holt of Exeter, Maine. Civil War and Reconstruction By 1860, the population had increased to 964,201 people, of which nearly half, 435,080, were enslaved African Americans, and 2,690 were free people of color. On January 11, 1861, Alabama declared its secession from the Union. After remaining an independent republic for a few days, it joined the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy's capital was initially at Montgomery. Alabama was heavily involved in the American Civil War. Although comparatively few battles were fought in the state, Alabama contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the war effort. troops occupying Courthouse Square in Huntsville, following its capture and occupation by federal forces in 1864]] A company of cavalry soldiers from Huntsville, Alabama, joined Nathan Bedford Forrest's battalion in Hopkinsville, Kentucky. The company wore new uniforms with yellow trim on the sleeves, collar and coattails. This led to them being greeted with "Yellowhammer", and the name later was applied to all Alabama troops in the Confederate Army. Alabama's slaves were freed by the 13th Amendment in 1865. Alabama was under military rule from the end of the war in May 1865 until its official restoration to the Union in 1868. From 1867 to 1874, with most white citizens barred temporarily from voting and freedmen enfranchised, many African Americans emerged as political leaders in the state. Alabama was represented in Congress during this period by three African-American congressmen: Jeremiah Haralson, Benjamin S. Turner, and James T. Rapier. Following the war, the state remained chiefly agricultural, with an economy tied to cotton. During the Reconstruction era, state legislators ratified a new state constitution in 1868 which created the state's first public school system and expanded women's rights. Legislators funded numerous public road and railroad projects, although these were plagued with allegations of fraud and misappropriation. The same year, legislation was approved that called for racially segregated schools. Railroad passenger cars were segregated in 1891. The 1901 constitution required racial segregation of public schools. By 1903 only 2,980 African Americans were registered in Alabama, although at least 74,000 were literate. This compared to more than 181,000 African Americans eligible to vote in 1900. The numbers dropped even more in later decades. Nearly all blacks had lost the ability to vote. Despite numerous legal challenges which succeeded in overturning certain provisions, the state legislature would create new ones to maintain disenfranchisement. The exclusion of blacks from the political system persisted until after passage of federal civil rights legislation in 1965 to enforce their constitutional rights as citizens. The rural-dominated Alabama legislature consistently underfunded schools and services for the disenfranchised African Americans, but it did not relieve them of paying taxes. Partially as a response to chronic underfunding of education for African Americans in the South, the Rosenwald Fund began funding the construction of what came to be known as Rosenwald Schools. In Alabama, these schools were designed, and the construction partially financed with Rosenwald funds, which paid one-third of the construction costs. The fund required the local community and state to raise matching funds to pay the rest. Black residents effectively taxed themselves twice, by raising additional monies to supply matching funds for such schools, which were built in many rural areas. They often donated land and labor as well. in rural Autauga County, completed in 1919. It was one of the 387 Rosenwald Schools built in the state.]] Beginning in 1913, the first 80 Rosenwald Schools were built in Alabama for African American children. A total of 387 schools, seven teachers' houses, and several vocational buildings were completed by 1937 in the state. Several of the surviving school buildings in the state are now listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Reflecting this emigration, the population growth rate in Alabama (see "historical populations" table below) dropped by nearly half from 1910 to 1920. At the same time, many rural people migrated to the city of Birmingham to work in new industrial jobs. Birmingham experienced such rapid growth it was called the "Magic City". By 1920, Birmingham was the 36th-largest city in the United States. Heavy industry and mining were the basis of its economy. Its residents were under-represented for decades in the state legislature, which refused to redistrict after each decennial census according to population changes, as it was required by the state constitution. This did not change until the late 1960s following a lawsuit and court order. ... the Alabama legislature also intentionally diluted the effect of the black vote by instituting numbered place requirements for local elections.}} Industrial development related to the demands of World War II brought a level of prosperity to the state not seen since before the civil war. Cotton and other cash crops faded in importance as the state developed a manufacturing and service base. Despite massive population changes in the state from 1901 to 1961, the rural-dominated legislature refused to reapportion House and Senate seats based on population, as required by the state constitution to follow the results of decennial censuses. They held on to old representation to maintain political and economic power in agricultural areas. One result was that Jefferson County, containing Birmingham's industrial and economic powerhouse, contributed more than one-third of all tax revenue to the state, but did not receive a proportional amount in services. Urban interests were consistently underrepresented in the legislature. A 1960 study noted that because of rural domination, "a minority of about 25% of the total state population is in majority control of the Alabama legislature." In the United States Supreme Court cases of Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the court ruled that the principle of "one man, one vote" needed to be the basis of both houses of state legislatures, and that their districts had to be based on population rather than geographic counties. African Americans continued to press in the 1950s and 1960s to end disenfranchisement and segregation in the state through the civil rights movement, including legal challenges. In 1954, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that public schools had to be desegregated, but Alabama was slow to comply. During the 1960s, under Governor George Wallace, Alabama resisted compliance with federal demands for desegregation. The civil rights movement had notable events in Alabama, including the Montgomery bus boycott (1955–1956), Freedom Rides in 1961, and 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. These contributed to Congressional passage and enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 by the U.S. Congress. Legal segregation ended in the states in 1964, but Jim Crow customs often continued until specifically challenged in court. According to The New York Times, by 2017, many of Alabama's African Americans were living in Alabama's cities such as Birmingham and Montgomery. Also, the Black Belt region across central Alabama "is home to largely poor counties that are predominantly African-American. These counties include Dallas, Lowndes, Marengo and Perry." In 1972, for the first time since 1901, the legislature completed the congressional redistricting based on the decennial census. This benefited the urban areas that had developed, as well as all in the population who had been underrepresented for more than sixty years. Beginning in the 1960s, the state's economy shifted away from its traditional lumber, steel, and textile industries because of increased foreign competition. Steel jobs, for instance, declined from 46,314 in 1950 to 14,185 in 2011. However, the state, particularly Huntsville, benefited from the opening of the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center in 1960, a major facility in the development of the Saturn rocket program and the space shuttle. Technology and manufacturing industries, such as automobile assembly, replaced some of the state's older industries in the late twentieth century, but the state's economy and growth lagged behind other states in the area, such as Georgia and Florida. 21st century In 2001, Alabama Supreme Court chief justice Roy Moore installed a statue of the Ten Commandments in the capitol in Montgomery. In 2002, the 11th U.S. Circuit Court ordered the statue removed, but Moore refused to follow the court order, which led to protests around the capitol in favor of keeping the monument. The monument was removed in August 2003. A few natural disasters have occurred in the state in the twenty-first century. In 2004, Hurricane Ivan, a category 3 storm upon landfall, struck the state and caused over $18 billion of damage. It was among the most destructive storms to strike the state in its modern history. A super outbreak of 62 tornadoes hit the state in April 2011 and killed 238 people, devastating many communities. Geography (2007)]] in Baldwin County]] in Huntsville]] in Marshall County]] Alabama is the thirtieth-largest state in the United States with of total area: 3.2% of the area is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second-largest inland waterway system in the United States. About three-fifths of the land area is part of the Gulf Coastal Plain, a gentle plain with a general descent towards the Mississippi River and the Gulf of Mexico. The North Alabama region is mostly mountainous, with the Tennessee River cutting a large valley and creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. Alabama is bordered by the states of Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama has coastline at the Gulf of Mexico, in the extreme southern edge of the state. at Mobile Bay to more than in the northeast, to Mount Cheaha Alabama's land consists of of forest or 67% of the state's total land area. Suburban Baldwin County, along the Gulf Coast, is the largest county in the state in both land area and water area. is the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies.]] Areas in Alabama administered by the National Park Service include Horseshoe Bend National Military Park near Alexander City; Little River Canyon National Preserve near Fort Payne; Russell Cave National Monument in Bridgeport; Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site in Tuskegee; and Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site near Tuskegee. Additionally, Alabama has four National Forests: Conecuh, Talladega, Tuskegee, and William B. Bankhead. Alabama also contains the Natchez Trace Parkway, the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail, and the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. Natural wonders include the "Natural Bridge" rock, the longest natural bridge east of the Rockies, just south of Haleyville; Cathedral Caverns, in Marshall County, named for its cathedral-like appearance, which features one of the largest cave entrances and one of the largest stalagmites in the world; Ecor Rouge, in Fairhope, the highest coastline point between Maine and Mexico; DeSoto Caverns, in Childersburg, the first officially recorded cave in the United States; Noccalula Falls, in Gadsden, which has a 90-foot waterfall; Dismals Canyon, near Phil Campbell, which is home to two waterfalls and six natural bridges and is said to have been a hideout of Jesse James; Stephens Gap Cave, in Jackson County, which has a 143-foot pit and two waterfalls and is one of the most photographed wild cave scenes in America; Little River Canyon, near Fort Payne, one of the nation's longest mountaintop rivers; Rickwood Caverns, near Warrior, which has an underground pool, blind cave-fish, and 260-million-year-old limestone formations; and the Walls of Jericho canyon, on the Alabama–Tennessee border. ]] A -wide meteorite impact crater is located in Elmore County, just north of Montgomery. This is the Wetumpka crater, the site of "Alabama's greatest natural disaster". A -wide meteorite hit the area about 80 million years ago. The hills just east of downtown Wetumpka showcase the eroded remains of the impact crater that was blasted into the bedrock, with the area labeled the Wetumpka crater or astrobleme ("star-wound") because of the concentric rings of fractures and zones of shattered rock that can be found beneath the surface. In 2002, Christian Koeberl with the Institute of Geochemistry University of Vienna published evidence and established the site as the 157th recognized impact crater on Earth. Climate The state is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa) under the Köppen climate classification. The average annual temperature is 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Generally, Alabama has very hot summers and mild winters with copious precipitation throughout the year. Alabama receives an average of of rainfall annually and enjoys a lengthy growing season of up to 300 days in the southern part of the state. following the statewide April 27, 2011, tornado outbreak]] Alabama, along with Oklahoma and Iowa, has the most confirmed F5 and EF5 tornadoes of any state, according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period January 1, 1950, to June 2013. Several long-tracked F5/EF5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities since 1950 than any other state. The state was affected by the 1974 Super Outbreak and was devastated tremendously by the 2011 Super Outbreak. The 2011 Super Outbreak produced a record amount of tornadoes in the state. The tally reached 62. The peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season in November and December besides the typically severe spring. The northern part—along the Tennessee River Valley—is most vulnerable. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains. Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the Southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around in Mobile and around in Birmingham. Although snow is a rare event in much of Alabama, areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. Historic snowfall events include New Year's Eve 1963 snowstorm and the 1993 Storm of the Century. The annual average snowfall for the Birmingham area is per year. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall. Alabama's highest temperature of was recorded on September 5, 1925, in the unincorporated community of Centerville. The record low of occurred on January 30, 1966, in New Market. Flora and fauna (Hymenocallis coronaria) in the Cahaba River, within the Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]] Alabama is home to a diverse array of flora and fauna in habitats that range from the Tennessee Valley, Appalachian Plateau, and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians of the north to the Piedmont, Canebrake, and Black Belt of the central region to the Gulf Coastal Plain and beaches along the Gulf of Mexico in the south. The state is usually ranked among the top in nation for its range of overall biodiversity. Alabama is in the subtropical coniferous forest biome and once boasted huge expanses of pine forest, which still form the largest proportion of forests in the state. Indigenous animal species in the state include 62 mammal species, 93 reptile species, 73 amphibian species, roughly 307 native freshwater fish species, Invertebrates include 97 crayfish species and 383 mollusk species. 113 of these mollusk species have never been collected outside the state. Major cities As of 2010, the state contains 461 municipalities, consisting of 174 cities and 287 towns. Covering only 9.6% of Alabama's land mass, its municipalities are home to 60.4% of its population. Montgomery, the state's capital, is the third-most populous settlement in Alabama; and the most populous city is Huntsville. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the state contains 12 metropolitan statistical areas. Alabama's largest metropolitan area was Greater Birmingham. Demographics . Retrieved May 19, 2021. Due to the late arrival of returns from the counties of Lawrence, Perry, and Washington, the population of the state for 1820 was incorrectly listed as 127,901 in the official state total.}} \|1830= 309527 \|1840= 590756 \|1850= 771623 \|1860= 964201 \|1870= 996992 \|1880= 1262505 \|1890= 1513401 \|1900= 1828697 \|1910= 2138093 \|1920= 2348174 \|1930= 2646248 \|1940= 2832961 \|1950= 3061743 \|1960= 3266740 \|1970= 3444165 \|1980= 3893888 \|1990= 4040587 \|2000= 4447100 \|2010= 4779736 \|2020= 5024279 \|estyear= 2024 \|estimate= 5157699 \|estref\|align-fncenter \|footnoteSources: 1910–2020 }} thumb\|Map of counties in Alabama by racial plurality, per the 2020 census Non-Hispanic White Black or African American }}\|325x325px At the 1800 United States census, Alabama had a population of 1,250 people. Since then, the state has continued to experience population growth with every U.S. census. According to the 2020 United States census the population of Alabama was 5,024,279, which represents an increase of 244,543 or 5.12%, since the 2010 census. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 121,054 (502,457 births minus 381,403 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 104,991 into the state. According to statistics from 2012, immigration from outside the U.S. resulted in a net increase of 31,180 people, and migration within the country produced a net gain of 73,811 people. According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 3,752 homeless people in Alabama. With a population density of 99.2 people per square mile as of 2020, Race and ethnicity {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" ; text-align:right; font-size:80%;" \|+ style="font-size:90%" \|Racial and ethnic composition as of the 2020 census \|- ! Race and ethnicity ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber \|Alone ! colspan"2" data-sort-typenumber \|Total \|- \| White (non-Hispanic) \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| African American (non-Hispanic) \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| Hispanic or Latino \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| Asian \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| Native American \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| Pacific Islander \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|- \| Other \|align=right\| \|align=right\| \|} Many American Indian tribes such as the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Coushatta inhabited present-day Alabama before European colonization. Alabama has the 5th-highest black and African American population among U.S. states at 25.8% alone as of 2020. In 2011, 46.6% of Alabama's population younger than age1 were minorities. The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama were American (13.4%), Irish (10.5%), English (10.2%), German (7.9%), and Scots-Irish (2.5%) based on 2006–2008 U.S. census data. The Scots-Irish were the largest non-English immigrant group from the British Isles before the American Revolution, and many settled in the South, later moving into the Deep South as it was developed. In 1984, under the Davis–Strong Act, the state legislature established the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission. Indigenous groups within the state had increasingly been demanding recognition as ethnic groups and seeking an end to discrimination. Given the long history of slavery and associated racial segregation, the Native American or American Indian peoples, who have sometimes been of mixed race, have insisted on having their cultural identification respected. In the past, their self-identification was often overlooked as the state tried to impose a binary breakdown of society into white and black. The state has officially recognized nine American Indian tribes in the state, descended mostly from the Five Civilized Tribes of the American Southeast. These are the following. * Poarch Band of Creek Indians (who also have federal recognition) * MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians * Star Clan of Muscogee Creeks * Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama * Cherokee Tribe of Northeast Alabama * Cher-O-Creek Intra Tribal Indians * Ma-Chis Lower Creek Indian Tribe * Piqua Shawnee Tribe * Ani-Yun-Wiya Nation The state government has promoted recognition of American Indian contributions to the state, including the designation in 2000 for Columbus Day to be jointly celebrated as American Indian Heritage Day. In 2020, 33,625 identified as being Native American alone, and 97,405 did in combination with one or more other races. Language According to the 2022 American Community Survey's estimates, approximately 94% of Alabamans speak English as their sole language, while 6% spoke a language other than English. Of other languages, the majority of its multilingual population speaks Spanish (3.8%). In a separate 2021 study by the American University Washington College of Law, Spanish was spoken by 156,656 residents. Following, Korean, Vietnamese, Mandarin and Cantonese, German, French, and Tagalog were the most-spoken languages; among its French-speaking population, the majority have preserved their language since French colonization. Religion in Huntsville, established in 1876. It is the oldest synagogue building in continuous use in the state.]] Pre-colonial and present-day Alabamans have adhered to multiple religions including Native American and African diaspora religions, and predominantly Christianity with the establishment of Spanish missions in Florida. Other faiths including Judaism, Islam, and Indian religions were introduced since European colonization and American settlement. According to a 2023 Public Religion Research Institute survey, an estimated 80% of the adult population were Christian. In the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey, 86% of Alabama respondents reported their religion as Christian, including 6% Catholic, with 11% as having no religion. The composition of other traditions is 0.5% Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 0.5% Buddhist, and 0.5% Hindu. Alabama is located in the middle of the Bible Belt, a region of numerous Protestant Christians. Alabama has been identified as one of the most religious states in the United States, with about 58% of the population attending church regularly. A majority of people in the state identify as Evangelical Protestant. , the three largest denominational groups in Alabama are the Southern Baptist Convention, The United Methodist Church, and non-denominational Evangelical Protestant. In Alabama, the Southern Baptist Convention has the highest number of adherents with 1,380,121; this is followed by the United Methodist Church with 327,734 adherents, non-denominational Evangelical Protestant with 220,938 adherents, and the Catholic Church with 150,647 adherents. Many Baptist and Methodist congregations became established in the Great Awakening of the early 19th century, when preachers proselytized across the South. The Assemblies of God had almost 60,000 members, the Churches of Christ had nearly 120,000 members. The Presbyterian churches, strongly associated with Scots-Irish immigrants of the 18th century and their descendants, had a combined membership around 75,000 (PCA—28,009 members in 108 congregations, PC(USA)—26,247 members in 147 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church—6,000 members in 59 congregations, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America—5,000 members and fifty congregations plus the EPC and Associate Reformed Presbyterians with 230 members and nine congregations). In a 2007 survey, nearly 70% of respondents could name all four of the Christian Gospels. Of those who indicated a religious preference, 59% said they possessed a "full understanding" of their faith and needed no further learning. In a 2007 poll, 92% of Alabamians reported having at least some confidence in churches in the state. Although in much smaller numbers, many other religious faiths are represented in the state as well, including Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Unitarian Universalism. The oldest Jewish congregation in the state is Congregation Sha'arai Shomayim in Mobile. It was formally recognized by the state legislature on January 25, 1844. Muslims have been increasing in Alabama, with 31 mosques built by 2011, many by African-American converts. Several Hindu temples and cultural centers in the state have been founded by Indian immigrants and their descendants, the best-known being the Shri Swaminarayan Mandir in Birmingham, the Hindu Temple and Cultural Center of Birmingham in Pelham, the Hindu Cultural Center of North Alabama in Capshaw, and the Hindu Mandir and Cultural Center in Tuscaloosa. There are six Dharma centers and organizations for Theravada Buddhists. Most monastic Buddhist temples are concentrated in southern Mobile County, near Bayou La Batre. This area has attracted an influx of refugees from Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam during the 1970s and thereafter. The four temples within a ten-mile radius of Bayou La Batre, include Chua Chanh Giac, Wat Buddharaksa, and Wat Lao Phoutthavihan. The first community of adherents of the Baháʼí Faith in Alabama was founded in 1896 by Paul K. Dealy, who moved from Chicago to Fairhope. Baháʼí centers in Alabama exist in Birmingham, Huntsville, and Florence. Health In 2018, life expectancy in Alabama was 75.1 years, below the national average of 78.7 years and is the third lowest life expectancy in the country. Factors that can cause lower life expectancy are maternal mortality, suicide, and gun crimes. A Centers for Disease Control and Prevention study in 2008 showed that obesity in Alabama is a problem, with most counties having more than 29% of adults obese, except for ten which had a rate between 26% and 29%. Residents of the state, along with those in five other states, were least likely in the nation to be physically active during leisure time. Alabama, and the southeastern U.S. in general, has one of the highest incidences of adult onset diabetes in the country, exceeding 10% of adults. Economy The state has invested in aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries, including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication. By 2006, crop and animal production in Alabama was valued at $1.5billion. In contrast to the primarily agricultural economy of the previous century, this was only about one percent of the state's gross domestic product. The number of private farms has declined at a steady rate since the 1960s, as land has been sold to developers, timber companies, and large farming conglomerates. has a large economic impact on the state.]] Non-agricultural employment in 2008 was 121,800 in management occupations; 71,750 in business and financial operations; 36,790 in computer-related and mathematical occupation; 44,200 in architecture and engineering; 12,410 in life, physical, and social sciences; 32,260 in community and social services; 12,770 in legal occupations; 116,250 in education, training, and library services; 27,840 in art, design and media occupations; 121,110 in healthcare; 44,750 in fire fighting, law enforcement, and security; 154,040 in food preparation and serving; 76,650 in building and grounds cleaning and maintenance; 53,230 in personal care and services; 244,510 in sales; 338,760 in office and administration support; 20,510 in farming, fishing, and forestry; 120,155 in construction and mining, gas, and oil extraction; 106,280 in installation, maintenance, and repair; 224,110 in production; and 167,160 in transportation and material moving. In 2010, per capita income for the state was $22,984. The state's seasonally adjusted unemployment rate was 5.8% in April 2015. This compared to a nationwide seasonally adjusted rate of 5.4%. Alabama has no minimum wage and in February 2016 passed legislation preventing municipalities from setting one. (A Birmingham city ordinance would have raised theirs to $10.10.) , Alabama has the sixth highest poverty rate among states in the U.S. In 2017, United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston toured parts of rural Alabama and observed environmental conditions that he said were poorer than anywhere he had seen in the developed world. Largest employers being tested at Marshall Space Flight Center in 1978]] in Mobile]] The five employers that employed the most employees in Alabama in April 2011 were: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Employer ! Employees \|- \| Redstone Arsenal \| 25,373 \|- \| University of Alabama at Birmingham (includes UAB Hospital) \| 18,750 \|- \| Maxwell Air Force Base \| 12,280 \|- \| State of Alabama \| 9,500 \|- \| Mobile County Public School System \| 8,100 \|} The next twenty largest employers, , included: {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Employer ! Location \|- \| Anniston Army Depot \| Anniston \|- \| AT&T \| Multiple \|- \| Auburn University \| Auburn \|- \| Baptist Medical Center South \| Montgomery \|- \| Birmingham City Schools \| Birmingham \|- \| City of Birmingham \| Birmingham \|- \| DCH Health System \| Tuscaloosa \|- \| Huntsville City Schools \| Huntsville \|- \| Huntsville Hospital System \| Huntsville \|- \| Hyundai Motor Manufacturing Alabama \| Montgomery \|- \| Infirmary Health System \| Mobile \|- \| Jefferson County Board of Education \| Birmingham \|- \| Marshall Space Flight Center \| Huntsville \|- \| Mercedes-Benz U.S. International \| Vance \|- \| Montgomery Public Schools \| Montgomery \|- \| Regions Financial Corporation \| Multiple \|- \| Boeing \| Multiple \|- \| University of Alabama \| Tuscaloosa \|- \| University of South Alabama \| Mobile \|- \| Walmart \| Multiple \|} Agriculture Alabama's agricultural outputs include poultry and eggs, cattle, fish, plant nursery items, peanuts, cotton, grains such as corn and sorghum, vegetables, milk, soybeans, and peaches. Although known as "The Cotton State", Alabama ranks between eighth and tenth in national cotton production, according to various reports, with Texas, Georgia and Mississippi comprising the top three. Aquaculture Aquaculture is a large part of the economy of Alabama. Alabamians began to practice aquaculture in the early 1960s. U.S. farm-raised catfish is the 8th most popular seafood product in America. By 2008, approximately 4,000 people in Alabama were employed by the catfish industry and Alabama produced 132 million pounds of catfish. Automakers accounted for approximately a third of the industrial expansion in the state in 2012. The eight models produced at the state's auto factories totaled combined sales of 74,335 vehicles for 2012. The strongest model sales during this period were the Hyundai Elantra compact car, the Mercedes-Benz GL-Class sport utility vehicle and the Honda Ridgeline sport utility truck. Steel producers Outokumpu, Nucor, SSAB, ThyssenKrupp, and U.S. Steel have facilities in Alabama and employ more than 10,000 people. In May 2007, German steelmaker ThyssenKrupp selected Calvert in Mobile County for a 4.65billion combined stainless and carbon steel processing facility. ThyssenKrupp's stainless steel division, Inoxum, including the stainless portion of the Calvert plant, was sold to Finnish stainless steel company Outokumpu in 2012. The remaining portion of the ThyssenKrupp plant had final bids submitted by ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel for $1.6billion in March 2013. Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional submitted a combined bid for the mill at Calvert, plus a majority stake in the ThyssenKrupp mill in Brazil, for $3.8billion. In July 2013, the plant was sold to ArcelorMittal and Nippon Steel. The Hunt Refining Company, a subsidiary of Hunt Consolidated, Inc., is based in Tuscaloosa and operates a refinery there. The company also operates terminals in Mobile, Melvin, and Moundville. JVC America, Inc. operates an optical disc replication and packaging plant in Tuscaloosa. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company operates a large plant in Gadsden which employs about 1,400 people. It has been in operation since 1929. Construction of an Airbus A320 family aircraft assembly plant in Mobile was formally announced by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Center on July 2, 2012. The plans include a $600million factory at the Brookley Aeroplex for the assembly of the A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. Construction began in 2013, with plans for it to become operable by 2015 and produce up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017.b The assembly plant is the company's first factory to be built within the United States. It was announced on February 1, 2013, that Airbus had hired Alabama-based Hoar Construction to oversee construction of the facility. The factory officially opened on September 14, 2015, covering one million square feet on 53 acres of flat grassland. Tourism and entertainment According to Business Insider, Alabama ranked 14th in most popular states to visit in 2014. An estimated 26 million tourists visited the state in 2017 and spent $14.3 billion, providing directly or indirectly 186,900 jobs in the state, which includes 362,000 International tourists spending $589 million. The state is home to various attractions, natural features, parks and events that attract visitors from around the globe, notably the annual Hangout Music Festival, held on the public beaches of Gulf Shores; the Alabama Shakespeare Festival, one of the ten largest Shakespeare festivals in the world; the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, a collection of championship caliber golf courses distributed across the state; casinos such as Victoryland; amusement parks such as Alabama Splash Adventure; the Riverchase Galleria, one of the largest shopping centers in the southeast; Guntersville Lake, voted the best lake in Alabama by Southern Living Magazine readers; and the Alabama Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in the state. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, beginning in 1703. It was also host to the first formally organized Mardi Gras parade in the U.S. in 1830, a tradition that continues to this day. In 2018, Mobile's Mardi Gras parade was the state's top event, producing the most tourists with an attendance of 892,811. The top attraction was the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville with an attendance of 849,981, followed by the Birmingham Zoo with 543,090. Of the parks and natural destinations, Alabama's Gulf Coast topped the list with 6,700,000 visitors. Alabama has historically been a popular region for film shoots due to its diverse landscapes and contrast of environments. Movies filmed in Alabama include Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Get Out, 42, Selma, Big Fish, The Final Destination, Due Date, and Need for Speed. Healthcare UAB Hospital, USA Health University Hospital, Huntsville Hospital, and Children's Hospital of Alabama are the only LevelI trauma centers in Alabama. UAB is the largest state government employer in Alabama, with a workforce of about 18,000. A 2017 study found that Alabama had the least competitive health insurance market in the country, with Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Alabama having a market share of 84% followed by UnitedHealth Group at 7%. Banking , Regions Center, and Wells Fargo Tower in Birmingham's financial district]] Regions Financial Corporation is the largest bank headquartered in or operating in Alabama. PNC Financial Services and Wells Fargo also have a major presence in Alabama. Wells Fargo has a regional headquarters, an operations center campus, and a $400million data center in Birmingham. Many smaller banks are also headquartered in the Birmingham area, including ServisFirst and New South Federal Savings Bank. Birmingham also serves as the headquarters for several large investment management companies, including Harbert Management Corporation. Electronics and communications Telecommunications provider AT&T, formerly BellSouth, has a major presence in Alabama with several large offices in Birmingham. Many technology companies are headquartered in Huntsville, such as ADTRAN, a network access company; Intergraph, a computer graphics company; and Avocent, an IT infrastructure company. Construction Brasfield & Gorrie, BE&K, Hoar Construction, and B.L. Harbert International, based in Alabama and subsidiaries of URS Corporation, are all routinely are included in the Engineering News-Record lists of top design, international construction, and engineering firms. Law and government State government in Montgomery, completed in 1851]] The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, the current one having been adopted in 2022. The former Alabama constitution adopted in 1901 was, with over 850 amendments and almost 87,000 words, by some accounts the world's longest constitution and roughly forty times the length of the United States Constitution. There has been a significant movement to rewrite and modernize Alabama's constitution. Critics have argued that Alabama's constitution maintains highly centralized power with the state legislature, leaving practically no power in local hands. Most counties do not have home rule. Any policy changes proposed in different areas of the state must be approved by the entire Alabama legislature and, frequently, by state referendum. The former constitution was particularly criticized for its complexity and length intentionally codifying segregation and racism. in Montgomery. It houses the Supreme Court of Alabama, Alabama Court of Civil Appeals, and Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals.]] Alabama's government is divided into three coequal branches. The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation. The Republican Party currently holds a majority in both houses of the Legislature. The Legislature has the power to override a gubernatorial veto by a simple majority (most state Legislatures require a two-thirds majority to override a veto). Until 1964, the state elected state senators on a geographic basis by county, with one per county. It had not redistricted congressional districts since passage of its constitution in 1901; as a result, urbanized areas were grossly underrepresented. It had not changed legislative districts to reflect the decennial censuses, either. In Reynolds v. Sims (1964), the U.S. Supreme Court implemented the principle of "one man, one vote", ruling that congressional districts had to be reapportioned based on censuses (as the state already included in its constitution but had not implemented.) Further, the court ruled that both houses of bicameral state legislatures had to be apportioned by population, as there was no constitutional basis for states to have geographically based systems. At that time, Alabama and many other states had to change their legislative districting, as many across the country had systems that underrepresented urban areas and districts. This had caused decades of underinvestment in such areas. For instance, Birmingham and Jefferson County taxes had supplied one-third of the state budget, but Jefferson County received only 1/67th of state services in funding. Through the legislative delegations, the Alabama legislature kept control of county governments. Kay Ivey is the governor of Alabama as of 2024.]] The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the governor of Alabama. Other members of the executive branch include the cabinet, the lieutenant governor of Alabama, the Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama Secretary of State, the Alabama State Treasurer, and the State Auditor of Alabama. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey. The members of the Legislature take office immediately after the November elections. Statewide officials, such as the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, and other constitutional officers, take office the following January. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting the Constitution of Alabama and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The state's highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama. Alabama uses partisan elections to select judges. Since the 1980s judicial campaigns have become increasingly politicized. The current chief justice of the Alabama Supreme Court is Republican Tom Parker. All sitting justices on the Alabama Supreme Court are members of the Republican Party. There are two intermediate appellate courts, the Court of Civil Appeals and the Court of Criminal Appeals, and four trial courts: the circuit court (trial court of general jurisdiction), and the district, probate, and municipal courts. Some critics believe the election of judges has contributed to an exceedingly high rate of executions. Alabama has the highest per capita death penalty rate in the country. In some years, it imposes more death sentences than does Texas, a state which has a population five times larger. Some of its cases have been highly controversial; the U.S. Supreme Court has overturned 24 convictions in death penalty cases. It was the only state to allow judges to override jury decisions in whether or not to use a death sentence; in 10 cases judges overturned sentences of life imprisonment without parole that were voted unanimously by juries. This judicial authority was removed in April 2017. On May 14, 2019, Alabama passed the Human Life Protection Act, banning abortion at any stage of pregnancy unless there is a "serious health risk", with no exceptions for rape and incest. The law subjects doctors who perform abortions with 10 to 99 years imprisonment. The law was originally supposed to take effect the following November, but on October 29, 2019, U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson blocked the law from taking effect due to it being in conflict with the 1973 U.S. Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade. On June 24, 2022, after the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade in ''Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization'', Judge Thompson lifted the injunction, allowing the law to go into effect. Alabama is one of the few states that does not allow the creation of state lotteries. Taxes Taxes are collected by the Alabama Department of Revenue. Alabama levies a 2%, 4%, or5% personal income tax, depending on the amount earned and filing status. Taxpayers are allowed to deduct their federal income tax from their Alabama state tax, even if taking the standard deduction; those who itemize can also deduct FICA (the Social Security and Medicare tax). The state's general sales tax rate is 4%. Sales tax rates for cities and counties are also added to purchases. For example, the total sales tax rate in Mobile County, Alabama is 10% and there is an additional restaurant tax of 1%, which means a diner in Mobile County, Alabama would pay an 11% tax on a meal. In 2020, sales and excise taxes in Alabama accounted for 38% of all state and local revenue. Only Alabama, Mississippi, and South Dakota tax groceries at the full state sales tax rate. The corporate income tax rate in Alabama is 6.5%. The overall federal, state, and local tax burden in Alabama ranks the state as the second least tax-burdened state in the country. Property taxes of .40% of assessed value per year, are the second-lowest in the U.S., after Hawaii. The state constitution currently requires a voter referendum to raise property taxes. Historically, an Alabama excise tax "on the storage, use or other consumption in this state of tangible personal property purchased at retail for storage, use or other consumption in this state" was the focus of a 1941 U S Supreme Court ruling, Curry v United States. County and local governments Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the county commission. It also has limited executive authority in the county. Because of the constraints of the Alabama Constitution, which centralizes power in the state legislature, only seven counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have limited home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies approved, ranging from waste disposal to land use zoning. The state legislature has retained power over local governments by refusing to pass a constitutional amendment establishing home rule for counties, as recommended by the 1973 Alabama Constitutional Commission. Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state, meaning the state government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol. The Alabama Alcoholic Beverage Control Board controls the sale and distribution of alcoholic beverages in the state. A total of 25 of the 67 counties are "dry counties" which ban the sale of alcohol, and there are many dry municipalities in counties which permit alcohol sales. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Rank !! County !! Population(2019 Estimate) !! Population(2010 Census) !! Seat !! Largest city \|+ Largest counties in Alabama by population \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 1 \| Jefferson \| style="text-align:center;"\| 658,573 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 658,158 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Birmingham \| style="text-align:center;"\| Birmingham \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 2 \| Mobile \| style="text-align:center;"\| 413,210 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 412,992 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Mobile \| style="text-align:center;"\| Mobile \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 3 \| Madison \| style="text-align:center;"\| 372,909 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 334,811 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Huntsville \| style="text-align:center;"\| Huntsville \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 4 \| Montgomery \| style="text-align:center;"\| 226,486 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 229,363 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Montgomery \| style="text-align:center;"\| Montgomery \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 5 \| Shelby \| style="text-align:center;"\| 217,702 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 195,085 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Columbiana \| style="text-align:center;"\| Hoover (part)Alabaster \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 6 \| Baldwin \| style="text-align:center;"\| 223,234 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 182,265 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Bay Minette \| style="text-align:center;"\| Daphne \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 7 \| Tuscaloosa \| style="text-align:center;"\| 209,355 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 194,656 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Tuscaloosa \| style="text-align:center;"\| Tuscaloosa \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 8 \| Lee \| style="text-align:center;"\| 164,542 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 140,247 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Opelika \| style="text-align:center;"\| Auburn \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 9 \| Morgan \| style="text-align:center;"\| 119,679 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 119,490 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Decatur \| style="text-align:center;"\| Decatur \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 10 \| Calhoun \| style="text-align:center;"\| 113,605 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 118,572 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Anniston \| style="text-align:center;"\| Anniston \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 11 \| Houston \| style="text-align:center;"\| 105,882 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 101,547 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Dothan \| style="text-align:center;"\| Dothan \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 12 \| Etowah \| style="text-align:center;"\| 102,268 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 104,303 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Gadsden \| style="text-align:center;"\| Gadsden \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 13 \| Limestone \| style="text-align:center;"\| 98,915 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 82,782 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Athens \| style="text-align:center;"\| Athens \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 14 \| Marshall \| style="text-align:center;"\| 96,774 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 93,019 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Guntersville \| style="text-align:center;"\| Albertville \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| 15 \| Lauderdale \| style="text-align:center;"\| 92,729 \| style="text-align:center;"\| 92,709 \| style="text-align:center;"\| Florence \| style="text-align:center;"\| Florence \|} Politics During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition of white Democrats known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans, in part by suppressing the black vote through violence, fraud, and intimidation. After 1890, a coalition of White Democratic politicians passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise African American residents, a process completed in provisions of the 1901 constitution. Provisions which disenfranchised blacks resulted in excluding many poor Whites. By 1941 more Whites than Blacks had been disenfranchised: 600,000 to 520,000. The total effects were greater on the black community, as almost all its citizens were disfranchised and relegated to separate and unequal treatment under the law. From 1901 through the 1960s, the state did not redraw election districts as population grew and shifted within the state during urbanization and industrialization of certain areas. As counties were the basis of election districts, the result was a rural minority that dominated state politics through nearly three-quarters of the century, until a series of federal court cases required redistricting in 1972 to meet equal representation. Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the civil rights movement, when whites bureaucratically, and at times violently, resisted protests for electoral and social reform. Governor George Wallace, the state's only four-term governor, was a controversial figure who vowed to maintain segregation. Only after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 In 2010, Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in 136 years. , there are a total of 3,707,233 registered voters, with 3,318,679 active, and the others inactive in the state. The 2023 American Values Atlas by Public Religion Research Institute found that a majority of Alabama residents support same-sex marriage. Elections won a special election in 2017.]] State elections With the disfranchisement of Blacks in 1901, the state became part of the "Solid South", a system in which the Democratic Party operated as effectively the only viable political party in every Southern state. For nearly a hundred years local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally only token Republican challengers running in the general election. Since the mid- to late 20th century, however, white conservatives started shifting to the Republican Party. In Alabama, majority-white districts are now expected to regularly elect Republican candidates to federal, state and local office. Members of the nine seats on the Supreme Court of Alabama and all ten seats on the state appellate courts are elected to office. Until 1994, no Republicans held any of the court seats. In that general election, the then-incumbent chief justice, Ernest C. Hornsby, refused to leave office after losing the election by approximately 3,000 votes to Republican Perry O. Hooper Sr. Hornsby sued Alabama and defiantly remained in office for nearly a year before finally giving up the seat after losing in court. The Democrats lost the last of the nineteen court seats in August 2011 with the resignation of the last Democrat on the bench. In the early 21st century, Republicans hold all seven of the statewide elected executive branch offices. Republicans hold six of the eight elected seats on the Alabama State Board of Education. In 2010, Republicans took large majorities of both chambers of the state legislature, giving them control of that body for the first time in 136 years. The last remaining statewide Democrat, who served on the Alabama Public Service Commission, was defeated in 2012. Only three Republican lieutenant governors have been elected since the end of Reconstruction, when Republicans generally represented Reconstruction government, including the newly emancipated freedmen who had gained the franchise. The three GOP lieutenant governors are Steve Windom (1999–2003), Kay Ivey (2011–2017), and Will Ainsworth (2019–present). Local elections Many metropolitan and suburban counties have voters who are majority Democrats, resulting in local elections being decided in the Democratic primary. Similarly, most rural counties are majority-Republican and elections are effectively decided in the Republican Primary. However, since local governments in Alabama are weaker than in other parts of the country, Republicans have the upper hand in government. Alabama's 67 county sheriffs are elected in partisan, at-large races, and Republicans retain the vast majority of those posts. The current split is 18 Democrats, and 49 Republicans as of 2023. However, most of the Democratic sheriffs preside over urban and more populated counties. The majority of Republican sheriffs have been elected in the more rural counties with lower population. The state of Alabama has and 11 African-American sheriffs. Federal elections The state's two U.S. senators are Katie Britt and Tommy Tuberville, both of whom are Republican. In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, five of whom are Republicans (Mike Rogers, Robert Aderholt, Dale Strong, Barry Moore, and Gary Palmer) and two Democrats (Terri Sewell and Shomari Figures). Education Primary and secondary education in the suburbs of Birmingham]] Public primary and secondary education in Alabama is under the purview of the Alabama State Board of Education as well as local oversight by 67 county school boards and 60 city boards of education. Together, 1,496 individual schools provide education for 744,637 elementary and secondary students. Public school funding is appropriated through the Alabama Legislature through the Education Trust Fund. In FY 2006–2007, Alabama appropriated $3,775,163,578 for primary and secondary education. That represented an increase of $444,736,387 over the previous fiscal year. In 2007, more than 82 percent of schools made adequate yearly progress (AYP) toward student proficiency under the National No Child Left Behind law, using measures determined by the state of Alabama. While Alabama's public education system has improved in recent decades, it lags behind in achievement compared to other states. According to U.S. Census data (2000), Alabama's high school graduation rate (75%) is the fourth lowest in the U.S. (after Kentucky, Louisiana and Mississippi). The largest educational gains were among people with some college education but without degrees. According to National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP), Alabama ranks 39 in reading and 40 in math among fourth-grade students in the rankings from 2022. Generally prohibited in the West at large, school corporal punishment is not unusual in Alabama, with 27,260 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year. Colleges and universities in Florence. The school was chartered as LaGrange College by the Alabama Legislature in 1830.]] Alabama's programs of higher education include 14 four-year public universities, two-year community colleges, and 17 private, undergraduate and graduate universities. In the state are four medical schools (as of fall 2015) UAB Heersink School of Medicine, University of South Alabama and Alabama College of Osteopathic Medicine and The Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine—Auburn Campus), two veterinary colleges (Auburn University and Tuskegee University), a dental school (UAB School of Dentistry, an optometry college (UAB School of Optometry), two pharmacy schools (Auburn University and Samford University), and five law schools (University of Alabama School of Law, Birmingham School of Law, Cumberland School of Law, Miles Law School, and the Thomas Goode Jones School of Law). Public, post-secondary education in Alabama is overseen by the Alabama Commission on Higher Education and the Alabama Department of Postsecondary Education. Colleges and universities in Alabama offer degree programs from two-year associate degrees to a multitude of doctoral level programs. ]] The largest single campus is the University of Alabama, located in Tuscaloosa, with 37,665 enrolled for fall 2016. Troy University was the largest institution in the state in 2010, with an enrollment of 29,689 students across four Alabama campuses (Troy, Dothan, Montgomery, and Phenix City), as well as sixty learning sites in seventeen other states and eleven other countries. The oldest institutions are the public University of North Alabama in Florence and the Catholic Church-affiliated Spring Hill College in Mobile, both founded in 1830. Accreditation of academic programs is through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) as well as other subject-focused national and international accreditation agencies such as the Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), the Council on Occupational Education (COE), and the Accrediting Council for Independent Colleges and Schools (ACICS). According to the 2024 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had three universities ranked in the top 100 Public Schools in America (Auburn University at 47, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) at 76, and University of Alabama at 91). According to the 2024 U.S. News & World Report, Alabama had four tier one universities (Auburn University, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), University of Alabama and University of Alabama in Huntsville). Media Major newspapers include Birmingham News, Mobile Press-Register, and Montgomery Advertiser. Major television network affiliates in Alabama include: * ABC WGWW 40.2 ABC, Anniston WBMA 58/WABM 68.2 ABC, Birmingham WDHN 18 ABC, Dothan WAAY 31 ABC, Huntsville WEAR 3 ABC Pensacola, Florida/Mobile WNCF 32 ABC, Montgomery ** WDBB 17.2 ABC, Tuscaloosa * CBS WIAT 42 CBS, Birmingham WTVY 4 CBS, Dothan WHNT 19 CBS, Huntsville WKRG 5 CBS, Mobile ** WAKA 8 CBS, Selma/Montgomery * Fox WBRC 6 FOX, Birmingham WZDX 54 FOX, Huntsville WALA 10 FOX, Mobile WCOV 20 FOX, Montgomery ** WDFX 34 FOX, Ozark/Dothan * NBC WVTM 13 NBC, Birmingham WRGX 23 NBC, Dothan WAFF 48 NBC, Huntsville WPMI 15 NBC, Mobile ** WSFA 12 NBC, Montgomery * PBS/Alabama Public Television WBIQ 10 PBS, Birmingham WIIQ 41 PBS, Demopolis WDIQ 2 PBS, Dozier WFIQ 36 PBS, Florence WHIQ 25 PBS, Huntsville WGIQ 43 PBS, Louisville WEIQ 42 PBS, Mobile WAIQ 26 PBS, Montgomery ** WCIQ 7 PBS, Mount Cheaha * The CW WTTO 21, Homewood/Birmingham WTVY 4.3, Dothan WHDF 15, Florence/Huntsville WFNA 55, Gulf Shores/Mobile/Pensacola, FL WDBB 17, Tuscaloosa WBMM 22, Tuskegee/Montgomery Culture Literature Alabama literature is characterized by themes of race and issues of gender and war, and is influenced by events such as the American Civil War, the Reconstruction era, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War. Some notable examples of Alabama literature include Harper Lee's To Kill A Mockingbird, Winston Groom's Forrest Gump, Fannie Flagg's Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistlestop Cafe, and the biographies of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. Sports at the University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa]] in Birmingham]] in Huntsville]] in Birmingham]] Professional sports Alabama has several professional and semi-professional sports teams, including three minor league baseball teams. {\| class="sortable wikitable" \|- ! Club ! City ! Sport ! League ! Venue \|- \| AFC Mobile \| Mobile \| Soccer \| Gulf Coast Premier League \| Archbishop Lipscomb Athletic Complex \|- \| Birmingham Bulls \| Pelham \| Ice hockey \| Southern Professional Hockey League \| Pelham Civic Center \|- \| Birmingham Legion FC \| Birmingham \| Soccer \| USL Championship \| PNC Field \|- \| Birmingham Barons \| Birmingham \| Baseball \| Southern League (Double-A) \| Regions Field \|- \| Birmingham Stallions \| Birmingham \| Football \| United Football League \| Protective Stadium \|- \| Huntsville Havoc \| Huntsville \| Ice hockey \| Southern Professional Hockey League \| Von Braun Center \|- \| Montgomery Biscuits \| Montgomery \| Baseball \| Southern League (Double-A) \| Montgomery Riverwalk Stadium \|- \| Rocket City Trash Pandas \| Madison \| Baseball \| Southern League (Double-A) \| Toyota Field \|- \| Tennessee Valley Tigers \| Huntsville \| Football \| Independent Women's Football League \| Milton Frank Stadium \|} The Talladega Superspeedway motorsports complex hosts a series of NASCAR events. It has a seating capacity of 143,000 and is the thirteenth largest stadium in the world and sixth largest stadium in America. Also, the Barber Motorsports Park has hosted IndyCar Series and Rolex Sports Car Series races. The ATP Birmingham was a World Championship Tennis tournament held from 1973 to 1980. Alabama has hosted several professional golf tournaments, such as the 1984 and 1990 PGA Championship at Shoal Creek, the Barbasol Championship (PGA Tour), the Mobile LPGA Tournament of Champions, Airbus LPGA Classic, and Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic (LPGA Tour), and The Tradition (Champions Tour). College sports College football is extremely popular in Alabama, particularly the University of Alabama Crimson Tide and Auburn University Tigers, rivals in the Southeastern Conference. Alabama averages over 100,000 fans per game and Auburn averages over 80,000—both numbers among the top twenty in the nation. Bryant–Denny Stadium is the home of the Alabama football team, and has a seating capacity of 101,821, and is the fifth largest stadium in America. Jordan-Hare Stadium is the home field of the Auburn football team and seats up to 87,451. Protective Stadium is home of the UAB Blazers football program and the Birmingham Bowl. It seats 45,000. Ladd–Peebles Stadium in Mobile is the home of the University of South Alabama football team, and serves as the home of the NCAA Senior Bowl, LendingTree Bowl, and Alabama-Mississippi All Star Classic; the stadium seats 40,646. In 2009, Bryant–Denny Stadium and Jordan-Hare Stadium became the homes of the Alabama High School Athletic Association state football championship games, after previously being held at Legion Field in Birmingham. Transportation in Montgomery]] (co-signed with Interstate 20) approaching Interstate 65 in downtown Birmingham]] Aviation Major airports with sustained operations in Alabama include Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport (BHM), Huntsville International Airport (HSV), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Mobile Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport (MGM), Northwest Alabama Regional Airport<!--no longer Muscle Shoals Aux--> (MSL) and Northeast Alabama Regional Airport (GAD). Rail For rail transport, Amtrak schedules the Crescent, a daily passenger train, running from New York to New Orleans with station stops at Anniston, Birmingham, and Tuscaloosa. Roads Alabama has six major interstate routes: Interstate 65 (I-65) travels north–south roughly through the middle of the state; I-20/I-59 travel from the central west Mississippi state line to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; I-85 originates in Montgomery and travels east-northeast to the Georgia state line, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state, traveling from west to east through Mobile. I-22 enters the state from Mississippi and connects Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee. In addition, there are currently five auxiliary interstate routes in the state: I-165 in Mobile, I-359 in Tuscaloosa, I-459 around Birmingham, I-565 in Decatur and Huntsville, and I-759 in Gadsden. A sixth route, I-685, will be formed when I-85 is rerouted along a new southern bypass of Montgomery. A proposed northern bypass of Birmingham will be designated as I-422. Since a direct connection from I-22 to I-422 will not be possible, I-222 has been proposed, as well. Several U.S. Highways also pass through the state, such as U.S. Route 11 (US-11), US-29, US-31, US-43, US-45, US-72, US-78, US-80, US-82, US-84, US-90, US-98, US-231, US-278, US-280, US-331, US-411, and US-431. There are four toll roads in the state: Montgomery Expressway in Montgomery; Northport/Tuscaloosa Western Bypass in Tuscaloosa and Northport; Emerald Mountain Expressway in Wetumpka; and Beach Express in Orange Beach. Ports The Port of Mobile, Alabama's only saltwater port, is a large seaport on the Gulf of Mexico with inland waterway access to the Midwest by way of the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway. The Port of Mobile was ranked 12th by tons of traffic in the United States during 2009. The newly expanded container terminal at the Port of Mobile was ranked as the 25th busiest for container traffic in the nation during 2011. The state's other ports are on rivers with access to the Gulf of Mexico. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Alabama Water ports, from north to south ! Port name ! Location ! Connected to \|- \| Port of Florence \|\|Florence/Muscle Shoals, on Pickwick Lake \|\| Tennessee River \|- \| Port of Decatur \|\| Decatur, on Wheeler Lake \|\| Tennessee River \|- \| Port of Demopolis \|\|Demopolis, on Tombigbee River \|\| Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway \|- \| Port of Guntersville \|\|Guntersville, on Lake Guntersville \|\| Tennessee River \|- \| Port of Birmingham \|\| Birmingham, on Black Warrior River \|\| Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway \|- \| Port of Tuscaloosa \|\| Tuscaloosa, on Black Warrior River \|\| Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway \|- \| Port of Montgomery \|\| Montgomery, on Woodruff Lake \|\| Alabama River \|- \| Port of Mobile \|\| Mobile, on Mobile Bay \|\| Gulf of Mexico \|} See also * Index of Alabama-related articles * Outline of Alabama — organized list of topics about Alabama * USS Alabama, 7 ships Notes Subnotes Other notes References Further reading * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. Alabama: The History of a Deep South State (1994). * Flynt, Wayne. Alabama in the Twentieth Century (2004). * Owen Thomas M. [https://archive.org/details/historyofalabama01owen History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography] (4 vols, 1921). * Jackson, Harvey H. Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State (2004). * Mohl, Raymond A. "Latinization in the Heart of Dixie: Hispanics in Late-twentieth-century Alabama" Alabama Review (2002, 55(4): 243–274). * Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974). * Williams, Benjamin Buford. A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century (1979). * External links * * [https://guides.loc.gov/alabama-state-guide Alabama: State Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress, A guide that provides access to digital materials related to the state of Alabama at the Library of Congress, as well as links to external websites and a selected print bibliography. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200405160153/https://archives.alabama.gov/aaa.html All About The Archives (archived 2020)] at the Alabama Department of Archives and History * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090107053602/http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975 (archived 2009)] on Alabama Legislature website * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070106165755/http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?State=AL Science in your state: Alabama (archived 2007)] State facts, real-time information, and other scientific resources and links about Alabama * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070823032917/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts (archived 2007)] from the U.S. Census Bureau * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS01&StateNameAlabama Alabama State Fact Sheet] from Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture * The Yellowhammer State, The Heart of Dixie, The Cotton State \|list = \|state=expanded}} <!--please leave the empty space--> Category:1819 establishments in the United States Category:Southern United States Category:States and territories established in 1819 Category:States of the Confederate States of America Category:States of the Gulf Coast of the United States Category:States of the United States Category:Contiguous United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama	2025-04-05T18:25:15.429504
305	Achilles	) of Achilles during the Trojan War \| god_of \| abode Phthia \| symbol \| consort Deidamia, Briseis \| parents = Peleus and Thetis \| siblings = Polymele \| children = Neoptolemus, Oneiros \| Roman_equivalent = }} In Greek mythology, Achilles ( ) or Achilleus () was a hero of the Trojan War who was known as being the greatest of all the Greek warriors. The central character in Homer's Iliad, he was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus, king of Phthia and famous Argonaut. Achilles was raised in Phthia along with his childhood companion Patroclus and received his education by the centaur Chiron. In the Iliad, he is presented as the commander of the mythical tribe of the Myrmidons. Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy. Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad, other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris, who shot him with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius' unfinished epic Achilleid, written in the first century CE) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel. According to that myth, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels, leaving it untouched by the waters and thus his only vulnerable body part. Alluding to these legends, the term ''Achilles' heel has come to mean a point of weakness which can lead to downfall, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon is named after him following the same legend. Etymology Linear B tablets attest to the personal name Achilleus in the forms a-ki-re-u and a-ki-re-we'', the latter being the dative of the former. and was also turned into the female form (Achilleía), attested in Attica in the fourth century BCE (IG II² 1617) and, in the form Achillia, on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of (), 'distress, pain, sorrow, grief' and (), 'people, soldiers, nation', resulting in a proto-form Akhí-lāu̯os, 'he who has the people distressed' or 'he whose people have distress'. The grief or distress of the people is a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of ('glory', usually in war). Furthermore, has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean 'a corps of soldiers', a muster. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of -λλ- and -λ- in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l<sup>y</sup>/ in the original language. Other names Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following: Pyrisous, "saved from the fire", his first name, which seems to favour the tradition in which his mortal parts were burned by his mother Thetis * Aeacides, from his grandfather Aeacus * Aemonius, from Aemonia, a country which afterwards acquired the name of Thessaly * Aspetos, "inimitable" or "vast", his name at Epirus * Larissaeus, from Larissa (also called Cremaste), a town of Achaia Phthiotis in Thessaly * Ligyron, his original name * Nereius, from his mother Thetis, one of the Nereids * Pelides, from his father, Peleus * Phthius, from his birthplace, Phthia * Podarkes, "swift-footed", from the wings of Arke () being attached to his feet (, ) Birth and early years (; Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam)]] Achilles was the son of Thetis—a Nereid and daughter of the Old Man of the Sea—and Peleus, the king of the Myrmidons. Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until Prometheus, the fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis, goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the Argonautica (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to the advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus, was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. , pastel on paper, (Getty Center, Los Angeles)]] According to the Achilleid, written by Statius in the first century CE, and to non-surviving previous sources, when Achilles was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel . It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. (Yale Center for British Art)]] None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the Iliad, Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaios, son of Pelagon, challenged Achilles by the river Scamander. He was ambidextrous, and cast a spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death (i.e. the Cypria, the Little Iliad by Lesches of Pyrrha, the Aethiopis and Iliupersis by Arctinus of Miletus), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting the death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso. Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron, who lived on Mount Pelion and was known as the most righteous of the Centaurs, to be reared. In some accounts, Achilles' original name was "Ligyron" and he was later named Achilles by his tutor Chiron. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his childhood companion Patroclus. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. teaching Achilles how to play the lyre, Roman fresco from Herculaneum, first century CE]] According to Photius, the sixth book of the New History by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from the flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus, who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot. Physical description In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is portrayed as tall and striking, with strength and looks that were unmatched among the Greek warriors. Homer describes him as having long hair or a mane (). Along with other characters, his hair is described with the word xanthḗ (), which meant 'yellow', or at times shades thereof, such as brown or auburn, and was used mostly for fair hair. A later Latin account, probably from the fifth century CE, falsely attributed to Dares Phrygius described Achilles as having "... a large chest, a fine mouth, and powerfully formed arms and legs. His head was covered with long wavy chestnut-colored hair. Though mild in manner, he was very fierce in battle. His face showed the joy of a man richly endowed." Hidden on Skyros from the Poseidon Villa in Zeugma, Commagene (now in the Zeugma Mosaic Museum) depicting Achilles disguised as a woman and Odysseus tricking him into revealing himself]] Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man dressed as a princess or at least a girl at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. There, Achilles, properly disguised, lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under the name "Pyrrha" (the red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa ("swift"). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia, with whom he had begun a relationship, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in the guise of a pedlar selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. In the Trojan War , ]] According to the Iliad, Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons. He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus, Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon. Telephus When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos, where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in Euripides' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam's and Hecuba's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders, a "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena, and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth—who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios. Later versions of the story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif is older and found already in Plautus' Bacchides. In the Iliad , from a mosaic from Pompeii, first century CE]] Homer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (, ) is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the Iliad read: {\| class="wikitable" \|- \|Μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλῆος<br /> οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, [...] \|Sing, Goddess, of the rage of Peleus' son Achilles,<br /> the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans, [...] \|} to Agamemnon, from the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, fresco, first century CE (Naples National Archaeological Museum)]] The Homeric epic only covers a few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon, the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses, a priest of Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines the source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' slave Briseis, the daughter of Briseus, be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with the urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges the king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix. They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he is planning to do. (1757, Villa Valmarana ai Nani, Vicenza)]] The Trojans, led by Hector, subsequently push the Greek army back toward the beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, although Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus, the son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles, described in great detail in the poem. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes the field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander, who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before the time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. in the Achilleion, Greece]] Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena, in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus, persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows the battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that, "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me." Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having a dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog (Sirius); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus, the evening/western star (Venus), while the burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus, the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on the 10th (in the tradition of Niobe's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. Penthesilea and Memnon Later works, including the Aethiopis (seventh century BCE) and a work named Posthomerica, composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War. When Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares, arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills the warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. Initially taken aback, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon, son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia, slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on the battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliads description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed the basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis, which was composed after the Iliad, possibly in the seventh century BCE. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. Achilles and Patroclus , (Altes Museum, Berlin)]] The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad, it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In fifth-century BCE Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia, which is the relationship between an older male and a younger one, usually a teenager. In Plato's Symposium, the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates says that Achilles and Patroclus were not lovers but had a platonic relationship. Kenneth Dover argues that ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual, and it was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship. Death The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. Starting with the oldest account, In book 22 of the Iliad, Hector predicts with his last dying breath that Paris and Apollo will slay him at the Scaean Gates leading to Troy (with an arrow to the heel according to Statius). In book 23, the sad spirit of dead Patroclus visits Achilles just as he drifts off into slumber, requesting that his bones be placed with those of Achilles in his golden vase, a gift of his mother. black-figure lekythos from Sicily, (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich).]] In book 11 of the Odyssey, Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be a slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and Odysseus tells him of Neoptolemus' actions. Book 24 of Odyssey gives dead King Agamemnon's ghostly account of Achilles' death: the bleached bones from Achilles' funeral pyre had been mixed with those of Patroclus and put into his mother's golden vase. Also, the bones of Antilochus, who had become closer to Achilles than any other following Patroclus' death, were separately enclosed. The customary funeral games of a hero were performed, and a massive tomb or mound was built on the Hellespont for approaching seagoers to celebrate. Achilles was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube. Another version of Achilles' death is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena. Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with a divine arrow, killing him. According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades—as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' Argonautica (third century BCE). Fate of Achilles' armour Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Ajax the Great. They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were the bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades (Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. The armour they fought for was made by Hephaestus and thus much stronger and more beautiful than any armour a mortal could craft. Thetis had the gear made for Achilles because his first set was worn by Patroclus when he went to battle and taken by Hector when he killed Patroclus. The Shield of Achilles was also made by the fire god. His legendary spear was given to him by his mentor Chiron before he participated in the Trojan War. It was called the Pelian Spear, which allegedly no other man could wield. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis, Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BCE by Alexander the Great, who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the second century CE. Achilles, Ajax and a game of petteia Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena. Worship and heroic cult in front, on the Polyxena sarcophagus, ]] )]] The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in the Troad, was venerated by Thessalians, but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander the Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla. Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades, in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly, as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum, Locri and Croton, accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The cult of Achilles is illustrated in the Polyxena sarcophagus (500 BCE), which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus, today's Black Sea, appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island (, , near Kiliia, Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from the Greek colonies on the Black Sea (graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings, from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BCE onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly 'lord of the sea', or 'lord of the Pontus Euxinus'), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) in his Natural History mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" (), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and the Dnieper-Bug Estuary; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called Dromos Achilleos (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, Achilléōs drómos, 'the Race-course of Achilles') and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. Pliny's contemporary Pomponius Mela () tells that Achilles was buried on an island named Achillea, situated between the Borysthenes and the Ister, adding to the geographical confusion. Ruins of a square temple, measuring 30 meters to a side, possibly that dedicated to Achilles, were discovered by Captain in 1823 on Snake Island. A second exploration in 1840 showed that the construction of a lighthouse had destroyed all traces of this temple. A fifth-century BCE black-glazed lekythos inscription, found on the island in 1840, reads: "Glaukos, son of Poseidon, dedicated me to Achilles, lord of Leuke." In another inscription from the fifth or fourth centuries BCE, a statue is dedicated to Achilles, lord of Leuke, by a citizen of Olbia, while in a further dedication, the city of Olbia confirms its continuous maintenance of the island's cult, again suggesting its quality as a place of a supra-regional hero veneration. Already in the fifth century BCE, Pindar had mentioned a cult of Achilles on a "bright island" (, ) of the Black Sea, while in another of his works, Pindar would retell the story of the immortalized Achilles living on a geographically indefinite Island of the Blest together with other heroes such as his father Peleus and Cadmus. Well known is the connection of these mythological Fortunate Isles (μακαρῶν νῆσοι, makárôn nêsoi) or the Homeric Elysium with the stream Oceanus which according to Greek mythology surrounds the inhabited world, which should have accounted for the identification of the northern strands of the Euxine with it. and the opposition of North and South, as evoked by Achilles' fight against the Aethiopian prince Memnon, who in his turn would be removed to his homeland by his mother Eos after his death. The Periplus of the Euxine Sea () gives the following details: (), built by settlers from Mytilene in the sixth century BCE, close to the hero's presumed burial mound in the Troad. Nicolae Densuşianu recognized a connection to Achilles in the names of Aquileia and of the northern arm of the Danube delta, called Chilia (presumably from an older Achileii), although his conclusion, that Leuce had sovereign rights over the Black Sea, evokes modern rather than archaic sea-law. The kings of Epirus claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son, Neoptolemus. Alexander the Great, son of the Epirote princess Olympias, could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor. He is said to have visited the tomb of Achilles at Achilleion while passing Troy. In 216, the Roman emperor Caracalla, while on his way to war against Parthia, emulated Alexander by holding games around Achilles' tumulus. Reception during antiquity In Greek tragedy The Greek tragedian Aeschylus wrote a trilogy of plays about Achilles, given the title Achilleis by modern scholars. The tragedies relate the deeds of Achilles during the Trojan War, including his defeat of Hector and eventual death when an arrow shot by Paris and guided by Apollo punctures his heel. Extant fragments of the Achilleis and other Aeschylean fragments have been assembled to produce a workable modern play. The first part of the Achilleis trilogy, The Myrmidons, focused on the relationship between Achilles and chorus, who represent the Achaean army and try to convince Achilles to give up his quarrel with Agamemnon; only a few lines survive today. In Plato's Symposium, Phaedrus points out that Aeschylus portrayed Achilles as the lover and Patroclus as the beloved; Phaedrus argues that this is incorrect because Achilles, being the younger and more beautiful of the two, was the beloved, who loved his lover so much that he chose to die to avenge him. The tragedian Sophocles also wrote The Lovers of Achilles, a play with Achilles as the main character. Only a few fragments survive. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE, a more negative view of Achilles emerges in Greek drama; Euripides refers to Achilles in a bitter or ironic tone in Hecuba, Electra, and Iphigenia in Aulis. Other contemporary tragedians, such as Astydamas, wrote works on Achilles that are completely lost today. In Greek philosophy Zeno The philosopher Zeno of Elea centred one of his paradoxes on an imaginary footrace between "swift-footed" Achilles and a tortoise, by which he attempted to show that Achilles could not catch up to a tortoise with a head start, and therefore that motion and change were impossible. As a student of the monist Parmenides and a member of the Eleatic school, Zeno believed time and motion to be illusions. Plato In Hippias Minor, a Socratic dialogue attributed to Plato, an arrogant man named Hippias argues with Socrates. The two get into a discussion about lying. They decide that a person who is intentionally false must be "better" than a person who is unintentionally false, on the basis that someone who lies intentionally must understand the subject about which they are lying. Socrates uses various analogies, discussing athletics and the sciences to prove his point. The two also reference Homer extensively. Socrates and Hippias agree that Odysseus, who concocted a number of lies throughout the Odyssey and other stories in the Trojan War Cycle, was false intentionally. Achilles, like Odysseus, told numerous falsehoods. Hippias believes that Achilles was a generally honest man, while Socrates believes that Achilles lied for his own benefit. The two argue over whether it is better to lie on purpose or by accident. Socrates eventually abandons Homeric arguments and makes sports analogies to drive home the point: someone who does wrong on purpose is a better person than someone who does wrong unintentionally. In Roman and medieval literature The Romans, who traditionally traced their lineage to Troy, took a highly negative view of Achilles. while Horace portrays Achilles ruthlessly slaying women and children. Other writers, such as Catullus, Propertius, and Ovid, represent a second strand of disparagement, with an emphasis on Achilles' erotic career. This strand continues in Latin accounts of the Trojan War by writers such as Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius and in Benoît de Sainte-Maure's and Guido delle Colonne's Historia destructionis Troiae, which remained the most widely read and retold versions of the Matter of Troy until the seventeenth century. Achilles was described by the Byzantine chronicler Leo the Deacon, not as Hellene, but as Scythian, while according to the Byzantine author John Malalas, his army was made up of a tribe previously known as Myrmidons and later as Bulgars. In modern literature and arts <!-- Please add NEW works with the YEAR of first publication in the correct subcategory. --> (1607–1677)]] ]] ]] (1847; Musée Fabre)]] Literature * Achilles appears in Dante's Inferno (composed 1308–1320). He is seen in Hell's second circle, that of lust. * Achilles is portrayed as a former hero who has become lazy and devoted to the love of Patroclus, in William Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida (1602). Despicably, he has his Myrmidons murder the unarmed Hector, and then gets them to announce that Achilles himself has slain Hector, as if it had been in a fair fight (Act 5.9.5-14). * The French dramatist Thomas Corneille wrote a tragedy ''La Mort d'Achille (1673). * Achilles is the subject of the poem Achilleis (1799), a fragment by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. * In 1899, the Polish playwright, painter and poet Stanisław Wyspiański published a national drama, based on Polish history, named Achilles. * In 1921, Edward Shanks published The Island of Youth and Other Poems, concerned among others with Achilles. * The 1983 novel Kassandra'' by Christa Wolf also treats the death of Achilles. * H.D.'s 1961 long poem Helen in Egypt features Achilles prominently as a figure whose irrational hatred of Helen traumatizes her, the bulk of the poem's plot being about her recovery. * Achilles is killed by a poisoned Centaur arrow shot by Cassandra in Marion Zimmer Bradley's novel The Firebrand (1987). * Achilles is one of various 'narrators' in Colleen McCullough's novel The Song of Troy (1998). * The Death of Achilles (Смерть Ахиллеса, 1998) is an historical detective novel by Russian writer Boris Akunin that alludes to various figures and motifs from the Iliad. * The character Achilles in ''Ender's Shadow'' (1999), by Orson Scott Card, shares his namesake's cunning mind and ruthless attitude. * Achilles is one of the main characters in Dan Simmons's novels Ilium (2003) and Olympos (2005). * Achilles is a major supporting character in David Gemmell's Troy series of books (2005–2007). * Achilles is the main character in David Malouf's novel Ransom (2009). * The ghost of Achilles appears in Rick Riordan's The Last Olympian (2009). He warns Percy Jackson about the Curse of Achilles and its side effects. * Achilles is a main character in Terence Hawkins' 2009 novel The Rage of Achilles. * Achilles is a major character in Madeline Miller's debut novel, The Song of Achilles (2011), which won the 2012 Orange Prize for Fiction. The novel explores the relationship between Patroclus and Achilles from boyhood to the fateful events of the Iliad. * Achilles appears in the light novel series Fate/Apocrypha (2012–2014) as the Rider of Red. * Achilles is a main character in Pat Barker's 2018 novel The Silence of the Girls, much of which is narrated by his slave Briseis. Visual arts * Achilles with the Daughters of Lycomedes is a subject treated in paintings by Anthony van Dyck (before 1618; Museo del Prado, Madrid) and Nicolas Poussin (; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) among others. * Peter Paul Rubens has authored a series of works on the life of Achilles, comprising the titles: Thetis dipping the infant Achilles into the river Styx, Achilles educated by the centaur Chiron, Achilles recognized among the daughters of Lycomedes, The wrath of Achilles, The death of Hector, Thetis receiving the arms of Achilles from Vulcanus, The death of Achilles (Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rotterdam), and Briseis restored to Achilles (Detroit Institute of Arts; all ) * Pieter van Lint, "Achilles Discovered among the Daughters of Lycomedes", 1645, at the Israel Museum, Jerusalem * Dying Achilles is a sculpture created by Christophe Veyrier (; Victoria and Albert Museum, London). * The Rage of Achilles is a fresco by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1757, Villa Valmarana Ai Nani, Vicenza). * Eugène Delacroix painted a version of The Education of Achilles for the ceiling of the Paris Palais Bourbon (1833–1847), one of the seats of the French Parliament. * created a statue group Achilles and Penthesilea (1895; Vienna). * Achilleus (1908) is a lithography by Max Slevogt. Music Achilles has been frequently the subject of operas, ballets and related genres. * Operas titled Deidamia were composed by Francesco Cavalli (1644) and George Frideric Handel (1739). * Achille et Polyxène (Paris 1687) is an opera begun by Jean-Baptiste Lully and finished by Pascal Collasse. * Achille et Déidamie (Paris 1735) is an opera composed by André Campra. * Achilles (London 1733) is a ballad opera, written by John Gay, parodied by Thomas Arne as Achilles in petticoats in 1773. * Achille in Sciro is a libretto by Metastasio, composed by Domenico Sarro for the inauguration of the Teatro di San Carlo (Naples, 4 November 1737). An even earlier composition is from Antonio Caldara (Vienna 1736). Later operas on the same libretto were composed by Leonardo Leo (Turin 1739), Niccolò Jommelli (Vienna 1749 and Rome 1772), Giuseppe Sarti (Copenhagen 1759 and Florence 1779), Johann Adolph Hasse (Naples 1759), Giovanni Paisiello (St. Petersburg 1772), Giuseppe Gazzaniga (Palermo 1781) and many others. It has also been set to music as Il Trionfo della gloria. * Achille (Vienna 1801) is an opera by Ferdinando Paër on a libretto by Giovanni de Gamerra. * Achille à Scyros (Paris 1804) is a ballet by Pierre Gardel, composed by Luigi Cherubini. * Achilles, oder Das zerstörte Troja ("Achilles, or Troy Destroyed", Bonn 1885) is an oratorio by the German composer Max Bruch. * Achilles auf Skyros (Stuttgart 1926) is a ballet by the Austrian-British composer and musicologist Egon Wellesz. * ''Achilles' Wrath'' is a concert piece by Sean O'Loughlin. * Temporary Like Achilles is a song on the 1966 double-album Blonde on Blonde by Bob Dylan * Achilles Last Stand is a song on the 1976 Led Zeppelin album Presence. * Achilles, Agony and Ecstasy in Eight Parts is the first song on the 1992 Manowar album The Triumph of Steel. * Achilles Come Down is a song on the 2017 Gang of Youths album Go Farther in Lightness. Film and television Achilles has been portrayed in the following films and television series: * The 1924 film Helena by Carlo Aldini * The 1954 film Ulysses by Piero Lulli * The 1956 film Helen of Troy by Stanley Baker * The 1961 film The Trojan Horse by Arturo Dominici * The 1962 film The Fury of Achilles by Gordon Mitchell * The 1997 television miniseries The Odyssey by Richard Trewett * The 2003 television miniseries Helen of Troy by Joe Montana * The 2004 film Troy by Brad Pitt Architecture * In 1890, Elisabeth of Bavaria, Empress of Austria, had a summer palace built in Corfu. The building is named the Achilleion, after Achilles. Its paintings and statuary depict scenes from the Trojan War, with particular focus on Achilles. * The Wellington Monument is a statue representing Achilles erected in 1822 as a memorial to Arthur Wellesley, the first duke of Wellington, and his victories in the Peninsular War and the latter stages of the Napoleonic Wars. Namesakes * The name of Achilles has been used for at least nine Royal Navy warships since 1744—both as and with the French spelling . A 60-gun ship of that name served at the Battle of Belleisle in 1761 while a 74-gun ship served at the Battle of Trafalgar. Other battle honours include Walcheren 1809. An armored cruiser of that name served in the Royal Navy during the First World War. * was a which served with the Royal New Zealand Navy in World War II. It became famous for its part in the Battle of the River Plate, alongside and . In addition to earning the battle honour 'River Plate', HMNZS Achilles also served at Guadalcanal 1942–1943 and Okinawa in 1945. After returning to the Royal Navy, the ship was sold to the Indian Navy in 1948, but when she was scrapped parts of the ship were saved and preserved in New Zealand. * A species of lizard, Anolis achilles, which has widened heel plates, is named for Achilles. Gallery <gallery> File:Achilles departure Eretria Painter CdM Paris 851.jpg\|Achilles and the Nereid Cymothoe, Attic red-figure kantharos from Volci (Cabinet des Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale, Paris) File:Akhilleus embassy Staatliche Antikensammlungen 8770.jpg\|The embassy to Achilles, Attic red-figure hydria, (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Berlin) File:AmbrosianIliadPict47Achilles.jpg\|Achilles sacrificing to Zeus for Patroclus' safe return, from the Ambrosian Iliad, a fifth-century illuminated manuscript File:Bell-krater Akhilleus Penthesileia MAN.jpg\|Achilles and Penthesilea fighting, Lucanian red-figure bell-krater, late fifth century BCE File:Akhilleus Penthesileia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2688.jpg\|Achilles killing Penthesilea, tondo of an Attic red-figure kylix, , from Vulci File:Mourning of Akhilleus Louvre E643.jpg\|Thetis and the Nereids mourning Achilles, Corinthian black-figure hydria, (Louvre, Paris) File:Aias Achilles game Musei Capitolini MC6.jpg\|Achilles and Ajax playing the board game petteia, black-figure oinochoe, (Capitoline Museums, Rome) File:Achilles-01.jpg\|Head of Achilles depicted on a fourth-century BCE coin from Kremaste, Phthia. Reverse: Thetis, wearing and holding the shield of Achilles with his AX monogram File:Getty Villa - Collection (3151231788).jpg\|Achilles on a Roman mosaic with the Removal of Briseis, second century </gallery> References Further reading * Ileana Chirassi Colombo (1977), "Heroes Achilleus – Theos Apollon". In Il Mito Greco, edd. Bruno Gentili and Giuseppe Paione. Rome: Edizione dell'Ateneo e Bizzarri. * Anthony Edwards (1985a), "Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 26: pp. 215–227. * Anthony Edwards (1985b), "Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic". Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie. 171. * * Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths, Harmondsworth, London, England, Penguin Books, 1960. Graves, Robert, The Greek Myths: The Complete and Definitive Edition. Penguin Books Limited. 2017. * * * * Hélène Monsacré (1984), ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère, Paris: Albin Michel. * Gregory Nagy (1984), The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology, Illinois Classical Studies. 19. * Gregory Nagy (1999), The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry''. Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition, [http://chs.harvard.edu/CHS/article/display/5576 online] ). * * Dale S. Sinos (1991), The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic, PhD thesis, Johns Hopkins University. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms International. * Jonathan S. Burgess (2009), The Death and Afterlife of Achilles. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. * Abrantes, M.C. (2016), Themes of the Trojan Cycle: Contribution to the study of the greek mythological tradition (Coimbra). . External links * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] * [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?altAchilles&pnumber20 Gallery of the Ancient Art: Achilles] * Poem by Florence Earle Coates Category:Greek mythological heroes Category:Kings of the Myrmidons Category:Achaean Leaders Category:Thessalians in the Trojan War Category:Metamorphoses characters Category:Mythological rapists Category:Demigods in classical mythology Category:LGBTQ themes in Greek mythology Category:Deeds of Apollo Category:Medea Category:Princes in Greek mythology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achilles	2025-04-05T18:25:15.526526
307	Abraham Lincoln	USS President Lincoln}} * }} \| term_start = March 4, 1861 \| term_end = April 15, 1865 \| children = \| parents = \| predecessor = James Buchanan \| successor = Andrew Johnson \| state1 = Illinois \| district1 = \| term_start1 = March 4, 1847 \| term_end1 = March 3, 1849 \| predecessor1 = John Henry \| successor1 = Thomas L. Harris \| state_house2 = Illinois \| constituency2 = <br />from Sangamon County \| term_start2 = December 1, 1834 \| term_end2 = December 4, 1842 \| predecessor2 = Achilles Morris \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Hodgenville, Kentucky, U.S. \| death_date = \| death_place = Washington, D.C.<!--Links not needed per MOS:OVERLINK-->, U.S. \| death_cause = Assassination by gunshot \| occupation = \| resting_place = Lincoln Tomb \| party = \| otherparty = National Union (1864–1865) \| height 6 ft 4 in \| spouse = \| signature = Abraham Lincoln 1862 signature.svg \| signature_alt = Cursive signature in ink \| allegiance = <!-- United States, Illinois --> \| branch = Illinois Militia \| serviceyears = April–July 1832 \| rank = * Private }} \| unit = \| battles = Black Hawk War (non-combatant) }} Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th president of the United States, serving from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He led the United States through the American Civil War, defeating the Confederate States of America, playing a major role in the abolition of slavery, expanding the power of the federal government, and modernizing the U.S. economy. Lincoln was born into poverty in a log cabin in Kentucky, and was raised on the frontier. He was self-educated and became a lawyer, Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator, and U.S. representative. Angered by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, which opened the territories to slavery, he became a leader of the new Republican Party. He reached a national audience in the 1858 Senate campaign debates against Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln ran for president in 1860, sweeping the North to gain victory. Pro-slavery elements in the South viewed his election as a threat to slavery, and Southern states began seceding from the nation. They formed the Confederate States of America, which began seizing federal military bases in the South. A little over one month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a U.S. fort in South Carolina. Following the bombardment, Lincoln mobilized forces to suppress the rebellion and restore the union. Lincoln, a moderate Republican, had to navigate a contentious array of factions with friends and opponents from both the Democratic and Republican parties. His allies, the War Democrats and the Radical Republicans, demanded harsh treatment of the Southern Confederates. He managed the factions by exploiting their mutual enmity, carefully distributing political patronage, and by appealing to the American people. Anti-war Democrats (called "Copperheads") despised Lincoln, and some irreconcilable pro-Confederate elements went so far as to plot his assassination. His Gettysburg Address became one of the most famous speeches in American history. Lincoln closely supervised the strategy and tactics in the war effort, including the selection of generals, and implemented a naval blockade of the South's trade. He suspended habeas corpus in Maryland and elsewhere, and he averted war with Britain by defusing the Trent Affair. In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the slaves in the states "in rebellion" to be free. It also directed the Army and Navy to "recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons" and to receive them "into the armed service of the United States." Lincoln pressured border states to outlaw slavery, and he promoted the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which abolished slavery, except as punishment for a crime. Lincoln managed his own successful re-election campaign. He sought to heal the war-torn nation through reconciliation. On April 14, 1865, just five days after the Confederate surrender at Appomattox, he was attending a play at Ford's Theatre in Washington, D.C., with his wife Mary, when he was fatally shot by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln is remembered as a martyr and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the Union and abolish slavery. He is often ranked in both popular and scholarly polls as the greatest president in American history. Family and childhood Early life Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809 in a log cabin on Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville, Kentucky. The second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, he was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk, to its namesake, Hingham, Massachusetts, in 1638. The family through subsequent generations migrated west, passing through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincoln was also a descendant of the Harrison family of Virginia; his paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln and wife Bathsheba (née Herring) moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Kentucky.}} The captain was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, Abraham's father, witnessed the attack.}} Thomas then worked at odd jobs in Kentucky and Tennessee before the family settled in Hardin County, Kentucky, in the early 1800s. Lincoln's mother Nancy Lincoln is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks. Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, in Washington County, and moved to Elizabethtown, Kentucky. They had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas, who died as an infant. Before Lincoln was born, Native Americans had killed his grandfather in front of his sons, including Lincoln's father Thomas. Thomas Lincoln bought multiple farms in Kentucky but could not get clear property titles to any, losing hundreds of acres in legal disputes. In 1816, the family moved to Indiana, where the land surveys and titles were more reliable. They settled in an "unbroken forest" in Little Pigeon Creek Community, Hurricane Township, Perry County, Indiana. When the Lincolns moved to Indiana it had just been admitted to the Union as a "free" (non-slaveholding) state, except that, though "no new enslaved people were allowed, ... currently enslaved individuals remained so".}} In 1860, Lincoln noted that the family's move to Indiana was "partly on account of slavery", but mainly due to land title difficulties. In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter. At various times he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, paid taxes, sat on juries, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a Separate Baptist Church, which "condemned profanity, intoxication, gossip, horse racing, and dancing." Most of its members opposed slavery. Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas in 1827 obtained clear title to in Indiana, an area that became known as Little Pigeon Creek Community.Mother's deathOn October 5, 1818, Nancy Lincoln died from milk sickness, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of a household including her father, nine-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks. Ten years later, on January 20, 1828, Sarah died while giving birth to a stillborn son, devastating Lincoln. On December 2, 1819, Thomas married Sarah Bush Johnston, a widow from Elizabethtown, Kentucky, with three children of her own. Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mother". Dennis Hanks said he was lazy, for all his "reading—scribbling—writing—ciphering—writing poetry". His stepmother acknowledged he did not enjoy "physical labor" but loved to read.Education and move to IllinoisLincoln was largely self-educated. His formal schooling was from itinerant teachers. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read, but probably not to write. In Indiana at age seven, due to farm chores, he attended school only sporadically, for a total of fewer than 12 months in aggregate by age 15. Nonetheless, he remained an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning. Family, neighbors, and schoolmates recalled that his readings included the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'', Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. Despite being self-educated, Lincoln was the recipient of honorary degrees later in life, including an honorary Doctor of Laws from Columbia University in June 1861. When Lincoln was a teen, his "father grew more and more to depend on him for the 'farming, grubbing, hoeing, making fences' necessary to keep the family afloat. He also regularly hired his son out to work ... and by law, he was entitled to everything the boy earned until he came of age". Lincoln was tall, strong, and athletic, and became adept at using an ax. He was an active wrestler during his youth and trained in rough catch-as-catch-can style, also known as catch wrestling. He became county wrestling champion at the age of 21. He gained a reputation for his strength and audacity after winning a wrestling match with the renowned leader of ruffians known as the Clary's Grove boys. In March 1830, fearing another milk sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois, a free state, and settled in Macon County.}} Abraham then became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part, due to his father's lack of interest in education. In 1831, as Thomas and other family members prepared to move to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois, Abraham struck out on his own. He made his home in New Salem, Illinois, for six years. Lincoln and some friends took goods, including live hogs, by flatboat to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he first witnessed slavery.Marriage and children }} Speculation persists that Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he moved to New Salem. However, witness testimony, given decades afterward, showed a lack of any specific recollection of a romance between the two. Rutledge died on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever; Lincoln took the death very hard, saying that he could not bear the idea of rain falling on Ann's grave. Lincoln sank into a serious episode of depression, and this gave rise to speculation that he had been in love with her. In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her; however, they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she never replied. In 1839, Lincoln met Mary Todd in Springfield, Illinois, and the following year they became engaged. She was the daughter of Robert Smith Todd, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in Lexington, Kentucky. Their wedding, which was set for January 1, 1841, was canceled because Lincoln did not appear, but they reconciled and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield home of Mary's sister. While anxiously preparing for the nuptials, he was asked where he was going and replied, "To hell, I suppose". In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near his law office. Mary kept house with the help of a hired servant and a relative. Lincoln was an affectionate husband and father of four sons, though his work regularly kept him away from home. The eldest, Robert Todd Lincoln, was born in 1843, and was the only child to live to maturity. Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie), born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of tuberculosis. Lincoln's third son, "Willie" Lincoln, was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the White House on February 20, 1862. The youngest, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and survived his father, but died of heart failure at age 18 on July 16, 1871. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children", and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own. In fact, Lincoln's law partner William H. Herndon would grow irritated when Lincoln brought his children to the law office, and they misbehaved. Their father, it seemed, was often too absorbed in his work to notice his children's behavior. Herndon recounted, "I have felt many and many a time that I wanted to wring their little necks, and yet out of respect for Lincoln I kept my mouth shut. Lincoln did not note what his children were doing or had done." The deaths of their sons Eddie and Willie had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "melancholy", a condition now thought to be clinical depression. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and in 1875 Robert committed her to an asylum. Early vocations and militia service During 1831 and 1832, Lincoln worked at a general store in New Salem, Illinois. In 1832, he declared his candidacy for the Illinois House of Representatives, but interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War. When Lincoln returned home from the Black Hawk War, he planned to become a blacksmith, but instead formed a partnership with 21-year-old William Berry, with whom he purchased a New Salem general store on credit. Because a license was required to sell customers beverages, Berry obtained bartending licenses for $7 each for Lincoln and himself, and in 1833 the Lincoln-Berry General Store became a tavern as well. As licensed bartenders, Lincoln and Berry were able to sell spirits, including liquor, for 12 cents a pint. They offered a wide range of alcoholic beverages as well as food, including takeout dinners. But Berry became an alcoholic, was often too drunk to work, and Lincoln ended up running the store by himself. Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and went into debt, causing Lincoln to sell his share. In his first campaign speech after returning from his military service, Lincoln observed a supporter in the crowd under attack, grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers", and tossed him. In the campaign, Lincoln advocated for navigational improvements on the Sangamon River. He could draw crowds as a raconteur, but lacked the requisite formal education, powerful friends, and money, and lost the election. Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct. Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, but continued his voracious reading and decided to become a lawyer. Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was the custom, Lincoln borrowed legal texts from attorneys John Todd Stuart and Thomas Drummond, purchased books including Blackstone's Commentaries and Chitty's Pleadings, and read law on his own. He voted to expand suffrage beyond white landowners to all white males, but adopted a "free soil" stance opposing both slavery and abolition. In 1837, he declared, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils." He echoed Henry Clay's support for the American Colonization Society which advocated a program of abolition in conjunction with settling freed slaves in Liberia. He was admitted to the Illinois bar on September 9, 1836, and moved to Springfield and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin. Lincoln emerged as a formidable trial combatant during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered several years with Stephen T. Logan, and in 1844, began his practice with William Herndon, "a studious young man". On January 27, 1838, Abraham Lincoln, then 28 years old, delivered his first major speech at the Lyceum in Springfield, Illinois, after the murder of newspaper editor Elijah Parish Lovejoy in Alton. Lincoln warned that no trans-Atlantic military giant could ever crush the U.S. as a nation. "It cannot come from abroad. If destruction be our lot, we must ourselves be its author and finisher", said Lincoln. Prior to that, on April 28, 1836, a black man, Francis McIntosh, was burned alive in St. Louis, Missouri. Zann Gill describes how these two murders set off a chain reaction that ultimately prompted Abraham Lincoln to run for President. U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849) , ]] thumb\|1846 Illinois U.S. House District 7 results by county<br/>\| }} \| }} True to his record, Lincoln professed to friends in 1861 to be "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay". Their party favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and urbanization. In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for Illinois's 7th district seat in the U.S. House of Representatives; he was defeated by John J. Hardin, though he prevailed with the party in limiting Hardin to one term. Lincoln not only pulled off his strategy of gaining the nomination in 1846, but also won the election. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but as dutiful as any participated in almost all votes and made speeches that toed the party line. He was assigned to the Committee on Post Office and Post Roads and the Committee on Expenditures in the War Department. Lincoln teamed with Joshua R. Giddings on a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He dropped the bill when it eluded Whig support. Early political views On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke against the Mexican–American War, which he imputed President James K. Polk's desire for "military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood". He supported the Wilmot Proviso, a failed proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico. Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a killing of American soldiers by Mexican cavalry patrol in disputed territory, and Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil". Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil. The resolution was ignored in both Congress and the national papers, and it cost Lincoln political support in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln". Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on presidential war-making powers. Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House. Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, he supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election. Taylor won and Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed Commissioner of the United States General Land Office. The administration offered to appoint him secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory as consolation. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice. Prairie lawyer In his Springfield practice, Lincoln handled "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer". Twice a year he appeared for 10 consecutive weeks in county seats in the Midstate county courts; this continued for 16 years. Lincoln handled transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him. He later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company, a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge. In 1849 he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent. Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases; he was sole counsel in 51 cases, of which 31 were decided in his favor. From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad. His legal reputation gave rise to the nickname "Honest Abe". In an 1858 criminal trial, Lincoln represented William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a ''Farmers' Almanac'' showing the Moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted. In an 1859 murder case, leading up to his presidential campaign, Lincoln elevated his profile with his defense of Simeon Quinn "Peachy" Harrison, who was a third cousin;}} Harrison was also the grandson of Lincoln's political opponent, Rev. Peter Cartwright. Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, as he lay dying of his wounds, confessed to Cartwright that he had provoked Harrison. Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's testimony about the confession as inadmissible hearsay. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a dying declaration and was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling and admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal.Republican politics (1854–1860)Emergence as Republican leader with Stephen Douglas over slavery]] The debate over the status of slavery in the territories failed to alleviate tensions between the slave-holding South and the free North, with the failure of the Compromise of 1850, a legislative package designed to address the issue. In his 1852 eulogy for Clay, Lincoln highlighted the latter's support for gradual emancipation and opposition to "both extremes" on the slavery issue. As the slavery debate in the Nebraska and Kansas territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed popular sovereignty as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the spread of slavery that could result, but Douglas's Kansas–Nebraska Act narrowly passed Congress in May 1854. Lincoln did not comment on the act until months later in his "Peoria Speech" of October 1854. Lincoln then declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency. He said the Kansas Act had a "declared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world...." Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life. Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other ineffective efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a whig; but others say there are no whigs, and that I am an abolitionist.... I now do no more than oppose the extension of slavery." The new Republican Party was formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery, drawing from the antislavery wing of the Whig Party and combining Free Soil, Liberty, and antislavery Democratic Party members, Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists. Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist Know Nothing movement. In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature, but before the term began the following January he declined to take his seat so that he would be eligible to be a candidate in the upcoming U.S. Senate election. The year's elections showed the strong opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and in the aftermath Lincoln sought election to the U.S. Senate. At that time, senators were elected by state legislatures. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, he was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull. Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat and had received few votes in the earlier ballots; his supporters, also antislavery Democrats, had vowed not to support any Whig. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate, Joel Aldrich Matteson. 1856 campaign Violent political confrontations in Kansas continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the 1856 elections approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the Bloomington Convention, where the Illinois Republican Party was established. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the final speech of the convention supporting the party platform and called for the preservation of the Union. At the June 1856 Republican National Convention, though Lincoln received support to run as vice president, John C. Frémont and William Dayton were on the ticket, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated former Secretary of State James Buchanan and the Know-Nothings nominated former Whig President Millard Fillmore. Buchanan prevailed, while Republican William Henry Bissell won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.}} Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a territory that was free as a result of the Missouri Compromise. After Scott was returned to the slave state, he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). In his opinion, Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney wrote that black people were not citizens and derived no rights from the Constitution, and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional for infringing upon slave owners' "property" rights. While many Democrats hoped that Dred Scott would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North. Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power. He argued that the decision was at variance with the Declaration of Independence, because, while the founding fathers did not believe that all men were equal in every respect, they believed all men were equal "in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech taken February 27, 1860, the day of Lincoln's Cooper Union speech in New York City]] In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor. Some eastern Republicans supported Douglas for his opposition to the Lecompton Constitution and admission of Kansas as a slave state. Many Illinois Republicans resented this eastern interference. For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition. Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his House Divided Speech, with the biblical reference Mark 3:25, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other." The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion. The stage was then set for the election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas. When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won." The Senate campaign featured seven debates between Lincoln and Douglas. These are the most famous political debates in American history; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew crowds in the thousands. The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that the Slave Power was threatening the values of republicanism, and he accused Douglas of distorting Jefferson's premise that all men are created equal. In his Freeport Doctrine, Douglas argued that, despite the Dred Scott decision, which he claimed to support, local settlers, under the doctrine of popular sovereignty, should be free to choose whether to allow slavery within their territory, and he accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists. Lincoln's argument assumed a moral tone, as he claimed that Douglas represented a conspiracy to promote slavery. Douglas's argument was more legal in nature, claiming that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court as exercised in the Dred Scott decision. Summarizing remarks that Lincoln made in an April 1859 letter, Ronald C. White, Jr. writes that the "two great parties ... formed at the birth of the Republic ... seventy years later ... had completely changed places. Modern Republicans, descendants of the old New England Federalists, paradoxically, had ended up preserving the principles of Jefferson. Lincoln illustrated his point by the story of two drunken men who engaged in a fight with the result that 'each having fought himself out of his own coat, and into the other.'" White quotes from the same letter: "The democracy [Democrats] of to-day hold the liberty of one man to be absolutely nothing, when in conflict with another man's right of property. Republicans, on the contrary, are for both the man and dollar; but in cases of conflict, the man before the dollar.'" Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. However, Lincoln's articulation of the issues had given him a national political presence. In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats-Anzeiger, a German-language newspaper that was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted for Democrats, but the German-language paper mobilized Republican support. In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate, rivaled by William H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, Edward Bates, and Simon Cameron. While Lincoln was popular in the Midwest, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek the office. In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the presidential nomination if offered and, in the following months, several local papers endorsed his candidacy. Over the coming months Lincoln was tireless, making nearly fifty speeches along the campaign trail. By the quality and simplicity of his rhetoric, he quickly became the champion of the Republican party. However, despite his overwhelming support in the Midwestern United States, he was less appreciated in the east. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, at that time wrote up an unflattering account of Lincoln's compromising position on slavery and his reluctance to challenge the court's Dred Scott ruling, which was promptly used against him by his political rivals. On February 27, 1860, powerful New York Republicans invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union, in which he argued that the Founding Fathers of the United States had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. He insisted that morality required opposition to slavery and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong". Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly. But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership, which brought him into contention. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience". Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as "a superb political move for an unannounced presidential aspirant. Appearing in Seward's home state, sponsored by a group largely loyal to Chase, Lincoln shrewdly made no reference to either of these Republican rivals for the nomination." In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, "The taste is in my mouth a little". 1860 presidential election On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur. Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement. Exploiting his embellished frontier legend (clearing land and splitting fence rails), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate". Michael Martinez wrote about the effective imaging of Lincoln by his campaign. At times he was presented as the plain-talking "Rail Splitter" and at other times he was "Honest Abe", unpolished but trustworthy. On May 18 at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for vice president to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his campaign team, his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for internal improvements and the tariff. Pennsylvania put him over the top, led by the state's iron interests who were reassured by his tariff support. As the Slave Power tightened its grip on the national government, most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession. When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from eleven slave states walked out of the Democratic convention; they opposed Douglas's position on popular sovereignty, and selected incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge as their candidate. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge primarily found support in the South. Before the Republican convention, the Lincoln campaign began cultivating a nationwide youth organization, the Wide Awakes, which it used to generate popular support to spearhead voter registration drives, thinking that new voters and young voters tended to embrace new parties. People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for Lincoln. As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the legwork that produced majorities across the North. Republican speakers focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts. The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life and sold 100,000–200,000 copies. Though he did not give public appearances, many sought to visit and write to Lincoln. In the runup to the election, he took an office in the Illinois state capitol to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired John George Nicolay as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency. On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president. He was the first Republican president and his victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states. Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8% of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. His victory in the Electoral College was decisive: 180 votes to 123 for his opponents. Presidency (1861–1865) First term Secession and inauguration The South was outraged by Lincoln's election, and in response secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed. Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America, selecting Jefferson Davis as its provisional president. The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal. President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal. Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed Crittenden Compromise as contrary to the Party's platform of free-soil in the territories. Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right". Lincoln supported the Corwin Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the required three-fourths of the states when Lincoln took office, whereupon Southern states began to secede. That doomed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. On March 4, 1861, in his first inaugural address, Lincoln said that, because he holds "such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express and irrevocable". On February 11, 1861, Lincoln gave a particularly emotional farewell address upon leaving Springfield; he would never return to Springfield alive. Lincoln traveled east on a special train. Due to secessionist plots, unprecedented attention to security was given to him and his train. En route to his inauguration, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North. The president-elect evaded suspected assassins in Baltimore. He traveled in disguise, wearing a soft felt hat instead of his customary stovepipe hat and draping an overcoat over his shoulders while hunching slightly to conceal his height. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard. Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states: \|source}} Lincoln cited his plans for banning the expansion of slavery as the key source of conflict between North and South, stating "One section of our country believes slavery is right and ought to be extended, while the other believes it is wrong and ought not to be extended. This is the only substantial dispute." The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends.... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature." The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated. In his second inaugural address, Lincoln looked back on the situation at the time and said: "Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came." Personnel In the selection and use of his cabinet Lincoln employed the strengths of his rivals in a manner that emboldened his presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services." Goodwin described the group in her biography as a Team of Rivals. Lincoln named his main political rival, William H. Seward, as Secretary of State and left most diplomatic issues in Seward's portfolio. However, Lincoln did select some top diplomats as part of his patronage policy. Lincoln's philosophy on court nominations was that "we cannot ask a man what he will do, and if we should, and he should answer us, we should despise him for it. Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known." Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court. Noah Haynes Swayne was an anti-slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union. Samuel Freeman Miller supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist. David Davis was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced. Democrat Stephen Johnson Field, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance. Finally, Lincoln's Treasury Secretary, Salmon P. Chase, became Chief Justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist, would support Reconstruction legislation, and that his appointment united the Republican Party. {\| class="wikitable" \|+Supreme Court Justices !Justice !Nominated !Appointed \|- \|Noah Haynes Swayne \|January 21, 1862 \|January 24, 1862 \|- \|Samuel Freeman Miller \|July 16, 1862 \|July 16, 1862 \|- \|David Davis \|December 1, 1862 \|December 8, 1862 \|- \|Stephen Johnson Field \|March 6, 1863 \|March 10, 1863 \|- \|Salmon Portland Chase (Chief Justice) \|December 6, 1864 \|December 6, 1864 \|} Commander-in-Chief Major Robert Anderson, commander of the Union's Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, sent a request for provisions to Washington. Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and overlooking Southern Unionist opposition to an invasion. William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war. Donald concludes: <blockquote>His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Fort Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he had also vowed not to surrender the forts.... The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the Confederates to fire the first shot.</blockquote> On April 15, Lincoln called on the states to send a total of 75,000 volunteer troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, remained intact despite the seceding states. This call forced states to choose sides. Virginia seceded and was rewarded with the designation of Richmond as the Confederate capital, despite its exposure to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas followed. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky remained neutral. The Fort Sumter attack rallied Americans north of the Mason-Dixon line to defend the nation. As states sent regiments south, on April 19 Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links attacked Union troops who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials. Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in an effort to protect the troops trying to reach Washington. John Merryman, one Maryland official hindering the U.S. troop movements, petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of habeas corpus. In June, in Ex parte Merryman, Taney, not ruling on behalf of the Supreme Court, issued the writ, believing that Article I, section 9 of the Constitution authorized only Congress and not the president to suspend it. But Lincoln invoked nonacquiescence and persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas. Early Union military strategy Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the Union military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as commander-in-chief by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a blockade on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended habeas corpus, and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict. It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle. Copperheads (anti-war Democrats) criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery; the Radical Republicans (who demanded harsh treatment against secession) criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery. On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery. , Edwin Stanton, William Seward, Gideon Welles, Lincoln, and others]] Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy. He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with Senate Foreign Relations Committee chairman Charles Sumner. In the 1861 Trent Affair, which threatened war with Britain, the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the Trent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats. Biographer James G. Randall dissected Lincoln's successful techniques: Lincoln painstakingly monitored reports coming into the War Department. He tracked all phases of the effort, consulting with governors and selecting generals based on their success, their state, and their party. In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced War Secretary Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton. Stanton centralized the War Department's activities, auditing and canceling contracts, saving the federal government $17,000,000. Stanton worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than did any other senior official. "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together", say Thomas and Hyman. Lincoln's war strategy had two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well-defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory.}} Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet. Occasionally Mary prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard. For his edification Lincoln relied on a book by his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, Elements of Military Art and Science. Lincoln began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River. Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than merely capturing territory. In directing the Union's war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of Gen. Winfield Scott, even after his retirement as Commanding General of the United States Army. In June 1862, Lincoln made an unannounced visit to West Point, where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the war and the staffing of the War Department.General McClellan After the Union rout at Bull Run and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief. McClellan then took months to plan his Virginia Peninsula Campaign. McClellan's slow progress frustrated Lincoln, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's reservation of troops for the capital. In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan for the general's continued inaction. He elevated Henry Halleck and appointed John Pope as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope satisfied Lincoln's desire to advance on Richmond from the north, thereby protecting Washington from counterattack. But in the summer of 1862 Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run, forcing the Army of the Potomac back to defend Washington. Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington. Two days later, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam. That battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history. A crisis of command occurred for Lincoln when McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans and McClellan with Ambrose Burnside. The appointments were both politically neutral and adroit on Lincoln's part. Against presidential advice Burnside launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Desertions during 1863 came in the thousands and increased after Fredericksburg, so Lincoln replaced Burnside with Joseph Hooker. In the spring of 1863, Lincoln ordered attacks by Hooker on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans on Chattanooga, Grant on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston. Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May, then resigned and was replaced by George Meade. Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and defeated him in the Gettysburg campaign but then failed to effectively block Lee's orderly retreat to Virginia, despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time, Grant captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River.Emancipation Proclamation <imagemap> File:Emancipation proclamation.jpg\|thumb\|upright1.25\|First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln, an 1864 portrait by Francis Bicknell Carpenter<small> (clickable image—use cursor to identify)</small>\|altA dark-haired, bearded, middle-aged man holding documents is seated among seven other men. poly 269 892 254 775 193 738 130 723 44 613 19 480 49 453 75 434 58 376 113 344 133 362 143 423 212 531 307 657 357 675 409 876 Edwin Stanton poly 169 282 172 244 244 201 244 148 265 117 292 125 305 166 304 204 321 235 355 296 374 348 338 395 341 469 Salmon Chase poly 569 893 535 708 427 613 357 562 377 456 393 404 468 351 451 317 473 259 520 256 544 283 530 339 526 374 559 401 594 431 639 494 715 542 692 551 693 579 672 546 623 552 596 617 698 629 680 852 Abraham Lincoln poly 692 514 740 441 788 407 772 350 800 303 831 297 861 329 867 381 868 409 913 430 913 471 847 532 816 533 709 533 Gideon Welles poly 703 783 752 769 825 627 907 620 929 569 905 538 886 563 833 563 873 502 930 450 1043 407 1043 389 1036 382 1042 363 1058 335 1052 333 1052 324 1081 318 1124 338 1133 374 1116 412 1132 466 1145 509 1117 588 1087 632 1083 706 William Seward poly 905 418 941 328 987 295 995 284 982 244 990 206 1036 207 1046 247 1047 284 1066 312 1071 314 1049 327 1044 354 1033 383 1033 407 921 453 Caleb Smith poly 1081 308 1102 255 1095 220 1093 181 1109 161 1145 160 1169 191 1153 227 1153 246 1199 268 1230 310 1239 377 1237 443 1220 486 1125 451 1118 412 1136 378 1124 342 Montgomery Blair poly 1224 479 1298 416 1304 379 1295 329 1325 310 1360 324 1370 359 1371 385 1371 397 1413 425 1422 497 1440 563 1348 555 1232 517 Edward Bates poly 625 555 595 620 699 625 730 550 Emancipation Proclamation poly 120 80 120 300 3 300 3 80 Portrait of Simon Cameron poly 752 196 961 189 948 8 735 10 Portrait of Andrew Jackson </imagemap> Before Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, two Union generals issued their own emancipation orders, but Lincoln overrode both: he found that the decision to emancipate was not within the generals' power, and that it might upset loyal border states enough for them to secede. However, in June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery in all federal territories, which Lincoln signed. In July, the Confiscation Act of 1862 was enacted. Its section 9 freed slaves "within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States". On July 22, 1862, Lincoln reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. Peace Democrats (Copperheads) argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification, but Republican editor Horace Greeley of the New-York Tribune, in his public letter, "The Prayer of Twenty Millions", implored Lincoln to embrace emancipation. In a public letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln replied to Greeley, writing that while he personally wished all men could be free, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union: }} On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the final Emancipation Proclamation, freeing the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas under such control. Lincoln's comment on signing the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper." With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south "enable[d] thousands of slaves to escape to freedom". The Emancipation Proclamation having stated that freedmen would be "received into the armed service of the United States," enlisting these freedmen became official policy. In a letter to Tennessee military governor Andrew Johnson, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of fifty thousand armed, and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once". By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas "had enrolled twenty regiments of African Americans" from the Mississippi Valley.Gettysburg Address (1863) and highlighted in red) at Gettysburg on November 19, 1863. Roughly three hours later, he delivered the Gettysburg Address, one of the best-known speeches in American history.\|alt=Large group of people]] Lincoln spoke at the dedication of the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863. In 272 words, taking only three minutes, Lincoln asserted that the nation was "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as dedicated to the principles of liberty and equality for all. He declared that the deaths of so many soldiers would not be in vain, that the future of democracy would be assured, and that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". The Address became the most quoted speech in American history. After victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Lincoln proclaimed a national Thanksgiving holiday, to be celebrated on the 26th, the final Thursday of November 1863.Promoting General Grant General Ulysses Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln said, "I can't spare this man. He fights." With Grant in command, Lincoln thought that the Union Army could advance in multiple theaters. Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac persuaded Lincoln to promote Grant to supreme commander. Grant then assumed command of Meade's army. Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a presidential candidacy in 1864. He arranged for an intermediary to inquire into Grant's political intentions and when assured that he had none, Lincoln promoted Grant to the newly revived rank of Lieutenant General, a rank not used since George Washington. Grant then waged the bloody Overland Campaign, which exacted heavy losses on both sides. Amid the turmoil of military actions, on June 30, 1864, Lincoln signed into law the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park. According to Rolf Diamant and Ethan Carr, "[T]he Yosemite Grant was a direct consequence of the war ... an embodiment of the ongoing process of remaking government ... an intentional assertion of a steadfast belief in the eventual Union victory." <imagemap> Image:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg\|thumb\|left\|upright1.25\|The Peacemakers, an 1868 painting by George Peter Alexander Healy depicting events aboard the River Queen in March 1865 <small>(clickable image—use cursor to identify)</small>\|altPainting of four men conferring in a ship's cabin, entitled "The Peacemakers". poly 486 710 579 672 663 739 687 863 649 936 579 965 739 1133 782 1037 800 956 910 905 905 1025 855 1305 576 1223 513 1371 620 1388 687 1467 846 1510 1010 2035 1160 2140 869 2135 718 1682 663 1685 634 2000 725 2030 489 2095 504 1800 362 1775 263 1710 225 1516 252 1226 269 1046 324 948 434 913 481 866 446 782 General Sherman poly 1092 794 1182 823 1188 892 1162 970 1220 1023 1330 1179 1429 1153 1478 1223 1388 1498 1440 1548 1397 1568 1397 1788 1429 1826 1385 1867 1301 1838 1275 1571 1243 1533 1243 1478 1095 1492 985 1588 924 1133 970 1028 1046 991 1028 907 1034 837 General Grant poly 1634 802 1715 770 1794 825 1800 950 1933 962 2194 1072 2188 1185 2116 1347 2029 1396 2032 1547 1669 1544 1740 1947 1527 1945 1579 1875 1620 1852 1599 1730 1565 1883 1394 1930 1408 1872 1454 1817 1559 1333 1568 1260 1599 1182 1672 980 1620 886 President Lincoln poly 2620 780 2740 775 2754 889 2745 991 2855 1064 2864 1316 2800 1420 2766 1516 2806 1600 2772 1942 2664 1919 2577 1791 2508 1780 2496 1719 2455 1745 2496 2052 2348 2145 2308 2128 2345 2038 2293 1759 2229 2081 1977 2076 1997 2035 2058 2009 2093 1965 2174 1537 2461 1429 2453 1290 2357 1382 2287 1336 2290 1287 2354 1203 2412 1179 2499 1133 2540 1072 2560 988 2595 837 Admiral Porter </imagemap> Grant's army moved steadily south. Lincoln traveled to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia, to confer with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman. Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North. Lincoln authorized Grant to target infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability. He emphasized defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction for its own sake. As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. At one point, Confederate Vice President Stephens led a meeting with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal. In early April, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital, whereupon on April 9, 1865, Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia to Grant at Appomattox.Fiscal and monetary policy After the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase faced the challenge of funding a wartime economy. Congress quickly approved Lincoln's request to assemble a 500,000-man army, but it initially resisted raising taxes. After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1861, which imposed the first U.S. federal income tax. The act created a flat tax of three percent on incomes above $800 ($}} in current dollars). This taxation reflected the increasing amount of wealth held in stocks and bonds rather than property, which the federal government had taxed in the past. As the average urban worker made approximately $600 per year, the income tax burden fell primarily on the rich. Lincoln also signed the second and third Morrill Tariffs, the first having become law in the final months of Buchanan's tenure. These tariffs raised import duties considerably and were designed both to raise revenue and to protect domestic manufacturing against foreign competition. During the war, the tariff also helped manufacturers offset the burden of new taxes. Throughout the war, Congress debated whether to raise additional revenue primarily by increasing tariff rates, which most strongly affected rural areas in the West, or by increasing income taxes, which most strongly affected wealthier individuals in the Northeast. The revenue measures of 1861 proved inadequate for funding the war, forcing Congress to pass further bills to generate revenue. In February 1862, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act, which authorized the minting of $150 million of "greenbacks"—the first banknotes issued by the U.S. government since the end of the American Revolution. Greenbacks were not backed by gold or silver, but rather by the government's promise to honor their value. By the end of the war, $450 million worth of greenbacks were in circulation. Congress also passed the Revenue Act of 1862, which established an excise tax affecting nearly every commodity, as well as the first national inheritance tax. Despite these new measures, funding the war continued to be a challenge. The government continued to issue greenbacks and borrow large amounts of money, and the U.S. national debt grew from $65 million in 1860 to $2 billion in 1866. The Revenue Act of 1864 represented a compromise between those who favored a more progressive tax structure and those who favored a flat tax. It established a five-percent tax on incomes greater than $600, a ten-percent tax on incomes above $10,000, and it raised taxes on businesses. Any person who submitted a false claim would have to pay double the amount of the government's damages plus $2,000 per false claim. Hoping to stabilize the currency, Chase convinced Congress to pass the National Banking Act in February 1863, as well as a second banking act in 1864. Those acts established the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency to oversee "national banks" subject to federal, rather than state, regulation. In return for investing a third of their capital in federal bonds, these national banks were authorized to issue federal banknotes. He closely monitored the Trent Affair in late 1861 to avoid war with Britain. Seward's main role was to keep Britain and France from supporting the Confederacy; he convinced them that Washington would declare war on them if they did. At the start of the war, Russia was the lone great power to support the Union, while the other European powers had varying degrees of sympathy for the Confederacy. Lincoln's policy succeeded: all foreign nations were officially neutral throughout the Civil War, with none recognizing the Confederacy. Although they remained neutral, the European powers, especially France and Britain, factored into the American Civil War in various ways. European leaders saw the division of the United States as having the potential to eliminate, or at least greatly weaken, a growing rival. They looked for ways to exploit the inability of the U.S. to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Spain invaded the Dominican Republic in 1861, while France established a puppet regime in Mexico. However, many in Europe also hoped for a quick end to the war, both for humanitarian reasons and because of the economic disruption it caused. Lincoln's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. The European aristocracy (the dominant class in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed." Union diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, and instead they argued that secession was unconstitutional. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. However, the Confederacy's hope that cotton exports would compel European interference did not come to fruition, as Britain found alternative sources of cotton and experienced economic growth in industries that did not rely on cotton. Though the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation did not immediately end the possibility of European intervention, it rallied European public opinion to the Union by adding abolition as a Union war goal. Any chance of a European intervention in the war ended with the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, as European leaders came to believe that the Confederate cause was doomed.Native Americans The Lincoln administration faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraph from Native American attacks. On August 17, 1862, the Dakota War broke out in Minnesota. Hundreds of settlers were killed and 30,000 were displaced from their homes. Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a Confederate conspiracy to start a war on the Northwestern frontier. Lincoln ordered thousands of Confederate prisoners of war be sent to put down the uprising. When the Confederacy protested, Lincoln revoked the policy and none arrived in Minnesota. Lincoln sent General John Pope as commander of the new Department of the Northwest two weeks into the hostilities. Before he arrived, the Fond Du Lac band of Chippewa sent Lincoln a letter asking to go to war for the United States against the Sioux, so Lincoln could send Minnesota's troops to fight the South. Shortly after, a Mille Lacs Band chief offered the same. The Chippewa specified they wanted to use the Indigenous rules of warfare. That meant there would be no prisoners of war, no surrender, no peace agreement. Lincoln did not accept the Chippewa offer, as he could not control the Chippewa, and women and children were considered legitimate casualties in native American warfare. Serving under Pope was Minnesota Congressman Henry H. Sibley. Minnesota's governor had made Sibley a Colonel United States Volunteers to command the U.S. force tasked with fighting the war and that eventually defeated Little Crow's forces at the Battle of Wood Lake. During the war, Dakota men killed 358 white settlers, 77 soldiers, and 36 volunteer militia and armed civilians. Thousands of white settlers fled the area. Dakota men also took hundreds of "mixed-blood" and white hostages, almost all women and children. The total number of Dakota casualties is unknown, but 150 Dakota men died in battle. On September 26, 1862, 269 hostages were released to Sibley's troops at Camp Release. Interned at Fort Snelling, approximately 2,000 Dakota surrendered or were taken into custody, including at least 1,658 non-combatants. Less than four months later, Lincoln issued the Lieber Code, which governed wartime conduct of the Union Army, by defining command responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Congressman Alexander Ramsey told Lincoln in 1864 that he would have gotten more re-election support in Minnesota had he executed all 303. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes." Second term landslide (in red) in the 1864 presidential election; southern states (brown) and territories (gray) not in play]] Reelection Lincoln ran for reelection in 1864, while uniting the main Republican factions along with War Democrats Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson. Lincoln used conversation and his patronage powers—greatly expanded from peacetime—to build support and fend off the Radicals' efforts to replace him. At its convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party. Grant's bloody stalemates damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat. Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would "co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward". At the next cabinet meeting, Lincoln "asked each member to sign his name on the back of the document", but he did not allow them to read it. On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. Historian Mark Noll places the speech "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world;" it is inscribed in the Lincoln Memorial. Lincoln closed his speech with these words: Reconstruction at the nearly completed U.S. Capitol on March 4, 1865]] Reconstruction preceded the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy." Lincoln's main goal was to keep the union together, so he proceeded by focusing not on whom to blame, but on how to rebuild the nation. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner and Benjamin Wade, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies. Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they signed an oath of allegiance. As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln respectively appointed Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, and only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the 1864 Wade–Davis Bill, which Lincoln vetoed. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee. After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery nationwide with a constitutional amendment. By December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress. The Senate passed it on April 8, 1864, but the first vote in the House of Representatives fell short of the required two-thirds majority. Passage became part of Lincoln's reelection platform, and after his reelection, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865. After ratification by the legislatures of three-fourths of the states, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865. , a former tailor, and Lincoln, with Johnson saying, "Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever", and Lincoln responding, "A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended."]] Lincoln believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military control, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists. Eric Foner argues: Lincoln vetoed only four bills during his presidency, including the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh Reconstruction program. The 1862 Homestead Act made millions of acres of Western government-held land available for purchase at low cost. The 1862 Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869. The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was enabled by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.Assassination on April 14, 1865, in the presidential booth at Ford's Theatre, featuring (left to right): assassin John Wilkes Booth, Abraham Lincoln, Mary Todd Lincoln, Clara Harris, and Henry Rathbone]] John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service. After attending Lincoln's last public address, on April 11, 1865, in which Lincoln stated his preference that the franchise be conferred on some Black men, specifically "on the very intelligent, and on those who serve our cause as soldiers", Booth plotted to assassinate the President. When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with General Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at Ford's Theatre. Lincoln and his wife attended the play Our American Cousin on the evening of April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending. At 10:15 pm, Booth entered the back of Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest, Major Henry Rathbone, momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped. After being attended by Doctor Charles Leale and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Stanton said, "Now he belongs to the ages." Lincoln's body was placed in a flag-wrapped coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers. President Johnson was sworn in later that same day. Two weeks later, Booth was located, shot and killed at a farm in Virginia by Sergeant Boston Corbett. Secretary of War Stanton had issued orders that Booth be taken alive, so Corbett was initially arrested to be court martialed. Stanton declared him a patriot and dismissed the charge. Funeral and burial From April 19 to 21, Lincoln lay in state, first in the White House and then in the Capitol rotunda. The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his third son Willie then traveled for three weeks on a funeral train following a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at many cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands. Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief. Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some Lincoln haters celebrated his death. Poet Walt Whitman composed "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd" to eulogize Lincoln. Lincoln's body was buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in Springfield and now lies within the Lincoln Tomb.Philosophy and religious views , an 1869 portrait by George Peter Alexander Healy]] Philosophy of republicanism Lincoln redefined the political philosophy of republicanism in the United States. Lincoln called the Declaration of Independence, which found "self-evident" that all men are created equal and have an "unalienable" right to liberty, the "sheet anchor" of republicanism, at a time when the Constitution, which "tolerated slavery", was the focus of most political discourse. John Patrick Diggins notes, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself" in the 1860 Cooper Union speech. Lincoln expressed his position on the unconstitutionality of secession in his first inaugural address: As a Whig activist Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to Jacksonian democrats. Lincoln shared the sympathies that the Jacksonians professed for the common man, but he disagreed with the Jacksonian view that the government should be divorced from economic enterprise. Nevertheless, Lincoln admired Andrew Jackson's steeliness and patriotism. According to historian Sean Wilentz, "just as the Republican Party of the 1850s absorbed certain elements of Jacksonianism, so Lincoln, whose Whiggery had always been more egalitarian than that of other Whigs, found himself absorbing some of them as well." William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism." James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform." Randall concludes that "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders." Political philosophy of reunification In an 1858 speech, Lincoln alluded to a form of American civic nationalism as closely related to his view of the nature of democracy and originating from the tenets of the Declaration of Independence as a force for national unity. Lincoln stated that it was a method for uniting diverse peoples of different ethnic ancestries into a common nationality: In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he denounced secession as anarchy and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints. He said, "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks, and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."Religious skepticism and providence ]] As a young man Lincoln was a religious skeptic. He was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoting and praising it. He was private about his position on organized religion and respected the beliefs of others. He never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. Throughout his public career, Lincoln often quoted Scripture. His three most famous speeches—the House Divided Speech, the Gettysburg Address, and his second inaugural—all contain such quotes. In the 1840s Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power. After the death of his son Edward in 1850 he more frequently expressed a dependence on God. He never joined a church, although he frequently attended First Presbyterian Church in Springfield, Illinois, with his wife beginning in 1852. While president, Lincoln often attended services at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C. In the 1850s Lincoln rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; instead, he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence. The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace. After Willie's death, he questioned the divine necessity of the war's severity. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest." Lincoln believed in an all-powerful God who shaped events and by 1865 was expressing that belief in major speeches. By the end of the war, he increasingly appealed to the Almighty for solace and to explain events, writing on April 4, 1864, to a newspaper editor in Kentucky: This spirituality can best be seen in his second inaugural address, in which Lincoln explains that the cause, purpose, and result of the war was God's will. Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language toward the end of his life may have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants.Health and appearance Lincoln was described as "ungainly" and "gawky" as a youth. Tall for his age, Lincoln was strong and athletic as a teenager. He was a good wrestler, participated in jumping, throwing, and footraces, and "was almost always victorious." His stepmother remarked that he cared little about clothing. Lincoln dressed as a typical boy from a poor, backwoods family, with a gap between his shoes, socks, and pants that often exposed six or more inches of his shin. His lack of interest in his attire continued as an adult. Lincoln generally continued to enjoy good health throughout his life. In 1831, Lincoln was described as six feet three or four inches tall, weighing 210 pounds, and having a ruddy complexion. Later descriptions mentioned Lincoln's dark hair and dark complexion, which were also evident in photographs taken during his tenure as president. William H. Herndon described Lincoln as having "very dark skin"; his cheeks as "leathery and saffron-colored"; and "his hair was dark, almost black". Lincoln described himself as "black" and as having "a dark complexion". Lincoln's detractors also remarked on his appearance. For example, during the Civil War, the Charleston Mercury described him as having "the dirtiest complexion" and asked "Faugh! After him what white man would be President?" Among the illnesses that Lincoln is either documented or speculated to have suffered from is depression, smallpox, and malaria. He took blue mass pills, which contained mercury, to treat constipation. It is unknown to what extent this may have resulted in mercury poisoning. Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before the assassination, as photographs of Lincoln appear to show weight loss and muscle wasting. or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B. Legacy Historical reputation In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents<!-- Lincoln is first in 9 of 17 on that page. --> since 1948, the top three presidents are generally Lincoln, George Washington, and Franklin Delano Roosevelt, although the order varies. Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, and Ronald Reagan were the top-ranked presidents in eight public opinion surveys, according to Gallup. A 2004 study found that scholars in history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington. Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability. Historians have said he was "a classical liberal" in the 19th-century sense. In the New Deal era, liberals honored Lincoln as an advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the welfare state, and Lincoln became a favorite of liberal intellectuals across the world. Sociologist Barry Schwartz argues that in the 1930s and 1940s Lincoln provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life." Schwartz argues that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among white Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, D.C. However, Schwartz also finds that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness." He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept. By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives—apart from neo-Confederates such as Mel Bradford, who denounced his treatment of the white South—for his intense nationalism, his support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of slavery, his acting on Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Frederick Douglass stated that in "his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color", and Lincoln has long been known as the Great Emancipator. By the late 1960s, however, some Black intellectuals denied that Lincoln deserved that title. Lerone Bennett Jr. won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968. He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed that freed slaves voluntarily move to another country. Defenders of Lincoln retorted that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible. Brian Dirck stated that few Civil War scholars take Bennett (or Thomas DiLorenzo) seriously, pointing to their "narrow political agendas and faulty research". David Herbert Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason". Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light. Lincoln has also been admired by political figures outside the U.S., including German political theorist Karl Marx, Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi, former Liberian president Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, leader of the Italian Risorgimento, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Libyan revolutionary Muammar Gaddafi.Memorials and commemorationswas performed by James Earl Jones in 1993 with the Seattle Symphony Orchestra. ]] Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. He appears on postage stamps across the world. While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old Grace Bedell. He was the first of five presidents to do so. He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the capital of Nebraska. The United States Navy is named after Lincoln, the second Navy ship to bear his name. The Lincoln Memorial is one of the most visited monuments in the nation's capital and is one of the most visited National Park Service sites in the country. Ford's Theatre, among the most visited sites in Washington, D.C., Memorials in Springfield, Illinois, include the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, Lincoln's home, and his tomb. A portrait carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on Mount Rushmore, which receives about 3 million visitors a year. A statue of Lincoln completed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens that influenced later sculptors stands in Lincoln Park, Chicago, with recastings given as diplomatic gifts standing in Parliament Square, London, and Parque Lincoln, Mexico City. Lincoln Portrait is a 1942 classical orchestral work written by the American composer Aaron Copland to commemorate five speeches and writings of Lincoln. In 2019, Congress officially dedicated a room in the United States Capitol to Abraham Lincoln. The room is located off National Statuary Hall and served as the post office of the House while then-Representative Abraham Lincoln served in Congress from 1847 to 1849. Several states commemorate "President's Day" as "Washington–Lincoln Day". <gallery widths"140" heights"200" class="center"> File:Head of Abraham Lincoln at Mount Rushmore.jpg\|alt=See caption\|Lincoln's image carved into the stone of Mount Rushmore File:Lincoln Heritage Scenic Highway - Adolph Weinman's Abraham Lincoln Statue - NARA - 7720071 (cropped).jpg\|alt=See caption\|Abraham Lincoln, a 1909 bronze statue by Adolph Weinman, sits before a historic church in Hodgenville, Kentucky. File:Lincoln 1866 Issue-15c.jpg\|The Lincoln memorial postage stamp of 1866 was issued by the U.S. Post Office exactly one year after Lincoln's assassination. File:Aerial view of Lincoln Memorial - west side.jpg\|alt=An aerial photo a large white building with big pillars.\|Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. File:United States penny, obverse, 2002.png\|The Lincoln cent, an American coin portraying Lincoln </gallery> See also * Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln * Outline of Abraham Lincoln * Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln * Lincoln family Notes References Sources * \|isbn978-0-8071-5539-4}} * * \|isbn978-0-87195-263-9}} * \|isbn=978-0-8232-1768-7}} * \|isbn=978-1-932236-43-9}} * \|issn=0012-9011}} * \|isbn=978-0-87338-340-0}} * * \|isbn=978-1-4331-0722-1}} * (2 vols.) One-volume edition edited and abridged by Jonathan W. White (2023). * Carpenter, F. B., Six Months at the White House with Abraham Lincoln: The Story of a Picture, New York: Hurd and Houghton (1866); also published as The Inner Life of Abraham Lincoln: Six Months at the White House, New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1867, pubdate 1868. * \|isbn978-0-582-03279-8}} * \|isbn=978-0-691-09174-7}} * \|isbn=978-0-87338-491-9}} * * * * \|isbn=978-1-5017-2370-4}} * \|isbn978-0-226-14877-9}} * * \|isbn978-0-252-07614-5\|refnone}} * \|isbn978-0-684-82535-9}} * * \|isbn978-1-57003-255-4}} * * * \|isbn=978-0-253-34567-7}} * \|isbn978-0-684-82490-1}} * \|oclc=428674}} * \|isbn=978-0-8032-2170-3}} * \|isbn978-0-8028-3872-8}}. Second edition, 2022. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. * \|isbn=978-0-7432-2182-5}} * * \|isbn978-0-8131-2940-2}} * \|isbn978-0-7006-1520-9}} * * \|isbn=978-0-393-04758-5}} * \|isbn=978-0-313-32792-6}} * * * \|isbn978-0-300-21356-0}} * * \|isbn978-0-7432-9964-0}} * \|isbn978-0-8476-9952-0}} * \|isbn=978-0-19-804006-4}} * * * * \|isbn=978-0-253-01308-8}} * \|isbn=978-0-7864-2026-1}} * * \|isbn978-0-8050-8345-3}} * \|isbn978-0-19-507606-6}} * \|isbn978-0-19-537452-0}} * * * * * * * * }} * * \|isbn=978-0-8028-0651-2}} * \|isbn=978-0-19-515111-4}} * \|isbn978-0-440-05923-3}} * \|isbn978-0-7006-0671-9}} * * \|isbn978-0-06-131929-7}} * \|asinB0051VUQXO}} * \|oclc950556947\|refnone}} * \|isbn=978-1-331-28158-0}} * \|oclc6579822}} * \|isbn=978-0-15-602752-6}} * \|isbn978-0-226-74197-0}} * \|isbn=978-0-226-74188-8}} * * * \|isbn978-0-252-00203-8}} * \|isbn978-1-4384-3233-5}} * \|isbn978-0-06-178775-1}} * \|isbn=978-0-19-518306-1}} * \|isbn=978-0-7432-5433-5}} * * \|isbn978-0-8093-2887-1}} * * * \|isbn=978-0-521-65267-4}} * * \|isbn=978-0-282-90830-0}} * * * * \|isbn978-1-4391-2645-5}} * * \|year1998\|publisherUniversity of Illinois Press\|isbn978-0-252-02328-6\|pages=35–36}} * * * \|isbn=978-1-4617-3436-9}} * \|isbn978-0-226-97876-5}} External links <!-- \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \| and link back to that category using the template. \| --> * * * [https://presidentlincoln.illinois.gov/ Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum] * [https://abrahamlincolnassociation.org/ Abraham Lincoln Association] * [https://guides.loc.gov/abraham-lincoln-guide Abraham Lincoln: A Resource Guide] from the Library of Congress * [https://papersofabrahamlincoln.org/ Papers of Abraham Lincoln Digital Library] from Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library A digitization of all documents written by or to Abraham Lincoln during his lifetime * [https://quod.lib.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln – complete collected works as edited by Basler et al. (1958)] – an online edition available through University of Michigan Library Digital Collections * [https://digital.lib.niu.edu/illinois/lincoln Lincoln/Net: Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project] – Northern Illinois University Digital Library * [https://www.loc.gov/collections/alfred-whital-stern-lincolniana/about-this-collection/ The Alfred Whital Stern Collection of Lincolniana] in the [https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/ Rare Book and Special Collections Division] in the Library of Congress (All items available online) * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?125640-1/life-portrait-abraham-lincoln "Life Portrait of Abraham Lincoln"], from C-SPAN's American presidents: Life Portraits, June 28, 1999 * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?164439-1/writings-abraham-lincoln "Writings of Abraham Lincoln"] from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History, June 18, 2001 Category:1809 births Category:1865 deaths Category:1865 murders in the United States Category:Politicians assassinated in the 1860s Category:National presidents assassinated in the 19th century Category:19th-century presidents of the United States Category:American abolitionists Category:People of the American colonization movement Category:American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law Category:American military personnel of the Indian Wars Category:American militia officers Category:American nationalists Category:American political party founders Category:Illinois postmasters Category:American surveyors Category:American people of English descent Category:Assassinated presidents of the United States Category:Burials at Oak Ridge Cemetery Category:Candidates in the 1860 United States presidential election Category:Candidates in the 1864 United States presidential election Category:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees Category:Harrison family (Virginia) Category:Illinois Central Railroad people Category:Illinois Republicans Category:Illinois lawyers Abraham Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives Category:People associated with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln Category:People from Coles County, Illinois Category:People from LaRue County, Kentucky Category:People from Macon County, Illinois Category:People from Spencer County, Indiana Category:People murdered in Washington, D.C. Category:People of Illinois in the American Civil War Category:People with mood disorders Category:Politicians from Springfield, Illinois Category:Presidents of the United States Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:Republican Party presidents of the United States Category:Union (American Civil War) political leaders Category:Whig Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois Category:Deaths by firearm in Washington, D.C. Category:Politicians killed in the American Civil War Category:Progressive conservatism Category:19th-century members of the Illinois General Assembly Category:19th-century members of the United States House of Representatives	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln	2025-04-05T18:25:15.694491
308	Aristotle	), with modern alabaster mantle \| birth_date=384 BC \| birth_place=Stagira, Chalcidian League \| death_date= \| death_place=Chalcis, Euboea, Macedonian Empire \| education=Platonic Academy \| era=Ancient Greek philosophy \| region=Western philosophy \| school_tradition= * Peripatetic school \| notable_students = Alexander the Great, Theophrastus, Aristoxenus \| main_interests= * Logic * Natural philosophy * Metaphysics * Ethics * Politics * Rhetoric * Poetics \| notable_ideas=Aristotelianism \|notable_works= * Organon * Physics * Metaphysics * Nicomachean Ethics * Politics * Rhetoric * Poetics \|native_name\|native_name_langel}} Aristotle }} (;}} 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, and the arts. As the founder of the Peripatetic school of philosophy in the Lyceum in Athens, he began the wider Aristotelian tradition that followed, which set the groundwork for the development of modern science. Little is known about Aristotle's life. He was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece during the Classical period. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, and he was brought up by a guardian. At around eighteen years old, he joined Plato's Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty seven (). Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, tutored his son Alexander the Great beginning in 343 BC. He established a library in the Lyceum, which helped him to produce many of his hundreds of books on papyrus scrolls. Though Aristotle wrote many treatises and dialogues for publication, only around a third of his original output has survived, none of it intended for publication. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. His teachings and methods of inquiry have had a significant impact across the world, and remain a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion. Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him "the master of those who know". He has been referred to as the first scientist. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan. His influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, although always influential, has gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. Life In general, the details of Aristotle's life are not well-established. The biographies written in ancient times are often speculative and historians only agree on a few salient points.. writes that most information about Aristotle's life derives from Diogenes Laertius' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, which in turn borrows material from earlier, now mostly lost, sources. covers ancient biographies of Aristotle.}} Aristotle was born in 384 BC}} in Stagira, Chalcidice, about 55 km (34 miles) east of modern-day Thessaloniki. He was the son of Nicomachus, the personal physician of King Amyntas of Macedon, and Phaestis, a woman with origins from Chalcis, Euboea. Nicomachus was said to have belonged to the medical guild of Asclepiadae and was likely responsible for Aristotle's early interest in biology and medicine. Ancient tradition held that Aristotle's family descended from the legendary physician Asclepius and his son Machaon. Both of Aristotle's parents died when he was still at a young age and Proxenus of Atarneus became his guardian. Although little information about Aristotle's childhood has survived, he probably spent some time in the Macedonian capital, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. , Macedonia, Greece]] At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Plato's Academy. He became distinguished as a researcher and lecturer, earning for himself the nickname "mind of the school" by his tutor Plato. In Athens, he probably experienced the Eleusinian Mysteries as he wrote when describing the sights one viewed at the Mysteries, "to experience is to learn" (). Aristotle remained in Athens for nearly twenty years before leaving in 348/47 BC after Plato's death. The traditional story about his departure records that he was disappointed with the academy's direction after control passed to Plato's nephew Speusippus, although it is possible that the anti-Macedonian sentiments in Athens could have also influenced his decision. Aristotle left with Xenocrates to Assos in Asia Minor, where he was invited by his former fellow student Hermias of Atarneus; he stayed there for a few years and left around the time of Hermias' death. write that Hermias died in 345 BC; places Hermias' death in 342 BC, the same year as Aristotle's trip back to Macedon, while mentions that Hermias got arrested in 341 BC.}} While at Assos, Aristotle and his colleague Theophrastus did extensive research in botany and marine biology, which they later continued at the near-by island of Lesbos. During this time, Aristotle married Pythias, Hermias's adoptive daughter and niece, and had a daughter whom they also named Pythias. ]] In 343/42 BC, Aristotle was invited to Pella by Philip II of Macedon in order to become the tutor to his thirteen-year-old son Alexander; a choice perhaps influenced by the relationship of Aristotle's family with the Macedonian dynasty. Aristotle taught Alexander at the private school of Mieza, in the gardens of the Nymphs, the royal estate near Pella. Alexander's education probably included a number of subjects, such as ethics and politics, as well as standard literary texts, like Euripides and Homer. It is likely that during Aristotle's time in the Macedonian court, other prominent nobles, like Ptolemy and Cassander, would have occasionally attended his lectures. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his own attitude towards Persia was strongly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be "a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians". Alexander's education under the guardianship of Aristotle likely lasted for only a few years, as at around the age of sixteen he returned to Pella and was appointed regent of Macedon by his father Philip. During this time, Aristotle is said to have gifted Alexander an annotated copy of the Iliad, which reportedly became one of Alexander's most prized possessions. Scholars speculate that two of Aristotle's now lost works, On kingship and On behalf of the Colonies, were composed by the philosopher for the young prince. Aristotle returned to Athens for the second and final time a year after Philip II's assassination in 336 BC. As a metic, Aristotle could not own property in Athens and thus rented a building known as the Lyceum (named after the sacred grove of Apollo Lykeios), in which he established his own school. The building included a gymnasium and a colonnade (), from which the school acquired the name Peripatetic. Aristotle conducted courses and research at the school for the next twelve years. He often lectured small groups of distinguished students and, along with some of them, such as Theophrastus, Eudemus, and Aristoxenus, Aristotle built a large library which included manuscripts, maps, and museum objects. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with Herpyllis of Stagira. They had a son whom Aristotle named after his father, Nicomachus. This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his philosophical works. He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre." of Aristotle; an Imperial Roman (1st or 2nd century AD) copy of a lost bronze sculpture made by Lysippos]] While Alexander deeply admired Aristotle, near the end of his life, the two men became estranged having diverging opinions over issues, like the optimal administration of city-states, the treatment of conquered populations, such as the Persians, and philosophical questions, like the definition of braveness. A widespread speculation in antiquity suggested that Aristotle played a role in Alexander's death, but the only evidence of this is an unlikely claim made some six years after the death. Following Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens was rekindled. In 322 BC, Demophilus and Eurymedon the Hierophant reportedly denounced Aristotle for impiety, prompting him to flee to his mother's family estate in Chalcis, Euboea, at which occasion he was said to have stated "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" – a reference to Athens's trial and execution of Socrates. He died in Chalcis, Euboea of natural causes later that same year, having named his student Antipater as his chief executor and leaving a will in which he asked to be buried next to his wife. Aristotle left his works to Theophrastus, his successor as the head of the Lyceum, who in turn passed them down to Neleus of Scepsis in Asia Minor. There, the papers remained hidden for protection until they were purchased by the collector Apellicon. In the meantime, many copies of Aristotle's major works had already begun to circulate and be used in the Lyceum of Athens, Alexandria, and later in Rome. Theoretical philosophy Logic With the Prior Analytics, Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of formal logic, and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th-century advances in mathematical logic. Kant stated in the Critique of Pure Reason that with Aristotle, logic reached its completion. Organon 's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.]] Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers. The books are: # Categories # On Interpretation # Prior Analytics # Posterior Analytics # Topics # On Sophistical Refutations The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the Categories, the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in On Interpretation, to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the Analytics) and dialectics (in the Topics and Sophistical Refutations). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory stricto sensu: the grammar of the language of logic and the correct rules of reasoning. The Rhetoric is not conventionally included, but it states that it relies on the Topics. {\| class="wikitable floatright" \|+ One of Aristotle's types of syllogism}} ! In words !! In<br /> terms}} !! In equations}} \|- \| All men are mortal.<br /><br /> All Greeks are men.<br /><br />∴ All Greeks are mortal.\|\|M a P<br /><br />S a M<br /><br />S a P\|\| \|} What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument), Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Metaphysics The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to create the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics. Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretikē) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16): }} Substance Aristotle examines the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence (to ti ên einai, "the what it was to be") in his Metaphysics (Book VII), and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form, a philosophical theory called hylomorphism. In Book VIII, he distinguishes the matter of the substance as the substratum, or the stuff of which it is composed. For example, the matter of a house is the bricks, stones, timbers, etc., or whatever constitutes the potential house, while the form of the substance is the actual house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other differentia that let us define something as a house. The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form. Immanent realism exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).]] Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the universal. Aristotle's ontology places the universal () in particulars (), things in the world, whereas for Plato the universal is a separately existing form which actual things imitate. For Aristotle, "form" is still what phenomena are based on, but is "instantiated" in a particular substance. Plato argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property or a relation to other things. When one looks at an apple, for example, one sees an apple, and one can also analyse a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, one can place an apple next to a book, so that one can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other. Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated at some period of time, and that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. Where Plato spoke of the forms as existing separately from the things that participate in them, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms. Potentiality and actuality Concerning the nature of change (kinesis) and its causes, as he outlines in his Physics and On Generation and Corruption (319b–320a), he distinguishes coming-to-be (genesis, also translated as 'generation') from: # growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; # locomotion, which is change in space; and # alteration, which is change in quality. – by learning.]] Coming-to-be is a change where the substrate of the thing that has undergone the change has itself changed. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (dynamis) and actuality (entelecheia) in association with the matter and the form. Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing or being acted upon if the conditions are right and it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (dynamei) a plant, and if it is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially, beings can either 'act' (poiein) or 'be acted upon' (paschein), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting). Actuality is the fulfilment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (telos) is the principle of every change, and potentiality exists for the sake of the end, actuality, accordingly, is the end. Referring then to the previous example, it can be said that an actuality is when a plant does one of the activities that plants do. }} In summary, the matter used to make a house has potentiality to be a house and both the activity of building and the form of the final house are actualities, which is also a final cause or end. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality. With this definition of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, for example, "what is it that makes a man one"? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same. Epistemology Aristotle's immanent realism means his epistemology is based on the study of things that exist or happen in the world, and rises to knowledge of the universal, whereas for Plato epistemology begins with knowledge of universal Forms (or ideas) and descends to knowledge of particular imitations of these. Aristotle uses induction from examples alongside deduction, whereas Plato relies on deduction from a priori principles. Natural philosophy Aristotle's "natural philosophy" spans a wide range of natural phenomena including those now covered by physics, biology and other natural sciences. In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. Aristotle's work encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry. Aristotle makes philosophy in the broad sense coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". However, his use of the term science carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (dianoia) is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (Metaphysics 1025b25). His practical science includes ethics and politics; his poetical science means the study of fine arts including poetry; his theoretical science covers physics, mathematics and metaphysics. Physics s (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.]] Five elements In his On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle related each of the four elements proposed earlier by Empedocles, earth, water, air, and fire, to two of the four sensible qualities, hot, cold, wet, and dry. In the Empedoclean scheme, all matter was made of the four elements, in differing proportions. Aristotle's scheme added the heavenly aether, the divine substance of the heavenly spheres, stars and planets. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Aristotle's elements ! Element !!/ !!/ !! Motion !! Modern state<br />of matter \|- \|Earth\|\|\|\|\|\|Down\|\|Solid \|- \|Water\|\|\|\|\|\|Down\|\|Liquid \|- \|Air\|\|\|\|\|\|Up\|\|Gas \|- \|Fire\|\|\|\|\|\|Up\|\|Plasma \|- \|Aether\|\|(divine<br />substance)\|\|—\|\|Circular<br />(in heavens)\|\|Vacuum \|} Motion Aristotle describes two kinds of motion: "violent" or "unnatural motion", such as that of a thrown stone, in the Physics (254b10), and "natural motion", such as of a falling object, in On the Heavens (300a20). In violent motion, as soon as the agent stops causing it, the motion stops also: in other words, the natural state of an object is to be at rest,}} since Aristotle does not address friction. With this understanding, it can be observed that, as Aristotle stated, heavy objects (on the ground, say) require more force to make them move; and objects pushed with greater force move faster.}} This would imply the equation :: <math>F=mv</math>, incorrect in modern physics. Natural motion depends on the element concerned: the aether naturally moves in a circle around the heavens,}} while the 4 Empedoclean elements move vertically up (like fire, as is observed) or down (like earth) towards their natural resting places.}} '' he states that objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in. This is a correct approximation for objects in Earth's gravitational field moving in air or water.]] In the Physics (215a25), Aristotle effectively states a quantitative law, that the speed, v, of a falling body is proportional (say, with constant c) to its weight, W, and inversely proportional to the density,}} ρ, of the fluid in which it is falling:; :: <math>v=c\frac{W}{\rho}</math> Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the "extreme view" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this. Archimedes corrected Aristotle's theory that bodies move towards their natural resting places; metal boats can float if they displace enough water; floating depends in Archimedes' scheme on the mass and volume of the object, not, as Aristotle thought, its elementary composition. Aristotle's writings on motion remained influential until the Early Modern period. John Philoponus (in Late antiquity) and Galileo (in Early modern period) are said to have shown by experiment that Aristotle's claim that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect. A contrary opinion is given by Carlo Rovelli, who argues that Aristotle's physics of motion is correct within its domain of validity, that of objects in the Earth's gravitational field immersed in a fluid such as air. In this system, heavy bodies in steady fall indeed travel faster than light ones (whether friction is ignored, or not), and they do fall more slowly in a denser medium.}} Newton's "forced" motion corresponds to Aristotle's "violent" motion with its external agent, but Aristotle's assumption that the agent's effect stops immediately it stops acting (e.g., the ball leaves the thrower's hand) has awkward consequences: he has to suppose that surrounding fluid helps to push the ball along to make it continue to rise even though the hand is no longer acting on it, resulting in the Medieval theory of impetus. Four causes : in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).]] Aristotle suggested that the reason for anything coming about can be attributed to four different types of simultaneously active factors. His term aitia is traditionally translated as "cause", but it does not always refer to temporal sequence; it might be better translated as "explanation", but the traditional rendering will be employed here. * Material cause describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood. It is not about action. It does not mean that one domino knocks over another domino. * The formal cause is its form, i.e., the arrangement of that matter. It tells one what a thing is, that a thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put, the formal cause is the idea in the mind of the sculptor that brings the sculpture into being. A simple example of the formal cause is the mental image or idea that allows an artist, architect, or engineer to create a drawing. * The efficient cause is "the primary source", or that from which the change under consideration proceeds. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, non-living or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. In the case of two dominoes, when the first is knocked over it causes the second also to fall over. In the case of animals, this agency is a combination of how it develops from the egg, and how its body functions. * The final cause (telos) is its purpose, the reason why a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or function that something is supposed to serve. This covers modern ideas of motivating causes, such as volition. In the case of living things, it implies adaptation to a particular way of life. Optics Aristotle describes experiments in optics using a camera obscura in Problems, book 15. The apparatus consisted of a dark chamber with a small aperture that let light in. With it, he saw that whatever shape he made the hole, the sun's image always remained circular. He also noted that increasing the distance between the aperture and the image surface magnified the image. Chance and spontaneity According to Aristotle, spontaneity and chance are causes of some things, distinguishable from other types of cause such as simple necessity. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things, "from what is spontaneous". There is also more a specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that only applies to people's moral choices. Astronomy In astronomy, Aristotle refuted Democritus's claim that the Milky Way was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out partly correctly that if "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then... the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them." He also wrote descriptions of comets, including the Great Comet of 371 BC. Geology and natural sciences changed before a volcanic eruption.]] Aristotle was one of the first people to record any geological observations. He stated that geological change was too slow to be observed in one person's lifetime. The geologist Charles Lyell noted that Aristotle described such change, including "lakes that had dried up" and "deserts that had become watered by rivers", giving as examples the growth of the Nile delta since the time of Homer, and "the upheaving of one of the Aeolian islands, previous to a volcanic eruption."' Meteorologica lends its name to the modern study of meteorology, but its modern usage diverges from the content of Aristotle's ancient treatise on meteors. The ancient Greeks did use the term for a range of atmospheric phenomena, but also for earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Aristotle proposed that the cause of earthquakes was a gas or vapor (anathymiaseis) that was trapped inside the earth and trying to escape, following other Greek authors Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Democritus. Aristotle also made many observations about the hydrologic cycle. For example, he made some of the earliest observations about desalination: he observed early – and correctly – that when seawater is heated, freshwater evaporates and that the oceans are then replenished by the cycle of rainfall and river runoff ("I have proved by experiment that salt water evaporated forms fresh and the vapor does not when it condenses condense into sea water again.") Biology of the octopus (bottom left).]] Empirical research Aristotle was the first person to study biology systematically, and biology forms a large part of his writings. He spent two years observing and describing the zoology of Lesbos and the surrounding seas, including in particular the Pyrrha lagoon in the centre of Lesbos. His data in History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals are assembled from his own observations, statements given by people with specialized knowledge, such as beekeepers and fishermen, and less accurate accounts provided by travellers from overseas. His apparent emphasis on animals rather than plants is a historical accident: his works on botany have been lost, but two books on plants by his pupil Theophrastus have survived. Aristotle reports on the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and the catches of fishermen. He describes the catfish, electric ray, and frogfish in detail, as well as cephalopods such as the octopus and paper nautilus. His description of the hectocotyl arm of cephalopods, used in sexual reproduction, was widely disbelieved until the 19th century. He gives accurate descriptions of the four-chambered fore-stomachs of ruminants, and of the ovoviviparous embryological development of the hound shark. He notes that an animal's structure is well matched to function so birds like the heron (which live in marshes with soft mud and live by catching fish) have a long neck, long legs, and a sharp spear-like beak, whereas ducks that swim have short legs and webbed feet. Darwin, too, noted these sorts of differences between similar kinds of animal, but unlike Aristotle used the data to come to the theory of evolution. Aristotle's writings can seem to modern readers close to implying evolution, but while Aristotle was aware that new mutations or hybridizations could occur, he saw these as rare accidents. For Aristotle, accidents, like heat waves in winter, must be considered distinct from natural causes. He was thus critical of Empedocles's materialist theory of a "survival of the fittest" origin of living things and their organs, and ridiculed the idea that accidents could lead to orderly results. To put his views into modern terms, he nowhere says that different species can have a common ancestor, or that one kind can change into another, or that kinds can become extinct. Scientific style decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.]] Aristotle did not do experiments in the modern sense. He used the ancient Greek term to mean observations, or at most investigative procedures like dissection. In Generation of Animals, he finds a fertilized hen's egg of a suitable stage and opens it to see the embryo's heart beating inside. Instead, he practiced a different style of science: systematically gathering data, discovering patterns common to whole groups of animals, and inferring possible causal explanations from these. This style is common in modern biology when large amounts of data become available in a new field, such as genomics. It does not result in the same certainty as experimental science, but it sets out testable hypotheses and constructs a narrative explanation of what is observed. In this sense, Aristotle's biology is scientific. From the data he collected and documented, Aristotle inferred quite a number of rules relating the life-history features of the live-bearing tetrapods (terrestrial placental mammals) that he studied. Among these correct predictions are the following. Brood size decreases with (adult) body mass, so that an elephant has fewer young (usually just one) per brood than a mouse. Lifespan increases with gestation period, and also with body mass, so that elephants live longer than mice, have a longer period of gestation, and are heavier. As a final example, fecundity decreases with lifespan, so long-lived kinds like elephants have fewer young in total than short-lived kinds like mice. Classification of living things (fetus pictured) of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.]] Aristotle distinguished about 500 species of animals, arranging these in the History of Animals in a graded scale of perfection, a nonreligious version of the scala naturae, with man at the top. His system had eleven grades of animal, from highest potential to lowest, expressed in their form at birth: the highest gave live birth to hot and wet creatures, the lowest laid cold, dry mineral-like eggs. Animals came above plants, and these in turn were above minerals. He grouped what the modern zoologist would call vertebrates as the hotter "animals with blood", and below them the colder invertebrates as "animals without blood". Those with blood were divided into the live-bearing (mammals), and the egg-laying (birds, reptiles, fish). Those without blood were insects, crustacea (non-shelled – cephalopods, and shelled) and the hard-shelled molluscs (bivalves and gastropods). He recognised that animals did not exactly fit into a linear scale, and noted various exceptions, such as that sharks had a placenta like the tetrapods. To a modern biologist, the explanation, not available to Aristotle,<!--Leroi \|p 113--> is convergent evolution. Philosophers of science have generally concluded that Aristotle was not interested in taxonomy, but zoologists who studied this question in the early 21st century think otherwise. He believed that purposive final causes guided all natural processes; this teleological view justified his observed data as an expression of formal design. {\|class="wikitable" \|+ Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest) ! Group !! Examples<br />(given by Aristotle) !! Blood !! Legs !! Souls<br />(Rational,<br />Sensitive,<br />Vegetative) !! Qualities<br />(–,<br />–) \|- \|Man\|\|Man\|\|with blood\|\|2 legs\|\|R, S, V\|\|, \|- \|Live-bearing tetrapods\|\|Cat, hare\|\|with blood\|\|4 legs\|\|S, V\|\|, \|- \|Cetaceans\|\|Dolphin, whale\|\|with blood\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, \|- \|Birds\|\|Bee-eater, nightjar\|\|with blood\|\|2 legs\|\|S, V\|\|, , except eggs \|- \|Egg-laying tetrapods\|\|Chameleon, crocodile\|\|with blood\|\|4 legs\|\|S, V\|\|, except scales, eggs \|- \|Snakes\|\|Water snake, Ottoman viper\|\|with blood\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, except scales, eggs \|- \|Egg-laying fishes\|\|Sea bass, parrotfish\|\|with blood\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, , including eggs \|- \|(Among the egg-laying fishes):<br />placental selachians\|\|Shark, skate\|\|with blood\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, , but placenta like tetrapods \|- \|Crustaceans\|\|Shrimp, crab\|\|without\|\|many legs\|\|S, V\|\|, except shell \|- \|Cephalopods\|\|Squid, octopus\|\|without\|\|tentacles\|\|S, V\|\|, \|- \|Hard-shelled animals\|\|Cockle, trumpet snail\|\|without\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, (mineral shell) \|- \|Larva-bearing insects\|\|Ant, cicada\|\|without\|\|6 legs\|\|S, V\|\|, \|- \|Spontaneously generating\|\|Sponges, worms\|\|without\|\|none\|\|S, V\|\|, or , from earth \|- \|Plants\|\|Fig\|\|without\|\|none\|\|V\|\|, \|- \|Minerals\|\|Iron\|\|without\|\|none\|\|none\|\|, \|} Psychology Soul of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.]] Aristotle's psychology, given in his treatise On the Soul (), posits three kinds of soul (): the vegetative soul, the sensitive soul, and the rational soul. Humans have all three. The vegetative soul is concerned with growth and nourishment. The sensitive soul experiences sensations and movement. The unique part of the human, rational soul is its ability to receive forms of other things and to compare them using the (intellect) and (reason). For Aristotle, the soul is the form of a living being. Because all beings are composites of form and matter, the form of living beings is that which endows them with what is specific to living beings, e.g. the ability to initiate movement (or in the case of plants, growth and transformations, which Aristotle considers types of movement). In contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, he placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally differed from the concepts of previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon. In On the Soul, Aristotle famously criticizes Plato's theory of the soul and develops his own in response. The first criticism is against Plato's view of the soul in the Timaeus that the soul takes up space and is able to come into physical contact with bodies. 20th-century scholarship overwhelmingly opposed Aristotle's interpretation of Plato and maintained that he had misunderstood him. Today's scholars have tended to re-assess Aristotle's interpretation and been more positive about it. Aristotle's other criticism is that Plato's view of reincarnation entails that it is possible for a soul and its body to be mis-matched; in principle, Aristotle alleges, any soul can go with any body, according to Plato's theory. Aristotle's claim that the soul is the form of a living being eliminates that possibility and thus rules out reincarnation. Memory According to Aristotle in On the Soul, memory is the ability to hold a perceived experience in the mind and to distinguish between the internal "appearance" and an occurrence in the past. In other words, a memory is a mental picture (phantasm) that can be recovered. Aristotle believed an impression is left on a semi-fluid bodily organ that undergoes several changes in order to make a memory. A memory occurs when stimuli such as sights or sounds are so complex that the nervous system cannot receive all the impressions at once. These changes are the same as those involved in the operations of sensation, Aristotelian , and thinking. Aristotle uses the term 'memory' for the actual retaining of an experience in the impression that can develop from sensation, and for the intellectual anxiety that comes with the impression because it is formed at a particular time and processing specific contents. Memory is of the past, prediction is of the future, and sensation is of the present. Retrieval of impressions cannot be performed suddenly. A transitional channel is needed and located in past experiences, both for previous experience and present experience. Because Aristotle believes people receive all kinds of sense perceptions and perceive them as impressions, people are continually weaving together new impressions of experiences. To search for these impressions, people search the memory itself. Within the memory, if one experience is offered instead of a specific memory, that person will reject this experience until they find what they are looking for. Recollection occurs when one retrieved experience naturally follows another. If the chain of "images" is needed, one memory will stimulate the next. When people recall experiences, they stimulate certain previous experiences until they reach the one that is needed. Recollection is thus the self-directed activity of retrieving the information stored in a memory impression. Only humans can remember impressions of intellectual activity, such as numbers and words. Animals that have perception of time can retrieve memories of their past observations. Remembering involves only perception of the things remembered and of the time passed. (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).]] Aristotle believed the chain of thought, which ends in recollection of certain impressions, was connected systematically in relationships such as similarity, contrast, and contiguity, described in his laws of association. Aristotle believed that past experiences are hidden within the mind. A force operates to awaken the hidden material to bring up the actual experience. According to Aristotle, association is the power innate in a mental state, which operates upon the unexpressed remains of former experiences, allowing them to rise and be recalled. Dreams Aristotle describes sleep in On Sleep and Wakefulness. Sleep takes place as a result of overuse of the senses or of digestion, so it is vital to the body. While a person is asleep, the critical activities, which include thinking, sensing, recalling and remembering, do not function as they do during wakefulness. Since a person cannot sense during sleep, they cannot have desire, which is the result of sensation. However, the senses are able to work during sleep, albeit differently, unless they are weary. Dreams do not involve actually sensing a stimulus. In dreams, sensation is still involved, but in an altered manner. Aristotle explains that when a person stares at a moving stimulus such as the waves in a body of water, and then looks away, the next thing they look at appears to have a wavelike motion. When a person perceives a stimulus and the stimulus is no longer the focus of their attention, it leaves an impression. When the body is awake and the senses are functioning properly, a person constantly encounters new stimuli to sense and so the impressions of previously perceived stimuli are ignored. However, during sleep the impressions made throughout the day are noticed as there are no new distracting sensory experiences. So, dreams result from these lasting impressions. Since impressions are all that are left and not the exact stimuli, dreams do not resemble the actual waking experience. During sleep, a person is in an altered state of mind. Aristotle compares a sleeping person to a person who is overtaken by strong feelings toward a stimulus. For example, a person who has a strong infatuation with someone may begin to think they see that person everywhere because they are so overtaken by their feelings. Since a person sleeping is in a suggestible state and unable to make judgements, they become easily deceived by what appears in their dreams, like the infatuated person. This leads the person to believe the dream is real, even when the dreams are absurd in nature. In De Anima iii 3, Aristotle ascribes the ability to create, to store, and to recall images in the absence of perception to the faculty of imagination, phantasia. One component of Aristotle's theory of dreams disagrees with previously held beliefs. He claimed that dreams are not foretelling and not sent by a divine being. Aristotle reasoned naturalistically that instances in which dreams do resemble future events are simply coincidences. Aristotle claimed that a dream is first established by the fact that the person is asleep when they experience it. If a person had an image appear for a moment after waking up or if they see something in the dark it is not considered a dream because they were awake when it occurred. Secondly, any sensory experience that is perceived while a person is asleep does not qualify as part of a dream. For example, if, while a person is sleeping, a door shuts and in their dream they hear a door is shut, this sensory experience is not part of the dream. Lastly, the images of dreams must be a result of lasting impressions of waking sensory experiences. Practical philosophy Aristotle's practical philosophy covers areas such as ethics, politics, economics, and rhetoric. {\| class"wikitable floatright" alignright style="font-size: 80%;" \|+ Virtues and their accompanying vices ! Too little !! Virtuous mean !! Too much \|- \|Humbleness\|\|High-mindedness\|\|Vainglory \|- \|Lack of purpose\|\|Right ambition\|\|Over-ambition \|- \|Spiritlessness\|\|Good temper\|\|Irascibility \|- \|Rudeness\|\|Civility\|\|Obsequiousness \|- \|Cowardice\|\|Courage\|\|Rashness \|- \|Insensibility\|\|Self-control\|\|Intemperance \|- \|Sarcasm\|\|Sincerity\|\|Boastfulness \|- \|Boorishness\|\|Wit\|\|Buffoonery \|- \|Callousness\|\|Just resentment\|\|Spitefulness \|- \|Pettiness\|\|Generosity\|\|Vulgarity \|- \|Meanness\|\|Liberality\|\|Wastefulness \|} Ethics Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at becoming good and doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, most notably including the Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (ergon) of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the psuchē (soul) in accordance with reason (logos). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity (the virtuous mean, between the accompanying vices of excess or deficiency) of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, eudaimonia, generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well-being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (ēthikē aretē), often translated as moral or ethical virtue or excellence. Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously chooses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom () and their intellect () can develop with each other towards the highest possible human virtue, the wisdom of an accomplished theoretical or speculative thinker, or in other words, a philosopher. Politics In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled Politics. Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior in importance to the family, which in turn is prior to the individual, "for the whole must of necessity be prior to the part". He famously stated that "man is by nature a political animal" and argued that humanity's defining factor among others in the animal kingdom is its rationality. Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an organism rather than like a machine, and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner. The common modern understanding of a political community as a modern state is quite different from Aristotle's understanding. Although he was aware of the existence and potential of larger empires, the natural community according to Aristotle was the city (polis) which functions as a political "community" or "partnership" (koinōnia)<!-- (1252a1) -->. The aim of the city is not just to avoid injustice or for economic stability<!-- (1280b29–31) -->, but rather to allow at least some citizens the possibility to live a good life, and to perform beautiful acts: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together<!-- (1281a1–3) -->." This is distinguished from modern approaches, beginning with social contract theory, according to which individuals leave the state of nature because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences". In Protrepticus, the character 'Aristotle' states: }} As Plato's disciple Aristotle was rather critical concerning democracy and, following the outline of certain ideas from Plato's Statesman, he developed a coherent theory of integrating various forms of power into a so-called mixed state: Economics Aristotle made substantial contributions to economic thought, especially to thought in the Middle Ages. In Politics, Aristotle addresses the city, property, and trade. His response to criticisms of private property, in Lionel Robbins's view, anticipated later proponents of private property among philosophers and economists, as it related to the overall utility of social arrangements. Aristotle believed that although communal arrangements may seem beneficial to society, and that although private property is often blamed for social strife, such evils in fact come from human nature. In Politics, Aristotle offers one of the earliest accounts of the origin of money. Money came into use because people became dependent on one another, importing what they needed and exporting the surplus. For the sake of convenience, people then agreed to deal in something that is intrinsically useful and easily applicable, such as iron or silver. Aristotle's discussions on retail and interest was a major influence on economic thought in the Middle Ages. He had a low opinion of retail, believing that contrary to using money to procure things one needs in managing the household, retail trade seeks to make a profit. It thus uses goods as a means to an end, rather than as an end unto itself. He believed that retail trade was in this way unnatural. Similarly, Aristotle considered making a profit through interest unnatural, as it makes a gain out of the money itself, and not from its use. Aristotle gave a summary of the function of money that was perhaps remarkably precocious for his time. He wrote that because it is impossible to determine the value of every good through a count of the number of other goods it is worth, the necessity arises of a single universal standard of measurement. Money thus allows for the association of different goods and makes them "commensurable". He goes on to state that money is also useful for future exchange, making it a sort of security. That is, "if we do not want a thing now, we shall be able to get it when we do want it". Rhetoric Aristotle's Rhetoric proposes that a speaker can use three basic kinds of appeals to persuade his audience: ethos (an appeal to the speaker's character), pathos (an appeal to the audience's emotion), and logos (an appeal to logical reasoning). He also categorizes rhetoric into three genres: epideictic (ceremonial speeches dealing with praise or blame), forensic (judicial speeches over guilt or innocence), and deliberative (speeches calling on an audience to decide on an issue). Aristotle also outlines two kinds of rhetorical proofs: enthymeme (proof by syllogism) and paradeigma (proof by example). Poetics Aristotle writes in his Poetics that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic poetry, painting, sculpture, music, and dance are all fundamentally acts of mimesis ("imitation"), each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. He applies the term mimesis both as a property of a work of art and also as the product of the artist's intention and contends that the audience's realisation of the mimesis is vital to understanding the work itself. Aristotle states that mimesis is a natural instinct of humanity that separates humans from animals and that all human artistry "follows the pattern of nature". Because of this, Aristotle believed that each of the mimetic arts possesses what Stephen Halliwell calls "highly structured procedures for the achievement of their purposes." For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. . In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).]] While it is believed that Aristotle's Poetics originally comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the catharsis of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes Poetics with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic mimesis. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic. Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the Delphic Oracle and studied the fables of Aesop. Gender and sexuality Aristotle never wrote a specific work on women. However, he asserted the existence of differences between men and women throughout his biological, political, and ethical works. For most female animals, including human women, Aristotle maintains that they are for the most part physically smaller and of a more cowardly constitution. From these comments in his biological works, he often connects the idea that women are inferior with their need to be ruled over by men. Proponents of feminist philosophy question the extent to which Aristotle's philosophy relies on misogynistic and sexist tenets. Within the same works, however, there is still concern for women's happiness}} and participation within the city. For instance, women are meant to be consulted on household decisions, are praised for their tenderness to children, and expected to participate in religious festivals. Transmission 's 15th century Latin translation of Aristotle's Physics]] More than 2300 years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He contributed to almost every field of human knowledge then in existence, and he was the founder of many new fields. According to the philosopher Bryan Magee, "it is doubtful whether any human being has ever known as much as he did". Aristotle has been regarded as the first scientist. Among countless other achievements, Aristotle was the founder of formal logic,<!----> pioneered the study of zoology, and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method. Taneli Kukkonen, observes that his achievement in founding two sciences is unmatched, and his reach in influencing "every branch of intellectual enterprise" including Western ethical and political theory, theology, rhetoric, and literary analysis is equally long. As a result, Kukkonen argues, any analysis of reality today "will almost certainly carry Aristotelian overtones ... evidence of an exceptionally forceful mind." Jonathan Barnes wrote that "an account of Aristotle's intellectual afterlife would be little less than a history of European thought". Aristotle has been called the father of logic, biology, political science, zoology, embryology, natural law, scientific method, rhetoric, psychology, realism, criticism, individualism, teleology, and meteorology. * "the father of political science": N. Jayapalan, Aristotle, p. 12, Jonathan Wolff, Lectures on the History of Moral and Political Philosophy, p. 48. * the "father of zoology": Josef Rudolf Winkler, A Book of Beetles, p. 12 * "the father of embryology": D. R. Khanna, Text Book Of Embryology, p. 2 * "the father of natural law": * "the father of scientific method": , Riccardo Pozzo (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?idvayp8jxcPr0C&pgPA41 The impact of Aristotelianism on modern philosophy]. CUA Press. p. 41. * "the father of psychology": Margot Esther Borden, Psychology in the Light of the East, p. 4 * "the father of realism": Russell L. Hamm, Philosophy and Education: Alternatives in Theory and Practice, p. 58 * "the father of criticism": Nagendra Prasad, Personal Bias in Literary Criticism: Johnson, Matthew Arnold, T. S. Eliot, p. 70. Lord Henry Home Kames, Elements of Criticism, p. 237. * "the father of meteorology": * "the father of individualism": Allan Gotthelf, Gregory Salmieri, A Companion to Ayn Rand, p. 325. * "the father of teleology": Malcolm Owen Slavin, Daniel H. Kriegman, The Adaptive Design of the Human Psyche: Psychoanalysis, Evolutionary Biology, and the Therapeutic Process, p. 292.}} The scholar Taneli Kukkonen notes that "in the best 20th-century scholarship Aristotle comes alive as a thinker wrestling with the full weight of the Greek philosophical tradition." What follows is an overview of the transmission and influence of his texts and ideas into the modern era. His successor, Theophrastus to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written ]] Aristotle's pupil and successor, Theophrastus, wrote the History of Plants, a pioneering work in botany. Some of his technical terms remain in use, such as carpel from carpos, fruit, and pericarp, from pericarpion, seed chamber. Theophrastus was much less concerned with formal causes than Aristotle was, instead pragmatically describing how plants functioned. Later Greek philosophy The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?" Hellenistic science After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not. Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." Revival Following the decline of the Roman Empire, Aristotle's vast philosophical and scientific corpus lay largely dormant in the West. However, his works underwent a remarkable revival in the Abbasid Caliphate. Translated into Arabic alongside other Greek classics, Aristotle's logic, ethics, and natural philosophy ignited the minds of early Islamic scholars. Through meticulous commentaries and critical engagements, figures like Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) breathed new life into Aristotle's ideas. They harmonized his logic with Islamic theology, employed his scientific methodologies to explore the natural world, and even reinterpreted his ethics within the framework of Islamic morality. This revival was not mere imitation. Islamic thinkers embraced Aristotle's rigorous methods while simultaneously challenging his conclusions where they diverged from their own religious beliefs. Byzantine scholars Greek Christian scribes played a crucial role in the preservation of Aristotle by copying all the extant Greek language manuscripts of the corpus. The first Greek Christians to comment extensively on Aristotle were Philoponus, Elias, and David in the sixth century, and Stephen of Alexandria in the early seventh century. John Philoponus stands out for having attempted a fundamental critique of Aristotle's views on the eternity of the world, movement, and other elements of Aristotelian thought. Philoponus questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, noting its flaws and introducing the theory of impetus to explain his observations. After a hiatus of several centuries, formal commentary by Eustratius and Michael of Ephesus reappeared in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, apparently sponsored by Anna Comnena. Medieval Islamic world '', .]] Aristotle is considered the most influential figure in the history of Arabic philosophy and was one of the most revered thinkers in early Islamic theology. Most of the still extant works of Aristotle, as well as a number of the original Greek commentaries, were translated into Arabic and studied by Muslim philosophers, scientists, and scholars. Averroes, Avicenna, and Alpharabius, who wrote on Aristotle in great depth, also influenced Thomas Aquinas and other Western Christian scholastic philosophers. Alkindus greatly admired Aristotle's philosophy, and Averroes spoke of Aristotle as the "exemplar" for all future philosophers. Medieval Muslim scholars regularly described Aristotle as the "First Teacher". The title was later used by Western philosophers (as in the famous poem of Dante) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy. Medieval Europe With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from to except through the Latin translation of the Organon made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his Summa Theologica, working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle "The Philosopher", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic. According to scholar Roger Theodore Lafferty, Dante built up the philosophy of the Comedy with the works of Aristotle as a foundation, just as the scholastics used Aristotle as the basis for their thinking. Dante knew Aristotle directly from Latin translations of his works and indirectly through quotations in the works of Albert Magnus. Dante even acknowledges Aristotle's influence explicitly in the poem, specifically when Virgil justifies the Inferno's structure by citing the Nicomachean Ethics. Dante famously refers to him as "he / Who is acknowledged Master of those who know". Medieval Judaism Moses Maimonides (considered to be the foremost intellectual figure of medieval Judaism) adopted Aristotelianism from the Islamic scholars and based his Guide for the Perplexed on it and that became the basis of Jewish scholastic philosophy. Maimonides also considered Aristotle to be the greatest philosopher that ever lived, and styled him as the "chief of the philosophers". Also, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides observes that there is no need for Samuel to study the writings of philosophers who preceded Aristotle because the works of the latter are "sufficient by themselves and [superior] to all that were written before them. His intellect, Aristotle's is the extreme limit of human intellect, apart from him upon whom the divine emanation has flowed forth to such an extent that they reach the level of prophecy, there being no level higher". Early Modern science 's , 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical thinking.]] In the early modern period, scientists such as William Harvey in England and Galileo Galilei in Italy reacted against the theories of Aristotle and other classical era thinkers like Galen, establishing new theories based to some degree on observation and experiment. Harvey demonstrated the circulation of the blood, establishing that the heart functioned as a pump rather than being the seat of the soul and the controller of the body's heat, as Aristotle thought. Galileo used more doubtful arguments to displace Aristotle's physics, proposing that bodies all fall at the same speed whatever their weight. 18th and 19th-century science The English mathematician George Boole fully accepted Aristotle's logic, but decided "to go under, over, and beyond" it with his system of algebraic logic in his 1854 book The Laws of Thought. This gives logic a mathematical foundation with equations, enables it to solve equations as well as check validity, and allows it to handle a wider class of problems by expanding propositions of any number of terms, not just two. Charles Darwin regarded Aristotle as the most important contributor to the subject of biology. In an 1882 letter he wrote that "Linnaeus and Cuvier have been my two gods, though in very different ways, but they were mere schoolboys to old Aristotle". Also, in later editions of the book "On the Origin of Species', Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. Present science The philosopher Bertrand Russell claims that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell calls Aristotle's ethics "repulsive", and labelled his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell states that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers what an advance he made upon all of his predecessors. The Dutch historian of science Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis writes that Aristotle and his predecessors showed the difficulty of science by "proceed[ing] so readily to frame a theory of such a general character" on limited evidence from their senses. In 1985, the biologist Peter Medawar could still state in "pure seventeenth century" tones that Aristotle had assembled "a strange and generally speaking rather tiresome farrago of hearsay, imperfect observation, wishful thinking and credulity amounting to downright gullibility". Zoologists have frequently mocked Aristotle for errors and unverified secondhand reports. However, modern observation has confirmed several of his more surprising claims. Aristotle's work remains largely unknown to modern scientists, though zoologists sometimes mention him as the father of biology or in particular of marine biology. Practising zoologists are unlikely to adhere to Aristotle's chain of being, but its influence is still perceptible in the use of the terms "lower" and "upper" to designate taxa such as groups of plants. The evolutionary biologist Armand Marie Leroi has reconstructed Aristotle's biology, while Niko Tinbergen's four questions, based on Aristotle's four causes, are used to analyse animal behaviour; they examine function, phylogeny, mechanism, and ontogeny. The concept of homology began with Aristotle; the evolutionary developmental biologist Lewis I. Held commented that he would be interested in the concept of deep homology. In systematics too, recent studies suggest that Aristotle made important contributions in taxonomy and biological nomenclature. Surviving works Corpus Aristotelicum '' in Greek and Latin]] The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through medieval manuscript transmission are collected in the Corpus Aristotelicum. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of Immanuel Bekker's Royal Prussian Academy edition (, Berlin, 1831–1870), which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works. Loss and preservation Aristotle wrote his works on papyrus scrolls, the common writing medium of that era.}} His writings are divisible into two groups: the "exoteric", intended for the public, and the "esoteric", for use within the Lyceum school. Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with a view to subsequent publication, the surviving works mostly resemble lecture notes not intended for publication. Cicero's description of Aristotle's literary style as "a river of gold" must have applied to the published works, not the surviving notes.}} A major question in the history of Aristotle's works is how the exoteric writings were all lost, and how the ones now possessed came to be found. The consensus is that Andronicus of Rhodes collected the esoteric works of Aristotle's school which existed in the form of smaller, separate works, distinguished them from those of Theophrastus and other Peripatetics, edited them, and finally compiled them into the more cohesive, larger works as they are known today. According to Strabo and Plutarch, after Aristotle's death, his library and writings went to Theophrastus (Aristotle's successor as head of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic school). After the death of Theophrastus, the peripatetic library went to Neleus of Scepsis. Some time later, the Kingdom of Pergamon began conscripting books for a royal library, and the heirs of Neleus hid their collection in a cellar to prevent it from being seized for that purpose. The library was stored there for about a century and a half, in conditions that were not ideal for document preservation. On the death of Attalus III, which also ended the royal library ambitions, the existence of Aristotelian library was disclosed, and it was purchased by Apellicon and returned to Athens . Apellicon sought to recover the texts, many of which were seriously degraded at this point due to the conditions in which they were stored. He had them copied out into new manuscripts, and used his best guesswork to fill in the gaps where the originals were unreadable. When Sulla seized Athens in 86 BC, he seized the library and transferred it to Rome. There, Andronicus of Rhodes organized the texts into the first complete edition of Aristotle's works (and works attributed to him). The Aristotelian texts we have today are based on these. Depictions in art Paintings Aristotle has been depicted by major artists including Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, and Francesco Hayez over the centuries. Among the best-known depictions is Raphael's fresco The School of Athens, in the Vatican's Apostolic Palace, where the figures of Plato and Aristotle are central to the image, at the architectural vanishing point, reflecting their importance. Rembrandt's Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, too, is a celebrated work, showing the knowing philosopher and the blind Homer from an earlier age: as the art critic Jonathan Jones writes, "this painting will remain one of the greatest and most mysterious in the world, ensnaring us in its musty, glowing, pitch-black, terrible knowledge of time." <gallery mode"packed" heights"170px"> Philosophenmosaik köln Aristoteles.jpg\|Aristotle, mosaic from a Roman villa in Cologne Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg\| Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493 Gent, Justus van - Aristotle - c. 1476.jpg\| Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Phyllis und Aristotle (1530).jpg\| Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530 Biblioteka Marciana, Aristotel.jpg\| Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s Turchi-AristoteIMG 1713.JPG\| Aristotle and Campaspe, Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713 Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera.jpg\| Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637 Rembrandt - Aristotle with a Bust of Homer - WGA19232.jpg\| Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653 Johann Jakob Dorner d Ä (attr) Aristoteles.jpg\| Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, 1813 (Venice) Aristide - Francesco Hayez - gallerie Accademia Venice.jpg\| Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811 Alexander and Aristotle.jpg\| By "That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". 1866 </gallery> Sculptures <gallery mode"packed" heights"170px"> Aristoteles Louvre.jpg\|Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum DSC00218 - Aristotele - Copia romana del 117-138 dC. - Foto di G. Dall'Orto.jpg\|Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum Formella 21, platone e aristotele o la filosofia, luca della robbia, 1437-1439.JPG\|Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437–1439 Llyfrgell Sant Deiniol and Gladstone's Library Hawarden Penarlâg 05.JPG\|Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899 Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg\|Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915 </gallery> Eponyms The Aristotle Mountains in Antarctica are named after Aristotle. He was the first person known to conjecture, in his book Meteorology, the existence of a landmass in the southern high-latitude region, which he called Antarctica. Aristoteles is a crater on the Moon bearing the classical form of Aristotle's name. (6123) Aristoteles, an asteroid in the main asteroid belt is also bearing the classical form of his name. See also * Aristotelian Society * Conimbricenses * Perfectionism References Notes Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * <!--edition based on access-date--> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Phyllis and Aristotle \|urlhttp://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2008/important-old-master-paintings-including-european-works-of-art-n08404/lot.78.html \|publisherSotheby's \|access-date23 March 2018 \|date2008 \|refCITEREFLucas Cranach the Elder}} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection. * Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press. * * * * These translations are available in several places online; see External links. * Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, . * * Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works. * Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). ''Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy. * * * Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76. * * * De Groot, Jean (2014). ''Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, . * Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. * * Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). [http://www.focusing.org/aristotle/ Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima] , Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute. * Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity''. Princeton University Press. * * * * * * Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), . * * Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press. * Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. * Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press. * Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. * Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. . * * [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.] * * * Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). ''Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett. * * * Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics''. Cornell University Press. * Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally. * * * External links * * * At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ** * At the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index.html Internet Classics Archive] * From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: ** * * ; Collections of works * * At [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] * * * * * * [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submitChange&collectionAny&typetext&langAny&lookup=Aristotle Perseus Project] at Tufts University * At the [https://web.archive.org/web/20071017211048/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] * [http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle] * The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF] [https://web.archive.org/web/20050816192647/http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU]) }} * Category:384 BC births Category:322 BC deaths Category:4th-century BC mathematicians Category:4th-century BC philosophers Category:4th-century BC Greek writers Category:Acting theorists Category:Ancient Greek biologists Category:Ancient Greek epistemologists Category:Ancient Greek ethicists Category:Ancient Greek logicians Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of language Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind Category:Ancient Greek physicists Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers Category:Ancient Greek political refugees Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of art Category:Ancient literary critics Category:Ancient Stagirites Category:Aphorists Category:Aristotelian philosophers Category:Attic Greek writers Category:Ancient Greek cosmologists Category:Classical theism Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy Category:Greek male writers Category:Greek geologists Category:Greek meteorologists Category:Humor researchers Category:Irony theorists Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens Category:Natural law ethicists Category:Natural philosophers Category:Ontologists Category:Peripatetic philosophers Category:Philosophers and tutors of Alexander the Great Category:Philosophers of ancient Chalcidice Category:Philosophers of culture Category:Philosophers of education Category:Philosophers of history Category:Philosophers of law Category:Philosophers of literature Category:Philosophers of logic Category:Philosophers of love Category:Philosophers of psychology Category:Philosophers of science Category:Philosophers of time Category:Philosophers of sexuality Category:Philosophers of technology Category:Philosophical logic Category:Philosophical theists Category:Philosophy academics Category:Philosophy writers Category:Rhetoric theorists Category:Social philosophers Category:Students of Plato Category:Trope theorists Category:Virtue ethicists Category:Zoologists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle	2025-04-05T18:25:15.848419
309	An American in Paris	An American in Paris is a jazz-influenced symphonic poem (or tone poem) for orchestra by American composer George Gershwin first performed in 1928. It was inspired by the time that Gershwin had spent in Paris and evokes the sights and energy of the French capital during the . Gershwin scored the piece for the standard instruments of the symphony orchestra plus celesta, saxophones, and automobile horns. He brought back four Parisian taxi horns for the New York premiere of the composition, which took place on December 13, 1928, in Carnegie Hall, with Walter Damrosch conducting the New York Philharmonic. It was Damrosch who had commissioned Gershwin to write his Concerto in F following the earlier success of Rhapsody in Blue (1924). He completed the orchestration on November 18, less than four weeks before the work's premiere. He collaborated on the original program notes with critic and composer Deems Taylor. On January 1, 2025, An American in Paris entered the public domain.BackgroundAlthough the story is likely apocryphal, Gershwin is said to have been attracted by Maurice Ravel's unusual chords, and Gershwin went on his first trip to Paris in 1926 ready to study with Ravel. After his initial student audition with Ravel turned into a sharing of musical theories, Ravel said he could not teach him, saying, "Why be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?" Gershwin strongly encouraged Ravel to come to the United States for a tour. To this end, upon his return to New York, Gershwin joined the efforts of Ravel's friend Robert Schmitz, a pianist Ravel had met during the war, to urge Ravel to tour the U.S. Schmitz was the head of Pro Musica, promoting Franco-American musical relations, and was able to offer Ravel a $10,000 fee for the tour, an enticement Gershwin knew would be important to Ravel. Gershwin greeted Ravel in New York in March 1928 during a party held for Ravel's birthday by Éva Gauthier. Ravel's tour reignited Gershwin's desire to return to Paris, which he and his brother Ira did after meeting Ravel. Composition {{Image frame\|content{{left\|<score raw"1" sound="1" > \header { piece = "Allegretto grazioso" tagline = "" } \score { \layout { } \new staff { \time 2/4 \key f \major \relative c'' { \acciaccatura b8\mp( c-.) d,-. e4 \| \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e4 \| \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e-. d'-. \| c c,16 d e4 \| \acciaccatura b'8( c-.) d,-. e4 \| \acciaccatura b'8( c_.) d,-. e-. d'-. \| e16-. e-. e-. e-. e8-. a-. \| g4->( f) } } \midi { \tempo 4 = 96 } } </score> }} {{left\|<score raw"1" sound"1" > \header { piece = "La Sorella" tagline = "" } \score { \layout { } \new staff { \time 2/4 \clef bass { \partial 8 cis8->\f-\markup { \italic scherzando } \| dis-> eis-> fis-> gis-> \| fis-. eis4-> dis8$ \| fis4 eis$ \| \acciaccatura eis8( dis-.) cis4. ~ cis \acciaccatura eis8( dis-.) \| cis2 } } \midi { \tempo 4 = 120 } } </score> }} {{left\|<score raw"1" sound"1" > \header { piece = "Andante ma con ritmo deciso (The blues)" tagline = "" } \score { \layout { } \new staff { \time 4/4 \key bes \major \relative c { \acciaccatura e!8 f1^\markup{ \italic "Trpt. (with felt crown)"} (~\stemDown f8_\markup { \italic "poco rubato" } g8 f8 bes,8 \acciaccatura c8 des8 c8\> bes8 g!8)\! \bar "\|" f1 } } \midi { \tempo 4 = 72 } } </score> }} {{left\|<score raw"1" sound"1" > \header { piece = "Allegro" tagline = "" } \score { \layout { } \new staff { \time 4/4 \key d \major \relative c { d8^>^\markup{ \italic "Allegro"}\mf fis,8 a8 d,8 fis8 a,8 b8 d8^> \bar "\|" r8 d8^> r8 d8^> ~d4. a'8 ( \bar "\|" d8)^> d8 a'8^> a,8 d8^> d,8 e8 a8^> ~ \bar "\|" a2 ~ a4. \stemUp b8 ( \bar "\|" \break d8) g,8 b8 d,8 g8 g,8 b8 d8 \bar "\|" e4 \trill ~ e8 d16 r16 r4 e4 \trill ~ \bar "\|" e8 d16 r16 r4 e4 \trill ~ e8. d16 \bar "\|" a'2 ~ a4. a8 ( \bar "\|" \break e'8) e,8 a8 a,8 e'8 e,8 a8 e'8^> \bar "\|" r8 e8^> r8 e8^> r8 d8^> r8 fis8^> ~ \bar "\|" fis1 } } \midi { \tempo 4 = 140 } } </score> }} \|postop\|alignleft\|caption=Themes of An American in Paris and melody fragment from La Sorella}} Gershwin based An American in Paris on a melodic fragment called "Very Parisienne", written in 1926 on his first visit to Paris as a gift to his hosts, Robert and Mabel Schirmer. Gershwin called it "a rhapsodic ballet"; it is written freely and in a much more modern idiom than his prior works. Gershwin explained in Musical America, "My purpose here is to portray the impressions of an American visitor in Paris as he strolls about the city, listens to the various street noises, and absorbs the French atmosphere." The piece is structured into five sections, which culminate in a loose A–B–A format. Gershwin's first A episode introduces the two main "walking" themes in the "Allegretto grazioso" and develops a third theme in the "Subito con brio". The style of this A section is written in the typical French style of composers Claude Debussy and Les Six. The B section's "Andante ma con ritmo deciso" introduces the American Blues and spasms of homesickness. The "Allegro" that follows continues to express homesickness in a faster twelve-bar blues. In the B section, Gershwin uses common time, syncopated rhythms, and bluesy melodies with the sounds of trumpet, saxophone, and snare drum. Critics believed that An American in Paris was better crafted than Gershwin's Concerto in F. Although most modern audiences have heard the taxi horns using the incorrect notes of A, B, C, and D, it had been Gershwin's intention to use the notes A<sub>4</sub>, B<sub>4</sub>, D<sub>5</sub>, and A<sub>3</sub>. It is likely that in labeling the taxi horns as A, B, C, and D with circles, he was referring to the four horns, and not the notes that they played. The correct tuning of the horns in sequence D horn low Ab, A horn Ab an octave higher, B horn Bb just above the Ab, and C horn high D above the Bb. A major revision of the work by composer and arranger F. Campbell-Watson simplified the instrumentation by reducing the saxophones to only three instruments: alto, tenor and baritone; the soprano and alto saxophone doublings were eliminated to avoid changing instruments. This became the standard performing edition until 2000, when Gershwin specialist Jack Gibbons made his own restoration of the original orchestration of An American in Paris, working directly from Gershwin's original manuscript, including the restoration of Gershwin's soprano saxophone parts removed in Campbell-Watson's revision. Gibbons' restored orchestration of An American in Paris was performed at London's Queen Elizabeth Hall on July 9, 2000, by the City of Oxford Orchestra conducted by Levon Parikian.Preservation statusOn September 22, 2013, it was announced that a musicological critical edition of the full orchestral score would be eventually released. The Gershwin family, working in conjunction with the Library of Congress and the University of Michigan, were working to make scores available to the public that represent Gershwin's true intent. It was unknown whether the critical score would include the four minutes of material Gershwin later deleted from the work (such as the restatement of the blues theme after the faster 12 bar blues section), or if the score would document changes in the orchestration during Gershwin's composition process. The score to An American in Paris was scheduled to be issued first in a series of scores to be released. The entire project was expected to take 30 to 40 years to complete, but An American in Paris was planned to be an early volume in the series. Two urtext editions of the work were published by the German publisher B-Note Music in 2015. The changes made by Campbell-Watson were withdrawn in both editions. In the extended urtext, 120 bars of music were re-integrated. Conductor Walter Damrosch had cut them shortly before the first performance. On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This performance was of the original 1928 orchestration. Recordings An American in Paris has been frequently recorded. The first recording was made for the Victor Talking Machine Company in 1929 with Nathaniel Shilkret conducting the Victor Symphony Orchestra, drawn from members of the Philadelphia Orchestra. Gershwin was on hand to "supervise" the recording; however, Shilkret was reported to be in charge and eventually asked the composer to leave the recording studio. Then, a little later, Shilkret discovered there was no one to play the brief celesta solo during the slow section, so he hastily asked Gershwin if he might play the solo; Gershwin said he could and so he briefly participated in the actual recording. This recording is believed to use the taxi horns in the way that Gershwin had intended using the notes A-flat, B-flat, a higher D, and a lower A. Arthur Fiedler and the Boston Pops Orchestra recorded the work for RCA Victor, including one of the first stereo recordings of the music. In 1945, Arturo Toscanini conducting the NBC Symphony Orchestra recorded the piece for RCA Victor, one of the few commercial recordings Toscanini made of music by an American composer. The Seattle Symphony also recorded a version in 1990 of Gershwin's original score, before numerous edits were made resulting in the score as we hear it today. The blues section of An American in Paris has been recorded separately by a number of artists; Ralph Flanagan & His Orchestra released it as a single in 1951 which reached No. 15 on the Billboard chart. Harry James released a version of the blues section on his 1953 album One Night Stand, recorded live at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago (Columbia GL 522 and CL 522). Use in film In 1951, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released the musical film An American in Paris, featuring Gene Kelly and Leslie Caron and directed by Vincente Minnelli. Winning the 1951 Best Picture Oscar and numerous other awards, the film featured many tunes of Gershwin and concluded with an extensive, elaborate dance sequence built around the symphonic poem An American in Paris (arranged for the film by Johnny Green), which at the time was the most expensive musical number ever filmed, costing $500,000 .Notes and references Further reading * External links * * [https://archives.nyphil.org/index.php/search?search-typesingleFilter&search-textan+american+in+paris&doctype=printedMusic Scores], marked by Leonard Bernstein, Andre Kostelanetz, Erich Leinsdorf; New York Philharmonic archives * [https://archive.org/details/AnAmericanInParis 1944 recording] by the New York Philharmonic conducted by Artur Rodziński * , New York Philharmonic, Leonard Bernstein, 1959. [https://conifer.rhizome.org/Germinal/wikipedia/20180529043352/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zi0ENw-JlUI archive] Category:1928 compositions Category:Compositions by George Gershwin Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Category:Music about Paris Category:Music commissioned by the New York Philharmonic Category:Symphonic poems Category:Compositions for symphony orchestra Category:Concert band pieces	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_American_in_Paris	2025-04-05T18:25:15.896555
316	Academy Award for Best Production Design	(for films released during the 1927/1928 film season) \| holder_label = Most recent winner \| holder = Nathan Crowley, Lee Sandales<br>Wicked (2024) }} The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Directors' branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designers' branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorators. It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order. Superlatives {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! width="150" \| Category ! width="150" \| Name ! width="150" \| Superlative ! width="350" \| Notes \|- \| Most Awards \| rowspan="2" \| Cedric Gibbons \| 11 awards \| Awards resulted from 39 nominations. \|- \| Most Nominations \| 39 nominations \| Nominations resulted in 11 awards. \|- \| Most Nominations <br/> (without ever winning) \| Roland Anderson \| 15 nominations \| Nominations resulted in no awards. \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Bridge of San Luis Rey \| Cedric Gibbons \|- \| Alibi \| rowspan="2" \| William Cameron Menzies \|- \| The Awakening \|- \| Dynamite \| Mitchell Leisen \|- \| The Patriot \| Hans Dreier \|- \| Street Angel \| Harry Oliver \|} 1930s {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%" \|- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" \| Year ! width="45%" \| Film ! width="50%" \| Art director(s) \|- style="background:#FAEB86" ! rowspan="5" \|1929/30<br /> \| King of Jazz \| Herman Rosse \|- \| Bulldog Drummond \| William Cameron Menzies \|- \| The Love Parade \| Hans Dreier \|- \| Sally \| Jack Okey \|- \| The Vagabond King \| Hans Dreier \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 1930/31<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Cimarron \| Max Rée \|- \| Just Imagine \| Stephen Goosson and Ralph Hammeras \|- \| Morocco \| Hans Dreier \|- \| Svengali \| Anton Grot \|- \| Whoopee! \| Richard Day \|- ! rowspan"4" style"text-align:center" \| 1931/32<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Transatlantic \| Gordon Wiles \|- \| Arrowsmith \| Richard Day \|- \| À Nous la Liberté \| Lazare Meerson \|- ! rowspan"4" style"text-align:center" \| 1932/33<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Cavalcade \| William S. Darling \|- \| A Farewell to Arms \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \|- \| When Ladies Meet \| Cedric Gibbons \|- ! rowspan"4" style"text-align:center" \| 1934<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Merry Widow \| Cedric Gibbons and Fredric Hope \|- \| The Affairs of Cellini \| Richard Day \|- \| The Gay Divorcee \| Van Nest Polglase and Carroll Clark \|- ! rowspan"4" style"text-align:center" \| 1935<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Dark Angel \| Richard Day \|- \| The Lives of a Bengal Lancer \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \|- \| Top Hat \| Carroll Clark and Van Nest Polglase \|- ! rowspan"8" style"text-align:center" \| 1936<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Dodsworth \| Richard Day \|- \| Anthony Adverse \| Anton Grot \|- \| The Great Ziegfeld \| Cedric Gibbons, Eddie Imazu and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| ''Lloyd's of London \| William S. Darling \|- \| The Magnificent Brute'' \| Albert S. D'Agostino and Jack Otterson \|- \| Romeo and Juliet \| Cedric Gibbons, Fredric Hope and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| Winterset \| Perry Ferguson \|- ! rowspan"13" style"text-align:center" \| 1937<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Lost Horizon \| Stephen Goosson \|- \| Conquest \| Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning \|- \| A Damsel in Distress \| Carroll Clark \|- \| Dead End \| Richard Day \|- \| ''Every Day's a Holiday \| Wiard Ihnen \|- \| The Life of Emile Zola \| Anton Grot \|- \| Manhattan Merry-Go-Round \| John Victor Mackay \|- \| The Prisoner of Zenda \| Lyle R. Wheeler \|- \| Souls at Sea \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \|- \| Walter Wanger's Vogues of 1938 \| Alexander Toluboff \|- \| Wee Willie Winkie \| William S. Darling and David S. Hall \|- \| You're a Sweetheart \| Jack Otterson \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1938<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Adventures of Robin Hood \| Carl Jules Weyl \|- \| The Adventures of Tom Sawyer \| Lyle R. Wheeler \|- \| Alexander's Ragtime Band \| Bernard Herzbrun and Boris Leven \|- \| Algiers \| Alexander Toluboff \|- \| Carefree \| Van Nest Polglase \|- \| The Goldwyn Follies \| Richard Day \|- \| Holiday \| Stephen Goosson and Lionel Banks \|- \| If I Were King \| Hans Dreier and John B. Goodman \|- \| Mad About Music \| Jack Otterson \|- \| Marie Antoinette \| Cedric Gibbons \|- \| Merrily We Live \| Charles D. Hall \|- ! rowspan"13" style"text-align:center" \| 1939<br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Gone with the Wind \| Lyle R. Wheeler \|- \| Beau Geste \| Hans Dreier and Robert Odell \|- \| Captain Fury \| Charles D. Hall \|- \| First Love \| Jack Otterson and Martin Obzina \|- \| Love Affair \| Van Nest Polglase and Alfred Herman \|- \| Man of Conquest \| John Victor Mackay \|- \| Mr. Smith Goes to Washington \| Lionel Banks \|- \| The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex \| Anton Grot \|- \| The Rains Came \| William S. Darling and George Dudley \|- \| Stagecoach \| Alexander Toluboff \|- \| The Wizard of Oz \| Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning \|- \| Wuthering Heights \| James Basevi \|} 1940s {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%" \|- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" \| Year ! width="31%" \| Film ! width="32%" \| Art director(s) ! width="32%" \| Interior decorator(s) \|- ! rowspan"19" style"text-align:center" \| 1940<br /> <br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Pride and Prejudice \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| — \|- \| Arise, My Love \| Hans Dreier and Robert Usher \| rowspan="12" \| — \|- \| Arizona \| Lionel Banks and Robert Peterson \|- \| The Boys from Syracuse \| Jack Otterson \|- \| Dark Command \| John Victor Mackay \|- \| Foreign Correspondent \| Alexander Golitzen \|- \| Lillian Russell \| Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright \|- \| My Favorite Wife \| Van Nest Polglase and Mark-Lee Kirk \|- \| My Son, My Son! \| John DuCasse Schulze \|- \| Our Town \| Lewis J. Rachmil \|- \| Rebecca \| Lyle R. Wheeler \|- \| The Sea Hawk \| Anton Grot \|- \| The Westerner \| James Basevi \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Thief of Bagdad \| Vincent Korda \| — \|- \| Bitter Sweet \| Cedric Gibbons and John S. Detlie \| rowspan="3" \| — \|- \| Down Argentine Way \| Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright \|- \| North West Mounted Police \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \|- ! rowspan"16" style"text-align:center" \| 1941<br /> <br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| How Green Was My Valley \| Richard Day and Nathan Juran \| Thomas Little \|- \| Citizen Kane \| Perry Ferguson and Van Nest Polglase \| A. Roland Fields and Darrell Silvera \|- \| The Flame of New Orleans \| Martin Obzina and Jack Otterson \| Russell A. Gausman \|- \| Hold Back the Dawn \| Hans Dreier and Robert Usher \| Samuel M. Comer \|- \| Ladies in Retirement \| Lionel Banks \| George Montgomery \|- \| The Little Foxes \| Stephen Goosson \| Howard Bristol \|- \| Sergeant York \| John Hughes \| Fred M. MacLean \|- \| The Son of Monte Cristo \| John DuCasse Schulze \| Edward G. Boyle \|- \| Sundown \| Alexander Golitzen \| Richard Irvine \|- \| That Hamilton Woman \| Vincent Korda \| Julia Heron \|- \| When Ladies Meet \| Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell \| Edwin B. Willis \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Blossoms in the Dust \| Cedric Gibbons and Urie McCleary \| Edwin B. Willis \|- \| Blood and Sand \| Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright \| Thomas Little \|- \| Louisiana Purchase \| Raoul Pene Du Bois \| Stephen Seymour \|- ! rowspan"17" style"text-align:center" \| 1942<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| This Above All \| Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright \| Thomas Little \|- \| George Washington Slept Here \| Max Parker and Mark-Lee Kirk \| Casey Roberts \|- \| The Magnificent Ambersons'' \| Albert S. D'Agostino \| A. Roland Fields and Darrell Silvera \|- \| The Pride of the Yankees \| Perry Ferguson \| Howard Bristol \|- \| Random Harvest \| Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell \| Edwin B. Willis and Jack Moore \|- \| The Shanghai Gesture \| colspan=2\|Boris Leven \|- \| Silver Queen \| Ralph Berger \| Emile Kuri \|- \| The Spoilers \| John B. Goodman and Jack Otterson \| Russell A. Gausman and Edward Ray Robinson \|- \| Take a Letter, Darling \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \| Samuel M. Comer \|- \| The Talk of the Town \| Lionel Banks and Rudolph Sternad \| Fay Babcock \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| My Gal Sal \| Richard Day and Joseph C. Wright \| Thomas Little \|- \| Arabian Nights \| Alexander Golitzen and Jack Otterson \| Russell A. Gausman and Ira S. Webb \|- \| Captains of the Clouds \| Ted Smith \| Casey Roberts \|- \| Jungle Book \| Vincent Korda \| Julia Heron \|- \| Reap the Wild Wind \| Hans Dreier and Roland Anderson \| George Sawley \|- ! rowspan"13" style"text-align:center" \| 1943<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Song of Bernadette \| James Basevi and William S. Darling \| Thomas Little \|- \| Five Graves to Cairo \| Hans Dreier and Ernst Fegté \| Bertram C. Granger \|- \| Flight for Freedom \| Albert S. D'Agostino and Carroll Clark \| Darrell Silvera and Harley Miller \|- \| Madame Curie \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt \|- \| Mission to Moscow \| Carl Jules Weyl \| George James Hopkins \|- \| The North Star \| Perry Ferguson \| Howard Bristol \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Phantom of the Opera \| Alexander Golitzen and John B. Goodman \| Russell A. Gausman and Ira S. Webb \|- \| For Whom the Bell Tolls \| Hans Dreier and Haldane Douglas \| Bertram C. Granger \|- \| ''The Gang's All Here \| James Basevi and Joseph C. Wright \| Thomas Little \|- \| This Is the Army \| John Hughes \| George James Hopkins \|- \| Thousands Cheer \| Cedric Gibbons and Daniel Cathcart \| Edwin B. Willis and Jacques Mersereau \|- ! rowspan"17" style"text-align:center" \| 1944<br /> <br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Heiress \| Harry Horner and John Meehan \| Emile Kuri \|- \| Come to the Stable \| Lyle R. Wheeler and Joseph C. Wright \| Thomas Little and Paul S. Fox \|- \| Madame Bovary \| Cedric Gibbons and Jack Martin Smith \| Edwin B. Willis and Richard A. Pefferle \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Little Women \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Edwin B. Willis and Jack D. Moore \|- \| Adventures of Don Juan \| Edward Carrere \| Lyle Reifsnider \|- \| Saraband \| Jim Morahan and William Kellner \| Michael Relph \|} 1950s {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%" \|- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" \| Year ! width="31%" \| Film ! width="32%" \| Art director(s) ! width="32%" \| Set decorator(s) \|- ! rowspan"8" style"text-align:center" \| 1950<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Sunset Boulevard \| Hans Dreier and John Meehan \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- \| All About Eve \| George W. Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Thomas Little and Walter M. Scott \|- \| The Red Danube \| Cedric Gibbons and Hans Peters \| Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Samson and Delilah \| Hans Dreier and Walter H. Tyler \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- \| Annie Get Your Gun \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Edwin B. Willis and Richard A. Pefferle \|- \| Destination Moon \| Ernst Fegté \| George Sawley \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1951<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| A Streetcar Named Desire \| Richard Day \| George James Hopkins \|- \| Fourteen Hours \| Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Thomas Little and Fred J. Rode \|- \| The House on Telegraph Hill \| John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little \|- \| La Ronde'' \| D'Eaubonne \| — \|- \| Too Young to Kiss \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Edwin B. Willis and Jack D. Moore \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| An American in Paris \| E. Preston Ames and Cedric Gibbons \| Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason \|- \| David and Bathsheba \| George Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little \|- \| On the Riviera \| Leland Fuller, Lyle R. Wheeler and Joseph C. Wright <small>(musical settings)</small> \| Thomas Little and Walter M. Scott \|- \| Quo Vadis \| Edward Carfagno, Cedric Gibbons and William A. Horning \| Hugh Hunt \|- \| The Tales of Hoffmann \| Hein Heckroth \| — \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1952<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Bad and the Beautiful \| Edward Carfagno and Cedric Gibbons \| F. Keogh Gleason and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| Carrie \| Roland Anderson and Hal Pereira \| Emile Kuri \|- \| My Cousin Rachel \| John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Walter M. Scott \|- \| Rashomon \| So Matsuyama \| H. Motsumoto \|- \| Viva Zapata! \| Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Claude E. Carpenter and Thomas Little \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Moulin Rouge \| Paul Sheriff \| Marcel Vertès \|- \| Hans Christian Andersen \| Clavé and Richard Day \| Howard Bristol \|- \| The Merry Widow \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Arthur Krams and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| The Quiet Man \| Frank Hotaling \| John McCarthy Jr. and Charles S. Thompson \|- \| The Snows of Kilimanjaro \| John DeCuir and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Paul S. Fox and Thomas Little \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1953<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Julius Caesar \| Edward Carfagno and Cedric Gibbons \| Hugh Hunt and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| Martin Luther \| Paul Markwitz and Fritz Maurischat \| — \|- \| ''The President's Lady \| Leland Fuller and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Paul S. Fox \|- \| Roman Holiday \| Hal Pereira and Walter H. Tyler \| — \|- \| Titanic \| Maurice Ransford and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Stuart Reiss \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Robe \| George Davis and Lyle R. Wheeler \| Paul S. Fox and Walter M. Scott \|- \| Knights of the Round Table \| Alfred Junge and Hans Peters \| John Jarvis \|- \| Lili \| Cedric Gibbons and Paul Groesse \| Arthur Krams and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| The Story of Three Loves \| E. Preston Ames, Edward Carfagno, Cedric Gibbons and Gabriel Scognamillo \| F. Keogh Gleason, Arthur Krams, Jack D. Moore and Edwin B. Willis \|- \| Young Bess \| Cedric Gibbons and Urie McCleary \| Jack D. Moore and Edwin B. Willis \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1954<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| On the Waterfront \| Richard Day \| — \|- \| The Country Girl \| Roland Anderson and Hal Pereira \| Samuel M. Comer and Grace Gregory \|- \| Executive Suite \| Cedric Gibbons and Edward Carfagno \| Edwin B. Willis and Emile Kuri \|- \| Le Plaisir \| Max Ophüls \| — \|- \| Sabrina \| Hal Pereira and Walter H. Tyler \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea \| John Meehan \| Emile Kuri \|- \| Brigadoon \| Cedric Gibbons and E. Preston Ames \| Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason \|- \| Desiree \| Lyle R. Wheeler and Leland Fuller \| Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox \|- \| Red Garters \| Hal Pereira and Roland Anderson \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- \| A Star Is Born \| Malcolm Bert and Gene Allen \| Irene Sharaff and George James Hopkins \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1955<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Rose Tattoo \| Hal Pereira and Tambi Larsen \| Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams \|- \| Blackboard Jungle \| Cedric Gibbons and Randall Duell \| Edwin B. Willis and Henry Grace \|- \| I'll Cry Tomorrow \| Cedric Gibbons and Malcolm Brown \| Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt \|- \| The Man with the Golden Arm \| Joseph C. Wright \| Darrell Silvera \|- \| Marty \| Edward S. Haworth and Walter M. Simonds \| Robert Priestley \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Picnic \| William Flannery and Jo Mielziner \| Robert Priestley \|- \| Daddy Long Legs \| Lyle R. Wheeler and John DeCuir \| Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox \|- \| Guys and Dolls \| Oliver Smith and Joseph C. Wright \| Howard Bristol \|- \| Love Is a Many-Splendored Thing \| Lyle R. Wheeler and George Davis \| Walter M. Scott and Jack Stubbs \|- \| To Catch a Thief \| Hal Pereira and Joseph McMillan Johnson \| Samuel M. Comer and Arthur Krams \|- ! rowspan"12" style"text-align:center" \| 1956<br /> \| colspan"3" style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Black-and-White \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Somebody Up There Likes Me \| Cedric Gibbons and Malcolm Brown \| Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason \|- \| Seven Samurai \| So Matsuyama \| — \|- \| The Proud and Profane \| Hal Pereira and A. Earl Hedrick \| Samuel M. Comer and Frank R. McKelvy \|- \| The Solid Gold Cadillac \| Ross Bellah \| William Kiernan and Louis Diage \|- \| Teenage Rebel \| Lyle R. Wheeler and Jack Martin Smith \| Walter M. Scott and Stuart A. Reiss \|- \| colspan3 style"text-align:center; background:#EBECF0" \| Color \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The King and I \| Lyle R. Wheeler and John DeCuir \| Walter M. Scott and Paul S. Fox \|- \| Around the World in 80 Days \| James W. Sullivan and Ken Adam \| Ross J. Dowd \|- \| Giant \| Boris Leven \| Ralph S. Hurst \|- \| Lust for Life \| Cedric Gibbons and Hans Peters and E. Preston Ames \| Edwin B. Willis and F. Keogh Gleason \|- \| The Ten Commandments \| Walter H. Tyler and Albert Nozaki \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 1957<br /> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Sayonara \| Ted Haworth \| Robert Priestley \|- \| Funny Face \| Hal Pereira and George Davis \| Samuel M. Comer and Ray Moyer \|- \| Les Girls \| William A. Horning and Gene Allen \| Edwin B. Willis and Richard Pefferle \|- \| Pal Joey \| Walter Holscher \| William Kiernan and Louis Diage \|- \| Raintree County \| William A. Horning and Urie McCleary \| Edwin B. Willis and Hugh Hunt \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 1958<br /> <br /> \| Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon \| Timmy Yip \| — \|- \| Gladiator \| Arthur Max \| Crispian Sallis \|- \| How the Grinch Stole Christmas \| Michael Corenblith \| Merideth Boswell \|- \| Quills \| Martin Childs \| Jill Quertier \|- \| Vatel \| Jean Rabasse \| Françoise Benoît-Fresco \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2001<br /><small>(74th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Moulin Rouge! \| Catherine Martin \| Brigitte Broch \|- \| Amélie \| Aline Bonetto \| Marie-Laure Valla \|- \| Gosford Park \| Stephen Altman \| Anna Pinnock \|- \| ''Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone \| Stuart Craig \| Stephenie McMillan \|- \| The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring \| Grant Major \| Dan Hennah \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2002<br /><small>(75th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Chicago \| John Myhre \| Gordon Sim \|- \| Frida \| Felipe Fernández del Paso \| Hania Robledo \|- \| Gangs of New York \| Dante Ferretti \| Francesca Lo Schiavo \|- \| The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers \| Grant Major \| Dan Hennah and Alan Lee \|- \| Road to Perdition \| Dennis Gassner \| Nancy Haigh \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2003<br /><small>(76th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King \| Grant Major \| Dan Hennah and Alan Lee \|- \| Girl with a Pearl Earring \| Ben Van Os \| Cecile Heideman \|- \| The Last Samurai \| Lilly Kilvert \| Gretchen Rau \|- \| Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World \| William Sandell \| Robert Gould \|- \| Seabiscuit \| Jeannine Oppewall \| Leslie Pope \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2004<br /><small>(77th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Aviator \| Dante Ferretti \| Francesca Lo Schiavo \|- \| Finding Neverland \| Gemma Jackson \| Trisha Edwards \|- \| Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events \| Rick Heinrichs \| Cheryl Carasik \|- \| The Phantom of the Opera \| Anthony Pratt \| Celia Bobak \|- \| A Very Long Engagement \| Aline Bonetto \| — \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2005<br /><small>(78th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Memoirs of a Geisha \| John Myhre \| Gretchen Rau \|- \| Good Night, and Good Luck \| Jim Bissell \| Jan Pascale \|- \| Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire \| Stuart Craig \| Stephenie McMillan \|- \| King Kong \| Grant Major \| Dan Hennah and Simon Bright \|- \| Pride & Prejudice \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2006<br /><small>(79th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| '''Pan's Labyrinth \| Eugenio Caballero \| Pilar Revuelta' \|- \| Dreamgirls \| John Myhre \| Nancy Haigh \|- \| The Good Shepherd \| Jeannine Claudia Oppewall \| Gretchen Rau and Leslie E. Rollins \|- \| ''Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest \| Rick Heinrichs \| Cheryl Carasik \|- \| The Prestige \| Nathan Crowley \| Julie Ochipinti \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2007<br /><small>(80th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street \| Dante Ferretti \| Francesca Lo Schiavo \|- \| American Gangster \| Arthur Max \| Beth A. Rubino \|- \| Atonement \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| The Golden Compass \| Dennis Gassner \| Anna Pinnock \|- \| There Will Be Blood \| Jack Fisk \| Jim Erickson \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2008<br /><small>(81st)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Curious Case of Benjamin Button \| Donald Graham Burt \| Victor J. Zolfo \|- \| Changeling \| James J. Murakami \| Gary Fettis \|- \| The Dark Knight \| Nathan Crowley \| Peter Lando \|- \| The Duchess \| Michael Carlin \| Rebecca Alleway \|- \| Revolutionary Road \| Kristi Zea \| Debra Schutt \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2009<br /><small>(82nd)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Avatar \| Rick Carter and Robert Stromberg \| Kim Sinclair \|- \| The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus \| Dave Warren and Anastasia Masaro \| Caroline Smith \|- \| Nine \| John Myhre \| Gordon Sim \|- \| Sherlock Holmes \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| The Young Victoria \| Patrice Vermette \| Maggie Gray \|} 2010s {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%" \|- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" \| Year ! width="31%" \| Film ! width="32%" \| Production designer(s) ! width="32%" \| Set decorator(s) \|- style="background:#FAEB86" ! rowspan"5" \|2010<br /><small>(83rd)</small> <br /> \| Alice in Wonderland \| Robert Stromberg \| 'Karen O'Hara' \|- \| Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 \| Stuart Craig \| Stephenie McMillan \|- \| Inception \| Guy Hendrix Dyas \| Larry Dias and Doug Mowat \|- \| The King's Speech \| Eve Stewart \| Judy Farr \|- \| True Grit \| Jess Gonchor \| Nancy Haigh \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2011<br /><small>(84th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Hugo \| Dante Ferretti \| Francesca Lo Schiavo \|- \| The Artist \| Laurence Bennett \| Robert Gould \|- \| Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 \| Stuart Craig \| Stephenie McMillan \|- \| Midnight in Paris \| Anne Seibel \| Hélène Dubreuil \|- \| War Horse \| Rick Carter \| Lee Sandales \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2012<br /><small>(85th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Lincoln \| Rick Carter \| Jim Erickson \|- \| Anna Karenina \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey \| Dan Hennah \| Ra Vincent and Simon Bright \|- \| Les Misérables \| Eve Stewart \| Anna Lynch-Robinson \|- \| Life of Pi \| David Gropman \| Anna Pinnock \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2013<br /><small>(86th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Great Gatsby \| Catherine Martin \| Beverley Dunn \|- \| American Hustle \| Judy Becker \| Heather Loeffler \|- \| Gravity \| Andy Nicholson \| Rosie Goodwin and Joanne Woollard \|- \| Her \| K. K. Barrett \| Gene Serdena \|- \| 12 Years a Slave \| Adam Stockhausen \| Alice Baker \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2014<br /><small>(87th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Grand Budapest Hotel \| Adam Stockhausen \| Anna Pinnock \|- \| The Imitation Game \| Maria Djurkovic \| Tatiana Macdonald \|- \| Interstellar \| Nathan Crowley \| Gary Fettis \|- \| Into the Woods \| Dennis Gassner \| Anna Pinnock \|- \| Mr. Turner \| Suzie Davies \| Charlotte Watts \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2015<br /><small>(88th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Mad Max: Fury Road \| Colin Gibson \| Lisa Thompson \|- \| Bridge of Spies \| Adam Stockhausen \| Rena DeAngelo and Bernhard Henrich \|- \| The Danish Girl \| Eve Stewart \| Michael Standish \|- \| The Martian \| Arthur Max \| Celia Bobak \|- \| The Revenant \| Jack Fisk \| Hamish Purdy \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2016<br /><small>(89th)</small> <br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| La La Land \| David Wasco \| Sandy Reynolds-Wasco \|- \| Arrival \| Patrice Vermette \| Paul Hotte \|- \| Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them \| Stuart Craig \| Anna Pinnock \|- \| Hail, Caesar! \| Jess Gonchor \| Nancy Haigh \|- \| Passengers \| Guy Hendrix Dyas \| Gene Serdena \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2017<br /><small>(90th)</small><br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| The Shape of Water \| Paul Denham Austerberry \| Shane Vieau and Jeff Melvin \|- \| Beauty and the Beast \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| Blade Runner 2049 \| Dennis Gassner \| Alessandra Querzola \|- \| Darkest Hour \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| Dunkirk \| Nathan Crowley \| Gary Fettis \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2018<br /><small>(91st)</small><br /> \|- style="background:#FAEB86" \| Black Panther \| Hannah Beachler \| Jay Hart \|- \| The Favourite \| Fiona Crombie \| Alice Felton \|- \| First Man \| Nathan Crowley \| Kathy Lucas \|- \| Mary Poppins Returns \| John Myhre \| Gordon Sim \|- \| Roma \| Eugenio Caballero \| Bárbara Enrı́quez \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2019<br /><small>(92nd)</small><br /> \| Mank \| Donald Graham Burt \| Jan Pascale \|- \| The Father \| Peter Francis \| Cathy Featherstone \|- \| Ma Rainey's Black Bottom'' \| Mark Ricker \| Karen O'Hara and Diana Stoughton \|- \| News of the World \| David Crank \| Elizabeth Keenan \|- \| Tenet \| Nathan Crowley \| Kathy Lucas \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2021<br /><small>(94th)</small> <br /> \|-style="background:#FAEB86" \| Dune \| Patrice Vermette \| Zsuzsanna Sipos \|- \| Nightmare Alley \| Tamara Deverell \| Shane Vieau \|- \| The Power of the Dog \| Grant Major \| Amber Richards \|- \| The Tragedy of Macbeth \| Stefan Dechant \| Nancy Haigh \|- \| West Side Story \| Adam Stockhausen \| Rena DeAngelo \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2022<br /><small>(95th)</small> <br /> \|-style="background:#FAEB86" \| All Quiet on the Western Front \| Christian M. Goldbeck \| Ernestine Hipper \|- \| Avatar: The Way of Water \| Dylan Cole and Ben Procter \| Vanessa Cole \|- \| Babylon \| Florencia Martin \| Anthony Carlino \|- \| Elvis \| Catherine Martin and Karen Murphy \| Bev Dunn \|- \| The Fabelmans \| Rick Carter \| Karen O'Hara \|- ! rowspan"6" style"text-align:center" \| 2023<br /><small>(96th)</small> <br /> \|-style="background:#FAEB86" \| Poor Things \| James Price and Shona Heath \| Zsuzsa Mihalek \|- \| Barbie \| Sarah Greenwood \| Katie Spencer \|- \| Killers of the Flower Moon \| Jack Fisk \| Adam Willis \|- \| Napoleon \| Arthur Max \| Elli Griff \|- \| Oppenheimer \| Ruth De Jong \| Claire Kaufman \|- ! rowspan"7" style"text-align:center" \| 2024<br /><small>(97th)</small> <br /> \|-style="background:#FAEB86" \| Wicked \| Nathan Crowley \| Lee Sandales \|- \| The Brutalist \| Judy Becker \| Patricia Cuccia \|- \| Conclave \| Suzie Davies \| Cynthia Sleiter \|- \| Dune: Part Two \| Patrice Vermette \| Shane Vieau \|- \| Nosferatu \| Craig Lathrop \| Beatrice Brentnerová \|} Notes Shortlisted finalistsFinalists for Best Production Design were selected by branch members, who voted for ten finalists which were screened to determine the five nominees. {\| class"wikitable" style"width:100%" \|- bgcolor="#bebebe" ! width="5%" \| Year ! width="95%" \| Finalists !Ref \|- ! 1967 \| Barefoot in the Park, Bonnie and Clyde, The Flim-Flam Man, The Happiest Millionaire, In Like Flint \| \|- ! 1968 \| Funny Girl, The Killing of Sister George, Never a Dull Moment, The Odd Couple, Planet of the Apes \| \|- ! 1969 \| The April Fools, Marooned, The Secret of Santa Vittoria, Topaz, What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice? \| \|- ! 1970 \| Cromwell, Darling Lili, Fellini Satyricon, The Great White Hope, MASH \| \|- ! 1971 \| Carnal Knowledge, A Clockwork Orange, The French Connection, The Mephisto Waltz, Who Is Harry Kellerman and Why Is He Saying Those Terrible Things About Me? \| \|- ! 1972 \| Butterflies Are Free, The Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean, Slaughterhouse-Five, Snowball Express, The War Between Men and Women \| \|- ! 1973 \| 40 Carats, Jesus Christ Superstar, Lost Horizon, Papillon, ''The World's Greatest Athlete \| \|- ! 1974 \| The Dion Brothers, The Front Page, The Great Gatsby, Mame, Young Frankenstein \| \|- ! 1975 \| At Long Last Love, Escape to Witch Mountain, Jaws, Sheila Levine Is Dead and Living in New York, Tommy \| \|- ! 1976 \| Freaky Friday, From Noon till Three, Harry and Walter Go to New York, King Kong, A Star Is Born \| \|- ! 1977 \| Looking for Mr. Goodbar, New York, New York, 1900, Pete's Dragon, Sorcerer \| \|- ! 1978 \| The Boys from Brazil, Foul Play, Gray Lady Down, Grease, House Calls'' \| \|- ! 1979 \| The Black Hole, Manhattan, Moonraker, 10, Winter Kills \|<ref name="Champlin" /> \|} Individuals with multiple wins ;11 wins Cedric Gibbons ;8 wins * Edwin B. Willis ;7 wins * Richard Day ;6 wins * Thomas Little * Walter M. Scott ;5 wins * Lyle R. Wheeler ;4 wins * John Box * Samuel M. Comer * F. Keogh Gleason * George James Hopkins ;3 wins * Edward Carfagno * Stuart Craig * William S. Darling * John DeCuir * Vernon Dixon * Hans Dreier * Dante Ferretti * Paul S. Fox * Alexander Golitzen * Paul Groesse * John Meehan * Ray Moyer * Francesca Lo Schiavo * Jack Martin Smith ;2 wins * Ken Adam * E. Preston Ames * Herman A. Blumenthal * Henry Bumstead * Donald Graham Burt * Gene Callahan * Rick Carter * George Davis * Leslie Dilley * Michael D. Ford * George Gaines * Russell A. Gausman * Nancy Haigh * Harry Horner * William A. Horning * Hugh Hunt * Wiard Ihnen * Emile Kuri * Terence Marsh * Catherine Martin * William Cameron Menzies * Urie McCleary * John Myhre * Gil Parrondo * Robert Priestley * Stuart A. Reiss * Norman Reynolds * Dario Simoni * Robert Stromberg * Richard Sylbert * Joseph C. Wright * Peter Young See also * BAFTA Award for Best Production Design * Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Production Design * ADG Excellence in Production Design Awards * List of Academy Award–nominated films References Best Production Design * Category:Awards for best art direction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Production_Design	2025-04-05T18:25:16.124888
324	Academy Awards	Oscar}} \| pending_awards \| pending_date \| next_awards \| next_date \| image = Oscars logo.svg \| image_size = 230px \| image2 \| alt \| caption = The Oscars logo \| caption2 \| awarded_for Excellence in the film industry \| presenter = Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences \| country = United States \| firstawarded = \| network \| website }} The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are awards for artistic and technical merit in film. They are presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) in the United States in recognition of excellence in cinematic achievements as assessed by the Academy's voting membership. The Oscars are widely considered to be the most prestigious awards in the film industry. The major award categories, known as the Academy Awards of Merit, are presented during a live-televised Hollywood ceremony in February or March. It is the oldest worldwide entertainment awards ceremony. The second ceremony, in 1930, was the first one broadcast by radio. The 1953 ceremony was the first one televised. The Oscar statuette depicts a knight, rendered in the Art Deco style. History The first Academy Awards presentation was held on May 16, 1929, at a private dinner function at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, with an audience of about 270 people. The post-awards party was held at the Mayfair Hotel. For the second ceremony in 1930, and the rest of the first decade, the results were given to newspapers for publication at 11:00pm on the night of the awards. Best Foreign Language Film, now known as Best International Feature Film, was introduced at the 20th Academy Awards as a special award, and became a competitive category at the 29th Academy Awards. The 74th Academy Awards, held in 2002, presented the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Since 1973, all Academy Awards ceremonies, except for 2021, have ended with the Academy Award for Best Picture. Traditionally, the previous year's winners for Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor present the awards for Best Actress and Best Supporting Actress, respectively, and vice versa. In 2009, this model was replaced by each acting award being introduced by five previous winners, each of whom introduces one of the nominated performances, referred to as the "Fab 5" presenters format. The Fab 5 model returned in 2024 after a 15-year hiatus. On February 9, 2020, Parasite became the first foreign-language film to win Best Picture at the 92nd Academy Awards. The 93rd Academy Awards ceremony, honoring the best films of 2020 and early 2021, was held on April 25, 2021, after it was postponed from its original February 28, 2021, schedule due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema. As with the two previous ceremonies, there was no host. The ceremony was broadcast on ABC. It took place at the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles, California for the 19th consecutive year, with satellite locations at Union Station also in Los Angeles. Because of the virus impact on films and TV industries, Academy president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson announced that for the 2021 Oscar Ceremony, streaming films with a previously planned theatrical release were eligible. The theatrical requirement was reinstated starting with the 95th Academy Awards. Oscar statuette Overview The Oscar statuette, officially the Academy Award of Merit, is given to winners of each year's awards. Made of gold-plated bronze on a black metal base, it is tall, weighs and depicts a knight rendered in Art Deco style holding a sword standing on a reel of film with five spokes. The five spokes represent the original branches of the Academy: Actors, Writers, Directors, Producers, and Technicians. ]] Sculptor George Stanley, who also did the Muse Fountain at the Hollywood Bowl, sculpted Cedric Gibbons' design. The statuettes presented at the initial ceremonies were gold-plated solid bronze. Within a few years, the bronze was abandoned in favor of Britannia metal, a pewter-like alloy that is then plated in copper, nickel silver, and finally, 24-karat gold. The only addition to the Oscar since it was created is a minor streamlining of the base. The original Oscar mold was cast in 1928 at the C.W. Shumway & Sons Foundry in Batavia, Illinois, which also contributed to casting the molds for the Vince Lombardi Trophy and Emmy Award statuettes. During the 1970s, the Oscar statues were cast in Crystal Lake, Illinois. From 1983 to 2015, approximately 50 Oscars in a tin alloy with gold plating were made each year in Chicago by Illinois manufacturer R.S. Owens & Company. It would take between three and four weeks to manufacture 50 statuettes. 's Academy Award statuette for Flow (2024) on display at the Latvian National Museum of Art in 2025]] In 2016, the Academy returned to bronze as the core metal of the statuettes, handing manufacturing duties to Walden, New York-based Polich Tallix Fine Art Foundry, now owned and operated by UAP Urban Art Projects. While based on a digital scan of an original 1929 Oscar, the statuettes retain their modern-era dimensions and black pedestal. Cast in liquid bronze from 3D-printed ceramic molds and polished, they are then electroplated in 24-karat gold by Brooklyn, New York-based Epner Technology. The time required to produce 50 such statuettes is roughly three months. R.S. Owens is expected to continue producing other awards for the Academy, and service existing Oscars that need replating. Naming The origin of the nickname of the trophy has been disputed, as multiple people have taken credit for naming the trophy "Oscar". Margaret Herrick, librarian and president of the Academy, may have said she named it after her supposed uncle Oscar in 1931.He reminds me of my Uncle Oscar,' she was reported to have said, while in the hearing of a 'nearby newspaper columnist' who picked up the anecdote and ran with it the next day". Variety and The Hollywood Reporter state with certainty that she made a claim to the Oscar nickname.}} The only corroboration was a 1938 clipping from the Los Angeles Examiner, in which Herrick told a story of her and her husband joking with each other using the phrase, "How's your uncle Oscar". But the term had been in use at least two years before. In a 1974 biography written by Whitney Stine with commentary from Davis, Davis wrote "I relinquish once and for all any claim that I was the one—so, Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the honor is all yours". Columnist Sidney Skolsky wrote in his 1970 memoir that he came up with the term in 1934 under pressure for a deadline, mocking Vaudeville comedians who asked "Will you have a cigar, Oscar?" The Academy credits Skolsky with "the first confirmed newspaper reference" to Oscar in his column on March 16, 1934, which was written about that year's 6th Academy Awards. But in the newspaper clipping that Skolsky referred to, he wrote that , meaning that the name was already in use. Engraving To prevent information identifying the Oscar winners from leaking ahead of the ceremony, Oscar statuettes presented at the ceremony have blank baseplates. Until 2010, winners returned their statuettes to the Academy and had to wait several weeks to have their names inscribed on their respective Oscars. Since 2010, winners have had the option of having engraved nameplates applied to their statuettes at an inscription-processing station at the Governor's Ball, a party held immediately after the Oscar ceremony. The R.S. Owens company has engraved nameplates made before the ceremony, bearing the name of every potential winner. The nameplates for the non-winning nominees are later recycled. Ownership of Oscar statuettes Before 1950, Oscar statuettes were, and remain, the property of the recipient. Since then the statuettes have been legally encumbered by the requirement that the statuette be first offered for sale back to the Academy for . If a winner refuses to agree to this stipulation, then the Academy keeps the statuette. Academy Awards predating this agreement have been sold in public auctions and private deals for six-figure sums. In 1989, Michael Todd's grandson tried to sell Todd's Best Picture Oscar for his 1956 production of Around the World in 80 Days to a movie prop collector. The Academy earned enforcement of its statuette contract by gaining a permanent injunction against the sale. In 1992, Harold Russell consigned his 1946 Oscar for Best Supporting Actor for The Best Years of Our Lives to auction to raise money for his wife's medical expenses. Though his decision caused controversy, the first Oscar ever to be sold passed to a private collector on August 6, 1992, for . Russell defended his action, saying, "I don't know why anybody would be critical. My wife's health is much more important than sentimental reasons. The movie will be here, even if Oscar isn't". In December 2011, Orson Welles' 1941 Oscar for Citizen Kane (Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay) was put up for auction, after his heirs won a 2004 court decision contending that Welles did not sign any agreement to return the statue to the Academy. On December 20, 2011, it sold in an online auction for . Some buyers have subsequently returned the statuettes to the Academy, which keeps them in its treasury. * Governors Awards: The Academy Honorary Award (annual) (which may or may not be in the form of an Oscar statuette); <!--- See Governors Awards#Description and history. ---> The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (since 1938) (in the form of a bust of Thalberg); ** The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award (since 1957) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); <!--- See Governors Awards#Description and history. ---> * The Academy Scientific and Technical Awards: Academy Award of Merit (non-competitive) (in the form of an Oscar statuette); Scientific and Engineering Award (in the form of a bronze tablet); Technical Achievement Award (annual) (in the form of a certificate); The John A. Bonner Medal of Commendation (since 1978) (in the form of a medal); ** The Gordon E. Sawyer Award (since 1982); and * The Academy Student Academy Awards (annual). The Academy also awards Nicholl Fellowships in Screenwriting.<!--- See Governors Awards#Description and history. ---> Nomination From 2004 to 2020, the Academy Award nomination results were announced to the public in mid-January. Prior to that, the results were announced in early February. In 2021, the nominees were announced in March. In 2022, the nominees were announced in early February for the first time since 2003. Voters The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), a professional honorary organization, is composed of 9,905 voting members . Academy membership is divided into different branches, with each representing a different discipline in film production. , actors constitute the largest bloc, numbering 1,258 (12.7% of the voting body). In May 2011, the Academy sent a letter advising its then-6,000 or so voting members that an online system for Oscar voting would be implemented in 2013, replacing mailed paper ballots. All AMPAS members must be invited to join by the Board of Governors, on behalf of Academy Branch Executive Committees. Membership eligibility may be achieved by a competitive nomination, or an existing member may submit a name, based on other significant contributions to the field of motion pictures. New membership proposals are considered annually. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although as recently as 2007 press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. In 2012, the results of a study conducted by the Los Angeles Times were published describing the demographic breakdown of approximately 88% of AMPAS' voting membership. Of the 5,100+ active voters confirmed, 94% were Caucasian, 77% were male, and 54% were found to be over the age of 60. 33% of voting members are former nominees (14%) and winners (19%). In 2016, the Academy launched an initiative to expand its membership and increase diversity. In 2024, voting membership stood at 9,905. For example, the 2009 Best Picture winner, The Hurt Locker, was originally first released in 2008, but did not qualify for the 2008 awards, as it did not play its Oscar-qualifying run in Los Angeles until mid-2009, thus qualifying for the 2009 awards. Foreign films must include English subtitles. Each country can submit only one film for consideration in the International Feature Film category per year. Rule 2 states that a film must be feature-length, defined as a minimum of 40minutes, except for short-subject awards. It must exist either on a 35 mm or 70 mm film print, or in 24frame/s or 48frame/s progressive scan digital cinema format, with a minimum projector resolution of 2,048 by 1,080 pixels. Since the 90th Academy Awards, presented in 2018, multi-part and limited series have been ineligible for the Best Documentary Feature award. This followed the win of O.J.: Made in America, an eight-hour presentation that was screened in a limited release before being broadcast in five parts on ABC and ESPN, in that category in 2017. The Academy's announcement of the new rule made no direct mention of that film. The Best International Feature Film award does not require a U.S. release. It requires the film to be submitted as its country's official selection. The Best Documentary Feature award requires either week-long releases in both Los Angeles County and any of the five boroughs of New York City during the previous calendar year, or a qualifying award at a competitive film festival from the Documentary Feature Qualifying Festival list, regardless of any public exhibition or distribution, or submission in the International Feature Film category as its country's official selection. The qualifying theatrical runs must meet the same requirements as those for non-documentary films regarding numbers and times of screenings. A film must have been reviewed by a critic from The New York Times, Time Out New York, the Los Angeles Times, or LA Weekly. Producers must submit an Official Screen Credits online form before the deadline. If it is not submitted by the defined deadline, the film will be ineligible for Academy Awards in any year. The form includes the production credits for all related categories. Awards in short film categories (Best Documentary Short Subject, Best Animated Short Film, and Best Live Action Short Film) have different eligibility rules from most other competitive awards. First, the qualifying period for release does not coincide with a calendar year, instead covering one year starting on October 1, and ending on September 30 of the calendar year before the ceremony. Second, there are multiple methods of qualification. The main method is a week-long theatrical release in either New York City or Los Angeles County during the eligibility period. Films also can qualify by winning specified awards at one of several competitive film festivals designated by the Academy, also without regard to prior public distribution. In late December, ballots and lists of eligible films are sent to the membership. For most categories, members from each of the branches vote to determine the nominees only in their respective categories, i.e. only directors vote for directors, writers for writers, actors for actors, etc. In the special case of Best Picture, all voting members are eligible to select the nominees. A number of branches are only eligible to vote in Best Picture during nomination voting; this includes a producers' branch, as Best Picture is awarded to a film's producer(s), and other branches which have no corresponding award. Since 2013, re-weighted range voting has been used to select the nominees for the Best Visual Effects. Film companies will spend as much as several million dollars on marketing to awards voters for a film in the running for Best Picture, in attempts to improve chances of receiving Oscars and other film awards conferred in Oscar season. The Academy enforces rules to limit overt campaigning by its members to try to eliminate excesses and prevent the process from becoming undignified. It has an awards czar on staff who advises members on allowed practices and levies penalties on offenders. For example, a producer of the 2009 Best Picture nominee The Hurt Locker was disqualified as a producer in the category when he contacted associates urging them to vote for his film and not another that was seen as the front-runner. The Hurt Locker eventually won. Academy Screening Room The Academy Screening Room or Academy Digital Screening Room is a secure streaming platform which allows voting members of the Academy to view all eligible films (except, initially, those in the International category) in one place. It was introduced in 2019, for the 2020 Oscars. DVD screeners and Academy in-person screenings were still provided. For films to be included on the platform, the North American distributor must pay , including a watermarking fee, and a digital copy of the film to be prepared for streaming by the Academy. The platform can be accessed via Apple TV and Roku players. The watermarking process involved several video security firms, creating a forensic watermark and restricting the ability to take screenshots or screen recordings. In 2021, for the 2022 Oscars, the Academy banned all physical screeners and in-person screenings, restricting official membership viewing to the Academy Screening Room. Films eligible in the Documentary and International categories were made available in different sections of the platform. Distributors can also pay an extra fee to add video featurettes to promote their films on the platform. The in-person screenings were said to be cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Eligible films do not have to be added to the platform, but the Academy advertises them to voting members when they are. The Oscars were first televised in 1953 by NBC, which continued to broadcast the event until 1960, when ABC took over, televising the festivities, including the first color broadcast of the event in 1966, to 1970. NBC regained the rights for five years then ABC resumed broadcast duties in 1976 and its current contract with the Academy runs through 2028. The Academy has produced condensed versions of the ceremony for broadcast in international markets, especially those outside of the Americas, in more desirable local timeslots. The ceremony was broadcast live internationally for the first time via satellite since 1970, but only two South American countries, Chile and Brazil, purchased the rights to air the broadcast. By that time, the television rights to the Academy Awards had been sold in 50 countries. In 1980, the rights were sold to 60 countries, and by 1984, the television rights to the Academy Awards were licensed in 76 countries. In 2004, the ceremonies were moved up from late March/early April to late February, to help disrupt and shorten the intense lobbying and ad campaigns associated with Oscar season in the film industry. Another reason was because of the growing television ratings success coinciding with the NCAA division I men's basketball tournament, which would cut into the Academy Awards audience. In 1976 and 1977, ABC's regained Oscars were moved from Tuesday to Monday and went directly opposite the national championship game on NBC. The earlier date is also to the advantage of ABC, as it now usually occurs during the highly profitable and important February sweeps period. Some years, the ceremony is moved into the first Sunday of March to avoid a clash with the Winter Olympic Games. Another reason for the move to late February and early March is to avoid the awards ceremony occurring so close to the religious holidays of Passover and Easter, which for decades had been a grievance from members and the general public. After many years of being held on Mondays at 6:00p.m. Pacific/9:00pm Eastern, since the 1999 ceremony, it was moved to Sundays at 5:30pm PT/8:30pm ET. The reasons given for the move were that more viewers would tune in on Sundays, that Los Angeles rush-hour traffic jams could be avoided, and an earlier start time would allow viewers on the East Coast to go to bed earlier. For many years the film industry opposed a Sunday broadcast because it would cut into the weekend box office. In 2010, the Academy contemplated moving the ceremony even further back into January, citing television viewers' fatigue with the film industry's long awards season. However, such an accelerated schedule would dramatically decrease the voting period for its members, to the point where some voters would only have time to view the contending films streamed on their computers, as opposed to traditionally receiving the films and ballots in the mail. Additionally, a January ceremony on Sunday would clash with National Football League (NFL) playoff games. In 2018, the Academy announced that the ceremony would be moved from late February to mid-February beginning with the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020. In 2024, the ceremony was moved to an even earlier start time of 4:00pm PT/7:00p.m. ET, the apparent impetus being the ability for ABC to air a half-hour of primetime programming as a lead-out program at 7:30p.m. PT/10:30p.m. ET. Originally scheduled for April 8, 1968, the 40th Academy Awards ceremony was postponed for two days, because of the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. On March 30, 1981, the 53rd Academy Awards was postponed for one day, after the attempted assassination of President Ronald Reagan and others in Washington, D.C. In 1993, an In Memoriam segment was introduced, honoring those who had made a significant contribution to cinema who had died in the preceding 12 months, a selection compiled by a small committee of Academy members. This segment has drawn criticism over the years for the omission of some names. Criticism was also levied for many years regarding another aspect, with the segment having a "popularity contest" feel as the audience varied their applause to those who had died by the subject's cultural impact. The applause has since been muted during the telecast, and the audience is discouraged from clapping during the segment and giving silent reflection instead. This segment was later followed by a commercial break. In terms of broadcast length, the ceremony generally averages three and a half hours. The first Oscars, in 1929, lasted 15minutes. At the other end of the spectrum, the 2002 ceremony lasted four hours and twenty-three minutes. In 2010, the organizers of the Academy Awards announced winners' acceptance speeches must not run past 45seconds. This, according to organizer Bill Mechanic, was to ensure the elimination of what he termed "the single most hated thing on the show"—overly long and embarrassing displays of emotion. In 2016, in a further effort to streamline speeches, winners' dedications were displayed on an on-screen ticker. During the 2018 ceremony, host Jimmy Kimmel acknowledged how long the ceremony had become, by announcing that he would give a brand-new jet ski to whoever gave the shortest speech of the night, a reward won by Mark Bridges when accepting his Best Costume Design award for Phantom Thread. The Wall Street Journal analyzed the average minutes spent across the 2014–2018 telecasts as follows: 14 on song performances; 25 on the hosts' speeches; 38 on prerecorded clips; and 78 on the awards themselves, broken into 24 on the introduction and announcement, 24 on winners walking to the stage, and 30 on their acceptance speeches. Although still dominant in ratings, the viewership of the Academy Awards has steadily dropped. The 88th Academy Awards were the lowest-rated in the past eight years (although with increases in male and 18–49 viewership), while the show itself also faced mixed reception. Following the show, Variety reported that ABC was, in negotiating an extension to its contract to broadcast the Oscars, seeking to have more creative control over the broadcast itself. Currently and nominally, AMPAS is responsible for most aspects of the telecast, including the choice of production staff and hosting, although ABC is allowed to have some input on their decisions. In August 2016, AMPAS extended its contract with ABC to 2028: the contract neither contains any notable changes nor gives ABC any further creative control over the telecast. TV ratings Historically, the telecast's viewership is higher when box-office hits are favored to win the Best Picture award. More than 57.25million viewers tuned to the telecast for the 70th Academy Awards in 1998, the year of Titanic, which generated a box office haul during its initial 1997–98 run of in the US, a box-office record that would remain unsurpassed for years. The 76th Academy Awards ceremony, in which The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (pre-telecast box office earnings of ) received 11 Awards, including Best Picture, drew 43.56million viewers. The most-watched ceremony based on Nielsen ratings to date, was the 42nd Academy Awards (Best Picture Midnight Cowboy), which drew a 43.4% household rating on April 7, 1970. Hoping to reinvigorate the pre-show and ratings, the 2023 Oscars organizers hired members of the Met Gala creative team. By contrast, ceremonies honoring films that have not performed well at the box office tend to show weaker ratings, despite how much critical acclaim those films have received. The 78th Academy Awards, which awarded a low-budget independent film (Crash with a pre-Oscar gross of ) generated an audience of 38.64million with a household rating of 22.91%. In 2008, the 80th Academy Awards telecast was watched by 31.76million viewers on average with an 18.66% household rating, the lowest-rated and least-watched ceremony at the time, in spite of celebrating 80 years of the Academy Awards. The Best Picture winner of that particular ceremony was another independent film (this time, the Coen brothers's No Country for Old Men). Whereas the 92nd Academy Awards drew an average of 23.6million viewers, the 93rd Academy Awards drew an even lower viewership of 10.4million, the lowest viewership recorded by Nielsen since it started recording audience totals in 1974. The 94th and 95th editions drew 16.6 and 18.7million viewers, respectively, still below the audience of the 92nd edition. Venues In 1929, the first Academy Awards were presented at a banquet dinner at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel. From 1930 to 1943, the ceremony alternated between two venues: the Ambassador Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard and the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles. Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood then hosted the awards from 1944 to 1946, followed by the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles from 1947 to 1948. The 21st Academy Awards in 1949 were held at the Academy Award Theatre at what had been the Academy's headquarters on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood. From 1950 to 1960, the awards were presented at Hollywood's Pantages Theatre. With the advent of television, the awards from 1953 to 1957 took place simultaneously in Hollywood and New York, first at the NBC International Theatre (1953) and then at the NBC Century Theatre, after which the ceremony took place solely in Los Angeles. In 1961, the Oscars moved to the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium in Santa Monica, California. In 1969, the Academy moved the ceremonies back to Downtown Los Angeles, to the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion at the Los Angeles County Music Center. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the ceremony returned to the Shrine Auditorium. In 2002, Hollywood's Dolby Theatre, previously known as the Kodak Theatre, became the presentation's current venue. Categories Current categories {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ List of current Awards of Merit categories by year introduced, sortable by category ! Year introduced ! Category \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Picture \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Director \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Actor \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Actress \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Cinematography \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Production Design \|- \| 1927/28 \| Best Adapted Screenplay \|- \| 1929/30 \| Best Sound \|- \| 1931/32 \| Best Animated Short Film \|- \| 1931/32 \| Best Live Action Short Film \|- \| 1934 \| Best Film Editing \|- \| 1934 \| Best Original Score \|- \| 1934 \| Best Original Song \|- \| 1936 \| Best Supporting Actor \|- \| 1936 \| Best Supporting Actress \|- \| 1939 \| Best Visual Effects \|- \| 1940 \| Best Original Screenplay \|- \| 1941 \| Best Documentary Short Film \|- \| 1943 \| Best Documentary Feature Film \|- \| 1947 \| Best International Feature Film \|- \| 1948 \| Best Costume Design \|- \| 1981 \| Best Makeup and Hairstyling \|- \| 2001 \| Best Animated Feature Film \|- \| 2026 \| Best Casting \|} In the first year of the awards, the Best Directing award was split into two categories, Drama and Comedy. At times, the Best Original Score award has also been split into separate categories, Drama and Comedy/Musical. From the 1930s to the 1960s, the Art Direction (now Production Design), Cinematography, and Costume Design awards were split into two categories (black-and-white films and color films). Prior to 2012, the Production Design award was called Art Direction, while the Makeup and Hairstyling award was called Makeup. Prior to 2020, the International Feature Film award was called Foreign Language Film. In August 2018, the Academy announced that several categories would not be televised live, but recorded during commercial breaks and aired later in the ceremony. Following dissent from Academy members, they announced that they would air all 24 categories live. This followed several proposals, among them, the introduction of a Popular Film category, that the Academy had announced but did not implement. Discontinued categories {\| class"wikitable sortable" \|+ List of discontinued Awards of Merit categories by year introduced, sortable by category ! Year introduced ! Year discontinued ! Category \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1927/28 \| Best Director, Comedy Picture \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1927/28 \| Best Director, Dramatic Picture \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1927/28 \| Best Engineering Effects \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1927/28 \| Best Title Writing \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1927/28 \| Best Unique and Artistic Production \|- \| 1927/28 \| 1956 \| Best Original Story \|- \| 1931/32 \| 1935 \| Best Short Subject – Comedy \|- \| 1931/32 \| 1935 \| Best Short Subject – Novelty \|- \| 1932/33 \| 1937 \| Best Assistant Director \|- \| 1935 \| 1937 \| Best Dance Direction \|- \| 1936 \| 1956 \| Best Short Subject – 1 Reel \|- \| 1936 \| 1956 \| Best Short Subject – 2 Reel \|- \| 1936 \| 1937 \| Best Short Subject – Color \|- \| 1963 \| 2019 \| Best Sound Editing \|- \| 1995 \| 1998 \| Best Original Musical or Comedy Score \|} Proposed categories The Board of Governors meets each year and considers new award categories. To date, the following categories have been proposed: * Best Casting: rejected in 1999; will be implemented for the 2026 ceremony * Best Stunt Coordination: rejected every year from 1991 to 2012 * Best Title Design: rejected in 1999 This has generated accusations of the Academy Awards being influenced more by marketing and lobbying than by quality. William Friedkin, an Academy Award-winning film director and former producer of the ceremony, expressed this sentiment at a conference in New York in 2009, describing it as "the greatest promotion scheme that any industry ever devised for itself". Tim Dirks, editor of AMC's Filmsite, has written of the Academy Awards: A recent technique that has been claimed to be used during the Oscar season is the whisper campaign. These campaigns are intended to spread negative perceptions of other films nominated and are believed to be perpetrated by those who were involved in creating the film. Examples of whisper campaigns include the allegations against Zero Dark Thirty suggesting that it justifies torture and the claim that Lincoln distorts history. Accusations of bias Typical criticism of the Academy Awards for Best Picture is that among the winners and nominees there is an over-representation of romantic historical epics, biographical dramas, romantic dramedies and family melodramas, most of which are released in the U.S. in the last three months of the calendar year. The Oscars have been infamously known for selecting specific genres of films to be awarded. The term "Oscar bait" was coined to describe such films. This has led, at times, to more specific criticisms that the Academy is disconnected from the audience, e.g., by favoring "Oscar bait" over audience favorites or favoring historical melodramas over critically acclaimed films that depict current life issues. Despite the success of The Dark Knight, the film did not receive a Best Picture nomination at the 81st Academy Awards. This decision received substantial criticism and was described as a "snub" by many publications. The backlash to the decision was such that, for the 82nd Academy Awards awards in 2010, the Academy increased the limit for Best Picture nominees from five to ten, a change known as "The Dark Knight Rule". Lack of diversity The Academy Awards have long received criticism over its lack of diversity among the nominees. This criticism is based on the statistics from every Academy Awards since 1929, which show that only 6.4% of Academy Award nominees have been non-white and since 1991, 11.2% of nominees have been non-white, with the rate of winners being even more polarizing. For a variety of reasons, including marketability and historical bans on interracial couples, a number of high-profile Oscars have been given to yellowface portrayals, as well as performances of Asian characters rewritten for white characters. It took until 2023 for an Asian woman to win an Academy Award for Best Actress, when Michelle Yeoh received the award for her performance in Everything Everywhere All at Once. The 88th awards ceremony became the target of a boycott, popularized on social media with the hashtag #OscarsSoWhite, based on activists' perception that its all-white acting nominee list reflected bias. In response, the Academy initiated "historic" changes in membership by 2020. Some media critics claim the Academy's efforts to address its purported racial, gender and national biases are merely distractions. By contrast, the Golden Globe Awards already have multiple winners of Asian descent in leading actress categories. Some question whether the Academy's definition of "merit" is just or empowering for non-Americans. The Academy's Representation and Inclusion Standards have been criticized for excluding Jews as a distinct underrepresented class. Miscategorization of actors The Academy has no rules for how to categorize whether a performance is leading or supporting, and it is up to the discretion of the studios whether a given performance is submitted for either Best Actor/Actress or Best Supporting Actor/Actress. This has led to situations where a film has two or more co-leads, and one of these is submitted in a supporting category to avoid the two leads competing against each other, and to increase the film's chances of winning. This practice has been derisively called "category fraud". For example, Rooney Mara was nominated for Best Supporting Actress for Carol (2015), despite her having a comparable amount of screentime to Cate Blanchett, who was nominated for Best Actress. Another example is Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019), where Brad Pitt was nominated for and won Best Supporting Actor, even though he played an equally important role to Best Actor nominee Leonardo DiCaprio. In both these cases, critics argued that the studios behind the films had placed someone who was actually a leading actor or actress into the supporting categories to avoid them competing against their co-lead. to make up for a "snub" for a work that proved in time to be more popular or renowned than the one awarded (a 'make-up Oscar'), or as a "career honor" to recognize a distinguished nominee's entire body of work (a "legacy Oscar"). Recognition of streaming media film Following the 91st Academy Awards in February 2019 in which the Netflix-broadcast film Roma had been nominated for ten awards including the Best Picture category, Steven Spielberg and other members of the Academy discussed changing the requirements through the Board of Governors for films as to exclude those from Netflix and other media streaming services. Spielberg had been concerned that Netflix as a film production and distribution studio could spend much more than for typical Oscar-winning films and have much wider and earlier distribution than for other Best Picture-nominated films, while still being able to meet the minimal theatrical-run status to qualify for an Oscar. The United States Department of Justice, having heard of this potential rule change, wrote a letter to the Academy in March 2019, cautioning them that placing additional restrictions on films that originate from streaming media services without proper justification could raise anti-trust concerns against the Academy. Following its April 2019 board meeting, the Academy Board of Governors agreed to retain the current rules that allow for streaming media films to be eligible for Oscars as long as they enjoy limited theatrical runs. 2022 Chris Rock and Will Smith slapping incident During the 94th Academy Awards on March 27, 2022, Chris Rock joked about Jada Pinkett Smith's shaved head with a G.I. Jane reference. Will Smith walked onstage and slapped Rock across the face, then returned to his seat and told Rock, twice, to "Keep my wife's name out [of] your fucking mouth!" While later accepting the Best Actor award for King Richard, Smith apologized to the Academy and the other nominees, but not to Rock. Rock decided not to press charges against Smith. On April 8, 2022, the Academy made an announcement via a letter sent by president David Rubin and CEO Dawn Hudson informing the public that Will Smith had received a ten-year ban from attending the Oscars as a result of the incident. Refusals of the award Some winners critical of the Academy Awards have boycotted the ceremonies and refused to accept their Oscars. The first to do so was screenwriter Dudley Nichols (Best Writing in 1935 for The Informer). Nichols boycotted the 8th Academy Awards ceremony because of conflicts between the Academy and the Writers' Guild. Nichols eventually accepted the 1935 award three years later, at the 1938 ceremony. Nichols was nominated for three further Academy Awards during his career. George C. Scott became the second person to refuse his award (Best Actor in 1970 for Patton) at the 43rd Academy Awards ceremony. Scott described it as a "meat parade", saying, "I don't want any part of it". The third person to refuse the award was Marlon Brando, who refused his award (Best Actor for 1972's The Godfather), citing the film industry's discrimination against and mistreatment of Native Americans. At the 45th Academy Awards ceremony, Brando asked actress and civil rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather to read a 15-page speech in his place, detailing his criticisms, for which there was booing and cheering by the audience. In 2022, Littlefeather was accused by her sisters of misrepresenting her ancestry as Native American. Disqualifications Seven films have had nominations revoked before the official award ceremony: * The Circus (1928) – The film was voluntarily removed by the Academy from competitive categories, to award Charlie Chaplin a special award. * Hondo (1953) – Removed from the Best Story ballot after letters from the producer and nominee questioned its inclusion in the category. * High Society (1955) – Withdrawn from screenwriting ballot after being mistaken for the 1956 film of the same title. * The Godfather (1972) – Initially nominated for eleven awards, its nomination for Best Original Score was revoked after it was discovered that its main theme was very similar to music that the score's composer had written for an earlier film. None of its other nominations were revoked, and it received three Oscars, including Best Picture. * A Place in the World (1992) – Removed from the Best Foreign Language Film ballot after it was discovered that the country which submitted the film exercised insufficient artistic control. * Alone Yet Not Alone (2014) – The film's title song, "Alone Yet Not Alone", was removed from the Best Original Song ballot after Bruce Broughton was found to have improperly contacted other members of the Academy's musical branch; this was the first time that a film was removed from a ballot for ethical reasons. * 13 Hours: The Secret Soldiers of Benghazi (2017) – Sound mixer Greg P. Russell's nomination was rescinded one day before the Awards when it was discovered he had improperly contacted voters by telephone. In this case, the nominations for the other three nominated sound mixers, Gary Summers, Jeffrey J. Haboush and Mac Ruth, were allowed to stand. One film was disqualified after winning the award, and had the winner return the Oscar: * Young Americans (1969) – Initially won the award for Best Documentary Feature, but was later revoked after it was revealed that it had opened theatrically prior to the eligibility period. One film had its nomination revoked after the award ceremony when it had not won the Oscar: * Tuba Atlantic (2011) – Its nomination for Best Live Action Short Film was revoked when it was discovered that the film had aired on television in 2010, before its theatrical release. Remarks about animated films as children's genre At the 94th Academy Awards in 2022, the award for the Best Animated Feature was presented by three actresses who portrayed Disney princess characters in live-action remakes of their respective animated films: Lily James (Cinderella), Naomi Scott (Aladdin), and Halle Bailey (The Little Mermaid. While introducing the category, Bailey stated that animated films are "formative experiences as kids who watch them," as James put it, "So many kids watch these movies over and over, over and over again." Scott added: "I see some parents who know exactly what we're talking about." The remarks were heavily criticized by animation enthusiasts and those working in the industry as infantilizing the medium and perpetuating the stigma that animated works are strictly for children, especially since the industry was credited with sustaining the flow of Hollywood content and revenue during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Phil Lord, co-producer of one of the nominated films, The Mitchells vs. the Machines, tweeted that it was "super cool to position animation as something that kids watch and adults have to endure." The film's official social media accounts responded to the joke with an image reading: "Animation is cinema." A week later, Lord and his producing partner Christopher Miller wrote a guest column in Variety criticizing the Academy for the joke and how Hollywood has treated animation, writing that "no one set out to diminish animated films, but it's high time we set out to elevate them." They also suggested to the Academy that the category should be presented by a filmmaker who respects the art of animation as cinema. Adding to the controversy was that the award for Best Animated Short Film (the nominees for which were mostly made up of shorts not aimed at children) was one of the eight categories that were not presented during the live broadcast. The winner for the Best Animated Short award was The Windshield Wiper, a multilingual Spanish-American film which is adult animated, while another nominee in three categories: Best Animated Feature, Best Documentary Feature Film, and Best International Feature Film, was Flee, a PG-13 rated animated documentary about an Afghan refugee. Alberto Mielgo, director of The Windshield Wiper, later gave an acceptance speech for the Oscar: "Animation is an art that includes every single art that you can imagine. Animation for adults is a fact. It's happening. Let's call it cinema. I'm very honored because this is just the beginning of what we can do with animation." Another factor is that numerous animated films have been made for mature audiences or with ranges of PG-13 or more, with a few of them—The Triplets of Belleville, Persepolis, Chico and Rita, The Wind Rises, Anomalisa, My Life as a Courgette, The Breadwinner, Loving Vincent, Isle of Dogs, I Lost My Body, Flee, and Memoir of a Snail—having been nominated in this category, with The Boy and the Heron being the first adult animated film (in this case, PG-13-rated) to win in the 96th Academy Awards. These comments came as #NewDeal4Animation, a movement of animation workers demanding equal pay, treatment and recognition alongside their contemporaries working in live-action, was picking up momentum during negotiations for a new contract between The Animation Guild, IATSE Local 839/SAG-AFTRA and the Alliance of Motion Picture and Television Producers, and the presentation is being used to rally the movement. During the 96th Academy Awards in 2024, host Jimmy Kimmel said: "Please raise your hand if you let your kid fill out this part of the ballot." These remarks would again prompt backlash, with Christopher Miller, producer of that year's nominated Spider-Man: Across the Spider-Verse, tweeting out that the joke was "tired and lazy". The PG-13-rated The Boy and the Heron would subsequently win the award. Associated events The following events are closely associated with the annual Academy Awards: * Governors Awards, which includes the presentation of the Academy Honorary Award, the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award, and the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award * The 25th Independent Spirit Awards (2010), usually held in Santa Monica, California the Saturday before the Oscars, marked the first time it was moved to a Friday and a change of venue to L.A. Live * The annual "Night Before", traditionally held at the Beverly Hills Hotel, begun in 2002 and generally known as the party of the season, benefits the Motion Picture & Television Fund, which operates a retirement home for SAG actors in the San Fernando Valley * Elton John AIDS Foundation Academy Award Party airs the awards live at the nearby Pacific Design Center * The Governors Ball is the Academy's official after-party, including dinner (until 2011), and is adjacent to the awards-presentation venue * The Vanity Fair after-party, historically at the former Morton's restaurant, has been at the Sunset Tower since 2009 Presenter and performer gifts It has become a tradition to give out gift bags to the presenters and performers at the Oscars. In recent years, these gifts have been extended to award nominees and winners. The value of each of these gift bags can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars. In 2014, the value was reported to be as high as . The value has risen to the point where the U.S. Internal Revenue Service issued a statement regarding the gifts and their taxable status. Oscar gift bags have included vacation packages to Hawaii and Mexico and Japan, a private dinner party for the recipient and friends at a restaurant, videophones, a four-night stay at a hotel, watches, bracelets, spa treatments, bottles of vodka, maple salad dressing, weight-loss gummie candy and up to worth of cosmetic treatments and rejuvenation procedures such as lip fillers and chemical peels from New York City facial plastic surgeon Konstantin Vasyukevich. Some of the gifts have even had a "risque" element to them; in 2014, the adult products retailer Adam & Eve had a "Secret Room Gifting Suite". Celebrities visiting the gifting suite included Judith Hoag, Carolyn Hennesy, Kate Linder, Chris Mulkey, Jim O'Heir and John Salley. Television ratings and advertisement prices From 2006 onwards, results are Live+SD; all previous years are live viewing. ! Ad price,<br>USD, millions ! Adjusted price,<br>USD, millions ! Network \|- \| 2025 \| 19.69 \| 1.7-2.3 \| Not available \| rowspan="50"\| ABC \|- \| 2024 \| 19.49 \| Not available \|- \| 2023 \| 18.7 \| 2.1 \| Not available \|- \| 2022 \| 16.6 \| 1.71 \| Not available \|- \| 2021 \| 10.4 \| 2 \| Not available \|- \| 2020 \| 23.6 \| 2.2 \| 2-3 \| Not available \|- \| 2018 \| 26.5 \| Not available \|- \| 2017 \| 32.9 \| 2.1 \| Not available \|- \| 2015 \| 37.260 \| 1.95 \| \|- \| 2014 \| 43.740 \| 1.8 – 1.9 \| – \|- \| 2013 \| 40.376 \| 1.65 – 1.8 \| 1.610 \| \|- \| 2011 \| 37.919 \| 1.3684 \| \|- \| 2010 \| 41.699 \| 1.1267 \| \|- \| 2009 \| 36.310 \| 1.3<ref name="adprices"/> \| \|- \| 2008 \| 32.006 \| 1.82<ref name="adprices"/> \| \|- \| 2007 \| 40.172 \| 1.6658 \| \|- \| 2006 \| 38.939 \| 1.6468 \| \|- \| 2005 \| 42.139 \| 1.503 \| \|- \| 2004 \| 43.531 \| 1.5031 \| \|- \| 2003 \| 33.043 \| 1.3458 \| \|- \| 2002 \| 41.782 \| 1.29 \| \|- \| 2001 \| 42.944 \| 1.45 \| \|- \| 2000 \| 46.333 \| 1.305 \| \|- \| 1999 \| 45.615 \| 1 \| \|- \| 1998 \| \|57.249 \| 0.95 \| \|- \| 1997 \| 40.075 \| 0.85 \| \|- \| 1996 \| 44.867 \| 0.795 \| \|- \| 1995 \| 48.279 \| 0.7 \| \|- \| 1994 \| 45.083 \| 0.6435 \| \|- \| 1993 \| 45.735 \| 0.6078 \| \|- \| 1992 \| 44.406 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1991 \| 42.727 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1990 \| 40.375 \| 0.45 \| \|- \| 1989 \| 42.619 \| 0.375 \| \|- \| 1988 \| 42.227 \| 0.36 \| \|- \| 1987 \| 37.190 \| 0.335 \| \|- \| 1986 \| 37.757 \| 0.32 \| \|- \| 1985 \| 38.855 \| 0.315 \| \|- \| 1984 \| 42.051 \| 0.275 \| \|- \| 1983 \| 53.235 \| 0.245 \| \|- \| 1982 \| 46.245 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1981 \| 39.919 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1980 \| 48.978 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1979 \| 46.301 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1978 \| 48.501 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1977 \| 39.719 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1976 \| 46.751 \| Not available \| Not available \|- \| 1975 \| 48.127 \| Not available \| Not available \| rowspan="2"\| NBC \|- \| 1974 \| 44.712 \| Not available \| Not available \|} Notable highest wins and nominees By films The following nominees received at least 10 nominations: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"58"\| Nominations ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 14 \| All About Eve \|- \| Titanic \|- \| La La Land \|- \| rowspan"12" style"text-align:center"\| 13 \| Gone with the Wind \|- \| From Here to Eternity \|- \| Mary Poppins \|- \| ''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? \|- \| Forrest Gump \|- \| Shakespeare in Love \|- \| The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring \|- \| Chicago \|- \| The Curious Case of Benjamin Button \|- \| The Shape of Water \|- \| Oppenheimer \|- \| Emilia Pérez \|- \| rowspan"18" style"text-align:center"\| 12 \| Ben-Hur \|- \| Mrs. Miniver \|- \| The Song of Bernadette \|- \| Johnny Belinda \|- \| A Streetcar Named Desire \|- \| On the Waterfront \|- \| My Fair Lady \|- \| Becket \|- \| Oliver! \|- \| Reds \|- \| Dances With Wolves \|- \| Schindler's List \|- \| The English Patient \|- \| Gladiator \|- \| The King's Speech \|- \| Lincoln \|- \| The Revenant \|- \| The Power of the Dog \|- \| rowspan"25" style"text-align:center"\| 11 \| Mr. Smith Goes to Washington \|- \| Rebecca \|- \| Sergeant York \|- \| The Pride of the Yankees \|- \| Sunset Boulevard \|- \| West Side Story \|- \| Judgment at Nuremberg \|- \| The Godfather Part II \|- \| Chinatown \|- \| The Turning Point \|- \| Out of Africa \|- \| The Color Purple \|- \| Julia \|- \| Gandhi \|- \| Terms of Endearment \|- \| Amadeus \|- \| A Passage to India \|- \| Saving Private Ryan \|- \| The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King \|- \| The Aviator \|- \| Hugo \|- \| Life of Pi \|- \| Joker \|- \| Everything Everywhere All at Once \|- \| Poor Things \|- \| rowspan"47" style"text-align:center"\| 10 \| The Life of Emile Zola \|- \| How Green Was My Valley \|- \| Going My Way \|- \| Wilson \|- \| Roman Holiday \|- \| Giant \|- \| Sayonara \|- \| The Apartment \|- \| Lawrence of Arabia \|- \| Tom Jones \|- \| The Sound of Music \|- \| Doctor Zhivago \|- \| Bonnie and Clyde \|- \| Guess Who's Coming to Dinner \|- \| Anne of the Thousand Days \|- \| Patton \|- \| Airport \|- \| The Godfather \|- \| Cabaret \|- \| The Sting \|- \| The Exorcist \|- \| Rocky \|- \| Network \|- \| Star Wars \|- \| On Golden Pond \|- \| Tootsie \|- \| Bugsy \|- \| Braveheart \|- \| Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon \|- \| Gangs of New York \|- \| Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World \|- \| Slumdog Millionaire \|- \| True Grit \|- \| The Artist \|- \| American Hustle \|- \| Gravity \|- \| Mad Max: Fury Road \|- \| The Favourite \|- \| Roma \|- \| The Irishman \|- \| 1917 \|- \| Once Upon a Time in Hollywood \|- \| Mank \|- \| Dune \|- \| Killers of the Flower Moon \|- \| The Brutalist \|- \| Wicked \|} The following winners received at least 5 awards (including non-competitive): {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"56"\| Awards ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 11 \| Ben-Hur \|- \| Titanic \|- \| The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 10 \| West Side Story \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 9 \| Gigi \|- \| The Last Emperor \|- \| The English Patient \|- \| rowspan"8" style"text-align:center"\| 8 \| Gone with the Wind \|- \| From Here to Eternity \|- \| On the Waterfront \|- \| My Fair Lady \|- \| Cabaret \|- \| Gandhi \|- \| Amadeus \|- \| Slumdog Millionaire \|- \| rowspan"14" style"text-align:center"\| 7 \| Going My Way \|- \| The Best Years of Our Lives \|- \| The Bridge on the River Kwai \|- \| Lawrence of Arabia \|- \| Patton \|- \| The Sting \|- \| Star Wars \|- \| Out of Africa \|- \| Dances With Wolves \|- \| Schindler's List \|- \| Shakespeare in Love \|- \| Gravity \|- \| Everything Everywhere All at Once \|- \| Oppenheimer \|- \| rowspan"14" style"text-align:center"\| 6 \|- \| Mrs. Miniver \|- \| All About Eve \|- \| An American in Paris \|- \| A Place in the Sun \|- \| A Man for All Seasons \|- \| Oliver! \|- \| The Godfather Part II \|- \| Forrest Gump \|- \| Chicago \|- \| The Hurt Locker \|- \| Mad Max: Fury Road \|- \| La La Land \|- \| Dune \|- \| rowspan"27" style"text-align:center"\| 5 \| It Happened One Night \|- \| How Green Was My Valley \|- \| Wilson \|- \| The Bad and the Beautiful \|- \| Around the World in 80 Days \|- \| The King and I \|- \| The Apartment \|- \| Mary Poppins \|- \| The Sound of Music \|- \| Doctor Zhivago \|- \| Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? \|- \| In the Heat of the Night \|- \| The French Connection \|- \| One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest \|- \| The Deer Hunter \|- \| Kramer vs. Kramer \|- \| Raiders of the Lost Ark \|- \| Terms of Endearment \|- \| The Silence of the Lambs \|- \| Braveheart \|- \| Saving Private Ryan \|- \| American Beauty \|- \| Gladiator \|- \| The Aviator \|- \| Hugo \|- \| The Artist \|- \| Anora \|} By franchises The following nominees received at least 5 nominations: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"56"\| Nominations ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title ! scope"col" align"center"\| No. of films \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 38 \| Star Wars \| 11 \|- \| 37 \| Middle-earth (consists of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit) \| 6 \|- \| 29 \| Batman \| 7 \|- \| 28 \| The Godfather \| 3 \|- \| 27 \| Marvel Cinematic Universe \| 15 \|- \| 19 \| James Bond \| 11 \|- \| 16 \| Looney Tunes \| 16 \|- \| 16 \| Star Trek \| 7 \|- \| 15 \| Dune \| 2 \|- \| 15 \| Indiana Jones \| 5 \|- \| 14 \| Wizarding World \| 9 \|- \| 13 \| Avatar \| 2 \|- \| 13 \| Gladiator \| 2 \|- \| 13 \| Tom and Jerry \| 13 \|- \| 12 \| Rocky \| 3 \|- \| 11 \| Pirates of the Caribbean \| 3 \|- \| 11 \| The Sting \| 2 \|- \| 10 \| Top Gun \| 2 \|- \| 10 \| Alien \| 3 \|- \| 10 \| Mickey Mouse \| 10 \|- \| 8 \| Wallace & Gromit \| 8 \|- \| 8 \| Spider-Man \| 5 \|- \| 7 \| Blade Runner \| 2 \|- \| 7 \| Transformers \| 3 \|- \| 6 \| Planet of the Apes \| 4 \|- \| 6 \| Shrek \| 4 \|- \| 5 \| Back to the Future \| 2 \|- \| 5 \| The Incredibles \| 2 \|- \| 5 \| The Thin Man \| 2 \|} The following winners received at least 2 awards: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"55"\| Awards ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title ! scope"col" align"center"\| No. of films \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 17 \| The Lord of the Rings \| 3 \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 10 \| Star Wars \| 3 \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 9 \| The Godfather \| 2 \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 8 \| Dune \| 2 \|- \| style"text-align:center" rowspan"3"\| 7 \| Looney Tunes \| 16 \|- \| Tom and Jerry \| 7 \|- \| Indiana Jones \| 3 \|- \| style"text-align:center" rowspan"2"\| 6 \| James Bond \| 5 \|- \| Mad Max \| 5 \|- \| 5 \| Batman \| 3 \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 4 \| Toy Story \| 3 \|- \| Avatar \| 2 \|- \| Marvel Cinematic Universe \| 2 \|- \| rowspan4 style"text-align:center"\| 3 \| Wallace & Gromit \| 3 \|- \| Alien \| 2 \|- \| Pinocchio \| 2 \|- \| Rocky'' \| 1 \|} By people The following nominees received at least 5 nominations: {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"55"\| Nominations ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title ! scope"col" align"center"\| Role \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 59 \| Walt Disney \| Producer, animator, and voice actor \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 54 \| John Williams \| Composer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 45 \| Alfred Newman \| Composer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 39 \| Cedric Gibbons \| Production designer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 35 \| Edith Head \| Costume designer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 32 \| Edwin B. Willis \| Production designer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 29 \| Lyle R. Wheeler \| Art director \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 26 \| Sammy Cahn \| Songwriter \|- \| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center"\| 25 \| Andy Nelson \| Sound engineer \|- \| Max Steiner \| Composer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 24 \| Woody Allen \| Filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 23 \| Hans Dreier \| Art director \|- \| Hal Pereira \| Art director and production designer \|- \| Steven Spielberg \| Filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"4" style"text-align:center"\| 22 \| Samuel M. Comer \| Art director \|- \| Randy Newman \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Dimitri Tiomkin \| Composer \|- \| Victor Young \| Composer \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 21 \| Kevin O'Connell \| Sound mixer \|- \| Meryl Streep \| Actress \|- \| Billy Wilder \| Filmmaker \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 20 \| Gary Rydstrom \| Sound designer and film director \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 19 \| Alan Menken \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 18 \| Henry Mancini \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center"\| 17 \| Gordon Hollingshead \| Producer \|- \| Fred Quimby \| Animator \|- \| rowspan"6" style"text-align:center"\| 16 \| Roger Deakins \| Cinematographer \|- \| Charles LeMaire \| Costume designer \|- \| Greg P. Russell \| Sound engineer \|- \| Martin Scorsese \| Filmmaker \|- \| Irene Sharaff \| Costume designer and art director \|- \| Diane Warren \| Songwriter \|- \| rowspan"6" style"text-align:center"\| 15 \| Warren Beatty \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| Christopher Boyes \| Sound engineer \|- \| Thomas Newman \| Composer \|- \| Alex North \| Composer \|- \| Sandy Powell \| Costume designer \|- \| William Wyler \| Filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 14 \| Ethan and Joel Coen \| Filmmakers \|- \| Francis Ford Coppola \| Filmmaker \|- \| Jean Louis \| Costume designer \|- \| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center"\| 13 \| Richard Day \| Art director \|- \| Stanley Kubrick \| Filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"7" style"text-align:center"\| 12 \| Colleen Atwood \| Costume designer \|- \| Bradley Cooper \| Actor, filmmaker, and producer \|- \| Federico Fellini \| Filmmaker \|- \| Katharine Hepburn \| Actress \|- \| Dorothy Jeakins \| Costume designer \|- \| Jack Nicholson \| Actor \|- \| Hans Zimmer \| Composer \|- \| rowspan"8" style"text-align:center"\| 11 \| Paul Thomas Anderson \| Filmmaker \|- \| Rick Baker \| Special make-up effects artist \|- \| Alfonso Cuarón \| Filmmaker \|- \| Alexandre Desplat \| Composer \|- \| Clint Eastwood \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| Joe Letteri \| Visual effects artist \|- \| Laurence Olivier \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| George Stevens \| Filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"7"style"text-align:center"\| 10 \| Anna Behlmer \| Sound mixer \|- \| Bette Davis \| Actress \|- \| Dante Ferretti \| Art director, production designer and costume designer \|- \| Walter Plunkett \| Costume designer \|- \| Helen Rose \| Costume designer \|- \| Bill Thomas \| Costume designer \|- \| Denzel Washington \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| rowspan"13" style"text-align:center"\| 9 \| Ingmar Bergman \| Filmmaker \|- \| Milena Canonero \| Costume designer \|- \| Pete Docter \| Filmmaker, animator and voice actor \|- \| Jacqueline Durran \| Costume designer \|- \| Nancy Haigh \| Set decorator \|- \| Alejandro González Iñárritu \| Filmmaker \|- \| Peter Jackson \| Filmmaker \|- \| Stanley Kramer \| Filmmaker \|- \| Catherine Martin \| Costume designer, production designer and producer \|- \| Scott Millan \| Sound mixer \|- \| Scott Rudin \| Producer \|- \| Thelma Schoonmaker \| Film editor \|- \| Sherman Brothers \| Composers and songwriters \|- \| rowspan"18" style"text-align:center"\| 8 \| Wes Anderson \| Filmmaker \|- \| Cate Blanchett \| Actress \|- \| Kenneth Branagh \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| Marlon Brando \| Actor \|- \| James L. Brooks \| Filmmaker \|- \| George Clooney \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| Glenn Close \| Actress \|- \| Judi Dench \| Actress \|- \| Dede Gardner \| Producer \|- \| Michael Kahn \| Film editor \|- \| Kathleen Kennedy \| Producer \|- \| Jack Lemmon \| Actor \|- \| Francesca Lo Schiavo \| Set decorator \|- \| Emmanuel Lubezki \| Cinematographer \|- \| Frances McDormand \| Actress and producer \|- \| Christopher Nolan \| Filmmaker \|- \| Peter O'Toole \| Actor \|- \| Ken Ralston \| Visual effects supervisor \|- \| rowspan"15" style"text-align:center"\| 7 \| Howard Ashman \| Lyricist \|- \| Ingrid Bergman \| Actress \|- \| Dennis Gassner \| Production designer \|- \| Jeff Bridges \| Actor \|- \| Richard Burton \| Actor \|- \| James Cameron \| Filmmaker \|- \| Leonardo DiCaprio \| Actor and producer \|- \| Jane Fonda \| Actress \|- \| Jeremy Kleiner \| Producer \|- \| Martin McDonagh \| Filmmaker \|- \| Brad Pitt \| Actor and producer \|- \| Sydney Pollack \| Filmmaker \|- \| Mary Wills \| Costume designer \|- \| Kate Winslet \| Actress \|- \| Albert Wolsky \| Costume designer \|- \| rowspan"18" style"text-align:center"\| 6 \| Amy Adams \| Actress \|- \| John Bright \| Costume designer \|- \| Alexandra Byrne \| Costume designer \|- \| Ellen Burstyn \| Actress \|- \| Daniel Day-Lewis \| Actor \|- \| Guillermo del Toro \| Filmmaker \|- \| Eric Fellner \| Producer \|- \| Margaret Furse \| Costume designer \|- \| Tom Hanks \| Actor \|- \| Yorgos Lanthimos \| Filmmaker \|- \| Nick Park \| Animator \|- \| Ennio Morricone \| Composer \|- \| Patricia Norris \| Costume designer \|- \| Howard Shoup \| Costume designer \|- \| Maggie Smith \| Actress \|- \| Andrew Stanton \| Animator and filmmaker \|- \| Gile Steele \| Costume designer \|- \| Richard Taylor \| Costume designer, special make-up effects artist and visual effects artist \|- \| rowspan"19" style"text-align:center"\| 5 \| Tim Bevan \| Producer \|- \| Brad Bird \| Animator and filmmaker \|- \| Danilo Donati \| Costume designer and production designer \|- \| Todd Field \| Filmmaker \|- \| Alfred Hitchcock \| Filmmaker \|- \| Nicole Kidman \| Actress \|- \| Frank Marshall \| Producer \|- \| Vittorio Nino Novarese \| Costume designer \|- \| Gregory Peck \| Actor \|- \| Sean Penn \| Actor \|- \| Renié \| Costume designer \|- \| Ann Roth \| Costume designer \|- \| David O. Russell \| Filmmaker \|- \| Susan Sarandon \| Actress \|- \| Emma Stone \| Actress and producer \|- \| Barbra Streisand \| Actress, songwriter and producer \|- \| Piero Tosi \| Costume designer \|- \| Jacqueline West \| Costume designer \|- \| Michelle Williams \| Actress \|} The following winners received at least 3 awards (including non-competitive): {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! scope"col" width"55"\| Awards ! scope"col" align"center"\| Title ! scope"col" align"center"\| Role \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 26 \| Walt Disney \| Producer, animator, and voice actor \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 14 \| Douglas Shearer \| Sound engineer, visual effect supervisor \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 11 \| Cedric Gibbons \| Production designer \|- \| style="text-align:center"\| 10 \| Farciot Edouart \| Special effects artist and innovator \|- \| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center"\| 9 \| Dennis Muren \| Special effects artist and supervisor \|- \| Alfred Newman \| Composer \|- \| rowspan"3" style"text-align:center"\| 8 \| Edith Head \| Costume designer \|- \| Alan Menken \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Edwin B. Willis \| Production designer \|- \| rowspan"5" style"text-align:center"\| 7 \| Rick Baker \| Special make-up effects artist \|- \| Richard Day \| Art director \|- \| Fred Quimby \| Animator \|- \| Gary Rydstrom \| Sound designer, editor, and mixer \|- \| Billy Wilder \| Director, producer, and writer \|- \| rowspan"2" style"text-align:center"\| 6 \| John Ford \| Director and producer \|- \| Gordon Hollingshead \| Producer \|- \| rowspan"14" style"text-align:center"\| 5 \| John Barry \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Francis Ford Coppola \| Director, producer, and writer \|- \| Clint Eastwood \| Actor, director, and producer \|- \| Johnny Green \| Composer, music supervisor, and producer \|- \| Alejandro González Iñárritu \| Director, producer, and writer \|- \| Fred Hynes \| Sound engineer \|- \| Gordon Jennings \| Special effects supervisor \|- \| Joe Letteri \| Visual effects artist \|- \| Thomas T. Moulton \| Sound engineer \|- \| Ken Ralston \| Visual effects supervisor \|- \| Irene Sharaff \| Costume designer \|- \| Richard Taylor \| Costume designer, special makeup artist, and visual effects supervisor \|- \| Lyle R. Wheeler \| Art director \|- \| John Williams \| Composer \|- \| rowspan"26" style"text-align:center"\| 4 \| Woody Allen \| Filmmaker \|- \| Colleen Atwood \| Costume designer \|- \| Sean Baker \| Filmmaker \|- \| Mark Berger \| Sound engineer \|- \| John Box \| Production designer and art director \|- \| Christopher Boyes \| Sound engineer \|- \| Ben Burtt \| Sound designer, editor, and mixer \|- \| Sammy Cahn \| Songwriter \|- \| Milena Canonero \| Costume designer \|- \| Ethan and Joel Coen \| Filmmakers \|- \| Samuel M. Comer \| Art director \|- \| Alfonso Cuarón \| Filmmaker \|- \| Katharine Hepburn \| Actress \|- \| Richard King \| Sound designer and editor \|- \| Henry Mancini \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Catherine Martin \| Costume designer and production designer \|- \| Frances McDormand \| Actress and producer \|- \| Johnny Mercer \| Songwriter \|- \| Scott Millan \| Sound mixer \|- \| Laurence Olivier \| Actor and filmmaker \|- \| Nick Park \| Animator \|- \| André Previn \| Composer and music supervisor \|- \| Dimitri Tiomkin \| Composer \|- \| Jimmy Van Heusen \| Songwriter \|- \| Robert Wise \| Director and producer \|- \| William Wyler \| Director and producer \|- \| rowspan"43" style"text-align:center"\| 3 \| James Acheson \| Costume designer \|- \| Cecil Beaton \| Costume designer and production designer \|- \| Jenny Beavan \| Costume designer \|- \| Alan and Marilyn Bergman \| Songwriters \|- \| Ingrid Bergman \| Actress \|- \| Bong Joon Ho \| Filmmaker \|- \| Stephen Bosustow \| Producer \|- \| Walter Brennan \| Actor \|- \| James L. Brooks \| Filmmaker \|- \| Saul Chaplin \| Composer and music supervisor \|- \| Daniels \| Directors, producers, and writers \|- \| Daniel Day-Lewis \| Actor \|- \| Adolph Deutsch \| Composer and music supervisor \|- \| Pete Docter \| Director, writer, animator, and voice actor \|- \| Ken Darby \| Composer and music supervisor \|- \| Ralph Dawson \| Film editor \|- \| Guillermo del Toro \| Director, producer, and writer \|- \| Hans Dreier \| Art director \|- \| Roger Edens \| Composer and music supervisor \|- \| John Hubley \| Director and animator \|- \| Marvin Hamlisch \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Peter Jackson \| Filmmaker \|- \| Maurice Jarre \| Composer \|- \| Dorothy Jeakins \| Costume designer \|- \| Michael Kahn \| Film editor \|- \| Paul Lambert \| Visual effects supervisor \|- \| Michel Legrand \| Composer and songwriter \|- \| Charles LeMaire \| Costume designer \|- \| Emmanuel Lubezki \| Cinematographer \|- \| Daniel Mandell \| Film editor \|- \| Jack Nicholson \| Actor \|- \| Orry-Kelly \| Costume designer \|- \| Anthony Powell \| Costume designer \|- \| Sandy Powell \| Costume designer \|- \| Thelma Schoonmaker \| Film editor \|- \| Stephen Schwartz \| Songwriter \|- \| Steven Spielberg \| Filmmaker \|- \| Max Steiner \| Composer \|- \| Meryl Streep \| Actress \|- \| Fran Walsh \| Producer, writer and songwriter \|- \| Ned Washington \| Songwriter \|- \| Paul Francis Webster \| Songwriter \|- \| Richard Williams \| Director and animator \|} See also * List of film awards * List of Academy Award-nominated films * List of actors with Academy Award nominations * List of superlative Academy Award winners and nominees Footnotes References Further reading * * * ** German-language book review of the book. * * * * External links * * Category:1929 establishments in California Category:1953 American television series debuts Category:American annual television specials Category:American film awards Category:American live television shows Category:Annual events in Los Angeles County, California Category:Awards established in 1929 Category:Cinema of Southern California Category:Culture of Hollywood, Los Angeles Category:Events in Los Angeles Category:Performing arts trophies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Awards	2025-04-05T18:25:16.342862
330	Actrius	\| starring = \| narrator <!-- or: \|narrators --> \| music = Carles Cases \| cinematography = Tomàs Pladevall \| editing = Pere Abadal \| production_companies = \| distributor = Buena Vista International \| released \| runtime = 100 minutes \| country = Spain \| language = Catalan \| budget \| gross <!--(please use condensed and rounded values, e.g. "£11.6 million" not "£11,586,221")--> }} Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play E.R. by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. Synopsis In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran). Cast * Núria Espert as Glòria Marc * Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca * Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal * Mercè Pons as Estudiant Recognition Screenings Actrius screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival. MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story." Awards and nominations * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons * 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons * 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons References External links * * as archived 17 February 2009 (Spanish) Category:1997 films Category:1997 drama films Category:Catalan-language films Category:Films set in Barcelona Category:Films directed by Ventura Pons Category:Spanish drama films Category:1990s Spanish films	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actrius	2025-04-05T18:25:16.396754
332	Animalia (book)	Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket. Synopsis Animalia is an alliterative alphabet book and contains twenty-six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet. Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for alligator and armadillo, B is for butterfly, C is for cat, etc.) along with a short poem utilizing the letter of the page for many of the words. The illustrations contain many other objects beginning with that letter that the reader can try to identify (however, there are not necessarily "a thousand things, or maybe more", as the author states). As an additional challenge, the author has hidden a picture of himself as a child in every picture. Related products Julia MacRae Books published an Animalia colouring book in 2008. H. N. Abrams also published a wall calendar colouring book version for children the same year. H. N. Abrams published The Animalia Wall Frieze, a fold-out over 26 feet in length, in which the author created new riddles for each letter. The Great American Puzzle Factory created a 300-piece jigsaw puzzle based on the book's cover. Adaptations A television series was also created, based on the book, which airs in Canada. The Australian Children's Television Foundation released a teaching resource DVD-ROM in 2011 to accompany the TV series with teaching aids for classroom use. In 2010, The Base Factory and AppBooks released Animalia as an application for iPad and iPhone/iPod Touch. Awards Animalia won the Young Australian's Best Book Award in 1987 for Best Picture Story Book. The Children's Book Council of Australia designated Animalia a 1987 Picture Book of the Year: Honour Book. Kid's Own Australian Literature Awards named Animalia the 1988 Picture Book Winner. References External links Graeme Base's official website A Learning Time activity guide for Animalia created by The Little Big Book Club Category:1986 children's books Category:Alphabet books Category:Australian children's books Category:Children's books about animals Category:Picture books by Graeme Base Category:Puffin Books books Category:Puzzle books	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animalia_(book)	2025-04-05T18:25:16.420822
334	International Atomic Time	International Atomic Time (abbreviated TAI, from its French name ) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 450 atomic clocks in over 80 national laboratories worldwide. UTC has been exactly 37 seconds behind TAI. The 37 seconds result from the initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 27 leap seconds in UTC since 1972. In 2022, the General Conference on Weights and Measures decided to abandon the leap second by or before 2035, at which point the difference between TAI and UTC will remain fixed. TAI may be reported using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian days and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due primarily to the slowing rotation of the Earth. Operation TAI is a weighted average of the time kept by over 450 atomic clocks in over 80 national laboratories worldwide. The majority of the clocks involved are caesium clocks; the International System of Units (SI) definition of the second is based on caesium. The clocks are compared using GPS signals and two-way satellite time and frequency transfer. Due to the signal averaging TAI is an order of magnitude more stable than its best constituent clock. The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time, a frequency signal with timecodes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC, which differs from TAI by a well-known integer number of seconds. These time scales are denoted in the form UTC(NPL) in the UTC form, where NPL here identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. The TAI form may be denoted TAI(NPL). The latter is not to be confused with TA(NPL), which denotes an independent atomic time scale, not synchronised to TAI or to anything else. The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM, France), combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC − UTC(k) (equal to TAI − TAI(k)) for each participating institution k. The same circular also gives tables of TAI − TA(k), for the various unsynchronised atomic time scales. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T, the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight, it is possible to discover errors in TAI and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Since the published circulars are definitive, better estimates do not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT). History Early atomic time scales consisted of quartz clocks with frequencies calibrated by a single atomic clock; the atomic clocks were not operated continuously. Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). It was used as a basis for calibrating the quartz clocks at the Royal Greenwich Observatory and to establish a time scale, called Greenwich Atomic (GA). The United States Naval Observatory began the A.1 scale on 13 September 1956, using an Atomichron commercial atomic clock, followed by the NBS-A scale at the National Bureau of Standards, Boulder, Colorado on 9 October 1957. The International Time Bureau (BIH) began a time scale, T<sub>m</sub> or AM, in July 1955, using both local caesium clocks and comparisons to distant clocks using the phase of VLF radio signals. The BIH scale, A.1, and NBS-A were defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958}} The procedures used by the BIH evolved, and the name for the time scale changed: A3 in 1964 and TA(BIH) in 1969. The SI second was defined in terms of the caesium atom in 1967. From 1971 to 1975 the General Conference on Weights and Measures and the International Committee for Weights and Measures made a series of decisions that designated the BIPM time scale International Atomic Time (TAI). In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale, therefore, corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from the Julian Date 2443144.5 (1 January 1977 00:00:00 TAI), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at the geoid (mean sea level). Because the clocks were, on average, well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed by about one part in a trillion. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published under the name EAL (Échelle Atomique Libre, meaning Free Atomic Scale). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT), which represent three fundamental time scales in the Solar System. All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1 January 1977 00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) TAI + 32.184 s. The continued existence of TAI was questioned in a 2007 letter from the BIPM to the ITU-R which stated, "In the case of a redefinition of UTC without leap seconds, the CCTF would consider discussing the possibility of suppressing TAI, as it would remain parallel to the continuous UTC." Relation to UTC Contrary to TAI, UTC is a discontinuous time scale. It is occasionally adjusted by leap seconds. Between these adjustments, it is composed of segments that are mapped to atomic time by a constant offset. From its beginning in 1961 through December 1971, the adjustments were made regularly in fractional leap seconds so that UTC approximated UT2. Afterwards, these adjustments were made only in whole seconds to approximate UT1. This was a compromise arrangement in order to enable a publicly broadcast time scale. The less frequent whole-second adjustments meant that the time scale would be more stable and easier to synchronize internationally. The fact that it continues to approximate UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by the public broadcast of UTC. See also * Clock synchronization * Time and frequency transfer Notes References * * Footnotes Bibliography * * External links * [https://www.bipm.org/en/time-metrology BIPM technical services: Time Metrology] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060923185936/http://www.npl.co.uk/time/ Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popular-links/web-clock-faq NIST Web Clock FAQs] * [http://www.ucolick.org/~sla/leapsecs/timescales.html History of time scales] * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/div688/grp50/primary-frequency-standards.cfm NIST-F1 Cesium Fountain Atomic Clock] * * [http://jjy.nict.go.jp/index-e.html Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan] * * [http://www.ipses.com/eng/In-depth-analysis/Standard-of-time-definition Standard of time definition: UTC, GPS, LORAN and TAI] Category:Time scales	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Atomic_Time	2025-04-05T18:25:16.448712
336	Altruism	to the poor is often considered an altruistic action.]] Altruism is the concern for the well-being of others, independently of personal benefit or reciprocity. The word altruism was popularised (and possibly coined) by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as , for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian , which in turn was derived from Latin , meaning "other people" or "somebody else". Altruism may be considered a synonym of selflessness, the opposite of self-centeredness. Altruism is an important moral value in many cultures and religions. It can expand beyond care for humans to include other sentient beings and future generations. Altruism, as observed in populations of organisms, is when an individual performs an action at a cost to itself (in terms of e.g. pleasure and quality of life, time, probability of survival or reproduction) that benefits, directly or indirectly, another individual, without the expectation of reciprocity or compensation for that action. The theory of psychological egoism suggests that no act of sharing, helping, or sacrificing can be "truly" altruistic, as the actor may receive an intrinsic reward in the form of personal gratification. The validity of this argument depends on whether such intrinsic rewards qualify as "benefits". The term altruism can also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is usually contrasted with egoism, which claims individuals are morally obligated to serve themselves first. Effective altruism is the use of evidence and reason to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. The notion of altruism The concept of altruism has a history in philosophical and ethical thought. The term was coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists (especially evolutionary psychology researchers), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields always lead to different perspectives on altruism. In simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them, above oneself. Cross-cultural perspectives on altruism Cross-cultural perspectives on altruism show that how we view and experience helping others depends heavily on where we come from. In individualistic cultures, like many Western countries, acts of altruism often bring personal joy and satisfaction, as they align with values that emphasize individual achievement and self-fulfillment. On the other hand, in collectivist cultures, common in many Eastern societies, altruism is often seen as a responsibility to the group rather than a personal choice. This difference means that people in collectivist cultures might not feel the same personal happiness from helping others, as the act is more about fulfilling social obligations. Ultimately, these variations highlight how deeply cultural norms shape the way we approach and experience altruism. Scientific viewpoints<!--linked from 'Evolution of morality'--> Anthropology Marcel Mauss's essay The Gift contains a passage called "Note on alms". This note describes the evolution of the notion of alms (and by extension of altruism) from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes: Evolutionary explanations In ethology (the scientific study of animal behaviour), and more generally in the study of social evolution, altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the fitness of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. In evolutionary psychology this term may be applied to a wide range of human behaviors such as charity, emergency aid, help to coalition partners, tipping, courtship gifts, production of public goods, and environmentalism. The need for an explanation of altruistic behavior that is compatible with evolutionary origins has driven the development of new theories. Two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and evolutionary game theory: a mathematical model and analysis of behavioral strategies. Some of the proposed mechanisms are: * Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures. Even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance. One study found that slightly altering photographs to resemble the faces of study participants more closely increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the same family name, especially if rare, which has been found to increase helpful behavior. Another study found more cooperative behavior, the greater the number of perceived kin in a group. Using kinship terms in political speeches increased audience agreement with the speaker in one study. This effect was powerful for firstborns, who are typically close to their families. See also Reciprocity (evolution). Direct reciprocity. Research shows that it can be beneficial to help others if there is a chance that they will reciprocate the help. The effective tit for tat strategy is one game theoretic example. Many people seem to be following a similar strategy by cooperating if and only if others cooperate in return. Because people avoid poor reciprocators and cheaters, a person's reputation is important. A person esteemed for their reciprocity is more likely to receive assistance, even from individuals they have not directly interacted with before. This form of reciprocity is expressed by people who invest more resources in cooperation and punishment than what is deemed optimal based on established theories of altruism. Pseudo-reciprocity. An organism behaves altruistically and the recipient does not reciprocate but has an increased chance of acting in a way that is selfish but also as a byproduct benefits the altruist. * Costly signaling and the handicap principle. Altruism, by diverting resources from the altruist, can act as an "honest signal" of available resources and the skills to acquire them. This may signal to others that the altruist is a valuable potential partner. It may also signal interactive and cooperative intentions, since someone who does not expect to interact further in the future gains nothing from such costly signaling. While it's uncertain if costly signaling can predict long-term cooperative traits, people tend to trust helpers more. Costly signaling loses its value when everyone shares identical traits, resources, and cooperative intentions, but it gains significance as population variability in these aspects increases. :Typically, women find altruistic men to be attractive partners. When women look for a long-term partner, altruism may be a trait they prefer as it may indicate that the prospective partner is also willing to share resources with her and her children. Men perform charitable acts in the early stages of a romantic relationship or simply when in the presence of an attractive woman. While both sexes state that kindness is the most preferable trait in a partner, there is some evidence that men place less value on this than women and that women may not be more altruistic in the presence of an attractive man. Men may even avoid altruistic women in short-term relationships, which may be because they expect less success. Thus, while altruistic persons may under some circumstances be outcompeted by less altruistic persons at the individual level, according to group selection theory, the opposite may occur at the group level where groups consisting of the more altruistic persons may outcompete groups consisting of the less altruistic persons. Such altruism may only extend to ingroup members while directing prejudice and antagonism against outgroup members (see also in-group favoritism). Many other evolutionary scientists have criticized group selection theory. in New York City]] Such explanations do not imply that humans consciously calculate how to increase their inclusive fitness when doing altruistic acts. Instead, evolution has shaped psychological mechanisms, such as emotions, that promote certain altruistic behaviors. Selective investment theory proposes that close social bonds, and associated emotional, cognitive, and neurohormonal mechanisms, evolved to facilitate long-term, high-cost altruism between those closely depending on one another for survival and reproductive success. Such cooperative behaviors have sometimes been seen as arguments for left-wing politics, for example, by the Russian zoologist and anarchist Peter Kropotkin in his 1902 book Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution and moral philosopher Peter Singer in his book A Darwinian Left. Neurobiology Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman, neuroscientists at the National Institutes of Health and LABS-D'Or Hospital Network, provided the first evidence for the neural bases of altruistic giving in normal healthy volunteers, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. In their research, they showed that both pure monetary rewards and charitable donations activated the mesolimbic reward pathway, a primitive part of the brain that usually responds to food and sex. However, when volunteers generously placed the interests of others before their own by making charitable donations, another brain circuit was also selectively activated: the subgenual cortex/septal region. These structures are related to social attachment and bonding in other species. The experiment suggested that altruism is not a higher moral faculty overpowering innate selfish desires, but a fundamental, ingrained, and enjoyable trait in the brain. One brain region, the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex/basal forebrain, contributes to learning altruistic behavior, especially in people with a propensity for empathy. Bill Harbaugh, a University of Oregon economist, in an fMRI scanner test conducted with his psychologist colleague Dr. Ulrich Mayr, reached the same conclusions as Jorge Moll and Jordan Grafman about giving to charity, although they were able to divide the study group into two groups: "egoists" and "altruists". One of their discoveries was that, though rarely, even some of the considered "egoists" sometimes gave more than expected because that would help others, leading to the conclusion that there are other factors in charity, such as a person's environment and values. The results of this study confirmed that altruism is supported by distinct mechanisms from giving motivated by reciprocity or by fairness. This study also confirmed that the right ventral striatum is recruited during altruistic giving, as well as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, bilateral anterior cingulate cortex, and bilateral anterior insula, which are regions previously implicated in empathy. Abigail Marsh has conducted studies of real-world altruists that have also identified an important role for the amygdala in human altruism. In real-world altruists, such as people who have donated kidneys to strangers, the amygdala is larger than in typical adults. Altruists' amygdalas are also more responsive than those of typical adults to the sight of others' distress, which is thought to reflect an empathic response to distress. This structure may also be involved in altruistic choices due to its role in encoding the value of outcomes for others. This is consistent with the findings of research in non-human animals, which has identified neurons within the amygdala that specifically encode the value of others' outcomes, activity in which appears to drive altruistic choices in monkeys.PsychologyThe International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences defines psychological altruism as "a motivational state to increase another's welfare". Psychological altruism is contrasted with psychological egoism, which refers to the motivation to increase one's welfare. In keeping with this, research in real-world altruists, including altruistic kidney donors, bone marrow donors, humanitarian aid workers, and heroic rescuers findings that these altruists are primarily distinguished from other adults by unselfish traits and decision-making patterns. This suggests that human altruism reflects genuinely high valuation of others' outcomes. There has been some debate on whether humans are capable of psychological altruism. Some definitions specify a self-sacrificial nature to altruism and a lack of external rewards for altruistic behaviors. However, because altruism ultimately benefits the self in many cases, the selflessness of altruistic acts is difficult to prove. The social exchange theory postulates that altruism only exists when the benefits outweigh the costs to the self. Daniel Batson, a psychologist, examined this question and argued against the social exchange theory. He identified four significant motives: to ultimately benefit the self (egoism), to ultimately benefit the other person (altruism), to benefit a group (collectivism), or to uphold a moral principle (principlism). Altruism that ultimately serves selfish gains is thus differentiated from selfless altruism, but the general conclusion has been that empathy-induced altruism can be genuinely selfless. The empathy-altruism hypothesis states that psychological altruism exists and is evoked by the empathic desire to help someone suffering. Feelings of empathic concern are contrasted with personal distress, which compels people to reduce their unpleasant emotions and increase their positive ones by helping someone in need. Empathy is thus not selfless since altruism works either as a way to avoid those negative, unpleasant feelings and have positive, pleasant feelings when triggered by others' need for help or as a way to gain social reward or avoid social punishment by helping. People with empathic concern help others in distress even when exposure to the situation could be easily avoided, whereas those lacking in empathic concern avoid allowing it unless it is difficult or impossible to avoid exposure to another's suffering. trainees swearing in as volunteers in Cambodia, 4 April 2007]] In psychological research on altruism, studies often observe altruism as demonstrated through prosocial behaviors such as helping, comforting, sharing, cooperation, philanthropy, and community service. However, a witness with a high level of empathic concern is likely to assume personal responsibility entirely regardless of the number of bystanders. In a study of older adults, those who volunteered had higher life satisfaction and will to live, and less depression, anxiety, and somatization. Volunteerism and helping behavior have not only been shown to improve mental health but physical health and longevity as well, attributable to the activity and social integration it encourages. One study examined the physical health of mothers who volunteered over 30 years and found that 52% of those who did not belong to a volunteer organization experienced a major illness while only 36% of those who did volunteer experienced one. A study on adults aged 55 and older found that during the four-year study period, people who volunteered for two or more organizations had a 63% lower likelihood of dying. After controlling for prior health status, it was determined that volunteerism accounted for a 44% reduction in mortality. Merely being aware of kindness in oneself and others is also associated with greater well-being. A study that asked participants to count each act of kindness they performed for one week significantly enhanced their subjective happiness. Happier people are kinder and more grateful, kinder people are happier and more grateful and more grateful people are happier and kinder, the study suggests. While research supports the idea that altruistic acts bring about happiness, it has also been found to work in the opposite direction—that happier people are also kinder. The relationship between altruistic behavior and happiness is bidirectional. Studies found that generosity increases linearly from sad to happy affective states. Feeling over-taxed by the needs of others has negative effects on health and happiness. Older humans were found to have higher altruism.Genetics and environmentBoth genetics and environment have been implicated in influencing pro-social or altruistic behavior. Candidate genes include OXTR (polymorphisms in the oxytocin receptor), CD38, COMT, DRD4, DRD5, IGF2, AVPR1A and GABRB2. It is theorized that some of these genes influence altruistic behavior by modulating levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine. According to Christopher Boehm, altruistic behaviour evolved as a way of surviving within a group. Sociology "Sociologists have long been concerned with how to build the good society". The structure of our societies and how individuals come to exhibit charitable, philanthropic, and other pro-social, altruistic actions for the common good is a commonly researched topic within the field. The American Sociology Association (ASA) acknowledges public sociology saying, "The intrinsic scientific, policy, and public relevance of this field of investigation in helping to construct 'good societies' is unquestionable". Studies show that generosity in laboratory and in online experiments is contagious – people imitate the generosity they observe in others. Religious viewpoints Most, if not all, of the world's religions promote altruism as a very important moral value. Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, and Sikhism, etc., place particular emphasis on altruistic morality. Buddhism Altruism figures prominently in Buddhism. Love and compassion are components of all forms of Buddhism, and are focused on all beings equally: love is the wish that all beings be happy, and compassion is the wish that all beings be free from suffering. "Many illnesses can be cured by the one medicine of love and compassion. These qualities are the ultimate source of human happiness, and the need for them lies at the very core of our being" (Dalai Lama). The notion of altruism is modified in such a world-view, since the belief is that such a practice promotes the practitioner's own happiness: "The more we care for the happiness of others, the greater our own sense of well-being becomes" (Dalai Lama). Jainism The fundamental principles of Jainism revolve around altruism, not only for other humans but for all sentient beings. Jainism preaches – to live and let live, not harming sentient beings, i.e. uncompromising reverence for all life. The first , Rishabhdev, introduced the concept of altruism for all living beings, from extending knowledge and experience to others to donation, giving oneself up for others, non-violence, and compassion for all living things. The principle of nonviolence seeks to minimize karmas which limit the capabilities of the soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become (God in Jainism). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether the creatures are great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms. Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. Christianity Thomas Aquinas interprets the biblical phrase "You should love your neighbour as yourself" as meaning that love for ourselves is the exemplar of love for others. Considering that "the love with which a man loves himself is the form and root of friendship", he quotes Aristotle that "the origin of friendly relations with others lies in our relations to ourselves",. Aquinas concluded that though we are not bound to love others more than ourselves, we naturally seek the common good, the good of the whole, more than any private good, the good of a part. However, he thought we should love God more than ourselves and our neighbours, and more than our bodily life—since the ultimate purpose of loving our neighbour is to share in eternal beatitude: a more desirable thing than bodily well-being. In coining the word "altruism", as stated above, Comte was probably opposing this Thomistic doctrine, which is present in some theological schools within Catholicism. The aim and focus of Christian life is a life that glorifies God, while obeying Christ's command to treat others equally, caring for them and understanding that eternity in heaven is what Jesus' Resurrection at Calvary was all about. Many biblical authors draw a strong connection between love of others and love of God. John 1:4 states that for one to love God one must love his fellow man, and that hatred of one's fellow man is the same as hatred of God. Thomas Jay Oord has argued in several books that altruism is but one possible form of love. An altruistic action is not always a loving action. Oord defines altruism as acting for the other's good, and he agrees with feminists who note that sometimes love requires acting for one's own good when the other's demands undermine overall well-being. German philosopher Max Scheler distinguishes two ways in which the strong can help the weak. One way is a sincere expression of Christian love, "motivated by a powerful feeling of security, strength, and inner salvation, of the invincible fullness of one's own life and existence". Another way is merely "one of the many modern substitutes for love,... nothing but the urge to turn away from oneself and to lose oneself in other people's business". At its worst, Scheler says, "love for the small, the poor, the weak, and the oppressed is really disguised hatred, repressed envy, an impulse to detract, etc., directed against the opposite phenomena: wealth, strength, power, largesse."IslamIn the Arabic language, "" (إيثار) means "preferring others to oneself". On the topic of donating blood to non-Muslims (a controversial topic within the faith), the Shia religious professor, Fadhil al-Milani has provided theological evidence that makes it positively justifiable. In fact, he considers it a form of religious sacrifice and ithar (altruism). For Sufis, 'iythar means devotion to others through complete forgetfulness of one's own concerns, where concern for others is deemed as a demand made by God on the human body, considered to be property of God alone. The importance of 'iythar (also known as ) lies in sacrifice for the sake of the greater good; Islam considers those practicing as abiding by the highest degree of nobility. This is similar to the notion of chivalry. A constant concern for God results in a careful attitude towards people, animals, and other things in this world.JudaismJudaism defines altruism as the desired goal of creation. Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook stated that love is the most important attribute in humanity. Love is defined as bestowal, or giving, which is the intention of altruism. This can be altruism towards humanity that leads to altruism towards the creator or God. Kabbalah defines God as the force of giving in existence. Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto focused on the "purpose of creation" and how the will of God was to bring creation into perfection and adhesion with this force of giving. Modern Kabbalah developed by Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag, in his writings about the future generation, focuses on how society could achieve an altruistic social framework. Ashlag proposed that such a framework is the purpose of creation, and everything that happens is to raise humanity to the level of altruism, love for one another. Ashlag focused on society and its relation to divinity. Sikhism Altruism is essential to the Sikh religion. The central faith in Sikhism is that the greatest deed anyone can do is to imbibe and live the godly qualities such as love, affection, sacrifice, patience, harmony, and truthfulness. , or selfless service to the community for its own sake, is an important concept in Sikhism. The fifth Guru, Guru Arjun, sacrificed his life to uphold "22 carats of pure truth, the greatest gift to humanity", according to the Guru Granth Sahib. The ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur, sacrificed his life to protect weak and defenseless people against atrocity. In the late seventeenth century, Guru Gobind Singh (the tenth Guru in Sikhism), was at war with the Mughal rulers to protect the people of different faiths when a fellow Sikh, Bhai Kanhaiya, attended the troops of the enemy. He gave water to both friends and foes who were wounded on the battlefield. Some of the enemy began to fight again and some Sikh warriors were annoyed by Bhai Kanhaiya as he was helping their enemy. Sikh soldiers brought Bhai Kanhaiya before Guru Gobind Singh, and complained of his action that they considered counterproductive to their struggle on the battlefield. "What were you doing, and why?" asked the Guru. "I was giving water to the wounded because I saw your face in all of them", replied Bhai Kanhaiya. The Guru responded, "Then you should also give them ointment to heal their wounds. You were practicing what you were coached in the house of the Guru." Under the tutelage of the Guru, Bhai Kanhaiya subsequently founded a volunteer corps for altruism, which is still engaged today in doing good to others and in training new recruits for this service. Hinduism In Hinduism, selflessness (), love (), kindness (), and forgiveness () are considered as the highest acts of humanity or "". Giving alms to the beggars or poor people is considered as a divine act or "" and Hindus believe it will free their souls from guilt or "" and will led them to heaven or "" in afterlife. Altruism is also the central act of various Hindu mythology and religious poems and songs. Mass donation of clothes to poor people (), or blood donation camp or mass food donation () for poor people is common in various Hindu religious ceremonies. The Bhagavad Gita supports the doctrine of karma yoga (achieving oneness with God through action) and Nishkama Karma or action without expectation or desire for personal gain which can be said to encompass altruism. Altruistic acts are generally celebrated and well received in Hindu literature and are central to Hindu morality. Philosophy There is a wide range of philosophical views on humans' obligations or motivations to act altruistically. Proponents of ethical altruism maintain that individuals are morally obligated to act altruistically. The opposing view is ethical egoism, which maintains that moral agents should always act in their own self-interest. Both ethical altruism and ethical egoism contrast with utilitarianism, which maintains that each agent should act in order to maximise the efficacy of their function and the benefit to both themselves and their co-inhabitants. A related concept in descriptive ethics is psychological egoism, the thesis that humans always act in their own self-interest and that true altruism is impossible. Rational egoism is the view that rationality consists in acting in one's self-interest (without specifying how this affects one's moral obligations). In his book I am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics, Daniel Kolak argues that open individualism provides a rational basis for altruism. According to Kolak, egoism is incoherent because the concept of a future self is incoherent, similar to the idea of anattā in Buddhist philosophy, and everyone is in reality the same being. Derek Parfit made similar arguments in the book Reasons and Persons, using thought experiments such as the teletransportation paradox to illustrate the philosophical problems with personal identity. Effective altruism Effective altruism is a philosophy and social movement that uses evidence and reasoning to determine the most effective ways to benefit others. Effective altruism encourages individuals to consider all causes and actions and to act in the way that brings about the greatest positive impact, based upon their values. It is the broad, evidence-based, and cause-neutral approach that distinguishes effective altruism from traditional altruism or charity. Effective altruism is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. While a substantial proportion of effective altruists have focused on the nonprofit sector, the philosophy of effective altruism applies more broadly to prioritizing the scientific projects, companies, and policy initiatives which can be estimated to save lives, help people, or otherwise have the biggest benefit. People associated with the movement include philosopher Peter Singer, Facebook co founder Dustin Moskovitz, Cari Tuna, Oxford-based researchers William MacAskill and Toby Ord, and professional poker player Liv Boeree. Extreme altruism Pathological altruism Pathological altruism is altruism taken to an unhealthy extreme, such that it either harms the altruistic person or the person's well-intentioned actions cause more harm than good. The term "pathological altruism" was popularised by the book Pathological Altruism. Examples include depression and burnout seen in healthcare professionals, an unhealthy focus on others to the detriment of one's own needs, animal hoarding, and ineffective philanthropic and social programs that ultimately worsen the situations they are meant to aid. Extreme altruism also known as costly altruism, extraordinary altruism, or heroic behaviours (shall be distinguished from heroism), refers to selfless acts directed to a stranger which significantly exceed the normal altruistic behaviours, often involving risks or great cost to the altruists themselves. One of the initial concepts was introduced by Wilson in 1976, which he referred to as "hard-core" altruism. This form is characterised by impulsive actions directed towards others, typically a stranger and lacking incentives for reward. Since then, several papers have mentioned the possibility of such altruism. In 21st century the progress in the field slowed down due to adopting ethical guidelines that restrict exposing research participants to costly or risky decisions (see Declaration of Helsinki). Consequently, much research has based their studies on living organ donations and the actions of Carnegie Hero medal Recipients, actions which involve high risk, high cost, and are of infrequent occurrences. A typical example of extreme altruism would be non-directed kidney donation—a living person donating one of their kidneys to a stranger without any benefits or knowing the recipient. However, current research can only be carried out on a small population that meets the requirements of extreme altruism. Most of the time the research is also via the form of self-report which could lead to self-report biases. Due to the limitations, the current gap between high stakes and normal altruism remains unknown. This hypothesis was supported in the same study examining bone marrow donors. Schwartz discovered that individuals with strong personal norms and those who attribute more responsibility to themselves are more inclined to participate in bone marrow donation. and has conducted a few research, comparing these two groups of individuals. Utilising techniques such as brain imaging and behavioural experiments, Marsh's team observed that kidney donors tend to have larger amygdala sizes and exhibit better abilities in recognizing fearful expressions compared to psychopathic individuals. * Fast Decisions when Perform Acts of Extreme Altruism Rand and Epstein explored the behaviours of 51 Carnegie Hero Medal Recipients, demonstrating how extreme altruistic behaviours often stem from system I of the Dual Process Theory, which leads to rapid and intuitive behaviours. Additionally, a separate by Carlson et al. indicated that such prosocial behaviours are prevalent in emergencies where immediate actions are required. This discovery has led to ethical debates, particularly in the context of living organ donation, where laws regarding this issue differ by country. As observed in extreme altruists, these decisions are made intuitively, which may reflect insufficient consideration. Critics are concerned about whether this rapid decision encompasses a thorough cost-benefit analysis and question the appropriateness of exposing donors to such risk. * Social discounting One finding suggests how extreme altruists exhibit lower levels of social discounting as compared to others. With that meaning extreme altruists place a higher value on the welfare of strangers than a typical person does. * Low Social-Economic Status Analysis of 676 Carnegie Hero Award Recipients and another study on 243 rescuing acts reveal that a significant proportion of rescuers come from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Johnson attributes the distribution to the high-risk occupations that are more prevalent between lower socioeconomic groups. As a result, considerable research has attempted for a separate explanation for this behaviour. * Costly Signalling Theory for Extreme Behaviours Research suggests that males are more likely to engage in heroic and risk-taking behaviours due to a preference among females for such traits. These extreme altruistic behaviours could serve to act as an unconscious "signal" to showcase superior power and ability compared to ordinary individuals. * Mistakes and Outliers While most altruistic behaviours offer some form of benefit, extreme altruism may sometimes result from a mistake where the victim does not reciprocate. There are three types of digital altruism: (1) "everyday digital altruism", involving expedience, ease, moral engagement, and conformity; (2) "creative digital altruism", involving creativity, heightened moral engagement, and cooperation; and (3) "co-creative digital altruism" involving creativity, moral engagement, and meta cooperative efforts.<ref name"Klisanin"/>See also * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * Cappelen, Alexander W.; Enke, Benjamin; Tungodden, Bertil (2025). "[https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id10.1257/aer.20230038 Universalism: Global Evidence]". American Economic Review. 115 (1): 43–76.NotesReferences * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * * }} Category:Auguste Comte Category:Defence mechanisms Category:Interpersonal relationships Category:Moral psychology Category:Morality Category:Philanthropy Category:Social philosophy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism	2025-04-05T18:25:16.516525
339	Ayn Rand	\| birth_place = Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire \| death_date = \| death_place = New York City, U.S.<!-- DO NOT REMOVE the country per Template:Infobox writer --> \| pseudonym = Ayn Rand \| occupation = \| language = \| citizenship = \| United States (from 1931)}} \| alma_mater = Leningrad State University \| period = 1934–1982 \| notableworks = Full list \| spouse is not to be confused with the actor and director Frank O'Connor (1881–1959) or the writer whose pen name was Frank O'Connor.}} \| signature = Ayn Rand signature 1949.svg \| signature_alt = Ayn Rand }} '''Alice O'Connor (born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum';, . Most sources transliterate her given name as either Alisa or Alissa.}} , 1905March 6, 1982), better known by her pen name Ayn Rand (), was a Russian-born American writer and philosopher.<!-- DO NOT REMOVE WITHOUT CONSENSUS. --> She is known for her fiction and for developing a philosophical system which she named Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, she moved to the United States in 1926. After two early novels that were initially unsuccessful and two Broadway plays, Rand achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead. In 1957, she published her best-selling work, the novel Atlas Shrugged. Afterward, until her death in 1982, she turned to non-fiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own periodicals and releasing several collections of essays. Rand advocated reason and rejected faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism as opposed to altruism and hedonism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and supported laissez-faire'' capitalism, which she defined as the system based on recognizing individual rights, including private property rights. Although she opposed libertarianism, which she viewed as anarchism, Rand is often associated with the modern libertarian movement in the United States. In art, she promoted romantic realism. She was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her, with a few exceptions. Rand's books have sold over 37 million copies.million copies purchased for free distribution to schools by the Ayn Rand Institute (ARI).}} Her fiction received mixed reviews from literary critics, with reviews becoming more negative for her later work. Although academic interest in her ideas has grown since her death, academic philosophers have generally ignored or rejected Rand's philosophy, arguing that she has a polemical approach and that her work lacks methodological rigor. Her writings have politically influenced some right-libertarians and conservatives. The Objectivist movement circulates her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings. Life and career Early life Rand was born Alisa Zinovyevna Rosenbaum on February2, 1905, into a Jewish bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg, which was then the capital of the Russian Empire. She was the eldest of three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum, a pharmacist, and Anna Borisovna (). She was 12 when the October Revolution and the rule of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin disrupted her family's lives. Her father's pharmacy was nationalized, and the family fled to Yevpatoria in Crimea, which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. After graduating high school there in June 1921, she returned with her family to Petrograd, as Saint Petersburg was then named,}} where they faced desperate conditions, occasionally nearly starving. .]] After the Russian Revolution opened up Russian universities to women, Rand was among the first to enroll at Petrograd State University, now Saint Petersburg State University. At 16, she began her studies in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history. She was one of many bourgeois students purged from the university shortly before graduating. After complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many purged students, including Rand, were reinstated. In October 1924, she graduated from the renamed Leningrad State University. She then studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For an assignment, Rand wrote an essay about the Polish actress Pola Negri. It became her first published work. She decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand, and she adopted the first name Ayn (pronounced ). of her birth surname in Cyrillic. Rand said Ayn was adapted from a Finnish name. Some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a nickname based on the Hebrew word (ayin, meaning 'eye'). Letters from Rand's family do not use such a nickname.}} In late 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit relatives in Chicago. She arrived in New York City on February19, 1926. Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with her relatives learning English before moving to Hollywood, California. In Hollywood a chance meeting with director Cecil B. DeMille led to work as an extra in his film The King of Kings and a subsequent job as a junior screenwriter. While working on The King of Kings, she met the aspiring actor Frank O'Connor. They married on April15, 1929. She became a permanent American resident in July 1929 and an American citizen on March3, 1931. her legal married name became ''Alice O'Connor'', but she did not use that name publicly or with friends.}} She tried to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they could not obtain permission to emigrate. Rand's father died of a heart attack in 1939. One of her sisters and their mother died during the siege of Leningrad. Early fiction '' opened on Broadway in 1935.]] In 1932, Rand's first literary success was the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios, although it was never produced.}} Her courtroom drama Night of January 16th, first staged in Hollywood in 1934, reopened successfully on Broadway in 1935. Each night, a jury was selected from members of the audience. Based on its vote, one of two different endings would be performed.}} In December 1934, Rand and O'Connor moved to New York City so she could handle revisions for the Broadway production. In 1936, her first novel was published, the semi-autobiographical We the Living. Set in Soviet Russia, it focuses on the struggle between the individual and the state. Initial sales were slow, and the American publisher let it go out of print; however, European editions continued to sell. She adapted the story as a stage play, but the Broadway production closed in less than a week. After the success of her later novels, Rand released a revised version in 1959 that has sold over three million copies. In December 1935, Rand started her next major novel, The Fountainhead, but took a break from it in 1937 to write her novella Anthem. The novella presents a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that the word I has been forgotten and replaced with we. Protagonists Equality 7-2521 and Liberty 5-3000 eventually escape the collectivistic society and rediscover the word I. It was published in England in 1938, but Rand could not find an American publisher at that time. As with We the Living, Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, and this sold over 3.5million copies. The Fountainhead and political activism In the 1940s, Rand became politically active. She and her husband were full-time volunteers for Republican Wendell Willkie's 1940 presidential campaign. This work put her in contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt, who introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men, and they expressed admiration for her. Mises once called her "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman". Rand became friends with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned her about American history and politics during their many meetings, and gave Paterson ideas for her only non-fiction book, The God of the Machine.}} '' was Rand's first bestseller.]] In 1943, Rand's first major success as a writer came with The Fountainhead, a novel about an uncompromising architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers" who attempt to live through others, placing others above themselves. Twelve publishers rejected it before Bobbs-Merrill Company accepted it at the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed Benzedrine, an amphetamine, to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the novel, but afterwards she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her use of the drug for approximately three decades may have contributed to mood swings and outbursts described by some of her later associates. The success of The Fountainhead brought Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, she sold the film rights to Warner Bros. and returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Producer Hal B. Wallis then hired her as a screenwriter and script-doctor for screenplays including Love Letters and You Came Along. Rand became involved with the anti-Communist Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals and American Writers Association. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, she testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee that the 1944 film Song of Russia grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as much better and happier than it was. She also wanted to criticize the lauded 1946 film The Best Years of Our Lives for what she interpreted as its negative presentation of the business world but was not allowed to do so. When asked after the hearings about her feelings on the investigations' effectiveness, Rand described the process as "futile". In 1949, after several delays, the film version of The Fountainhead was released. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end" and complained about its editing, the acting and other elements. Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism .]] Following the publication of The Fountainhead'', Rand received many letters from readers, some of whom the book had influenced profoundly. In 1951, Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers who met at Rand's apartment on weekends to discuss philosophy. The group included future chair of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. Later, Rand began allowing them to read the manuscript drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged. In 1954, her close relationship with Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair. They informed both their spouses, who briefly objected, until Rand "sp[u]n out a deductive chain from which you just couldn't escape", in Barbara Branden's words, resulting in her and O'Connor's assent. Historian Jennifer Burns concludes that O'Connor was likely "the hardest hit" emotionally by the affair. Published in 1957, Atlas Shrugged is considered Rand's magnum opus. She described the novel's theme as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest". It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists, and artists respond to a welfare state government by going on strike and retreating to a hidden valley where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes it as stopping "the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of individuals contributing most to the nation's wealth and achievements. The novel contains an exposition of Objectivism in a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Despite many negative reviews, Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller, but the reaction of intellectuals to the novel discouraged and depressed Rand. Atlas Shrugged was her last completed work of fiction, marking the end of her career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher. In 1958, Nathaniel Branden established the Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy through public lectures. In 1962, he and Rand co-founded The Objectivist Newsletter (later renamed The Objectivist) to circulate articles about her ideas. She later republished some of these articles in book form. Rand was unimpressed by many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, later said the NBI culture was one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand. Some described the NBI or the Objectivist movement as a cult or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, from literature and music to sexuality and facial hair. Some of her followers mimicked her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. Some former NBI students believed the extent of these behaviors was exaggerated, and the problem was concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York. Later years In the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through nonfiction and speeches, including annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum. In answers to audience questions, she took controversial stances on political and social issues. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as "bums"), supporting Israel in the Yom Kippur War of 1973 against a coalition of Arab nations as "civilized men fighting savages", claiming European colonists had the right to invade and take land inhabited by American Indians, and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", despite advocating the repeal of all laws concerning it. She endorsed several Republican candidates for president of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964. in Valhalla, New York]] In 1964, Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. As her relationship with Nathaniel Branden deteriorated, Rand had her husband be present for difficult conversations between her and Branden. In 1968, Rand learned about Branden's relationship with Scott. Though her romantic involvement with Nathaniel Branden was already over, Rand ended her relationship with both Brandens, and the NBI closed. She published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and "irrational behavior in his private life". In subsequent years, Rand and several more of her closest associates parted company. In 1973, Rand's younger sister Eleonora Drobisheva (née Rosenbaum, 1910–1999) visited her in the US at Rand's invitation, but did not accept her lifestyle and views, as well as finding little literary merit in her works. She returned to the Soviet Union and spent the rest of her life in Leningrad, later Saint Petersburg. In 1974, Rand had surgery for lung cancer after decades of heavy smoking. In 1976, she retired from her newsletter and, despite her lifelong objections to any government-run program, was enrolled in and claimed Social Security and Medicare with the aid of a social worker. Her activities in the Objectivist movement declined, especially after her husband died on November9, 1979. One of her final projects was a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged. On March6, 1982, Rand died of heart failure at her home in New York City. Her funeral included a floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign. In her will, Rand named Peikoff as her heir. Literary approach, influences and reception Rand described her approach to literature as "romantic realism". She wanted her fiction to present the world "as it could be and should be", rather than as it was. This approach led her to create highly stylized situations and characters. Her fiction typically has protagonists who are heroic individualists, depicted as fit and attractive. Her villains support duty and collectivist moral ideals. Rand often describes them as unattractive, and some have names that suggest negative traits, such as Wesley Mouch in Atlas Shrugged. Rand considered plot a critical element of literature, and her stories typically have what biographer Anne Heller described as "tight, elaborate, fast-paced plotting". Romantic triangles are a common plot element in Rand's fiction; in most of her novels and plays, the main female character is romantically involved with at least two men. Influences .]] In school, Rand read works by Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her favorites. She considered them to be among the "top rank" of Romantic writers because of their focus on moral themes and their skill at constructing plots. Hugo was an important influence on her writing, especially her approach to plotting. In the introduction she wrote for an English-language edition of his novel Ninety-Three, Rand called him "the greatest novelist in world literature". Although Rand disliked most Russian literature, her depictions of her heroes show the influence of the Russian Symbolists and other nineteenth-century Russian writing, most notably the 1863 novel What Is to Be Done? by Nikolay Chernyshevsky. Scholars of Russian literature see in Chernyshevsky's character Rakhmetov, an "ascetic revolutionist", the template for Rand's literary heroes and heroines. Rand's experience of the Russian Revolution and early Communist Russia influenced the portrayal of her villains. Beyond We the Living, which is set in Russia, this influence can be seen in the ideas and rhetoric of Ellsworth Toohey in The Fountainhead, and in the destruction of the economy in Atlas Shrugged. Rand's descriptive style echoes her early career writing scenarios and scripts for movies; her novels have many narrative descriptions that resemble early Hollywood movie scenarios. They often follow common film editing conventions, such as having a broad establishing shot description of a scene followed by close-up details, and her descriptions of women characters often take a "male gaze" perspective. Contemporary reviews The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th. Reviews of the Broadway production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Although Rand believed that We the Living was not widely reviewed, over 200 publications published approximately 125 different reviews. Overall, they were more positive than those she received for her later work. Anthem received little review attention, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues. Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead, received far fewer reviews than We the Living, and reviewers' opinions were mixed. Lorine Pruette's positive review in The New York Times, which called the author "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly", was one that Rand greatly appreciated. There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them for either misunderstanding her message or for being in unimportant publications. Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications; Rand believed in free will as a form of agent causation and rejected determinism. Rand also related her aesthetics to metaphysics by defining art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments". According to her, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be grasped easily, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness. As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature. In works such as The Romantic Manifesto and The Art of Fiction, she described Romanticism as the approach that most accurately reflects the existence of human free will. In epistemology, Rand considered all knowledge to be based on forming higher levels of understanding from sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic. She described reason as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses". Rand rejected all claims of non-perceptual knowledge, including instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing. In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, Rand presented a theory of concept formation and rejected the analytic–synthetic dichotomy. She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy. Commentators, including Hazel Barnes, Nathaniel Branden, and Albert Ellis, have criticized Rand's focus on the importance of reason. Barnes and Ellis said Rand was too dismissive of emotion and failed to recognize its importance in human life. Branden said Rand's emphasis on reason led her to denigrate emotions and create unrealistic expectations of how consistently rational human beings should be. Ethics and politics In ethics, Rand argued for rational and ethical egoism (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself". Rand referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her book of that title. In it, she presented her solution to the is–ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival <em>qua</em> man", which requires the use of a rational mind. She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness, and held the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in Atlas Shrugged that "Force and mind are opposites". Rand's ethics and politics are the most criticized areas of her philosophy. Several authors, including Robert Nozick and William F. O'Neill in two of the earliest academic critiques of her ideas, said she failed in her attempt to solve the is–ought problem. Critics have called her definitions of egoism and altruism biased and inconsistent with normal usage. Critics from religious traditions oppose her atheism and her rejection of altruism. Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights, including property rights. She considered laissez-faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on protecting those rights. Rand opposed collectivism and statism, which she considered to include many specific forms of government, such as communism, fascism, socialism, theocracy, and the welfare state. Her preferred form of government was a constitutional republic that is limited to the protection of individual rights. Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, Rand preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics. Rand rejected anarchism as a naive theory based in subjectivism that would lead to collectivism in practice, and denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism. Several critics, including Nozick, have said her attempt to justify individual rights based on egoism fails. Others, like libertarian philosopher Michael Huemer, have gone further, saying that her support of egoism and her support of individual rights are inconsistent positions. Some critics, like Roy Childs, have said that her opposition to the initiation of force should lead to support of anarchism, rather than limited government. Relationship to other philosophers Except for Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and classical liberals, Rand was sharply critical of most philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her. Acknowledging Aristotle as her greatest influence, Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. In a 1959 interview with Mike Wallace, when asked where her philosophy came from, she responded: "Out of my own mind, with the sole acknowledgement of a debt to Aristotle, the only philosopher who ever influenced me." In an article for the Claremont Review of Books, political scientist Charles Murray criticized Rand's claim that her only "philosophical debt" was to Aristotle. He asserted her ideas were derivative of previous thinkers such as John Locke and Friedrich Nietzsche. Rand took early inspiration from Nietzsche, and scholars have found indications of this in Rand's private journals. In 1928, she alluded to his idea of the "superman" in notes for an unwritten novel whose protagonist was inspired by the murderer William Edward Hickman. There are other indications of Nietzsche's influence in passages from the first edition of We the Living, which Rand later revised, and in her overall writing style. By the time she wrote The Fountainhead, Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas, and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed. Rand's views also may have been influenced by the promotion of egoism among the Russian nihilists, including Chernyshevsky and Dmitry Pisarev, although there is no direct evidence that she read them. Rand considered Immanuel Kant her philosophical opposite and "the most evil man in mankind's history". She believed his epistemology undermined reason and his ethics opposed self-interest. Philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon have argued she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences. She was critical of Plato and viewed his differences with Aristotle on questions of metaphysics and epistemology as the primary conflict in the history of philosophy. Rand's relationship with contemporary philosophers was mostly antagonistic. She was not an academic and did not participate in academic discourse. She was dismissive of critics and wrote about ideas she disagreed with in a polemical manner without in-depth analysis. Academic philosophers viewed her negatively and dismissed her as an unimportant figure who should not be considered a philosopher, or given any serious response. Early academic reaction During Rand's lifetime, her work received little attention from academic scholars. In 1967, John Hospers discussed Rand's ethical ideas in the second edition of his textbook, An Introduction to Philosophical Analysis. In 1967, Hazel Barnes included a chapter critiquing Objectivism in her book An Existentialist Ethics. When the first full-length academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals before her death in 1982, many of them in The Personalist. One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who criticized her meta-ethical arguments. In the same journal, other philosophers argued that Nozick misstated Rand's case. In an 1978 article responding to Nozick, Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen defended her positions, but described her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional". After her death, interest in Rand's ideas increased gradually. The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand, a 1984 collection of essays about Objectivism edited by Den Uyl and Rasmussen, was the first academic book about Rand's ideas published after her death. In one essay, political writer Jack Wheeler wrote that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage", Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought". In 1987, the Ayn Rand Society was founded as an affiliate of the American Philosophical Association. In a 1995 entry about Rand in Contemporary Women Philosophers, Jenny A. Heyl described a divergence in how different academic specialties viewed Rand. She said that Rand's philosophy "is regularly omitted from academic philosophy. Yet, throughout literary academia, Ayn Rand is considered a philosopher." Writing in the 1998 edition of the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, political theorist Chandran Kukathas summarized the mainstream philosophical reception of her work in two parts. He said most commentators view her ethical argument as an unconvincing variant of Aristotle's ethics, and her political theory "is of little interest" because it is marred by an "ill-thought out and unsystematic" effort to reconcile her hostility to the state with her rejection of anarchism. In 1999, The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, a peer-reviewed, multidisciplinary academic journal devoted to the study of Rand and her ideas, was established. 21st-century academic reaction In 2009, historian Jennifer Burns identified "an explosion of scholarship" about Rand since 2000; however, as of that year, few universities included Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area. From 2002 to 2012, over 60 colleges and universities accepted grants from the charitable foundation of BB&T that required teaching Rand's ideas or works. In some cases, the grants were controversial or even rejected because of the requirement to teach about Rand. In a 2010 essay for the Cato Institute, Huemer argued very few people find Rand's ideas convincing, especially her ethics. He attributed the attention she receives to her being a "compelling writer", especially as a novelist. In 2012, the Pennsylvania State University Press agreed to take over publication of The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, and the University of Pittsburgh Press launched an "Ayn Rand Society Philosophical Studies" series based on the Society's proceedings. The Fall 2012 update to the entry about Rand in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy said that "only a few professional philosophers have taken her work seriously". In 2012, political scientist Alan Wolfe dismissed Rand as a "nonperson" among academics, an attitude that writer Ben Murnane later described as "the traditional academic view" of Rand. In a 2018 article for Aeon, philosopher Skye C. Cleary wrote: "Philosophers love to hate Ayn Rand. It's trendy to scoff at any mention of her." However, Cleary said that because many people take Rand's ideas seriously, philosophers "need to treat the Ayn Rand phenomenon seriously" and provide refutations rather than ignoring her. in 2020, Media critic Eric Burns said that "Rand is surely the most engaging philosopher of my lifetime", but "nobody in the academe pays any attention to her, neither as an author nor a philosopher". In 2020, the editor of a collection of critical essays about Rand said academics who disapproved of her ideas had long held "a stubborn resolve to ignore or ridicule" her work but that more were engaging with her work in recent years. In 2023, The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies ceased publication. Legacy Popular interest '' has sold more than 10 million copies.]] With over 37million copies sold , Rand's books continue to be read widely. In 1991, a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book of the Month Club asked club members to name the most influential book in their lives. Rand's Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.}} Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, like Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith. She influenced later writers like Erika Holzer, Terry Goodkind, and comic book artist Steve Ditko. Rand provided a positive view of business and subsequently many business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work. Businessmen such as John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas. Television shows, movies, songs, and video games have referred to Rand and her works. Throughout her life she was the subject of many articles in popular magazines, as well as book-length critiques by authors such as the psychologist Albert Ellis and Trinity Foundation president John W. Robbins. Rand or characters based on her figure prominently in novels by American authors, including Kay Nolte Smith, Mary Gaitskill, Matt Ruff, and Tobias Wolff. Nick Gillespie, former editor-in-chief of Reason, remarked: "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist. Jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman run through the popular culture." Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. The Passion of Ayn Rand, a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards. Rand's image appears on a 1999 U.S. postage stamp illustrated by artist Nick Gaetano. Rand's works, most commonly Anthem or The Fountainhead, are sometimes assigned as secondary school reading. Since 2002, the Ayn Rand Institute has provided free copies of Rand's novels to teachers who promise to include the books in their curriculum. The Institute had distributed 4.5million copies in the U.S. and Canada by the end of 2020.<ref name"ARI2020"/> In 2017, Rand was added to the required reading list for the A Level Politics exam in the United Kingdom. Political influence Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian", Rand has had a continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism. Rand is often considered one of the three most important women, along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson, in the early development of modern American libertarianism. David Nolan, one founder of the Libertarian Party, said that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist". In his history of libertarianism, journalist Brian Doherty described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large". Political scientist Andrew Koppelman called her "the most widely read libertarian". Historian Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right". The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are usually conservatives, often members of the Republican Party, despite Rand taking some atypical positions for a conservative, like being pro-choice and an atheist. She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley Jr. and other contributors to the conservative National Review magazine, which published numerous criticisms of her writings and ideas. Nevertheless, a 1987 article in The New York Times called her the Reagan administration's "novelist laureate". Republican congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and have recommended her novels. She has influenced some conservative politicians outside the U.S., such as Sajid Javid in the United Kingdom, Siv Jensen in Norway, and Ayelet Shaked in Israel. rally refers to John Galt, the hero of Rand's Atlas Shrugged.]] The 2007–2008 financial crisis renewed interest in her works, especially Atlas Shrugged, which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis. Opinion articles compared real-world events with the novel's plot. Signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests. There was increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left. Critics blamed the Great Recession on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan. In 2015, Adam Weiner said that through Greenspan, "Rand had effectively chucked a ticking time bomb into the boiler room of the US economy". In 2019, Lisa Duggan said that Rand's novels had "incalculable impact" in encouraging the spread of neoliberal political ideas. In 2021, Cass Sunstein said Rand's ideas could be seen in the tax and regulatory policies of the Trump administration, which he attributed to the "enduring influence" of Rand's fiction. Objectivist movement co-founded the Ayn Rand Institute.]] After the closure of the Nathaniel Branden Institute, the Objectivist movement continued in other forms. In the 1970s, Peikoff began delivering courses on Objectivism. In 1979, Peter Schwartz started a newsletter called The Intellectual Activist, which Rand endorsed. She also endorsed The Objectivist Forum, a bimonthly magazine founded by Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger, which ran from 1980 to 1987. In 1985, Peikoff worked with businessman Ed Snider to establish the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to promoting Rand's ideas and works. In 1990, after an ideological disagreement with Peikoff, David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society. In 2001, historian John P. McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. Selected works <!-- NOTE: This is a selected bibliography and not meant to be comprehensive. --> Fiction and drama * Night of January 16th (performed 1934, published 1968) * We the Living (1936, revised 1959) * Anthem (1938, revised 1946) * The Unconquered (performed 1940, published 2014) * The Fountainhead (1943) * Atlas Shrugged (1957) * The Early Ayn Rand (1984) Ideal (1936, performed 1989) Think Twice (1939) * Ideal (based on the eponymous play, 2015) Non-fiction * Pola Negri (1925) * For the New Intellectual (1961) * The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) * Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966, expanded 1967) * The Romantic Manifesto (1969, expanded 1975) * The New Left (1971, expanded 1975) * Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1979, expanded 1990) * Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982) * Letters of Ayn Rand (1995) * Journals of Ayn Rand (1997) Notes References Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Reprinted from Esquire, July 1961. * * * * * * Further reading * External links * * * * * [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mss/eadmss.ms002006 Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] * [http://www.aynrandlexicon.com Ayn Rand Lexicon] – searchable database * [http://ari.aynrand.org/faq Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand] from the Ayn Rand Institute * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?169959-1/writings-ayn-rand "Writings of Ayn Rand"] – from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History * }} Category:1905 births Category:1982 deaths Category:20th-century American dramatists and playwrights Category:20th-century American essayists Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American philosophers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:20th-century American women writers Category:20th-century atheists Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers Category:20th-century Russian philosophers Category:Activists from New York (state) Category:American anti-fascists Category:American atheists Category:American critics of Christianity Category:American critics of religions Category:American ethicists Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent Category:American political activists Category:American political philosophers Category:American science fiction writers Category:American women dramatists and playwrights Category:American women essayists Category:American women novelists Category:American women philosophers Category:American women science fiction and fantasy writers Category:American women screenwriters Category:American writers on atheism Category:American Writers Association members Category:American Zionists Category:Aristotelian philosophers Category:Atheists from the Russian Empire Category:Atheist philosophers Category:Burials at Kensico Cemetery Category:Critics of socialism Category:Deaths from congestive heart failure Category:Dramatists and playwrights from the Russian Empire Category:Epistemologists Category:Exophonic writers Category:Female critics of feminism Category:Jewish American atheists Category:Jewish American dramatists and playwrights Category:Jewish American essayists Category:Jewish American novelists Category:Jewish American screenwriters Category:Jewish anti-communists Category:Jewish women writers Category:Metaphysicians Category:Natural law ethicists Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Novelists from New York (state) Category:Objectivists Category:Moral realists Category:MPAPAI members Category:Philosophers from New York (state) Category:Political philosophers Category:Pseudonymous women writers Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni Category:Screenwriters from New York (state) Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States Category:Writers from New York City Category:Writers from Saint Petersburg	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayn_Rand	2025-04-05T18:25:16.641807
340	Alain Connes	\| birth_place = Draguignan, France \| death_date \| death_place \| fields = Mathematics <br/> Particle physics \| workplaces = Collège de France <br/> IHÉS <br/> Ohio State University <br/> Vanderbilt University \| alma_mater = École Normale Supérieure <br> Pierre and Marie Curie University \| thesis_title = A Classification of Factors of Type III \| thesis_year = 1973 \| doctoral_advisor = Jacques Dixmier \| doctoral_students = Jean-Benoît Bost<br>Georges Skandalis \| known_for = Baum–Connes conjecture<br>Noncommutative geometry<br>Noncommutative standard model<br>Operator algebras<br>Thermal time hypothesis \| awards = Peccot-Vimont Prize (1976)<br/>CNRS Silver Medal (1977)<br/> Ampère Prize (1980)<br/> Fields Medal (1982)<br/> Clay Research Award (2000)<br/> Crafoord Prize (2001)<br/> CNRS Gold medal (2004) \| website = \| footnotes = }} Alain Connes (; born 1 April 1947) is a French mathematician, known for his contributions to the study of operator algebras and noncommutative geometry. He was a professor at the , , Ohio State University and Vanderbilt University. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1982.CareerAlain Connes attended high school at in Marseille, and was then a student of the classes préparatoires in . Between 1966 and 1970 he studied at École normale supérieure in Paris, and in 1973 he obtained a PhD from Pierre and Marie Curie University, under the supervision of Jacques Dixmier. In 1976 he returned to France and worked as professor at Pierre and Marie Curie University until 1980 and at CNRS between 1981 and 1984. Moreover, since 1979 he holds the Léon Motchane Chair at IHES. From 1984 until his retirement in 2017 he held the chair of Analysis and Geometry at Collège de France. In parallel, he was awarded a distinguished professorship at Vanderbilt University between 2003 and 2012, and at Ohio State University between 2012 and 2021. Research Connes' main research interests revolved around operator algebras. Besides noncommutative geometry, he has applied his works in various areas of mathematics and number theory, differential geometry. In his early work on von Neumann algebras in the 1970s, he succeeded in obtaining the almost complete classification of injective factors. He also formulated the Connes embedding problem. Following this, he made contributions in operator K-theory and index theory, which culminated in the Baum–Connes conjecture. He also introduced cyclic cohomology in the early 1980s as a first step in the study of noncommutative differential geometry. He was a member of Nicolas Bourbaki. Over many years, he collaborated extensively with Henri Moscovici. the Ampère Prize in 1980, the Fields Medal in 1982, the Clay Research Award in 2000 and the Crafoord Prize in 2001. The French National Centre for Scientific Research granted him the silver medal in 1977 and the gold medal in 2004. He was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1974 at Vancouver and in 1986 at Berkeley, and a plenary speaker at the ICM in 1978 at Helsinki. .]] He was awarded honorary degrees from Queen's University at Kingston in 1979, University of Rome Tor Vergata in 1997, University of Oslo in 1999, University of Southern Denmark in 2009, Université libre de Bruxelles in 2010 and Shanghai Fudan University in 2017. Since 1982 he is a member of the French Academy of Sciences. He was elected member of several foreign academies and societies, including the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in 1980, the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in 1983, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1989, the London Mathematical Society in 1994, the Canadian Academy of Sciences in 1995 (incorporated since 2002 in the Royal Society of Canada), the US National Academy of Sciences in 1997, the Russian Academy of Science in 2003 and the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium in 2016. In 2001 he received (together with his co-authors André Lichnerowicz and Marco Schutzenberger) the Peano Prize for his work Triangle of Thoughts.FamilyAlain Connes is the middle-born of three sons – born to parents both of whom lived to be 101 years old. He married in 1971.See also * Bost–Connes system * Cyclic category * Cyclic homology * Factor (functional analysis) * Higgs boson * C-algebra Noncommutative quantum field theory * M-theory * Groupoid * Spectral triple Criticism of non-standard analysis Riemann hypothesis References External links * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] containing [http://www.alainconnes.org/en/downloads.php downloadable papers], and his book [http://www.alainconnes.org/docs/book94bigpdf.pdf Non-commutative geometry], . * * [http://resonaances.blogspot.com/2007/02/alain-connes-standard-model.html Alain Connes' Standard Model] * An [http://www.ipm.ac.ir/ViewNewsInfo.jsp?NTID227 interview with Alain Connes] and a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~woit/wordpress/?p313 discussion about it] * * Category:1947 births Category:Living people Category:People from Draguignan Category:20th-century French mathematicians Category:21st-century French mathematicians Category:French mathematical analysts Category:Differential geometers Category:Fields Medalists Category:Clay Research Award recipients Category:École Normale Supérieure alumni Category:Academic staff of the Collège de France Category:Institute for Advanced Study visiting scholars Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Category:Vanderbilt University faculty Category:Foreign members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Category:Members of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters Category:London Mathematical Society	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain_Connes	2025-04-05T18:25:16.679465
344	Allan Dwan	\| birth_place = Toronto, Ontario, Canada \| death_date = \| death_place = Los Angeles, California, United States \| spouse <br/> \| occupation = Film director<br />Film producer<br />Screenwriter \| years_active = 1911–1961; 1980 }} Allan Dwan (born Joseph Aloysius Dwan; April 3, 1885 – December 28, 1981) was a pioneering Canadian-born American motion picture director, producer, and screenwriter. Early life Born Joseph Aloysius Dwan in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Dwan was the younger son of commercial traveler of woolen clothing Joseph Michael Dwan (1857–1917) and his wife Mary Jane Dwan (née Hunt). The family moved to the United States when he was seven years old on December 4, 1892, by ferry from Windsor to Detroit, according to his naturalization petition of August 1939. His elder brother, Leo Garnet Dwan (1883–1964), became a physician. Allan Dwan studied engineering at the University of Notre Dame and then worked for a lighting company in Chicago. He had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry, and when Essanay Studios offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the East Coast movie makers began to spend winters in California where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round, and in 1911, Dwan began working part-time in Hollywood. While still in New York, in 1917 he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the Motion Picture Directors Association. Career Dwan started his directing career by accident in 1911, when he was sent by his employers to California, in order to locate a company that had vanished. Dwan managed to track the company down, and learned that they were waiting for a film director (who was an alcoholic) to return from a binge and allow them to resume their work. Dwan wired back to his employers in Chicago, informing them of the situation, and suggested that they disband the company. They wired back, instructing Dwan to direct the stalled film. When Dwan informed the company of the situation, and that their jobs were on the line, they responded: "You're the best damn director we ever saw". Dwan operated Flying A Studios in La Mesa, California, from August 1911 to July 1912. Flying A was one of the first motion pictures studios in California history. On August 12, 2011, a plaque was unveiled on the Wolff building at Third Avenue and La Mesa Boulevard commemorating Dwan and the Flying A Studios origins in La Mesa, California. After making a series of westerns and comedies, Dwan directed fellow Canadian-American Mary Pickford in several very successful movies as well as her husband, Douglas Fairbanks, notably in the acclaimed 1922 Robin Hood. Around that time, he also directed Carole Lombard in A Perfect Crime, her film debut. Dwan directed Gloria Swanson in eight feature films, and one short film made in the short-lived sound-on-film process Phonofilm. This short, also featuring Thomas Meighan and Henri de la Falaise, was produced as a joke, for the April 26, 1925 "Lambs' Gambol" for The Lambs, with the film showing Swanson crashing the all-male club. Following the introduction of the talkies, Dwan directed child-star Shirley Temple in Heidi (1937) and Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938). Dwan helped launch the career of two other successful Hollywood directors, Victor Fleming, who went on to direct The Wizard of Oz and Gone With the Wind, and Marshall Neilan, who became an actor, director, writer and producer. Over a long career spanning almost 50 years, Dwan directed 125 motion pictures, some of which were highly acclaimed, such as the 1949 box office hit, Sands of Iwo Jima. He directed his last movie in 1961. Being one of the last surviving pioneers of the cinema, he was interviewed at length for the 1980 documentary series Hollywood.Partial filmography as director The Restless Spirit (1913) Back to Life (1913) Bloodhounds of the North (1913) The Lie (1914) The Honor of the Mounted (1914) The Unwelcome Mrs. Hatch (1914) Remember Mary Magdalen (1914) Discord and Harmony (1914) The Embezzler (1914) The Lamb, the Woman, the Wolf (1914) The End of the Feud (1914) The Test (1914) (writer) The Tragedy of Whispering Creek (1914) The Unlawful Trade (1914) The Forbidden Room (1914) The Hopes of Blind Alley (1914) Richelieu (1914) * Wildflower (1914) A Small Town Girl (1915) David Harum (1915) A Girl of Yesterday (1915) The Pretty Sister of Jose (1915) * Jordan Is a Hard Road (1915) The Habit of Happiness (1916) The Good Bad Man (1916) An Innocent Magdalene (1916) The Half-Breed (1916) Manhattan Madness (1916) Accusing Evidence (1916) Panthea (1917) A Modern Musketeer (1917) Bound in Morocco (1918) ''Headin' South (1918) Mr. Fix-It (1918) He Comes Up Smiling (1918) Cheating Cheaters (1919) The Dark Star (1919) Getting Mary Married (1919) Soldiers of Fortune (1919) In The Heart of a Fool (1920) also producer The Forbidden Thing (1920) also producer A Splendid Hazard (1920) A Perfect Crime (1921) * The Sin of Martha Queed (1921) * A Broken Doll (1921) Robin Hood (1922) Zaza (1923) Big Brother (1923) Manhandled (1924) Argentine Love (1924) The Coast of Folly (1925) Night Life of New York (1925) Stage Struck (1925) Padlocked (1926) Sea Horses (1926) Summer Bachelors (1926) Tin Gods (1926) French Dressing (1927) The Joy Girl (1927) East Side, West Side (1927) The Big Noise (1928) Frozen Justice (1929) The Iron Mask (1929) Tide of Empire (1929) The Far Call (1929) What a Widow! (1930) Man to Man (1930) Wicked (1931) While Paris Sleeps (1932) Counsel's Opinion (1933) Black Sheep (1935) Navy Wife (1935) High Tension (1936) 15 Maiden Lane (1936) One Mile from Heaven (1937) Heidi (1937) Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1938) Suez (1938) Josette (1938) The Three Musketeers (1939) The Gorilla (1939) Frontier Marshal (1939) Sailor's Lady (1940) Young People (1940) Trail of the Vigilantes (1940) Look Who's Laughing (1941) also producer Rise and Shine (1941) Friendly Enemies (1942) Around the World (1943) also producer Up in Mabel's Room (1944) Abroad with Two Yanks (1944) Getting Gertie's Garter (1945) also screenwriter Brewster's Millions (1945) Rendezvous with Annie (1946) Driftwood (1947) Calendar Girl (1947) Northwest Outpost (1947) also associate producer The Inside Story (1948) Angel in Exile (1948) (with Philip Ford) Sands of Iwo Jima (1949) Surrender (1950) Belle Le Grand (1951) Wild Blue Yonder (1951) I Dream of Jeanie (1952) Montana Belle (1952) Woman They Almost Lynched (1953) Sweethearts on Parade (1953) Silver Lode (1954) Passion (1954) Cattle Queen of Montana (1954) Tennessee's Partner (1955) Pearl of the South Pacific (1955) Escape to Burma (1955) Slightly Scarlet (1956) Hold Back the Night (1956) The Restless Breed (1957) The River's Edge (1957) Enchanted Island (1958) Most Dangerous Man Alive (1961) See also Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood References Further reading Brownlow, Kevin, The Parade's Gone By... (1968) Bogdanovich, Peter, Allan Dwan: The Last Pioneer (1971) Foster, Charles, Stardust and Shadows: Canadians in Early Hollywood (2000) Lombardi, Frederic, Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios'' (2013) Print E-book External links *[http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/2643/allan-dwan Allan Dwan profile], virtual-history.com; accessed June 16, 2014 Category:1885 births Category:1981 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American screenwriters Category:Film directors from Los Angeles Category:Film producers from Los Angeles Category:American male screenwriters Category:Burials at San Fernando Mission Cemetery Category:Canadian emigrants to the United States Category:Film directors from Toronto Category:Western (genre) film directors Category:Screenwriters from Toronto Category:People from La Mesa, California Category:Writers from San Diego	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Dwan	2025-04-05T18:25:16.710615
358	Algeria	<br />}} \| name \| common_name Algeria \| image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg \| flag_border = yes \| image_coat = National Emblem of Algeria (bronze effect).svg \| symbol_type = Emblem \| national_motto <br />"Biš-šaʿb wa liš-šaʿb"<br />"By the people and for the people" \| national_anthem <br />Qasaman<br />"We Pledge"<br /><div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg \| map_caption = \| image_map2 \| capital Algiers \| coordinates = \| largest_city = capital \| religion = \| official_languages = }} \| languages_type = National vernacular \| languages Algerian Arabic \| languages2_type = Foreign languages \| languages2 = French<br />English \| ethnic_groups = See Ethnic groups \| religion_ref \| demonym = Algerian \| government_type = Unitary semi-presidential republic \| leader_title1 = President \| leader_name1 = Abdelmadjid Tebboune \| leader_title2 = Prime Minister \| leader_name2 = Nadir Larbaoui \| leader_title3 = Council President \| leader_name3 = Salah Goudjil \| leader_title4 = Assembly President \| leader_name4 = Ibrahim Boughali \| legislature = Parliament \| upper_house = Council of the Nation \| lower_house = People's National Assembly \| sovereignty_type = Formation \| established_event1 = Numidia \| established_date1 = 202 BC \| established_event2 = Kingdom of Tlemcen \| established_date2 = 1235 \| established_event3 = Regency of Algiers \| established_date3 = 1516 \| established_event4 = French Algeria \| established_date4 = 5 July 1830 \| established_event5 = Independence \| established_date5 = 5 July 1962 \| area_km2 = 2381741 \| area_rank = 10th \| area_sq_mi = 919595 \| percent_water \| population_estimate 46,700,000 \| population_estimate_year = 2024 \| population_estimate_rank = 33rd \| population_census_year \| population_density_km2 19 \| population_density_sq_mi = 49 \| population_density_rank = 171th \| GDP_PPP $768.52 billion \| GDP_nominal_year = 2024 \| GDP_nominal_rank = 50th \| GDP_nominal_per_capita $5,722 \| HDI = 0.745 \| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 93rd \| currency = Algerian dinar \| currency_code = DZD \| time_zone = CET \| utc_offset = +1 \| calling_code = +213 \| cctld = \| today = }} \| religion_year = 2012 }} Algeria, ; , ; }} officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria,; . Formerly also rendered as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria''' in English, as seen on the 1981 Algiers Accords.}} is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia; to the east by Libya; to the southeast by Niger; to the southwest by Mali, Mauritania, and Western Sahara; to the west by Morocco; and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The capital and largest city is Algiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast. Inhabited since prehistory, Algeria has been at the crossroads of numerous cultures and civilisations, including the Phoenicians, Numidians, Romans, Vandals, and Byzantine Greeks. Its modern identity is rooted in centuries of Arab Muslim migration waves since the seventh century and the subsequent Arabisation of the indigenous populations. Following a succession of Islamic Arab and Berber dynasties between the eighth and 15th centuries, the Regency of Algiers was established in 1516 as a largely independent tributary state of the Ottoman Empire. After nearly three centuries as a major power in the Mediterranean, the country was invaded by France in 1830 and formally annexed in 1848, though it was not fully conquered and pacified until 1903. French rule brought mass European settlement that displaced the local population, which was reduced by up to one-third due to warfare, disease, and starvation. The Sétif and Guelma massacre in 1945 catalysed local resistance that culminated in the outbreak of the Algerian War in 1954. Algeria gained its independence in 1962. The country descended into a bloody civil war from 1992 to 2002. Spanning , Algeria is the world's tenth-largest nation by area, and the largest nation in Africa. It has a semi-arid climate, with the Sahara desert dominating most of the territory except for its fertile and mountainous north, where most of the population is concentrated. With a population of 44 million, Algeria is the tenth-most populous country in Africa, and the 33rd-most populous country in the world. Algeria's official languages are Arabic and Tamazight; French is used in media, education, and certain administrative matters, but it has no official status. The vast majority of the population speak the Algerian dialect of Arabic. Most Algerians are Arabs, with Berbers forming a sizeable minority. Sunni Islam is the official religion and practised by 99 percent of the population. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the OIC, OPEC, the United Nations, and the Arab Maghreb Union, of which it is a founding member. Name '' of 1575]] Different forms of the name Algeria include: , , . The country's full name is officially the ''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria'' (; , RADP; Berber Tifinagh: , Berber Latin alphabet: ). Etymology Algeria's name derives from the city of Algiers, which in turn derives from the Arabic (, "the islands"), referring to four small islands off its coast, a truncated form of the older (, "islands of Bani Mazghanna"). The name was given by Buluggin ibn Ziri after he established the city on the ruins of the Phoenician city of Icosium in 950. It was employed by medieval geographers such as Muhammad al-Idrisi and Yaqut al-Hamawi. Algeria took its name from the Regency of Algeria or Regency of Algiers, when Ottoman rule was established in the central Maghreb in early 16th century. This period saw the installation of a political and administrative organisation which participated in the establishment of the Watan el djazâïr (, country of Algiers) and the definition of its borders with its neighboring entities on the east and west. The Ottoman Turks who settled in Algeria referred both to themselves and the peoples as "Algerians". Algerian nationalist, historian and statesman Ahmed Tewfik El Madani regarded the regency as the "first Algerian state" and the "Algerian Ottoman republic". History Prehistory and ancient history ]] Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech (Algeria) were considered to represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa. Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit are estimated to be ~1.9 million years old, and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4 million years. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of Middle Paleolithic Flake tool techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called Aterian (after the archaeological site of Bir el Ater, south of Tebessa). The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called Iberomaurusian (located mainly in the Oran region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the Maghreb between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilisation (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the Tassili n'Ajjer paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called Berbers, who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa. ruins of Timgad on the street leading to the local Arch of Trajan]] From their principal center of power at Carthage, the Carthaginians expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa, east of Cherchell, Hippo Regius (modern Annaba) and Rusicade (modern Skikda). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. ( 238–148 BC), first king of Numidia]] By the early 4th century BC, The north is devided into two Masaesyli kingdom in west led by Syphax and Massylii kingdom in east. Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the Revolt of the Mercenaries, Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the First Punic War. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the Punic Wars. In 146 BC the city of Carthage was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in Numidia, behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay Mauretania, which extended across the Moulouya River in modern-day Morocco to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of the Almohads and Almoravids more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of Masinissa in the 2nd century BC. (The empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire (vassals in pink))]] After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the Roman Empire. ]] For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Algeria is home to the second-largest number of Roman sites and remains after Italy. Rome, after getting rid of its powerful rival Carthage in the year 146 BC, decided a century later to include Numidia to become the new master of North Africa. They built more than 500 cities. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. Saint Augustine was the bishop of Hippo Regius (modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province of Africa. The Germanic Vandals of Geiseric moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Leptis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous Laguatan who had been busy facilitating an Amazigh political, military and cultural revival. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Berber people were so resistant that even during the Muslim conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire led to the establishment of a native Kingdom based in Altava (modern-day Algeria) known as the Mauro-Roman Kingdom. It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava, the Kingdom of Altava. During the reign of Kusaila its territory extended from the region of modern-day Fez in the west to the western Aurès and later Kairaouan and the interior of Ifriqiya in the east. Middle Ages After negligible resistance from the locals, Muslim Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate conquered Algeria in the early 8th century. Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the Rustamids, Aghlabids, Fatimids, Zirids, Hammadids, Almoravids, Almohads and the Zayyanids. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to Sicily by the Normans and the few remaining died out in the 14th century. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The Berber people historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, Sanhadja, Houara, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, and Berghwata). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions. Several Amazigh dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. Ibn Khaldun provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the Zirid, Ifranid, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid, Meknassa and Hafsid dynasties. Both of the Hammadid and Zirid empires as well as the Fatimids established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The Zirids ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The Hammadids captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region. The Fatimids which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East. ]] Following the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb. In Algeria the Rustamid Kingdom was established. The Rustamid realm stretched from Tafilalt in Morocco to the Nafusa mountains in Libya including south, central and western Tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day Maghreb countries, in the south the Rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders of Mali and included territory in Mauritania. Once extending their control over all of the Maghreb, part of Spain and briefly over Sicily, originating from modern Algeria, the Zirids only controlled modern Ifriqiya by the 11th century. The Zirids recognised nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Cairo. El Mu'izz the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence. The Zirids also fought against other Zenata Kingdoms, for example the Maghrawa, a Berber dynasty originating from Algeria and which at one point was a dominant power in the Maghreb ruling over much of Morocco and western Algeria including Fez, Sijilmasa, Aghmat, Oujda, most of the Sous and Draa and reaching as far as M'sila and the Zab in Algeria. As the Fatimid state was at the time too weak to attempt a direct invasion, they found another means of revenge. Between the Nile and the Red Sea were living Bedouin nomad tribes expelled from Arabia for their disruption and turbulency. The Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym for example, who regularly disrupted farmers in the Nile Valley since the nomads would often loot their farms. The then Fatimid vizier decided to destroy what he could not control, and broke a deal with the chiefs of these Bedouin tribes. The Fatimids even gave them money to leave. Whole tribes set off with women, children, elders, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in Cyrenaica, where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in Ifriqiya by the Gabes region, arriving 1051. The Zirid ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of Kairouan, his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the battlefield. The Arabs usually did not take control over the cities, instead looting them and destroying them. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by the Banu Hilal tribes had become completely arid desert. The Almohads originating from modern day Morocco, although founded by a man originating from modern day Algeria known as Abd al-Mu'min would soon take control over the Maghreb. During the time of the Almohad Dynasty Abd al-Mu'min's tribe, the Koumïa, were the main supporters of the throne and the most important body of the empire. Defeating the weakening Almoravid Empire and taking control over Morocco in 1147, they pushed into Algeria in 1152, taking control over Tlemcen, Oran, and Algiers, wrestling control from the Hilian Arabs, and by the same year they defeated Hammadids who controlled Eastern Algeria. of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors]] The Zayyanids retained their control over Algeria for 3 centuries. Much of the eastern territories of Algeria were under the authority of the Hafsid dynasty, although the Emirate of Bejaia encompassing the Algerian territories of the Hafsids would occasionally be independent from central Tunisian control. At their peak the Zayyanid kingdom included all of Morocco as its vassal to the west and in the east reached as far as Tunis which they captured during the reign of Abu Tashfin. After several conflicts with local Barbary pirates sponsored by the Zayyanid sultans, Spain decided to invade Algeria and defeat the native Kingdom of Tlemcen. In 1505, they invaded and captured Mers el Kébir, and in 1509 after a bloody siege, they conquered Oran. Following their decisive victories over the Algerians in the western-coastal areas of Algeria, the Spanish decided to get bolder, and invaded more Algerian cities. In 1510, they led a series of sieges and attacks, taking over Bejaia in a large siege, and leading a semi-successful siege against Algiers. They also besieged Tlemcen. In 1511, they took control over Cherchell and Jijel, and attacked Mostaganem where although they were not able to conquer the city, they were able to force a tribute on them. Early modern era ]] In 1516, the Turkish privateer brothers Aruj and Hayreddin Barbarossa, who operated successfully under the Hafsids, moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the Spaniards with help from the locals who saw them as liberators from the Christians, but the brothers eventually assassinated the local noble Salim al-Tumi and took control over the city and the surrounding regions. Their state is known as the Regency of Algiers. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of Tlemcen, Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The Ottoman sultan gave him the title of beylerbey and a contingent of some 2,000 janissaries. With the aid of this force and native Algerians, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792). Until 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit, known in Algeria as the Ojaq who were led by an agha. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659. The Barbary pirates preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25 million Europeans as slaves. They often made raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at slave markets in North Africa and other parts of the Ottoman Empire. In 1544, for example, Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the island of Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population. In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, Turgut Reis, enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of Gozo. Barbary pirates often attacked the Balearic Islands. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of Formentera. The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic. In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of Dutch pirate Jan Janszoon sailed as far as Iceland, raiding and capturing slaves. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from Salé in Morocco had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629, pirate ships from Algeria raided the Faroe Islands. , Dey of Algiers]] ]] In 1659, the Janissaries stationed in Algiers, also known commonly as the Odjak of Algiers; and the Reis or the company of corsair captains rebelled, they removed the Ottoman viceroy from power, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of "Agha" then "Dey" in 1671, and the right to select passed to the divan, a council of some sixty military senior officers. Thus Algiers became a sovereign military republic. It was at first dominated by the odjak; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. Although Algiers remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, and often had wars with other Ottoman subjects and territories such as the Beylik of Tunis. The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system was in place, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of the Deylikal government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the Kabylia, although in 1730 the Regency was able to take control over the Kingdom of Kuku in western Kabylia. Many cities in the northern parts of the Algerian desert paid taxes to Algiers or one of its Beys. Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish Empire launched an invasion in 1775, then the Spanish Navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784. For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as Naples, Portugal and the Knights of Malta. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, but all these military campaigns were doomed and Spain had to ask for peace in 1786 and paid 1 million pesos to the Dey. In 1792, Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir, the two last Spanish strongholds in Algeria. In the same year, they conquered the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795. by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816]] In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels. Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in the First and Second Barbary Wars, which ended the attacks on U.S. ships in 1815. A year later, a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet, under the command of Lord Exmouth bombarded Algiers to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until the French conquest in 1830. French colonisation (1830–1962) Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and captured Algiers in 1830. According to several historians, the methods used by the French to establish control over Algeria reached genocidal proportions. Historian Ben Kiernan wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830". French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action. In 1872, The Algerian population stood at about 2.9 million. French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country. The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest. On 17 September 1860, Napoleon III declared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination." During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonised until after the Mokrani Revolt in 1871. Alexis de Tocqueville wrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform Algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of "total domination and total colonisation" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities. , Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865]] From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and département of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, who became known as colons and later, as Pied-Noirs. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land. Many Europeans settled in Oran and Algiers, and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. , Mostefa Ben Boulaïd, Mourad Didouche, Mohammed Boudiaf, Krim Belkacem and Larbi Ben M'Hidi.]] During the late 19th and early 20th century, the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture. During the Second World War, Algeria came under Vichy control before being liberated by the Allies in Operation Torch, which saw the first large-scale deployment of American troops in the North African campaign. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the Sétif and Guelma massacre. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began after the publication of the Declaration of 1 November 1954. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 Harkis and their dependents were killed by the National Liberation Front (FLN) or by lynch mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted severe reprisals. In addition, the French destroyed over 8,000 villages and relocated over 2 million Algerians to concentration camps. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like Alistair Horne and Raymond Aron, state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians. The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements and the July 1962 self-determination referendum. The first three decades of independence (1962–1991) The number of European Pied-Noirs who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964. The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the Oran massacre of 1962, in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city and began attacking civilians. ]] Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) leader Ahmed Ben Bella. Morocco's claim to portions of western Algeria led to the Sand War in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by Houari Boumédiène, his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. However, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He collectivised agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. Oil extraction facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international 1973 oil crisis. Boumédienne's successor, Chadli Bendjedid, introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of Arabisation in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding Air France Flight 8969, a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997. which were won by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a referendum, under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after mass protests against his candidacy for a fifth term in office. In December 2019, Abdelmadjid Tebboune became Algeria's president, after winning the first round of the presidential election with a record abstention rate – the highest of all presidential elections since Algeria's democracy in 1989. Tebboune is accused of being close to the military and being loyal to the deposed president. Tebboune rejects these accusations, claiming to be the victim of a witch hunt. He also reminds his detractors that he was expelled from the Government in August 2017 at the instigation of oligarchs languishing in prison. In September 2024, President Tebboune won a second term with a landslide 84.3 percent of the vote, although his opponents called the results fraud. Geography , the Hoggar Mountains and the Atlas Mountains compose the Algerian relief.]] makes up more than 90% of the country's total area.]] Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan, and the creation of South Sudan, Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the Mediterranean Basin. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the Sahara. To the north, the Tell Atlas forms with the Saharan Atlas, further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of Aures and Nememcha occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is Mount Tahat (). Algeria lies mostly between latitudes 19° and 37°N (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes 9°W and 12°E. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural harbours. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a steppe landscape ending with the Saharan Atlas; farther south, there is the Sahara desert. The Hoggar Mountains (), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of Tamanghasset. Algiers, Oran, Constantine, and Annaba are Algeria's main cities. Many of the creatures constituting the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild boars, jackals, and gazelles, although it is not uncommon to spot fennecs (foxes), and jerboas. Algeria also has a small African leopard and Saharan cheetah population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the Barbary stag, inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. The fennec fox is the national animal of Algeria. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Barbary macaques are the sole native monkey. Snakes, monitor lizards, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of rodents throughout the semi arid regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the Barbary lions, Atlas bears and crocodiles. In the north, some of the native flora includes Macchia scrub, olive trees, oaks, cedars and other conifers. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens (Aleppo pine, juniper, and evergreen oak) and some deciduous trees. Fig, eucalyptus, agave, and various palm trees grow in the warmer areas. The grape vine is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Acacias with wild olives are the predominant flora in the remainder of the Sahara. Algeria had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries. Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, scorpions, and numerous insects. Government and politics , President of Algeria since 2019]] Algeria's government has been described as authoritarian, and elected politicians have relatively little sway over affairs in the country. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders"), known as "le pouvoir" ("the power"), de facto rule the country, even deciding who should be president. The most powerful man might have been Mohamed Mediène, the head of military intelligence, before he was brought down during the 2019 protests. In recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or been imprisoned. After the death of General Larbi Belkheir, previous president Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at Sonatrach, and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely, until he was brought down in 2019 during protests. The head of state is the President of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president is limited to two five-year terms. The most recent presidential election was planned to be in April 2019, but widespread protests erupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April. Abdelmadjid Tebboune, an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system. Algeria has universal suffrage at 18 years of age. ]] The Algerian parliament is bicameral; the lower house, the People's National Assembly, has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the Council of the Nation, has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. According to the constitution, no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects. Parliamentary elections were last held in June 2021. In the elections, the FLN lost 66 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 98 seats. Other parties included the Movement of the Society for Peace which won 65 seats, the National Rally for Democracy which won 58 seats, the Future Front which won 48 seats, and the National Construction Movement which won 39 seats. Foreign relations and George W. Bush exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are Dmitriy Medvedev, left, and Yasuo Fukuda, right.]] Algeria is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4 billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Hervé Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations", when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the Western Sahara have been an obstacle to tightening the Arab Maghreb Union, nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight. On 24 August 2021, Algeria announced the break of diplomatic relations with Morocco. Military , designed and assembled in Algeria]] The military of Algeria consists of the People's National Army (ANP), the Algerian National Navy (MRA), and the Algerian Air Force (QJJ), plus the Territorial Air Defence Forces. It is the direct successor of the National Liberation Army (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial occupation during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62). Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate). Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012. Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they are a close ally. In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 MiG-29SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9 billion. Russia is also building two 636-type diesel submarines for Algeria. Algeria is the 90th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index. Human rights Algeria has been categorised by the US government funded Freedom House as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled "partly free". In December 2016, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor issued a report regarding violation of media freedom in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restrictions on freedom of the press; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled. Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016, a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government. Homosexuality is illegal in Algeria. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison. Despite this, about 26% of Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted, according to the survey conducted by the BBC News Arabic-Arab Barometer in 2019. Algeria showed the highest LGBT acceptance compared to other Arab countries where the survey was conducted. Human Rights Watch has accused the Algerian authorities of using the COVID-19 pandemic as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of social distancing. Administrative divisions Algeria is divided into 58 provinces (wilayas), 553 districts (daïras) and 1,541 municipalities (baladiyahs). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its seat, which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are: In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatisation of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. the African Continental Free Trade Area, and has an association agreement with the European Union. Turkish direct investments have accelerated in Algeria, with total value reaching $5 billion. As of 2022, the number of Turkish companies present in Algeria has reached 1,400. In 2020, despite the pandemic, more than 130 Turkish companies were created in Algeria. Oil and natural resources Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an OPEC member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1 million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and 87.7% of export earnings. Algeria has the 10th-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the sixth-largest gas exporter. The U.S. Energy Information Administration reported that in 2005, Algeria had of proven natural gas reserves. It also ranks 16th in oil reserves. and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4 billion. Access to biocapacity in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit. Under the deal between Algeria's Sonatrach and Italy's Eni, Algeria will send an additional 9 billion cubic metres of gas to Italy by next year and in 2024. Research and alternative energy sources Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development programme is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research. Labour market The overall rate of unemployment was 11.8% in 2023. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle). Tourism ]] The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Algeria which includes Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the first capital of the Hammadid empire; Tipasa, a Phoenician and later Roman town;Djémila and Timgad, both Roman ruins; M'Zab Valley, a limestone valley containing a large urbanised oasis; and the Casbah of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural World Heritage Site in Algeria is the Tassili n'Ajjer, a mountain range. Transport project.]] Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Algeria: * Cairo-Dakar Highway * Algiers-Lagos Highway The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the East-West Highway, a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a three-way, highway, linking Annaba in the extreme east to the Tlemcen in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the Trans-Sahara Highway, which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Chad, and Tunisia. Demographics Algeria has a population of an estimated 45.6 million, of which the majority, 75% to 85% are ethnically Arab. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately 4 million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in oases, although some 1.5 million remain nomadic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15. in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 Palestinian refugees, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7 million Algerians of up to the second generation. Constantine \| div_3 Constantine Province \| pop_3 448,028 \| img_3 Constantine10.JPG \| city_4 Annaba\| div_4 Annaba Province \| pop_4 342,703 \| img_4 Annaba, algeria04.jpg \| city_5 Blida\| div_5 Blida Province \| pop_5 = 331,779 \| city_6 Batna, AlgeriaBatna \| div_6 Batna Province \| pop_6 = 289,504 \| city_7 Djelfa\| div_7 Djelfa Province \| pop_7 = 265,833 \| city_8 Sétif \| div_8 Sétif Province \| pop_8 = 252,127 \| city_9 Sidi Bel Abbès \| div_9 Sidi Bel Abbès Province \| pop_9 = 210,146 \| city_10 Biskra \| div_10 Biskra Province \| pop_10 = 204,661 \| city_11 Tébessa \| div_11 Tébessa Province \| pop_11 = 194,461 \| city_12 El Oued \| div_12 El Oued Province \| pop_12 = 186,525 \| city_13 Skikda \| div_13 Skikda Province \| pop_13 = 182,903 \| city_14 Tiaret \| div_14 Tiaret Province \| pop_14 = 178,915 \| city_15 Béjaïa \| div_15 Béjaïa Province \| pop_15 = 176,139 \| city_16 Tlemcen \| div_16 Tlemcen Province \| pop_16 = 173,531 \| city_17 Ouargla \| div_17 Ouargla Province \| pop_17 = 169,928 \| city_18 Béchar \| div_18 Béchar Province \| pop_18 = 165,241 \| city_19 MostaganemMostaganem \| div_19 Mostaganem Province \| pop_19 = 162,885 \| city_20 Bordj Bou Arréridj \| div_20 Bordj Bou Arréridj Province \| pop_20 = 158,812 }} Ethnic groups Arabs and indigenous Berbers as well as Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantine Greeks, Turks, various Sub-Saharan Africans, and French have contributed to the history and culture of Algeria. Descendants of Andalusi refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these Aragonese and Castillian Morisco descendants deep into the 18th century, and even Catalan was spoken at the same time by Catalan Morisco descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued. Centuries of Arab migrations to the Maghreb since the seventh century shifted the demographic scope in Algeria. Estimates vary based on different sources. The majority of the population of Algeria is ethnically Arab, constituting between 75% and 80% to 85% of the population. Berbers who make up between 15% to 24% During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960) European population who became known as Pied-Noirs. They were primarily of French, Spanish and Italian origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end. Languages Modern Standard Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Algerian Arabic (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic has some Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary. in three languages: Arabic, Berber, and French]] Berber has been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002. Kabyle, the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of Kabylie. Kabyle has a significant Arabic, French, Latin, Greek, Phoenician and Punic substratum, and Arabic loanwords represent 35% of the total Kabyle vocabulary. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is spoken by about 83% of the population and Berber by 27%. Although French has no official status in Algeria, it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world, and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to Algeria's colonial history. It can be regarded as a lingua franca of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French. In 2013, it was estimated that 60% of the population could speak or understand French. In 2022, it was estimated that 33% of the population was Francophone. The use of English in Algeria, though limited in comparison to the previously mentioned languages, has increased due to globalisation. In 2022 it was announced that English would be taught in elementary schools. Religion in Oran ]] Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA World Factbook estimate, There are about 290,000 Ibadis in the M'zab Valley in the region of Ghardaia. Prior to independence, Algeria was home to more than 1.3 million Christians (mostly of European ancestry). Most of the Christian settlers left to France after the country's independence. Today, estimates of the Christian population range from 100,000 to 200,000. Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to Protestant denominations, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures. The June 2019 Arab Barometer-BBC News report found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious has grown from around 8% in 2013 to around 15% in 2018. The Arab Barometer December 2019, found that the growth in the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious is largely driven by young Algerians, with roughly 25% describing themselves as non-religious. However, the 2021 Arab Barometer report found that those who said they were not religious among Algerians has decreased, with just 2.6% identifying as non-religious. In that same report, 69.5% of Algerians identified as religious and another 27.8% identifying as somewhat religious. Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including Emir Abdelkader, Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem, Malek Bennabi and Mohamed Arkoun. Health In 2018, Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region (1.72 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was around 97.4% of the population in urban areas and 98.7% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, and around 93.4% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress towards its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation programme. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause tuberculosis, hepatitis, measles, typhoid fever, cholera and dysentery. The poor generally receive healthcare free of charge. Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule. Education literacy rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015]] Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 92.6%. Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programmes at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to a high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programmes: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. in Algeria]] Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was Algiers Province at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was Djelfa Province at 35.5%. Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The University of Algiers, founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). Twenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country. Even if some of them offer instruction in Arabic like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors such as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, the University of Mentouri Constantine, and University of Oran Es-Senia. The University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd in Tlemcen and University of Batna Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa. Algeria was ranked 115th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Culture , Regency of Algiers; by Bachir Yellès]] Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, Tamazight and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Famous novelists of the 20th century include Mohammed Dib, Albert Camus, Kateb Yacine and Ahlam Mosteghanemi while Assia Djebar is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were Rachid Mimouni, later vice-president of Amnesty International, and Tahar Djaout, murdered by an Islamist group in 1993 for his secularist views. Malek Bennabi and Frantz Fanon are noted for their thoughts on decolonisation; Augustine of Hippo was born in Tagaste (modern-day Souk Ahras); and Ibn Khaldun, though born in Tunis, wrote the Muqaddima while staying in Algeria. The works of the Sanusi family in pre-colonial times, and of Emir Abdelkader and Sheikh Ben Badis in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author Apuleius was born in Madaurus (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria. Contemporary Algerian cinema is varied in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians. Media Art ; founder of the Algerian school for painting]] Algerian painters, like Mohammed Racim and Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, Mohamed Temam, Abdelkhader Houamel have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of M'hamed Issiakhem, Mohammed Khadda and Bachir Yelles, appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Mohammed Khadda and M'hamed Issiakhem have been notable in recent years.]] In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are Rachid Boudjedra, Rachid Mimouni, Leila Sebbar, Tahar Djaout and Tahir Wattar. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of Yasmina Khadra, the oath of barbarians of Boualem Sansal, memory of the flesh of Ahlam Mosteghanemi and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''. Cinema , one of the most prominent figures in contemporary Arabic cinema]] The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. Days of Glory (2006) and Outside the Law (2010) recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively. Algeria won the for Chronicle of the Years of Fire (1975), two Oscars for Z (1969), and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie The Battle of Algiers. Cuisine , the national dish of Algeria]] Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse as a result of interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries. It is based on both land and sea products. Conquests or demographic movement towards the Algerian territory were two of the main factors of exchanges between the different peoples and cultures. The Algerian cuisine is a mix of Arab, Berber, Turkish and French roots. Sports ]] Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the Aures, people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba (chess variant). Playing cards, checkers and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing (fantasia) and rifle shooting are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians. Football is the most popular sport in the country. The Algerian national football team, known as the Desert Foxes, has a strong fan base and has achieved success both domestically and internationally. Algeria has a long history in other sports such as athletics, boxing, volleyball, handball and the study of martial arts. Algerian athletes have competed in the Olympic Games and have won medals in various events. Many sports clubs and organisations exist in Algeria to promote and develop sports among young people. The Ministry of Youth and Sports in Algeria manages sport-related activities. See also * Index of Algeria-related articles * Outline of Algeria Explanatory notes Citations General bibliography * Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). Modern Algeria – A History from 1830 to the Present. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: Hurst. . * Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). Algeria in Transition – Reforms and Development Prospects. Routledge. . * Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). The Making of Contemporary Algeria – Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. . * Christelow, Allan (1985) Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial State in Algeria. Princeton University Press. * Fanon, Frantz (1966; 2005 paperback). The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press. ASIN B0007FW4AW, . * * Horne, Alistair (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962. Viking Adult. , (2006 reprint) * Laouisset, Djamel (2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry. New York City: Nova Publishers. . * Roberts, Hugh (2003). The Battlefield – Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity. London: Verso Books. . * Ruedy, John (1992). Modern Algeria – The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. . * Stora, Benjamin (2001). Algeria, 1830–2000 – A Short History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. . * Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military – Algeria 1962–2008". Religion and Politics – Islam and Muslim Civilisation. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. . External links * [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?CountryDZ Key Development Forecasts for Algeria] from International Futures Government * [https://bawabatic.dz/ Public Services] – gateway to government sites * [https://www.el-mouradia.dz/ El Mouradia Palace] – official website of the president of Algeria * [https://www.ons.dz Statistics] – official website of National Office of Statistics History * [https://www.mfa.gov.dz/en/discover-algeria/history-of-algeria "History"] – Algerian history at Ministry of Foreign Affairs Tourism * [http://visitalgeria.dz/en/ Visit Algeria] – Algeria's official tourism portal Maps * * }} Category:North African countries Category:Maghrebi countries Category:Saharan countries Category:Arab republics Category:Republics Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language Category:G15 nations Category:Member states of OPEC Category:Member states of the African Union Category:Member states of the Arab League Category:Member states of the BRICS Development Bank Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:States and territories established in 1962 Category:1962 establishments in Algeria Category:1962 establishments in Africa Category:Countries in Africa	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria	2025-04-05T18:25:16.909694
359	List of Atlas Shrugged characters	This is a list of characters in Ayn Rand's 1957 novel Atlas Shrugged. Major characters The following are major characters from the novel. Protagonists Dagny Taggart Dagny Taggart is the protagonist of the novel. She is vice president in charge of operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad. Francisco d'Anconia Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged, an owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious Argentine family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school to show that he could have been successful without the aid of his family's wealth. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia". John Galt John Galt is the primary male hero of Atlas Shrugged. He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, working a job and living by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. He delivers a lengthy broadcast speech that presents the author's philosophy of Objectivism. Henry "Hank" Rearden Henry (known as "Hank") Rearden is one of the central characters in Atlas Shrugged. He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an alloy stronger, lighter, cheaper and tougher than steel. He lives in Philadelphia with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of self-made man and eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike. Eddie Willers Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the vice-president in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse. Ragnar Danneskjöld One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a pirate, who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired film star. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective. According to Barbara Branden, who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Rand said that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel Hans of Iceland, wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter. Antagonists James Taggart The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect. Lillian Rearden The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to blackmail Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her. Dr. Floyd Ferris Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled Why Do You Think You Think? He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters. Dr. Robert Stadler A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including a sound-based weapon known as Project X (Xylophone). He is killed when Cuffy Meigs (see below) drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X, causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was, in part, modeled on J. Robert Oppenheimer, whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of nuclear weapons. To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good. Wesley Mouch The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in Washington, who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country. Mouch's mantra, whenever a problem arises from his prior policy, is to say, "I can't help it. I need wider powers." Secondary characters The following secondary characters also appear in the novel. Hugh Akston is identified as "one of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought that he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on Aristotle. Jeff Allen is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism) as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. Calvin Atwood is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. Mayor Bascom is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Dr. Blodgett is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. Orren Boyle is the head of Associated Steel, the antithesis of Hank Rearden, and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed "unification" of the steel industry. Laura Bradford is an actress and Kip Chalmers's mistress. She is one of the passengers on his train who dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. Bill Brent is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. Cherryl Brooks is a dime-store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him, thinking that he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame but eventually admits to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought that he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to—she thought that she was marrying someone like Dagny. Shortly after making this admission, she learns of Jim's infidelity with Lillian Rearden. Jim slaps her in their ensuing verbal fight. She commits suicide by jumping over a stone parapet and into the river, unable to live with her evil husband and seeing no way to escape him and the unsympathetic world that is at odds with her worldview. Emma Chalmers, Kip Chalmers's mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railroad freight cars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. Kip Chalmers is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as legislator from California. On the way to a campaign rally, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. In response to his demands, a coal-burning steam engine replaces his train's diesel engine and pulls it through an eight-mile tunnel that has insufficient ventilation. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the tunnel, caused when a train hauling military ordnance crashes into Chalmers's train and explodes. Tom Colby is the head of the Rearden Steel Workers Union. Dan Conway is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of Colorado, he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He is not one of those who joined John Galt's strike, his resignation being a personal choice of his own. Ken Danagger owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. Quentin Daniels is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. Galt recognizes in him a younger version of himself, having emulated both Galt's achievements in physics and Galt's social reasoning. Balph Eubank is called "the literary leader of the age" despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers. He advocates a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a misogynist who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president. The Fishwife is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond's grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes" and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." This character represents Rand herself; it is her cameo appearance in her own novel. Richard Halley is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer. He mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera Phaethon was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, Phaethon was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. Lawrence Hammond runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. Mrs. William Hastings is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. Dr. Thomas Hendricks is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. Tinky Holloway is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance, during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. Lee Hunsacker is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service that takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett to join the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no one ever gave him a chance. Gwen Ives is Hank Rearden's secretary, described as being in her late twenties and remaining calm and professional despite the chaos that threatens his business. When Rearden abandons his mills and joins Galt's strike, she and many other employees do the same. Gilbert Keith-Worthing is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a "walking classic," and a proponent of the idea that freedom is an illusion. Kip Chalmers brings him along on the train to California, "for no reason that either of them could discover"; he dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. Owen Kellogg is assistant to the manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. Fred Kinnan is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state his and his fellow conspirators' true motivations. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. Paul Larkin is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows that he is a friend of Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty; Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Eugene Lawson heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when his bank goes bankrupt under new government policies. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. Mort Liddy is a hack composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. Clifton Locey is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operations when Dagny Taggart quits. Pat Logan is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. Kay Ludlow is a beautiful actress who quit Hollywood because of the roles she was given and secretly married the pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld. Roger Marsh is a producer of electrical equipment who joins the strike. Dagny finds him growing cabbage in Galt's Gulch. Dick McNamara is a contractor who finished the San Sebastián Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. Cuffy Meigs is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, dresses in a military uniform, and is described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. Dave Mitchum is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. Chick Morrison holds the position of "morale conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. Horace Bussby Mowen is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc., of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Midas Mulligan is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "Midas" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. Judge Narragansett is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the United States Constitution, crossing out portions that contradict each other and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. Ben Nealy is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him that they are just bossing people around. Ted Nielsen is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist "producer" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time. Betty Pope is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Dr. Potter holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. Dr. Simon Pritchett is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. Rearden's mother, whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. Philip Rearden is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. Dwight Sanders owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. Bertram Scudder is an editorial writer for the magazine The Future. He typically bashes business and businessmen but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called The Octopus. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. Claude Slagenhop is president of the political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air and that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Gerald and Ivy Starnes are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a pseudo-Buddhist ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own. Andrew Stockton runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. Mr. Thompson is the "head of the state" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President Harry S. Truman and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve. Lester Tuck is the campaign manager for Kip Chalmers and one of his guests on the train trip to California. He dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. Clem Weatherby is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge of the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. The Wet Nurse (Tony) is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden's mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters' code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies. Ellis Wyatt is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire and disappears from public view, leaving a note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch. Notes References Works cited External links Website with comprehensive list of individuals mentioned in Atlas Shrugged Category:Fictional socialites Category:Lists of literary characters Category:Literary characters introduced in 1957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Atlas_Shrugged_characters	2025-04-05T18:25:16.958548
569	Anthropology	Anthropogeny}} }} Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including archaic humans. Social anthropology studies patterns of behaviour, while cultural anthropology studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. Their Neo-Latin derived from the combining forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos (}}, "human") and lógos (}}, "study"). Its adjectival form appeared in the works of Aristotle.]] Through the 19th century In 1647, the Bartholins, early scholars of the University of Copenhagen, defined '' as follows: Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in diverse fields such as anatomy, linguistics, and ethnology, started making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, and were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. Paul Broca in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the Société de biologie to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from natural sciences, including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of Homo sapiens, human physical traits, human behavior, the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of Homo sapiens has influenced its social organization and culture, and from social sciences, including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as cognitive science, global studies, and various ethnic studies. According to Clifford Geertz, Sociocultural anthropology has been heavily influenced by structuralist and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an epistemological shift away from the positivist traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.Sociocultural Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principal axes of cultural anthropology and social anthropology. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people make sense of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the relationships'' among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to philosophy, literature and the arts (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to sociology and history. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of ethnography. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic monograph. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. Participant observation is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. Ethnology involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an emic (conceptual, vs. etic, or technical) point of view. The study of kinship and social organization is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a human universal. Sociocultural anthropology also covers economic and political organization, law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. The Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (SCCS) includes 186 such cultures.Biological can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.]] Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation. Archaeological Archaeology is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways. was an example of ancient communication.]] Linguistic Linguistic anthropology (not to be confused with anthropological linguistics) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including sociolinguistics, pragmatics, cognitive linguistics, semiotics, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Ethnography Ethnography is a method of analysing social or cultural interaction. It often involves participant observation though an ethnographer may also draw from texts written by participants of in social interactions. Ethnography views first-hand experience and social context as important. Tim Ingold distinguishes ethnography from anthropology arguing that anthropology tries to construct general theories of human experience, applicable in general and novel settings, while ethnography concerns itself with fidelity. He argues that the anthropologist must make his writing consistent with their understanding of literature and other theory but notes that ethnography may be of use to the anthropologists and the fields inform one another. Key topics by field: sociocultural Art, media, music, dance and film Art One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' Primitive Art, Claude Lévi-Strauss' The Way of the Masks (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'. Media Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes ethnographic studies as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include cyber anthropology, a relatively new area of internet research, as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, social movements, or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, the press, new media, and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s. Music Ethnomusicology is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. Ethnomusicology can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc. While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally termed "ethnomusicology" by Dutch scholar Jaap Kunst . Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical Ethnomusicology and the Society of Ethnomusicology. Visual Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, new media. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with ethnographic film, visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and reception of mass media. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphs, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology. Economic, political economic, applied and development Economic Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, Bronisław Malinowski, and his French compatriot, Marcel Mauss, on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or reciprocity) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the global financial system from an anthropological perspective.Political economy Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of historical materialism to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist world-system. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world. Applied Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". Applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to development anthropology (distinct from the more critical anthropology of development).Development Anthropology of development tends to view development from a critical perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail? Kinship, feminism, gender and sexuality Kinship Kinship can refer both to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to the patterns of social relationships themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "descent", "descent groups", "lineages", "affines", "cognates", and even "fictive kinship". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called consanguinity or "blood ties". People can also have a chosen family in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases, people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families. Feminist Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology (archeological, biological, cultural, linguistic) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the Western world, historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world. Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in intersectional feminist anthropology. Feminist anthropologists have stated that their publications have contributed to anthropology, along the way correcting against the systemic biases beginning with the "patriarchal origins of anthropology (and (academia)" and note that from 1891 to 1930 doctorates in anthropology went to males more than 85%, more than 81% were under 35, and only 7.2% to anyone over 40 years old, thus reflecting an age gap in the pursuit of anthropology by first-wave feminists until later in life. This correction of systemic bias may include mainstream feminist theory, history, linguistics, archaeology, and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are often concerned with the construction of gender across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying sexism. According to St. Clair Drake, Vera Mae Green was, until "[w]ell into the 1960s", the only African American female anthropologist who was also a Caribbeanist. She studied ethnic and family relations in the Caribbean as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied. However, Zora Neale Hurston, although often primarily considered to be a literary author, was trained in anthropology by Franz Boas, and published Tell my Horse about her "anthropological observations" of voodoo in the Caribbean (1938). Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth as a specialization, which is the anthropological study of pregnancy and childbirth within cultures and societies. Medical, nutritional, psychological, cognitive and transpersonal Medical Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields: * The development of systems of medical knowledge and medical care * The patient-physician relationship * The integration of alternative medical systems in culturally diverse environments * The interaction of social, environmental and biological factors which influence health and illness both in the individual and the community as a whole * The critical analysis of interaction between psychiatric services and migrant populations ("critical ethnopsychiatry": Beneduce 2004, 2007) * The impact of biomedicine and biomedical technologies in non-Western settings Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as cultural psychiatry and transcultural psychiatry or ethnopsychiatry. Nutritional Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between economic systems, nutritional status and food security, and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people. Psychological Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and enculturation within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human cognition, emotion, perception, motivation, and mental health. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes. Cognitive Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural innovation, and transmission over time and space using the methods and theories of the cognitive sciences (especially experimental psychology and evolutionary biology) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and interpretation of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them. Political and legal Political Political anthropology concerns the structure of political systems, looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study political organization and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz's comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example. Legal Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as human rights, legal pluralism, and political uprisings.Public Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change". Nature, science, and technology Cyborg Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the American Anthropological Association's annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to STS and the Society for the Social Studies of Science. Donna Haraway's 1985 Cyborg Manifesto could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings. Digital Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology and extends to various areas where anthropology and technology intersect. It is sometimes grouped with sociocultural anthropology, and sometimes considered part of material culture. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology. Ecological Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of cultural adaptations to environments". The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their biophysical environment". The focus of its research concerns "how cultural beliefs and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is political ecology. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park. Environment Social sciences, like anthropology, can provide interdisciplinary approaches to the environment. Professor Kay Milton, Director of the Anthropology research network in the School of History and Anthropology, describes anthropology as distinctive, with its most distinguishing feature being its interest in non-industrial indigenous and traditional societies. Anthropological theory is distinct because of the consistent presence of the concept of culture; not an exclusive topic but a central position in the study and a deep concern with the human condition. Milton describes three trends that are causing a fundamental shift in what characterizes anthropology: dissatisfaction with the cultural relativist perspective, reaction against cartesian dualisms which obstructs progress in theory (nature culture divide), and finally an increased attention to globalization (transcending the barriers or time/space). Environmental discourse appears to be characterized by a high degree of globalization. (The troubling problem is borrowing non-indigenous practices and creating standards, concepts, philosophies and practices in western countries.) Anthropology and environmental discourse now have become a distinct position in anthropology as a discipline. Knowledge about diversities in human culture can be important in addressing environmental problems - anthropology is now a study of human ecology. Human activity is the most important agent in creating environmental change, a study commonly found in human ecology which can claim a central place in how environmental problems are examined and addressed. Other ways anthropology contributes to environmental discourse is by being theorists and analysts, or by refinement of definitions to become more neutral/universal, etc. In exploring environmentalism - the term typically refers to a concern that the environment should be protected, particularly from the harmful effects of human activities. Environmentalism itself can be expressed in many ways. Anthropologists can open the doors of environmentalism by looking beyond industrial society, understanding the opposition between industrial and non-industrial relationships, knowing what ecosystem people and biosphere people are and are affected by, dependent and independent variables, "primitive" ecological wisdom, diverse environments, resource management, diverse cultural traditions, and knowing that environmentalism is a part of culture. Historical Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, folklore, oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names. Religion The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between magical thinking and religion, Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of urbanization, poverty, and neoliberalism. Ulf Hannerz quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously agoraphobic lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the Western World as well as in the "Third World" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "specialists in 'other cultures'" closer to their homes. Key topics by field: archaeological and biological Anthrozoology Anthrozoology (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an interdisciplinary field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, ethology, medicine, psychology, veterinary medicine and zoology. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy. Biocultural Biocultural anthropology is the scientific exploration of the relationships between human biology and culture. Physical anthropologists throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a racial perspective; that is, from the assumption that typological human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology. Evolutionary Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominins and non-hominin primates. Evolutionary anthropology is based in natural science and social science, combining the human development with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a scientific approach, and brings together fields such as archaeology, behavioral ecology, psychology, primatology, and genetics. It is a dynamic and interdisciplinary field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present. Forensic Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law. Palaeoanthropology found in Callao Cave]] Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of paleontology and physical anthropology. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in fossil hominid evidence such as petrifacted bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as enamel fractures and dental decay on teeth, can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations. Organizations Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the American Anthropological Association (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as geology, physics, zoology, paleontology, anatomy, music theory, art history, sociology and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well. List of major organizations * American Anthropological Association * American Ethnological Society * Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR * Anthropological Society of London * Center for World Indigenous Studies * Ethnological Society of London * European Association of Social Anthropologists * Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology * Network of Concerned Anthropologists * N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology * Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland * Society for Anthropological Sciences * Society for Applied Anthropology * USC Center for Visual Anthropology Ethics As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Some commentators have contended: * That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). * That ethnographic work is often ahistorical, writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, Time and Its Other''). * In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequences," Herbert S. Lewis critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes. Cultural relativism As part of their quest for scientific objectivity, present-day anthropologists typically urge cultural relativism, which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting genocide, infanticide, racism, sexism, mutilation (including circumcision and subincision), and torture. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to acculturation, to colonialism, have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as racism, and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.Military involvementAnthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war, he published a brief exposé and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the Axis Powers (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, the Office of Strategic Services and the Office of War Information). At the same time, David H. Price's work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the state. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, were working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. The Christian Science Monitor reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" in Afghanistan, under the Human Terrain System (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the US military in Iraq. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities (CEAUSSIC) released its final report concluding, in part, that: Post-World War II developmentsBefore WWII British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.Basic trendsThere are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more holistic account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population genetics, participant observation and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the Paleolithic and the Neolithic, of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as Olduwan or Mousterian or Levalloisian help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to culture regions as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of comparative method, a central part of their science. Commonalities between fields Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see History of anthropology), including but not limited to fossil-hunting, exploring, documentary film-making, paleontology, primatology, antiquity dealings and curatorship, philology, etymology, genetics, regional analysis, ethnology, history, philosophy, and religious studies, it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of urban anthropology, Ulf Hannerz in the introduction to his seminal Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology mentions that the "Third World" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s. Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and Sociology, on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to sociologists, but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like Terrain ("fieldwork") and developing with the center founded by Marc Augé (''Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains, the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses. See also <!-- alphabetical order please WP:SEEALSO --> <!-- please add a short description WP:SEEALSO, via or --> * * Christian anthropology, a sub-field of theology * * * * * * * * * * * * Philosophical anthropology, a sub-field of philosophy * * <!-- alphabetical order please WP:SEEALSO --> Lists <!-- please add a short description WP:SEEALSO, via or --> * * * Notes ReferencesWorks cited * }} * }} * }} Further reading Dictionaries and encyclopedias * * * * * Fieldnotes and memoirs * * * * * * * Histories * * * * * * * * * * * . * * * * Textbooks and key theoretical works * * * * * External links * [https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/ Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology.] * (AIO) Category:Behavioural sciences Category:Humans	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology	2025-04-05T18:25:17.046982
572	Agricultural science	Agricultural science (or agriscience for short) is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or agriculturists.History In the 18th century, Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate) as a fertilizer. In 1843, John Bennet Lawes and Joseph Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term field experiments at Rothamsted Research in England, some of which are still running as of 2018. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the Hatch Act of 1887, which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The Smith–Hughes Act of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. For the next 44 years after 1906, federal expenditures on agricultural research in the United States outpaced private expenditures. <!-- Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and developing countries, often referred to as the Green Revolution, was closely tied to progress made in selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial fertilizers and pesticides. As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact of agriculture in general and more recently intensive agriculture, industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as integrated pest management, waste treatment technologies, landscape architecture, genomics, and agricultural philosophy fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential economic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science. New technologies, such as biotechnology and computer science (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including genetic engineering, agrophysics, improved statistical analysis, and precision farming. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of traditional agriculture, including interaction of religion and agriculture, and the non-material components of agricultural production systems.--> Prominent agricultural scientists .]] * Wilbur Olin Atwater * Robert Bakewell * Norman Borlaug * Luther Burbank * George Washington Carver * Carl Henry Clerk * George C. Clerk * René Dumont * Sir Albert Howard * Kailas Nath Kaul * Thomas Lecky * Justus von Liebig * Jay Laurence Lush * Gregor Mendel * Louis Pasteur * M. S. Swaminathan * Jethro Tull * Artturi Ilmari Virtanen * Sewall Wright Fields or related disciplines Scope Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are closely related. However, they cover different concepts: * Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. * Agronomy is research and development related to studying and improving plant-based crops. * is the science of cultivating the earth. Hydroponics involves growing plants without soil, by using water-based mineral nutrient solutions in an artificial environment. Research topics Agricultural sciences include research and development on: Improving agricultural productivity in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of drought-resistant crops and animals, development of new pesticides, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro cell culture techniques) * Minimizing the effects of pests (weeds, insects, pathogens, mollusks, nematodes) on crop or animal production systems. * Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of dairy products) * Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., soil degradation, waste management, bioremediation) * Theoretical production ecology, relating to crop production modeling * Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed subsistence agriculture, which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of industrial agriculture, which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. * Food production and demand globally, with particular attention paid to the primary producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US, and the EU. * Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in agricultural engineering. See also * Agricultural Research Council * Agricultural sciences basic topics * Agriculture ministry * Agroecology * American Society of Agronomy * Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) * Crop Science Society of America * Genomics of domestication * History of agricultural science * Indian Council of Agricultural Research * Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences * International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development * International Food Policy Research Institute, IFPRI * International Institute of Tropical Agriculture * International Livestock Research Institute * List of agriculture topics * National Agricultural Library (NAL) * National FFA Organization * Research Institute of Crop Production (RICP) (in the Czech Republic) * Soil Science Society of America * USDA Agricultural Research Service * University of Agricultural Sciences References Further reading * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080829120156/http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/9358.html Agricultural Research, Livelihoods, and Poverty: Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries] Edited by Michelle Adato and Ruth Meinzen-Dick (2007), Johns Hopkins University Press Food Policy Report * Claude Bourguignon, Regenerating the Soil: From Agronomy to Agrology, Other India Press, 2005 * Pimentel David, Pimentel Marcia, Computer les kilocalories, Cérès, n. 59, sept-oct. 1977 * Russell E. Walter, Soil conditions and plant growth, Longman group, London, New York 1973 * * Saltini Antonio, Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984–89, , , , * Vavilov Nicolai I. (Starr Chester K. editor), The Origin, Variation, Immunity and Breeding of Cultivated Plants. Selected Writings, in Chronica botanica, 13: 1–6, Waltham, Mass., 1949–50 * Vavilov Nicolai I., World Resources of Cereals, Leguminous Seed Crops and Flax, Academy of Sciences of Urss, National Science Foundation, Washington, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem 1960 * Winogradsky Serge, Microbiologie du sol. Problèmes et methodes. Cinquante ans de recherches, Masson & c.ie, Paris 1949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_science	2025-04-05T18:25:17.074039
573	Alchemy	from the alchemical treatise (15th century), Zentralbibliothek Zürich, Switzerland]] Alchemy (from the Arabic word , ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first attested in a number of pseudepigraphical texts written in Greco-Roman Egypt during the first few centuries AD. Greek-speaking alchemists often referred to their craft as "the Art" (τέχνη) or "Knowledge" (ἐπιστήμη), and it was often characterised as mystic (μυστική), sacred (ἱɛρά), or divine (θɛíα). Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials.}} Common aims were chrysopoeia, the transmutation of "base metals" (e.g., lead) into "noble metals" (particularly gold); The perfection of the human body and soul was thought to result from the alchemical magnum opus ("Great Work"). Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its exoteric practical applications and its esoteric spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as Eric J. Holmyard and Marie-Louise von Franz that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by historians of the physical sciences, who examine the subject in terms of early chemistry, medicine, and charlatanism, and the philosophical and religious contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of esotericism, psychologists, and some philosophers and spiritualists. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Etymology The word alchemy comes from old French alquemie, alkimie, used in Medieval Latin as . This name was itself adopted from the Arabic word (). The Arabic in turn was a borrowing of the Late Greek term khēmeía (), also spelled khumeia () and khēmía (), with al- being the Arabic definite article 'the'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of transmutation by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the Khemeu. Hermann Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from χύμα, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting. Others trace its roots to the Egyptian name (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and auriferous soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the pseudepigraphic nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of Zosimos of Panopolis, the earliest historically attested author (fl. c. 300 AD), can help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as Mary the Jewess, Pseudo-Democritus, and Agathodaimon, but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, were probably written in the first century AD. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the Final Abstinence (also known as the "Final Count"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "the guardians of places" (, ) and those who offered them sacrifices "priests" (, ), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind of alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. Mythology Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to Pharaonic Egypt where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, Isis, Osiris, Jason, and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is Hermes Trismegistus (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the god Thoth and his Greek counterpart Hermes. Hermes and his caduceus or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to Clement of Alexandria, he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The Hermetica of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the hermetic philosophy by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era. Technology The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of metallurgy, extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the Roman emperor Diocletian ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the Stockholm papyrus and the Leyden papyrus X. Dating from AD 250 to 300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of Bolus of Mendes (or Pseudo-Democritus), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the classical elements. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. Philosophy Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Stoicism and Gnosticism which formed the origin of alchemy's character. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging Christianity. Lactantius believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. St Augustine later affirmed this in the 4th and 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as Moses, Isis, Cleopatra, Democritus, and Ostanes. Others authors such as Komarios, and Chymes, we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that Khalid Ibn Yazid sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries. Byzantium Greek alchemy was preserved in medieval Byzantine manuscripts after the fall of Egypt, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period. India The 2nd millennium BC text Vedas describe a connection between eternal life and gold. text called Arthashastra which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/nitre, perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. Buddhist texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11th-century Persian chemist and physician Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, who visited Gujarat as part of the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, reported that they The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit divya-deham) and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit jīvan-mukti). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the Kaula tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of Matsyendranath. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise Kalyāṇakārakam of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were Nāgārjuna Siddha and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, Rasendramangalam, is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote Rasaratnākara, also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, rasa translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold. Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of The Alchemical Body by David Gordon White. A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White. The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's History of Indian Medical Literature. Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analysed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of hotness, coldness, dryness, and moistness. By this reasoning, the search for the philosopher's stone was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate numerology whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five classical elements (aether, air, earth, fire, and water) in addition to two chemical elements representing the metals: sulphur, "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and mercury, which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and salt giving solidity. The atomic theory of corpuscularianism, where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including Alkindus, Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, Avicenna and Ibn Khaldun. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the transmutation of metals. From the 14th century onwards, many materials and practices originally belonging to Indian alchemy (Rasayana) were assimilated in the Persian texts written by Muslim scholars. East Asia Researchers have found evidence that Chinese alchemists and philosophers discovered complex mathematical phenomena that were shared with Arab alchemists during the medieval period. Discovered in BC China, the "magic square of three" was propagated to followers of Abū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān at some point over the proceeding several hundred years. Other commonalities shared between the two alchemical schools of thought include discrete naming for ingredients and heavy influence from the natural elements. The silk road provided a clear path for the exchange of goods, ideas, ingredients, religion, and many other aspects of life with which alchemy is intertwined. .]] Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the Grand Elixir of Immortality sought by Chinese alchemists. In the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the universal panacea; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. As early as 317 AD, Ge Hong documented the use of metals, minerals, and elixirs in early Chinese medicine. Hong identified three ancient Chinese documents, titled Scripture of Great Clarity, Scripture of the Nine Elixirs, and Scripture of the Golden Liquor, as texts containing fundamental alchemical information. He also described alchemy, along with meditation, as the sole spiritual practices that could allow one to gain immortality or to transcend. In his work Inner Chapters of the Book of the Master Who Embraces Spontaneous Nature (317 AD), Hong argued that alchemical solutions such as elixirs were preferable to traditional medicinal treatment due to the spiritual protection they could provide. In the centuries following Ge Hong's death, the emphasis placed on alchemy as a spiritual practice among Chinese Daoists was reduced. In 499 AD, Tao Hongjing refuted Hong's statement that alchemy is as important a spiritual practice as Shangqing meditation. In the early 700s, Neidan (also known as internal alchemy) was adopted by Daoists as a new form of alchemy. Neidan emphasized appeasing the inner gods that inhabit the human body by practising alchemy with compounds found in the body, rather than the mixing of natural resources that was emphasized in early Dao alchemy. For example, saliva was often considered nourishment for the inner gods and did not require any conscious alchemical reaction to produce. The inner gods were not thought of as physical presences occupying each person, but rather a collection of deities that are each said to represent and protect a specific body part or region. it was used in cannons by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to Japan, the Mongols, the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of traditional Chinese medicine, such as Acupuncture and Moxibustion. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (here still referring to the elixir rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century Toledo, Spain, through contributors like Gerard of Cremona and Adelard of Bath. Translations of the time included the Turba Philosophorum, and the works of Avicenna and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century St Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, Peter Abelard followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, Robert Grosseteste used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, Albertus Magnus and Roger Bacon were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a Dominican friar, is known to have written works such as the Book of Minerals where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes Trismegistus, pseudo-Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student Thomas Aquinas. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar who wrote on a wide variety of topics including optics, comparative linguistics, and medicine, composed his Great Work () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the medieval university curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to soteriology and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical confirmed the theoretical, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, he became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a brazen head capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of Pseudo-Geber (sometimes identified as Paul of Taranto) appeared. His Summa Perfectionis remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the human soul). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded jargon set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practised their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made observations and theories about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin-speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. Dante, Piers Plowman, and Chaucer all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. Pope John XXII's 1317 edict, Spondent quas non-exhibent forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. Roman Catholic Inquisitor General Nicholas Eymerich's Directorium Inquisitorum, written in 1376, associated alchemy with the performance of demonic rituals, which Eymerich differentiated from magic performed in accordance with scripture. This did not, however, lead to any change in the Inquisition's monitoring or prosecution of alchemists. These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of Petrus Bonus, John of Rupescissa, and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. '', by Joseph Wright, 1771]] Nicolas Flamel is a well-known alchemist to the point where he had many pseudepigraphic imitators. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. A common idea in European alchemy in the medieval era was a metaphysical "Homeric chain of wise men that link[ed] heaven and earth" that included ancient pagan philosophers and other important historical figures. Renaissance and early modern Europe During the Renaissance, Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, Marsilio Ficino translated the Corpus Hermeticum and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. Renaissance Humanism and Renaissance Neoplatonism guided alchemists away from physics to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his De Occulta Philosophia, he attempted to merge Kabbalah, Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from chrysopoeia. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Iatrochemistry refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. John Dee (13 July 1527 – December 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as astrologer, cryptographer, and consultant to Queen Elizabeth I, Dee's alchemical Monas Hieroglyphica, written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom As above so below. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the Royal Society: Robert Boyle and Elias Ashmole. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels. Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate Edward Kelley. King James IV of Scotland, Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Augustus, Elector of Saxony, Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn, and Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel all contracted alchemists. John's son Arthur Dee worked as a court physician to Michael I of Russia and Charles I of England but also compiled the alchemical book Fasciculus Chemicus. (1566–1636) by Jan Matejko, 1867]] Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. Betrüger would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as Michael Maier and Heinrich Khunrath wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the con artists. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his astronomical and astrological investigations, had a laboratory built at his Uraniborg observatory/research institute. Michael Sendivogius (Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a Polish alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling oxygen in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to Cornelius Drebbel who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. Isaac Newton devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see Isaac Newton's occult studies) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include Robert Boyle, and Jan Baptist van Helmont. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science. Later modern period ]] '']] The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 James Price claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof." Robert Boyle (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries and ideas of Lavoisier and John Dalton. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school that arose during the 19th century held the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, less than as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation claimed that the obscure language of the alchemical texts, which 19th century practitioners were not always able to decipher, were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes. Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including Eliphas Levi, Arthur Edward Waite, and Rudolf Steiner. Hitchcock, in his Remarks Upon Alchymists (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron Carl Reichenbach, published his studies on Odic force, a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, Louis Cattiaux published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium. Women Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. Michael Maier names four women who were able to make the philosophers' stone: Mary the Jewess, Cleopatra the Alchemist, Medera, and Taphnutia. Zosimos's sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and Isis the Prophetess also played roles in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know was Mary the Jewess (). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that required gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in alchemical literature. Towards the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Renaissance, due to the emergence of print, women were able to access the alchemical knowledge from texts of the preceding centuries. Caterina Sforza, the Countess of Forlì and Lady of Imola, is one of the few confirmed female alchemists after Mary the Jewess. As she owned an apothecary, she would practice science and conduct experiments in her botanic gardens and laboratories. Being knowledgeable in alchemy and pharmacology, she recorded all of her alchemical ventures in a manuscript named ('Experiments'). When combined with white wine, its powder form could be ingested to counteract poison. In the nineteenth-century, Mary Anne Atwood's A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery (1850) marked the return of women during the occult revival. Modern historical research The history of alchemy has become a recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analysed, historians are becoming more aware of the connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and philosophy, the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, kabbalism, spiritualism, Rosicrucianism, and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at Indiana University, the University of Exeter Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism (ESSWE), and the University of Amsterdam's Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica in Amsterdam. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include Ambix, published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and Isis, published by the History of Science Society. Core concepts Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from Neoplatonism and earlier Greek cosmology. As such, the classical elements appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven classical planets and the corresponding seven metals of antiquity. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of prima materia and anima mundi are central to the theory of the philosopher's stone. Magnum opus The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colours. * nigredo, a blackening or melanosis * albedo, a whitening or leucosis * citrinitas, a yellowing or xanthosis * rubedo, a reddening, purpling, or iosis Modernity Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century diffusion of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry, the general understanding of alchemy in the 19th and 20th centuries was influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science Lawrence M. Principe and William R. Newman, have interpreted the 'Decknamen<nowiki/>' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as Florin George Călian and Anna Marie Roos, who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same Decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. New interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from New Age or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the Rosicrucians and Freemasons have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", According to this view, early alchemists such as Zosimos of Panopolis () highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' hid a spiritual philosophy. In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist, the twin goal symbolized their evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are believed to have been written according to this view, the cryptic alchemical symbols, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 Alchemical Catechism, Théodore Henri de Tschudi suggested that the usage of the metals was symbolic: Psychology Alchemical symbolism has been important in analytical psychology and was revived and popularized from near extinction by the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Jung was initially confounded and at odds with alchemy and its images but after being given a copy of The Secret of the Golden Flower'', a Chinese alchemical text translated by his friend Richard Wilhelm, he discovered a direct correlation or parallel between the symbolic images in the alchemical drawings and the inner, symbolic images coming up in his patients' dreams, visions, or fantasies. He observed these alchemical images occurring during the psychic process of transformation, a process that Jung called "individuation". Specifically, he regarded the conjuring up of images of gold or Lapis as symbolic expressions of the origin and goal of this "process of individuation". and pored over them. The volumes of work he wrote shed new light onto understanding the art of transubstantiation and renewed alchemy's popularity as a symbolic process of coming into wholeness as a human being where opposites are brought into contact and inner and outer, spirit and matter are reunited in the hieros gamos, or divine marriage. His writings are influential in general psychology, but especially to those who have an interest in understanding the importance of dreams, symbols, and the unconscious archetypal forces (archetypes) that comprise all psychic life. Both von Franz and Jung have contributed significantly to the subject and work of alchemy and its continued presence in psychology as well as contemporary culture. Among the volumes Jung wrote on alchemy, his magnum opus is Volume 14 of his Collected Works, Mysterium Coniunctionis. Literature Alchemy has had a long-standing relationship with art, seen both in alchemical texts and in mainstream entertainment. Literary alchemy appears throughout the history of English literature from Shakespeare to J. K. Rowling, and also the popular Japanese manga Fullmetal Alchemist. Here, characters or plot structure follow an alchemical magnum opus. In the 14th century, Chaucer began a trend of alchemical satire that can still be seen in recent fantasy works like those of the late Sir Terry Pratchett. Another literary work taking inspiration from the alchemical tradition is the 1988 novel The Alchemist by Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho. Visual artists have had a similar relationship with alchemy. While some used it as a source of satire, others worked with the alchemists themselves or integrated alchemical thought or symbols in their work. Music was also present in the works of alchemists and continues to influence popular performers. In the last hundred years, alchemists have been portrayed in a magical and spagyric role in fantasy fiction, film, television, novels, comics and video games. Science One goal of alchemy, the transmutation of base substances into gold, is now known to be impossible by means of traditional chemistry, but possible by other physical means. Although not financially worthwhile, gold was synthesized in particle accelerators as early as 1941. See also * Alchemical symbol * Chemistry * Corentin Louis Kervran § Biological transmutation * Cupellation * Historicism * History of chemistry * List of alchemical substances * List of alchemists * List of obsolete occupations * Nuclear transmutation * Outline of alchemy * Porta Alchemica * Renaissance magic * Spagyric * Superseded theories in science * Synthesis of precious metals * Thaumaturgy * Western esotericism Notes References Citations Sources used * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Bibliography Introductions and textbooks * (focus on technical aspects) * (focus on technical aspects) * * (general overview) * (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) * (focus on technical aspects) * * (Greek and Byzantine alchemy) * (the second part of volume 1 was never published; the other volumes deal with the modern period and are not relevant for alchemy) * (general overview, focus on esoteric aspects) * (general overview, written in a highly accessible style) * * Greco-Egyptian alchemy Texts * Marcellin Berthelot and Charles-Émile Ruelle (eds.), Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (CAAG), 3 vols., 1887–1888, Vol 1: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k96492923, Vol 2: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9680734p, Vol. 3: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k9634942s. * André-Jean Festugière, ''La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 <small>(, OCLC 897235256)</small>. * and (<abbr>eds.</abbr>), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 1 : Papyrus de Leyde – Papyrus de Stockholm – Recettes, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981. * Otto Lagercrantz (ed), Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis'', Uppsala, A.B. Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1913, [https://archive.org/details/papyrusgraecusho00lage/page/n8 Papyrus graecus holmiensis (P. holm.); Recepte für Silber, Steine und Purpur, bearb. von Otto Lagercrantz. Hrsg. mit Unterstützung des Vilh. Ekman'schen Universitätsfonds]. * Michèle Mertens and (<abbr>ed.</abbr>), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 4.1 : Zosime de Panopolis. Mémoires authentiques, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1995. * Andrée Collinet and (<abbr>ed.</abbr>), ''Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 10 : L'Anonyme de Zuretti ou l'Art sacré and divin de la chrysopée par un anonyme, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. * Andrée Collinet (ed), Les alchimistes grecs, <abbr>t.</abbr> 11 : Recettes alchimiques (Par. Gr. 2419; Holkhamicus 109) – Cosmas le Hiéromoine – Chrysopée, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2000. * Matteo Martelli (ed), The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus, Maney Publishing, 2014. Studies * Dylan M. Burns, " μίξεώς τινι τέχνῃ κρείττονι : Alchemical Metaphor in the Paraphrase of Shem (NHC VII,1) ", Aries 15 (2015), p. 79–106. * Alberto Camplani, " Procedimenti magico-alchemici e discorso filosofico ermetico " in Giuliana Lanata (ed.), Il Tardoantico alle soglie del Duemila, ETS, 2000, p. 73–98. * Alberto Camplani and Marco Zambon, " Il sacrificio come problema in alcune correnti filosofice di età imperiale ", Annali di storia dell'esegesi'' 19 (2002), p. 59–99. * Régine Charron and Louis Painchaud, " 'God is a Dyer,' The Background and Significance of a Puzzling Motif in the Coptic Gospel According to Philip (CG II, 3), Le Muséon 114 (2001), p. 41-50. * Régine Charron, " The Apocryphon of John (NHC II,1) and the Greco-Egyptian Alchemical Literature ", Vigiliae Christinae 59 (2005), p. 438-456. * Philippe Derchain, "L'Atelier des Orfèvres à Dendara et les origines de l'alchimie," ''Chronique d'Égypte, <abbr>vol.</abbr> 65, <abbr>n<sup>o</sup></abbr> 130, 1990, <abbr>p.</abbr> 219–242. * Korshi Dosoo, " A History of the Theban Magical Library ", Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 53 (2016), p. 251–274. * Olivier Dufault, Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity, California Classical Studies, 2019, [https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2ks0g83x Early Greek Alchemy, Patronage and Innovation in Late Antiquity]. * Sergio Knipe, " Sacrifice and self-transformation in the alchemical writings of Zosimus of Panopolis ", in Christopher Kelly, Richard Flower, Michael Stuart Williams (eds.), Unclassical Traditions. Volume II: Perspectives from East and West in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 59–69. * André-Jean Festugière, La Révélation d'Hermès Trismégiste, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2014 , . * Kyle A. Fraser, " Zosimos of Panopolis and the Book of Enoch: Alchemy as Forbidden Knowledge ", Aries 4.2 (2004), p. 125–147. * Kyle A. Fraser, " Baptized in Gnosis: The Spiritual Alchemy of Zosimos of Panopolis ", Dionysius'' 25 (2007), p. 33–54. * Kyle A. Fraser, " Distilling Nature's Secrets: The Sacred Art of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 721–742. 2018. [https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734146.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199734146-e-76]. * Shannon Grimes, Becoming Gold: Zosimos of Panopolis and the Alchemical Arts in Roman Egypt, Auckland, Rubedo Press, 2018, * Paul T. Keyser, " Greco-Roman Alchemy and Coins of Imitation Silver ", American Journal of Numismatics 7–8 (1995–1996), p. 209–234. * Paul Keyser, " The Longue Durée of Alchemy ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 409–430. * Jean Letrouit, "Chronologie des alchimistes grecs," in Didier Kahn and Sylvain Matton, Alchimie: art, histoire et mythes, SEHA-Archè, 1995, <abbr>p.</abbr> 11–93. * Lindsay, Jack. The Origins of Alchemy in Greco-Roman Egypt. Barnes & Noble, 1970. * Paul Magdalino and Maria Mavroudi (eds.), The Occult Sciences in Byzantium, La Pomme d'or, 2006. * * Matteo Martelli, " Alchemy, Medicine and Religion: Zosimus of Panopolis and the Egyptian Priests ", Religion in the Roman Empire 3.2 (2017), p. 202–220. * * * Daniel Stolzenberg, " Unpropitious Tinctures: Alchemy, Astrology & Gnosis According to Zosimos of Panopolis ", ''Archives internationales d'histoire des sciences 49 (1999), p. 3–31. * Cristina Viano, " Byzantine Alchemy, or the Era of Systematization ", in John Scarborough and Paul Keyser (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Science and Medicine in the Classical World, Oxford University Press, 2018, p. 943–964. * Early modern * Principe, Lawrence and William Newman. Alchemy Tried in the Fire: Starkey, Boyle, and the Fate of Helmontian Chymistry''. University of Chicago Press, 2002. External links * * [http://www.ambix.org/ SHAC: Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry] * [http://www.esswe.org/ ESSWE: European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism] * [http://www.aseweb.org/ Association for the Study of Esotericism] Category:Eastern esotericism Category:Western esotericism Category:Natural philosophy Category:History of science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy	2025-04-05T18:25:17.168193
579	Alien	Alien primarily refers to: Alien (law), a person in a country who is not a national of that country Enemy alien, the above in times of war Extraterrestrial life, life which does not originate from Earth Specifically, a lifeform with extraterrestrial intelligence For fictional extraterrestrial life, see Extraterrestrials in fiction Introduced species, a species not native to its environment Adventive plants or alien plants, species that are foreign to the native flora Alien(s), or The Alien(s) may also refer to: Science and technology AliEn (ALICE Environment), a grid framework Alien (file converter), a Linux program Alien Technology, a manufacturer of RFID technology Arts and entertainment Alien (franchise), a media franchise Xenomorph, the titular alien in the franchise Films Alien (film), a 1979 film by Ridley Scott Aliens (film), second film in the franchise from 1986 by James Cameron Alien 3, third film in the franchise from 1992 by David Fincher Alien Resurrection, fourth film in the franchise from 1997 by Jean-Pierre Jeunet Alien vs. Predator (film), fifth film in the franchise from 2004 by Paul W. S. Anderson Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem, sixth film in the franchise from 2007 by the Brothers Strause Prometheus (2012 film), seventh film in the franchise from 2012 by Ridley Scott Alien: Covenant, eighth film in the franchise from 2017 by Ridley Scott Alien: Romulus, ninth film in the franchise from 2024 by Fede Álvarez Alien 2: On Earth, a 1980 unofficial sequel of the 1979 Alien film Alien Visitor (also titled Epsilon) (1995 film) AustralianItalian science fiction film by Rolf de Heer The Alien (2016 film), a 2016 Mexican film The Alien (unproduced film), an incomplete 1960s IndianAmerican film Alienoid, a 2022 South Korean film Literature Alien novels, an extension of the Alien franchise Aliens: Colonial Marines Technical Manual, a 1995 book by Lee Brimmicombe-Wood, a guide to the fictional United States Colonial Marines Aliens (Tappan Wright novel), a 1902 novel by Mary Tappan Wright Aliens! (anthology) a 1980 anthology of science fiction edited by Gardner Dozois and Jack Dann The Alien (novel), the eighth book in the Animorphs series by Katherine Applegate The Aliens (play), a 2010 play by Annie Baker Music Performers Alien (band), a 1980s Swedish rock group The Aliens (Australian band), a 1970s new wave group The Aliens (Scottish band), a 2005–2008 rock group The Aliens, the backing band for the American musician Jared Louche on his 1999 solo debut album Covergirl Albums Alien (soundtrack), 1979 Alien (Alien album), 1988 Alien (Beam album), 2022 Alien (Northlane album), 2019 Alien (Strapping Young Lad album), 2005 Alien, a 1989 EP by Tankard Aliens (soundtrack), 1987 Songs "Alien" (Britney Spears song), 2013 "Alien" (Jonas Blue and Sabrina Carpenter song), 2018 "Alien", a song by Atlanta Rhythm from the album Quinella, 1981 "Alien", a song by Bush from the album Sixteen Stone, 1994 "Alien", a song by Dead Letter Circus from the EP Dead Letter Circus, 2007 "Alien", a song by The Devil Wears Prada from the EP Space, 2014 "Alien", a song by Erasure from the album Loveboat, 2000 "Alien", a song by Japan from the album Quiet Life, 1979 "Alien", a song by Lamb from the album Fear of Fours, 1999 "Alien", a song by Nerina Pallot from the album Dear Frustrated Superstar, 2001 "Alien", a song by P-Model from the album Landsale, 1980 "Alien", a song by Pennywise from the album Straight Ahead, 1999 "Alien", a song by Stray Kids from the album SKZ-Replay, 2022 "Alien", a song by Structures from the album Life Through a Window, 2014 "Alien", a song by the National from the album First Two Pages of Frankenstein, 2023 "Alien", a song by Third Day from the album Conspiracy No. 5, 1997 "Alien", a song by Thriving Ivory from the album Thriving Ivory, 2003 "Alien", a song by Tokio Hotel from the album Humanoid, 2009 "Alien", a 2018 song by Beach House "Alien", a 2020 song by Lee Su-hyun "Alien", a 2020 song by Dennis Lloyd "Aliens" (song), a 2017 song by Coldplay "Aliens", a 1984 song by Warlord "The Alien", a song by Dream Theater from the album A View from the Top of the World, 2021 Video games Based on the 1979 and 1986 films Alien (1982 video game), a 1982 maze game based on the 1979 film Alien (1984 video game), based on the 1979 film Aliens: The Computer Game (US Version), a 1986 game by Activision based on the 1986 film of the same name Aliens: The Computer Game (UK Version), a 1986 game by Electric Dreams based on the 1986 film Aliens (1990 video game), a game by Konami, based on the 1986 film Alien: Isolation, a 2014 video game based on the Alien science fiction horror film series Other video games Aliens (1982 video game), a text-only clone of Space Invaders written for the CP/M operating system on the Kaypro computer Other media Alien (Armenian TV series), a 2017 melodrama series Alien: Isolation – The Digital Series, web series in the Alien franchise from 2019 by Fabien Dubois Alien: Earth, an upcoming science fiction horror television series in the franchise by Noah Hawley Alien (sculpture), a 2012 work by David Breuer-Weil, in Mottisfont, Hampshire, England Aliens (Dark Horse Comics line) The Aliens (TV series), 2016 British sci-fi television series "Aliens" (Roseanne), a 1992 television episode Other uses Alien (shipping company), a Russian company Alien Sun (born 1974), Singaporean actress Alien, a perfume by Thierry Mugler Alian District (Alien), in Taiwan See also Alians, an Islamic order Alien Project (disambiguation) Alien 4 (disambiguation) Alien vs. Predator (disambiguation) Astrobiology, the study of hypothetical alien life ATLiens, a 1996 album by OutKast Predator (disambiguation) UFO (disambiguation) Unidentified flying object (disambiguation) Outsider (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien	2025-04-05T18:25:17.197291
580	Astronomer	thumb\|upright=1.5\|A voting session is conducted in 2006 International Astronomical Union's general assembly for determining a new definition of a planet An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. Astronomers observe astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies – in either observational (by analyzing the data) or theoretical astronomy. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the Universe as a whole. Types Astronomers typically fall under either of two main types: observational and theoretical. Observational astronomers make direct observations of celestial objects and analyze the data. In contrast, theoretical astronomers create and investigate models of things that cannot be observed. Because it takes millions to billions of years for a system of stars or a galaxy to complete a life cycle, astronomers must observe snapshots of different systems at unique points in their evolution to determine how they form, evolve, and die. They use this data to create models or simulations to theorize how different celestial objects work. Further subcategories under these two main branches of astronomy include planetary astronomy, astrobiology, stellar astronomy, astrometry, galactic astronomy, extragalactic astronomy, or physical cosmology. Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy, neutrino astronomy, x-ray astronomy, and gravitational-wave astronomy. Academic History left\|thumb\|upright\|Galileo is often referred to as the father of modern astronomy. Portrait by Justus Sustermans. right\|thumb\|upright\|Johannes Kepler, one of the fathers of modern astronomy Historically, astronomy was more concerned with the classification and description of phenomena in the sky, while astrophysics attempted to explain these phenomena and the differences between them using physical laws. Today, that distinction has mostly disappeared and the terms "astronomer" and "astrophysicist" are interchangeable. Professional astronomers are highly educated individuals who typically have a PhD in physics or astronomy and are employed by research institutions or universities. They spend the majority of their time working on research, although they quite often have other duties such as teaching, building instruments, or aiding in the operation of an observatory. The American Astronomical Society, which is the major organization of professional astronomers in North America, has approximately 8,200 members (as of 2024). This number includes scientists from other fields such as physics, geology, and engineering, whose research interests are closely related to astronomy. The International Astronomical Union comprises about 12,700 members from 92 countries who are involved in astronomical research at the PhD level and beyond (as of 2024). thumb\|upright\|Portrait of the Flemish astronomer Ferdinand Verbiest who became head of the Mathematical Board and director of the Observatory of the Chinese emperor in 1669 Contrary to the classical image of an old astronomer peering through a telescope through the dark hours of the night, it is far more common to use a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera to record a long, deep exposure, allowing a more sensitive image to be created because the light is added over time. Before CCDs, photographic plates were a common method of observation. Modern astronomers spend relatively little time at telescopes, usually just a few weeks per year. Analysis of observed phenomena, along with making predictions as to the causes of what they observe, takes the majority of observational astronomers' time. Activities and graduate degree training Astronomers who serve as faculty spend much of their time teaching undergraduate and graduate classes. Most universities also have outreach programs, including public telescope time and sometimes planetariums, as a public service to encourage interest in the field. Those who become astronomers usually have a broad background in physics, mathematics, sciences, and computing in high school. Taking courses that teach how to research, write, and present papers are part of the higher education of an astronomer, while most astronomers attain both a Master's degree and eventually a PhD degree in astronomy, physics or astrophysics. Throughout the PhD training, a successful student is financially supported with a stipend. As with any hobby, most people who practice amateur astronomy may devote a few hours a month to stargazing and reading the latest developments in research. However, amateurs span the range from so-called "armchair astronomers" to people who own science-grade telescopes and instruments with which they are able to make their own discoveries, create astrophotographs, and assist professional astronomers in research. See also List of astronomers List of women astronomers List of Muslim astronomers List of French astronomers List of Hungarian astronomers List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists List of Slovenian astronomers References Sources External links American Astronomical Society European Astronomical Society International Astronomical Union Astronomical Society of the Pacific Space's astronomy news Category:Astronomy Category:Science occupations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer	2025-04-05T18:25:17.226171
586	ASCII	}} an acronym for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, is a character encoding standard for electronic communication. ASCII codes represent text in computers, telecommunications equipment, and other devices. ASCII has just 128 code points, of which only 95 are , which severely limit its scope. The set of available punctuation had significant impact on the syntax of computer languages and text markup. ASCII hugely influenced the design of character sets used by modern computers; for example the first 128 code points of Unicode are the same as ASCII. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) prefers the name US-ASCII for this character encoding. ASCII is one of the IEEE milestones. Overview ASCII was developed in part from telegraph code. Its first commercial use was in the Teletype Model 33 and the Teletype Model 35 as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on the ASCII standard began in May 1961, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) (now the American National Standards Institute or ANSI) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, underwent a major revision during 1967, and experienced its most recent update during 1986. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists and added features for devices other than teleprinters. That document was formally elevated to an Internet Standard in 2015. Originally based on the (modern) English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart in this article. Ninety-five of the encoded characters are printable: these include the digits 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, and punctuation symbols. In addition, the original ASCII specification included 33 non-printing control codes which originated with s; most of these are now obsolete, although a few are still commonly used, such as the carriage return, line feed, and tab codes. For example, lowercase i would be represented in the ASCII encoding by binary 1101001 hexadecimal 69 (i is the ninth letter) decimal 105. Despite being an American standard, ASCII does not have a code point for the cent (¢). It also does not support English terms with diacritical marks such as résumé and jalapeño, or proper nouns with diacritical marks such as Beyoncé (although on certain devices characters could be combined with punctuation such as Tilde (~) and Backtick (`) to approximate such characters.) <span class"anchor" id"1963"></span><span class"anchor" id"1965"></span><span class"anchor" id"1967"></span><span class"anchor" id"1968"></span><span class"anchor" id"1977"></span><span class"anchor" id"1986"></span><span class"anchor" id"1992"></span><span class"anchor" id"1997"></span><span class"anchor" id"2002"></span><span class"anchor" id"2007"></span><span class"anchor" id"2012"></span><span class"anchor" id"2017"></span><span class"anchor" id"2022"></span>History of equivalent controls are shown where they exist, or a grey dot otherwise.]] The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association (ASA), called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group (now INCITS). The ASA later became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI) leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted during October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Locating the lowercase letters in sticks renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). then USAS X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986. Revisions * ASA X3.4-1963 * ANSI INCITS 4-1986 (R2007) * INCITS 4-1986 (R2012) In the X3.15 standard, the X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first) and recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape and attempted to deal with some punched card formats. <!-- To be mentioned: Decimal ASCII --> Design considerations Bit width The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on the earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT) International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2) standard of 1932, FIELDATA (1956), and early EBCDIC (1963), more than 64 codes were required for ASCII. ITA2 was in turn based on Baudot code, the 5-bit telegraph code Émile Baudot invented in 1870 and patented in 1874. Internal organization The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two so-called ASCII sticks Mechanical typewriters followed the de facto standard set by the Remington No. 2 (1878), the first typewriter with a shift key, and the shifted values of <code>23456789-</code> were <code>"#$%_&'()</code> early typewriters omitted 0 and 1, using O (capital letter o) and l (lowercase letter L) instead, but <code>1!</code> and <code>0)</code> pairs became standard once 0 and 1 became common. Thus, in ASCII <code>!"#$%</code> were placed in the second stick, Collation of data is sometimes done in this order rather than "standard" alphabetical order (collating sequence). The main deviations in ASCII order are: * All uppercase come before lowercase letters; for example, "Z" precedes "a" * Digits and many punctuation marks come before letters An intermediate order converts uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values. <span class"anchor" id"Code chart"></span><span class"anchor" id"ASCII printable code chart"></span><span class"anchor" id"ASCII printable characters"></span>Character set {\| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|- \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| style=background:#ffb2b2}} \| {{chset-cell1 \| 125 U+007D: RIGHT CURLY BRACKET \| } \| style=background:#ffffb2}} \| \| \|- \| }} \|} Character groups <span class"anchor" id"ASCII control characters"></span>Control characters , MIL-STD-188-100, 1972)]] ASCII reserves the first 32 code points (numbers 0–31 decimal) and the last one (number 127 decimal) for control characters. These are codes intended to control peripheral devices (such as printers), or to provide meta-information about data streams, such as those stored on magnetic tape. Despite their name, these code points do not represent printable characters (i.e. they are not characters at all, but signals). For debugging purposes, "placeholder" symbols (such as those given in ISO 2047 and its predecessors) are assigned to them. For example, character 0x0A represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this caused was sometimes intentional, for example where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream, and sometimes accidental, for example the standard is unclear about the meaning of "delete". Probably the most influential single device affecting the interpretation of these characters was the Teletype Model 33 ASR, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage until the 1980s, less costly and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype Model 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (delete) became de facto standards. The Model 33 was also notable for taking the description of control-G (code 7, BEL, meaning audibly alert the operator) literally, as the unit contained an actual bell which it rang when it received a BEL character. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (control-O, shift in) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually became neglected. When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving control-Q (XON, transmit on) caused the tape reader to resume. This so-called flow control technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending buffer overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems, control-S retains its meaning, but control-Q is replaced by a second control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ control-R (DC2) and control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and <s>TAPE</s> respectively.Delete vs backspaceThe Teletype could not move its typehead backwards, so it did not have a key on its keyboard to send a BS (backspace). Instead, there was a key marked that sent code 127 (DEL). The purpose of this key was to erase mistakes in a manually-input paper tape: the operator had to push a button on the tape punch to back it up, then type the rubout, which punched all holes and replaced the mistake with a character that was intended to be ignored. Teletypes were commonly used with the less-expensive computers from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC); these systems had to use what keys were available, and thus the DEL character was assigned to erase the previous character. Because of this, DEC video terminals (by default) sent the DEL character for the key marked "Backspace" while the separate key marked "Delete" sent an escape sequence; many other competing terminals sent a BS character for the backspace key. The early Unix tty drivers, unlike some modern implementations, allowed only one character to be set to erase the previous character in canonical input processing (where a very simple line editor is available); this could be set to BS or DEL, but not both, resulting in recurring situations of ambiguity where users had to decide depending on what terminal they were using (shells that allow line editing, such as ksh, bash, and zsh, understand both). The assumption that no key sent a BS character allowed Ctrl+H to be used for other purposes, such as the "help" prefix command in GNU Emacs. Escape Many more of the control characters have been assigned meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (ESC, code 27), for example, was intended originally to allow sending of other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning, an "escape sequence". This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this interpretation has been co-opted and has eventually been changed. In modern usage, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, which can be used to address the cursor, scroll a region, set/query various terminal properties, and more. They are usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (often starting with a "Control Sequence Introducer", "CSI", "") from ECMA-48 (1972) and its successors. Some escape sequences do not have introducers, like the "Reset to Initial State", "RIS" command "". In contrast, an ESC read from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation or special mode, as in the TECO and vi text editors. In graphical user interface (GUI) and windowing systems, ESC generally causes an application to abort its current operation or to exit (terminate) altogether. End of line The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The best example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. Teletype machines required that a line of text be terminated with both "carriage return" (which moves the printhead to the beginning of the line) and "line feed" (which advances the paper one line without moving the printhead). The name "carriage return" comes from the fact that on a manual typewriter the carriage holding the paper moves while the typebars that strike the ribbon remain stationary. The entire carriage had to be pushed (returned) to the right in order to position the paper for the next line. DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or "dumb terminals") came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing to follow it. When Gary Kildall created CP/M, he was inspired by some of the command line interface conventions used in DEC's RT-11 operating system. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no influence in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC encoding instead of ASCII, and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of "carriage return" was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being loosely based on CP/M, and Windows in turn inherited it from MS-DOS. Requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduces unnecessary complexity and ambiguity as to how to interpret each character when encountered by itself. To simplify matters, plain text data streams, including files, on Multics used line feed (LF) alone as a line terminator. The tty driver would handle the LF to CRLF conversion on output so files can be directly printed to terminal, and NL (newline) is often used to refer to CRLF in UNIX documents. Unix and Unix-like systems, and Amiga systems, adopted this convention from Multics. On the other hand, the original Macintosh OS, Apple DOS, and ProDOS used carriage return (CR) alone as a line terminator; however, since Apple later replaced these obsolete operating systems with their Unix-based macOS (formerly named OS X) operating system, they now use line feed (LF) as well. The Radio Shack TRS-80 also used a lone CR to terminate lines. Computers attached to the ARPANET included machines running operating systems such as TOPS-10 and TENEX using CR-LF line endings; machines running operating systems such as Multics using LF line endings; and machines running operating systems such as OS/360 that represented lines as a character count followed by the characters of the line and which used EBCDIC rather than ASCII encoding. The Telnet protocol defined an ASCII "Network Virtual Terminal" (NVT), so that connections between hosts with different line-ending conventions and character sets could be supported by transmitting a standard text format over the network. Telnet used ASCII along with CR-LF line endings, and software using other conventions would translate between the local conventions and the NVT. The File Transfer Protocol adopted the Telnet protocol, including use of the Network Virtual Terminal, for use when transmitting commands and transferring data in the default ASCII mode. This adds complexity to implementations of those protocols, and to other network protocols, such as those used for E-mail and the World Wide Web, on systems not using the NVT's CR-LF line-ending convention. End of file/stream The PDP-6 monitor, For these reasons, EOF, or end-of-file, was used colloquially and conventionally as a three-letter acronym for control-Z instead of SUBstitute. The end-of-text character (ETX), also known as control-C, was inappropriate for a variety of reasons, while using control-Z as the control character to end a file is analogous to the letter Z's position at the end of the alphabet, and serves as a very convenient mnemonic aid. A historically common and still prevalent convention uses the ETX character convention to interrupt and halt a program via an input data stream, usually from a keyboard. The Unix terminal driver uses the end-of-transmission character (EOT), also known as control-D, to indicate the end of a data stream. In the C programming language, and in Unix conventions, the null character is used to terminate text strings; such null-terminated strings can be known in abbreviation as ASCIZ or ASCIIZ, where here Z stands for "zero". Table of codes Control code table<span class"anchor" id"ASCII control code chart"></span> {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: center" \|- ! rowspan"2" \| Binary !! rowspan"2" \| Oct !! rowspan"2" \| Dec !! rowspan"2" classunsortable \| Hex !! colspan"3" \| Abbreviation !! rowspan"2" classunsortable \| Unicode Control Pictures !! rowspan"2" \| Caret notation key while typing the second character will type the control character. Sometimes the shift key is not needed, for instance <code>^@</code> may be typable with just Ctrl+2 or Ctrl+Space.}} !! rowspan"2" \| C escape sequence !! rowspan="2" \| Name (1967) \|- ! 1963 !! 1965 !! 1967 \|- \| 000 0000 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 000 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 0 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 00 \|NULL\|\|colspan2\|NUL\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␀ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Null \|- \| 000 0001 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 001 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 1 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 01 \|SOM\|\|colspan2\|SOH\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␁ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Start of Heading \|- \| 000 0010 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 002 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 2 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 02 \|EOA\|\|colspan2\|STX\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␂ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Start of Text \|- \| 000 0011 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 003 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 3 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 03 \|EOM\|\|colspan2\|ETX\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␃ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| End of Text \|- \| 000 0100 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 004 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 4 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 04 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2404, is correct. If you are seeing it as "ENQ", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> \|colspan3\|EOT\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␄ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| End of Transmission \|- \| 000 0101 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 005 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 5 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 05 <!-- Please note that the character below, U+2405, is correct. If you are seeing it as "EOT", please upgrade your fonts as the one you have is buggy. --> \|WRU\|\|colspan2\|ENQ\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␅ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Enquiry \|- \| 000 0110 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 006 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 6 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 06 \|RU\|\|colspan2\|ACK\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␆ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Acknowledgement \|- \| 000 0111 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 007 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 7 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 07 \|BELL\|\|colspan2\|BEL\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␇ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Bell \|- \| 000 1000 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 010 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 8 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 08 \|FE0\|\|colspan2\|BS\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␈ \|\| \|\| \|\| style"text-align:left;" \| Backspace key on some systems.}} \|- \| 000 1001 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 011 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 9 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 09 \|HT/SK\|\|colspan2\|HT\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␉ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Horizontal Tab key on most systems.}} \|- \| 000 1010 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 012 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 10 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0A \|colspan3\|LF\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␊ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Line Feed \|- \| 000 1011 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 013 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 11 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0B \|VTAB\|\|colspan2\|VT\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␋ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Vertical Tab \|- \| 000 1100 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 014 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 12 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0C \|colspan3\|FF\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␌ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Form Feed \|- \| 000 1101 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 015 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 13 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0D \|colspan3\|CR\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␍ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Carriage Return or key on most systems.}} \|- \| 000 1110 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 016 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 14 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0E \|colspan3\|SO\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␎ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Shift Out \|- \| 000 1111 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 017 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 15 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 0F \|colspan3\|SI\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␏ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Shift In \|- \| 001 0000 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 020 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 16 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 10 \|DC0\|\|colspan2\|DLE\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␐ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Data Link Escape \|- \| 001 0001 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 021 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 17 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 11 \|colspan3\|DC1\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␑ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Device Control 1 (often XON) \|- \| 001 0010 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 022 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 18 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 12 \|colspan3\|DC2\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␒ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Device Control 2 \|- \| 001 0011 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 023 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 19 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 13 \|colspan3\|DC3\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␓ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Device Control 3 (often XOFF) \|- \| 001 0100 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 024 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 20 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 14 \|colspan3\|DC4\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␔ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Device Control 4 \|- \| 001 0101 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 025 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 21 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 15 \|ERR\|\|colspan2\|NAK\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␕ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Negative Acknowledgement \|- \| 001 0110 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 026 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 22 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 16 \|SYNC\|\|colspan2\|SYN\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␖ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Synchronous Idle \|- \| 001 0111 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 027 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 23 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 17 \|LEM\|\|colspan2\|ETB\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␗ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| End of Transmission Block \|- \| 001 1000 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 030 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 24 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 18 \|S0\|\|colspan2\|CAN\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␘ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Cancel \|- \| 001 1001 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 031 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 25 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 19 \|S1\|\|colspan2\|EM\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␙ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| End of Medium \|- \| 001 1010 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 032 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 26 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1A \|S2\|\|SS\|\|SUB\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␚ \|\| \|\| \|\| style"text-align:left;" \| Substitute \|- \| 001 1011 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 033 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 27 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1B \|S3\|\|colspan2\|ESC\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␛ \|\| \|\| escape sequence is not part of ISO C and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers, including GCC.}} \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Escape key on some systems.}} \|- \| 001 1100 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 034 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 28 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1C \|S4\|\|colspan2\|FS\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␜ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| File Separator \|- \| 001 1101 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 035 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 29 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1D \|S5\|\|colspan2\|GS\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␝ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Group Separator \|- \| 001 1110 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 036 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 30 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1E \|S6\|\|colspan2\|RS\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␞ \|\| (pressing the "Ctrl" and caret keys).}} \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Record Separator \|- \| 001 1111 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 037 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 31 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 1F \|S7\|\|colspan2\|US\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␟ \|\| \|\| \|\| style="text-align:left;" \| Unit Separator \|- \| 111 1111 \|\| style"background:lightblue;" \| 177 \|\| style"background:#CFF;" \| 127 \|\| style="background:lightblue;" \| 7F \|colspan3\|DEL\|\| style"font-size:large;" \| ␡ \|\| \|\| \|\| style"text-align:left;" \| Delete key on some systems.}}" for backspace). Other terminals not designed for paper tape made the key at this location produce Backspace, and systems designed for these used that character to back up. Since the delete code often produced a backspace effect, this also forced terminal manufacturers to make any key produce something other than the Delete character.}} \|} Other representations might be used by specialist equipment, for example ISO 2047 graphics or hexadecimal numbers. <span class"anchor" id"ASCII-printable-characters"></span>Printable character table <!-- Anchor linked to from redirects --> At the time of adoption, the codes 20<sub>hex</sub> to 7E<sub>hex</sub> would cause the printing of a visible character (a glyph), and thus were designated "printable characters". These codes represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. There are 95 printable characters in total.{{efn\|Printed out, the characters are: {{Pre\|<nowiki> !"#$%&'()+,-./0123456789:;<=>?</nowiki>&ZeroWidthSpace;<nowiki>@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_</nowiki>&ZeroWidthSpace;<nowiki>`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{\|}~</nowiki>}}}} The empty space between words, as produced by the space bar of a keyboard, is character code 20<sub>hex</sub>. Since the space character is visible in printed text it considered a "printable character", even though it is unique in having no visible glyph. It is listed in the printable character table, as per the ASCII standard, instead of in the control character table. <!-- To be more useful this list should be expanded to include the character names and reflect the various revisions of the ASCII standard --> {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: center;" \|- ! rowspan"2" \| Binary !! rowspan"2" \| Oct !! rowspan"2" \| Dec !! rowspan"2" classunsortable \| Hex !! colspan"3"\|Glyph \|- ! 1963 !! 1965 !! 1967 \|- \|010 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 040 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 32 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 20 \|\|colspan3\| space (no visible glyph) \|- \|010 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 041 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 33 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 21 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">!</span> \|- \|010 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 042 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 34 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 22 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">"</span> \|- \|010 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 043 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 35 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 23 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">#</span> \|- \|010 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 044 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 36 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 24 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">$</span> \|- \|010 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 045 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 37 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 25 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">%</span> \|- \|010 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 046 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 38 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 26 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">&</span> \|- \|010 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 047 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 39 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 27 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">'</span> \|- \|010 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 050 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 40 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 28 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">(</span> \|- \|010 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 051 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 41 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 29 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">)</span> \|- \|010 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 052 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 42 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2A \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines"></span> \|- \|010 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 053 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 43 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2B \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">+</span> \|- \|010 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 054 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 44 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2C \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">,</span> \|- \|010 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 055 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 45 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2D \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">-</span> \|- \|010 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 056 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 46 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2E \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">.</span> \|- \|010 1111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 057 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 47 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 2F \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">/</span> \|- \|011 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 060 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 48 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 30 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">0</span> \|- \|011 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 061 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 49 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 31 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">1</span> \|- \|011 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 062 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 50 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 32 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">2</span> \|- \|011 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 063 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 51 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 33 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">3</span> \|- \|011 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 064 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 52 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 34 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">4</span> \|- \|011 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 065 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 53 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 35 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">5</span> \|- \|011 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 066 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 54 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 36 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">6</span> \|- \|011 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 067 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 55 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 37 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">7</span> \|- \|011 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 070 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 56 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 38 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">8</span> \|- \|011 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 071 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 57 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 39 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">9</span> \|- \|011 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 072 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 58 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3A \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">:</span> \|- \|011 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 073 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 59 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3B \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">;</span> \|- \|011 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 074 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 60 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3C \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines"><</span> \|- \|011 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 075 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 61 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3D \|\|colspan3\|<span class"nounderlines"></span> \|- \|011 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 076 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 62 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3E \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">></span> \|- \|011 1111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 077 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 63 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 3F \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">?</span> \|- \|100 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 100 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 64 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 40 \|\| <span class"nounderlines">@</span> \|\| <span class"nounderlines">`</span> \|\| <span class"nounderlines">@</span> \|- \|100 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 101 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 65 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 41 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">A</span> \|- \|100 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 102 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 66 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 42 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">B</span> \|- \|100 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 103 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 67 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 43 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">C</span> \|- \|100 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 104 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 68 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 44 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">D</span> \|- \|100 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 105 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 69 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 45 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">E</span> \|- \|100 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 106 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 70 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 46 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">F</span> \|- \|100 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 107 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 71 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 47 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">G</span> \|- \|100 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 110 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 72 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 48 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">H</span> \|- \|100 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 111 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 73 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 49 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">I</span> \|- \|100 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 112 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 74 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4A \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">J</span> \|- \|100 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 113 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 75 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4B \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">K</span> \|- \|100 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 114 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 76 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4C \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">L</span> \|- \|100 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 115 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 77 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4D \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">M</span> \|- \|100 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 116 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 78 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4E \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">N</span> \|- \|100 1111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 117 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 79 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 4F \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">O</span> \|- \|101 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 120 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 80 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 50 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">P</span> \|- \|101 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 121 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 81 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 51 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">Q</span> \|- \|101 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 122 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 82 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 52 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">R</span> \|- \|101 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 123 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 83 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 53 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">S</span> \|- \|101 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 124 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 84 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 54 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">T</span> \|- \|101 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 125 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 85 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 55 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">U</span> \|- \|101 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 126 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 86 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 56 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">V</span> \|- \|101 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 127 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 87 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 57 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">W</span> \|- \|101 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 130 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 88 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 58 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">X</span> \|- \|101 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 131 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 89 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 59 \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">Y</span> \|- \|101 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 132 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 90 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5A \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">Z</span> \|- \|101 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 133 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 91 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5B \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines"><nowiki>[</nowiki></span> \|- \|101 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 134 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 92 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5C \|\| <span class"nounderlines">\</span> \|\| <span class"nounderlines">~</span> \|\| <span class"nounderlines">\</span> \|- \|101 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 135 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 93 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5D \|\|colspan3\|<span class="nounderlines">[[Right square bracket\|<nowiki>]</nowiki>]]</span> \|- \|101 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 136 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 94 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5E \|\| <span class"nounderlines">↑</span> \|\|colspan2\|<span class"nounderlines">^</span> \|- \|101 1111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 137 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 95 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 5F \|\| <span class"nounderlines">←</span> \|\|colspan2\|<span class"nounderlines">_</span> \|- \|110 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 140 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 96 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 60 \|\| \|\| <span class"nounderlines">@</span> \|\| <span class="nounderlines">`</span> \|- \|110 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 141 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 97 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 61 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">a</span> \|- \|110 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 142 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 98 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 62 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">b</span> \|- \|110 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 143 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 99 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 63 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">c</span> \|- \|110 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 144 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 64 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">d</span> \|- \|110 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 145 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 65 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">e</span> \|- \|110 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 146 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 102 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 66 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">f</span> \|- \|110 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 147 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 103 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 67 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">g</span> \|- \|110 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 150 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 104 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 68 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">h</span> \|- \|110 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 151 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 105 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 69 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">i</span> \|- \|110 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 152 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 106 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6A \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">j</span> \|- \|110 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 153 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 107 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6B \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">k</span> \|- \|110 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 154 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 108 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6C \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">l</span> \|- \|110 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 155 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 109 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6D \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">m</span> \|- \|110 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 156 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6E \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">n</span> \|- \|110 1111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 157 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 6F \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">o</span> \|- \|111 0000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 160 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 112 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 70 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">p</span> \|- \|111 0001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 161 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 113 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 71 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">q</span> \|- \|111 0010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 162 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 114 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 72 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">r</span> \|- \|111 0011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 163 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 115 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 73 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">s</span> \|- \|111 0100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 164 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 116 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 74 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">t</span> \|- \|111 0101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 165 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 117 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 75 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">u</span> \|- \|111 0110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 166 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 118 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 76 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">v</span> \|- \|111 0111 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 167 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 119 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 77 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">w</span> \|- \|111 1000 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 170 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 120 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 78 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">x</span> \|- \|111 1001 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 171 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 121 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 79 \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">y</span> \|- \|111 1010 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 172 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 122 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 7A \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">z</span> \|- \|111 1011 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 173 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 123 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 7B \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">{</span> \|- \|111 1100 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 174 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 124 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 7C \|\| ACK \|\| <span class"nounderlines">¬</span> \|\| <span class="nounderlines"><nowiki>\|</nowiki></span> \|- \|111 1101 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 175 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 125 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 7D \|\| \|\|colspan2\|<span class="nounderlines">}</span> \|- \|111 1110 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 176 \|\| style"background:#cff;"\| 126 \|\|style"background:lightblue;"\| 7E \|\| ESC \|\| <span class"nounderlines"><nowiki>\|</nowiki></span> \|\| <span class="nounderlines">~</span> \|} Usage ASCII was first used commercially during 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (TeletypeWriter eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit ITA2, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. Because of his extensive work on ASCII, Bemer has been called "the father of ASCII". On March 11, 1968, US President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States Federal Government support ASCII, stating: <blockquote>I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce [Luther H. Hodges] regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used.</blockquote> ASCII was the most common character encoding on the World Wide Web until December 2007, when UTF-8 encoding surpassed it; UTF-8 is backward compatible with ASCII. <span class"anchor" id"Variants"></span>Variants and derivations As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some misuse that term to represent all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. Furthermore, the ASCII extensions have also been mislabelled as ASCII. <span class"anchor" id"7-bit"></span>7-bit codes From early in its development, ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard. <!-- ITU-T ITU T.50 International Reference Alphabet (IRA) International Alphabet No. 5 (IA5) --> Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO 646 (1967) that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£); e.g. with code page 1104. Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII, since ASCII suited the needs of only the US and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Many other countries developed variants of ASCII to include non-English letters (e.g. é, ñ, ß, Ł), currency symbols (e.g. £, ¥), etc. See also YUSCII (Yugoslavia). It would share most characters in common, but assign other locally useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use". However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation during 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to seem to be de facto standards for the world, causing confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, is a 7-bit character set. It does not make any additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and, therefore, which character a code represented, and in general, text-processing systems could cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc. programmer using their national variant of ISO/IEC 646, rather than ASCII, had to write, and thus read, something such as <code>ä aÄiÜ = 'Ön'; ü</code> instead of <code>{ a[i] = '\n'; }</code> C trigraphs were created to solve this problem for ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Many programmers kept their computers on ASCII, so plain-text in Swedish, German etc. (for example, in e-mail or Usenet) contained "{, }" and similar variants in the middle of words, something those programmers got used to. For example, a Swedish programmer mailing another programmer asking if they should go for lunch, could get "N{ jag har sm\|rg}sar" as the answer, which should be "Nä jag har smörgåsar" meaning "No I've got sandwiches". In Japan and Korea, still a variation of ASCII is used, in which the backslash (5C hex) is rendered as ¥ (a Yen sign, in Japan) or ₩ (a Won sign, in Korea). This means that, for example, the file path C:\Users\Smith is shown as C:¥Users¥Smith (in Japan) or C:₩Users₩Smith (in Korea). In Europe, teletext character sets, which are variants of ASCII, are used for broadcast TV subtitles, defined by World System Teletext and broadcast using the DVB-TXT standard for embedding teletext into DVB transmissions. In the case that the subtitles were initially authored for teletext and converted, the derived subtitle formats are constrained to the same character sets.<span class"anchor" id"8-bit"></span>8-bit codes <!-- to be mentioned USASCII-8 --> Eventually, as 8-, 16-, and 32-bit (and later 64-bit) computers began to replace 12-, 18-, and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit relatives of ASCII. In most cases these developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. ASCII itself remained a seven-bit code: the term "extended ASCII" has no official status. For some countries, 8-bit extensions of ASCII were developed that included support for characters used in local languages; for example, ISCII for India and VISCII for Vietnam. Kaypro CP/M computers used the "upper" 128 characters for the Greek alphabet. Even for markets where it was not necessary to add many characters to support additional languages, manufacturers of early home computer systems often developed their own 8-bit extensions of ASCII to include additional characters, such as box-drawing characters, semigraphics, and video game sprites. Often, these additions also replaced control characters (index 0 to 31, as well as index 127) with even more platform-specific extensions. In other cases, the extra bit was used for some other purpose, such as toggling inverse video; this approach was used by ATASCII, an extension of ASCII developed by Atari. Most ASCII extensions are based on ASCII-1967 (the current standard), but some extensions are instead based on the earlier ASCII-1963. For example, PETSCII, which was developed by Commodore International for their 8-bit systems, is based on ASCII-1963. Likewise, many Sharp MZ character sets are based on ASCII-1963. IBM defined code page 437 for the IBM PC, replacing the control characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapping additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal as one of the first extensions designed more for international languages than for block graphics. Apple defined Mac OS Roman for the Macintosh and Adobe defined the PostScript Standard Encoding for PostScript; both sets contained "international" letters, typographic symbols and punctuation marks instead of graphics, more like modern character sets. The ISO/IEC 8859 standard (derived from the DEC-MCS) provided a standard that most systems copied (or at least were based on, when not copied exactly). A popular further extension designed by Microsoft, Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), added the typographic punctuation marks needed for traditional text printing. ISO-8859-1, Windows-1252, and the original 7-bit ASCII were the most common character encoding methods on the World Wide Web until 2008, when UTF-8 overtook them. Unicode Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called code points) and encoding (to 8-, 16-, or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32, respectively). ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode (1991) character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged. See also * 3568 ASCII – an asteroid named after the character encoding * * * * * Basic Latin (Unicode block) – ASCII as a subset of Unicode * * HTML decimal character rendering * Jargon File – a glossary of computer programmer slang which includes a list of common slang names for ASCII characters * List of computer character sets * List of Unicode characters Notes References Further reading * * from: * ANSI X3.4-1977 \|publisherNational Institute for Standards \|date=1977}} (facsimile, not machine readable) * * External links <!-- (PLEASE NOTE) PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. This article already contains ASCII code charts, therefore any link to such a chart does not pass WP:ELNO #1 and WILL BE DELETED. This article is not about so-called "extended ASCII", therefore any link to a page about "extended ASCII" is not relevant and WILL BE DELETED. "ASCII converters" are a dime a dozen, so choosing any one would be linkspam for that site. All such links WILL BE DELETED. Add them to the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) instead. See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. (PLEASE NOTE) --> * Category:Computer-related introductions in 1963 Category:Character sets Category:Character encoding Category:Latin-script representations Category:Presentation layer protocols Category:American National Standards Institute standards	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII	2025-04-05T18:25:17.389497
590	Austin	Austin refers to: Common meanings Austin, Texas, United States, a city Austin (given name), a list of people and fictional characters Austin (surname), a list of people and fictional characters Austin Motor Company, a British car manufacturer Arts and entertainment Austin (album), by Post Malone, 2023 "Austin" (Blake Shelton song), 2001 "Austin" (Dasha song), 2023 Austin (TV series), a 2024 Australian comedy series Businesses and organisations Businesses American Austin Car Company, short-lived American automobile maker Austin Automobile Company, short-lived American automobile company Austin Motor Company, British car manufacturer Austin magazine, produced for the Austin Motor Company by in-house Nuffield Press Austin Airways, a former Canadian passenger airline and freight carrier Austin cookies and crackers, a Keebler Company brand Education Austin College, in Sherman, Texas, U.S. Austin High School (disambiguation), several schools University of Austin, in Austin, Texas, U.S. University of Texas at Austin, in Austin, Texas, U.S. Military USS Austin, the name of three ships Austin-class amphibious transport dock, a former US Navy ship class Austin Armoured Car, a British First World War armoured car People Austin (given name), including a list of people with the name Austin (surname), including a list of people with the name Augustine of Hippo (354–430), also known as St. Austin, Christian theologian and saint Places Canada Austin, Manitoba, an unincorporated community Austin, Ontario, a neighbourhood Austin, Quebec, a municipality Austin Island, Nunavut United States Austin, Arkansas, a city Austin, Colorado, an unincorporated community Austin, Chicago, Illinois, a community area Austin, Indiana, a city Austin, Kentucky Austin, Minnesota, a city Austin, Missouri, an unincorporated community Austin, Nevada, an unincorporated town and census-designated place Austin, Ohio, an unincorporated community Austin, Oregon, an unincorporated community considered a ghost town Austin, Pennsylvania, a borough Austin, Texas, the capital city of Texas Austin County, Texas Austin Lake, Michigan Lake Austin, a reservoir in Austin, Texas Austin Township (disambiguation) Elsewhere Austin, Western Australia, Australia, a ghost town Mount Austin (Antarctica), Palmer Land Austin Peak, part of the Mirabito Range in Victoria Land, Antarctica Mount Austin, Hong Kong, a hill also known as Victoria Peak Sports Austin FC, an American soccer club Austin FC II, reserve team for Austin FC Austin Spurs, an American basketball team Austin Bruins, an American ice hockey team Other uses Austin (building), a building designed by artist Ellsworth Kelly in Austin, Texas Austin, an adjective in England for Augustinian friars See also Austin station (disambiguation) Austins (disambiguation) Austen (disambiguation) Austin Airport (disambiguation) Austin Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Austin Road, Hong Kong	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin	2025-04-05T18:25:17.398212
593	Animation	Animation is a filmmaking technique whereby still images are manipulated to create moving images. In traditional animation, images are drawn or painted by hand on transparent celluloid sheets to be photographed and exhibited on film. Animation has been recognized as an artistic medium, specifically within the entertainment industry. Many animations are either traditional animations or computer animations made with computer-generated imagery (CGI). Stop motion animation, in particular claymation, has continued to exist alongside these other forms. Animation is contrasted with live action, although the two do not exist in isolation. Many moviemakers have produced films that are a hybrid of the two. As CGI increasingly approximates photographic imagery, filmmakers can easily composite 3D animations into their film rather than using practical effects for showy visual effects (VFX). General overview Computer animation can be very detailed 3D animation, while 2D computer animation (which may have the look of traditional animation) can be used for stylistic reasons, low bandwidth, or faster real-time renderings. Other common animation methods apply a stop motion technique to two- and three-dimensional objects like paper cutouts, puppets, or clay figures. An animated cartoon, or simply a cartoon, is an animated film, usually short, that features an exaggerated visual style. This style is often inspired by comic strips, gag cartoons, and other non-animated art forms. Cartoons frequently include anthropomorphic animals, superheroes, or the adventures of human protagonists. The action often revolves around exaggerated physical humor, particularly in predator/prey dynamics (e.g. cats and mices, coyotes and birds), where violent pratfalls such as falls, collisions, and explosions occur, often in ways that would be lethal in the real life. During in the 1980s, the term "cartoon" was shortened to toon, referring to characters in animated productions, or more specifically, cartoonishly-drawn characters. This term gained popularity in 1988 with the live-action/animated hybrid film Who Framed Roger Rabbit, which introduced ToonTown, a world inhabited by animated cartoon characters. In 1990, Tiny Toon Adventures embraced the classic cartoon spirit, introducing a new generation of characters. Then, in 1993, Animaniacs followed, featuring the rubber-hose-styled Warner siblings, Yakko, Wakko, and Dot who are trapped in the 1930s, eventually escaped and found themselves in the Warner Bros. water tower in the 1990s. The illusion of animation—as in motion pictures in general—has traditionally been attributed to the persistence of vision and later to the phi phenomenon and beta movement, but the exact neurological causes are still uncertain. The illusion of motion caused by a rapid succession of images that minimally differ from each other, with unnoticeable interruptions, is a stroboscopic effect. While animators traditionally used to draw each part of the movements and changes of figures on transparent cels that could be moved over a separate background, computer animation is usually based on programming paths between key frames to maneuver digitally created figures throughout a digitally created environment. Analog mechanical animation media that rely on the rapid display of sequential images include the phenakistiscope, zoetrope, flip book, praxinoscope, and film. Television and video are popular electronic animation media that originally were analog and now operate digitally. For display on computers, technology such as the animated GIF and Flash animation were developed. In addition to short films, feature films, television series, animated GIFs, and other media dedicated to the display of moving images, animation is also prevalent in video games, motion graphics, user interfaces, and visual effects. The physical movement of image parts through simple mechanics—for instance, moving images in magic lantern shows—can also be considered animation. The mechanical manipulation of three-dimensional puppets and objects to emulate living beings has a very long history in automata. Electronic automata were popularized by Disney as animatronics. Etymology The word animation comes to the Latin word animātiō, meaning 'bestowing of life'. The earlier meaning of the English word is 'liveliness' and has been in use much longer than the meaning of 'moving image medium'. History<!--'Animated cartoon' redirects here--> , from 1882, here shown superimposing an animated figure on a separately projected background scene]] (1908) by Émile Cohl]] Before cinematography Long before modern animation began, audiences around the world were captivated by the magic of moving characters. For centuries, master artists and craftsmen have brought puppets, automatons, shadow puppets, and fantastical lanterns to life, inspiring the imagination through physically manipulated wonders. In 1833, the stroboscopic disc (better known as the phenakistiscope) introduced the principle of modern animation, which would also be applied in the zoetrope (introduced in 1866), the flip book (1868), the praxinoscope (1877) and film. Silent era When cinematography eventually broke through in the 1890s, the wonder of the realistic details in the new medium was seen as its biggest accomplishment. It took years before animation found its way to the cinemas. The successful short The Haunted Hotel (1907) by J. Stuart Blackton popularized stop motion and reportedly inspired Émile Cohl to create Fantasmagorie (1908), regarded as the oldest known example of a complete traditional (hand-drawn) animation on standard cinematographic film. Other great artistic and very influential short films were created by Ladislas Starevich with his puppet animations since 1910 and by Winsor McCay with detailed hand-drawn animation in films such as Little Nemo (1911) and Gertie the Dinosaur (1914). During the 1910s, the production of animated "cartoons" became an industry in the US. Successful producer John Randolph Bray and animator Earl Hurd, patented the cel animation process that dominated the animation industry for the rest of the century. Felix the Cat, who debuted in 1919, became the first fully realized anthropomorphic animal character in the history of American animation. , silent, 1919]] American golden age In 1928, Steamboat Willie'', featuring Mickey Mouse and Minnie Mouse, popularized film-with-synchronized-sound and put Walt Disney's studio at the forefront of the animation industry. Although Disney Animation's actual output relative to total global animation output has always been very small, the studio has overwhelmingly dominated the "aesthetic norms" of animation ever since. The enormous success of Mickey Mouse is seen as the start of the golden age of American animation that would last until the 1960s. The United States dominated the world market of animation with a plethora of cel-animated theatrical shorts. Several studios would introduce characters that would become very popular and would have long-lasting careers, including Walt Disney Productions' Goofy (1932) and Donald Duck (1934), Fleischer Studios/Paramount Cartoon Studios' Out of the Inkwell' Koko the Clown (1918), Bimbo and Betty Boop (1930), Popeye (1933) and Casper the Friendly Ghost (1945), Warner Bros. Cartoon Studios' Looney Tunes' Porky Pig (1935), Daffy Duck (1937), Elmer Fudd (1937–1940), Bugs Bunny (1938–1940), Tweety (1942), Sylvester the Cat (1945), Wile E. Coyote and the Road Runner (1949), MGM cartoon studio's Tom and Jerry (1940) and Droopy, Universal Cartoon Studios' Woody Woodpecker (1940), Terrytoons/20th Century Fox's Mighty Mouse (1942), and United Artists' Pink Panther (1963).Features before CGIshowing the cut and articulated figure of his satirical character El Peludo (based on President Yrigoyen) patented in 1916 for the realization of his films, including the world's first animated feature film El Apóstol]] In 1917, Italian-Argentine director Quirino Cristiani made the first feature-length film El Apóstol (now lost), which became a critical and commercial success. It was followed by Cristiani's Sin dejar rastros in 1918, but one day after its premiere, the film was confiscated by the government. After working on it for three years, Lotte Reiniger released the German feature-length silhouette animation Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed in 1926, the oldest extant animated feature. In 1937, Walt Disney Studios premiered their first animated feature Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, still one of the highest-grossing traditional animation features . The Fleischer studios followed this example in 1939 with ''Gulliver's Travels'' with some success. Partly due to foreign markets being cut off by the Second World War, Disney's next features Pinocchio, Fantasia (both 1940), Fleischer Studios' second animated feature Mr. Bug Goes to Town (1941–1942) and Disney's feature films Cinderella (1950), Alice in Wonderland (1951) and Lady and the Tramp (1955) failed at the box office. For several decades, Disney was the only American studio to regularly produce animated features, until Ralph Bakshi became the first to release more than a handful of features. Sullivan-Bluth Studios began to regularly produce animated features starting with An American Tail in 1986. Although relatively few titles became as successful as Disney's features, other countries developed their own animation industries that produced both short and feature theatrical animations in a wide variety of styles, relatively often including stop motion and cutout animation techniques. Soviet Soyuzmultfilm animation studio, founded in 1936, produced 20 films (including shorts) per year on average and reached 1,582 titles in 2018. China, Czechoslovakia / Czech Republic, Italy, France, and Belgium were other countries that more than occasionally released feature films, while Japan became a true powerhouse of animation production, with its own recognizable and influential anime style of effective limited animation.TelevisionAnimation became very popular on television since the 1950s, when television sets started to become common in most developed countries. Cartoons were mainly programmed for children, on convenient time slots, and especially US youth spent many hours watching Saturday-morning cartoons. Many classic cartoons found a new life on the small screen and by the end of the 1950s, the production of new animated cartoons started to shift from theatrical releases to TV series. Hanna-Barbera Productions was especially prolific and had huge hit series, such as The Flintstones (1960–1966) (the first prime time animated series), Scooby-Doo (since 1969) and Belgian co-production The Smurfs (1981–1989). The constraints of American television programming and the demand for an enormous quantity resulted in cheaper and quicker limited animation methods and much more formulaic scripts. Quality dwindled until more daring animation surfaced in the late 1980s and in the early 1990s with hit series, the first cartoon of The Simpsons (1987), which later developed into its own show (in 1989) and SpongeBob SquarePants (since 1999) as part of a "renaissance" of American animation. While US animated series also spawned successes internationally, many other countries produced their own child-oriented programming, relatively often preferring stop motion and puppetry over cel animation. Japanese anime TV series became very successful internationally since the 1960s, and European producers looking for affordable cel animators relatively often started co-productions with Japanese studios, resulting in hit series such as Barbapapa (The Netherlands/Japan/France 1973–1977), Wickie und die starken Männer/小さなバイキングビッケ (Vicky the Viking) (Austria/Germany/Japan 1974), Maya the Honey Bee (Japan/Germany 1975) and The Jungle Book (Italy/Japan 1989).Switch from cels to computers Computer animation was gradually developed since the 1940s. 3D wireframe animation started popping up in the mainstream in the 1970s, with an early (short) appearance in the sci-fi thriller Futureworld (1976). The Rescuers Down Under was the first feature film to be completely created digitally without a camera. It was produced using the Computer Animation Production System (CAPS), developed by Pixar in collaboration with The Walt Disney Company in the late 1980s, in a style similar to traditional cel animation. The so-called 3D style, more often associated with computer animation, became the dominant technique following the success of Pixar's Toy Story (1995), the first computer-animated feature in this style. Most of the cel animation studios switched to producing mostly computer-animated films around the 1990s, as it proved cheaper and more profitable. Not only the very popular 3D animation style was generated with computers, but also most of the films and series with a more traditional hand-crafted appearance, in which the charming characteristics of cel animation could be emulated with software, while new digital tools helped developing new styles and effects. Economic status In 2010, the animation market was estimated to be worth circa US$80 billion. By 2021, the value had increased to an estimated US$370 billion. Animated feature-length films returned the highest gross margins (around 52%) of all film genres between 2004 and 2013. Animation as an art and industry continues to thrive as of the early 2020s. Education, propaganda and commercials The clarity of animation makes it a powerful tool for instruction, while its total malleability also allows exaggeration that can be employed to convey strong emotions and to thwart reality. It has therefore been widely used for other purposes than mere entertainment. During World War II, animation was widely exploited for propaganda. Many American studios, including Warner Bros. and Disney, lent their talents and their cartoon characters to convey to the public certain war values. These efforts extended to other countries well into the Cold War era, particularly as it pertained to "combatting" communism. For example, the English 1954 adaptation of George Orwell's Animal Farm (the nation's first feature-length animated film) is speculated to have had its production funded by the CIA. Animation has been very popular in television commercials, both due to its graphic appeal, and the humour it can provide. Some animated characters in commercials have survived for decades, such as Snap, Crackle and Pop in advertisements for Kellogg's cereals. Tex Avery was the producer of the first Raid "Kills Bugs Dead" commercials in 1966, which were very successful for the company.Other media, merchandise and theme parks Apart from their success in movie theaters and television series, many cartoon characters would also prove lucrative when licensed for all kinds of merchandise and for other media. Animation has traditionally been very closely related to comic books. While many comic book characters found their way to the screen (which is often the case in Japan, where many manga are adapted into anime), original animated characters also commonly appear in comic books and magazines. Somewhat similarly, characters and plots for video games (an interactive form of animation that became its own medium) have been derived from films and vice versa. Some of the original content produced for the screen can be used and marketed in other media. Stories and images can easily be adapted into children's books and other printed media. Songs and music have appeared on records and as streaming media. While very many animation companies commercially exploit their creations outside moving image media, The Walt Disney Company is the best known and most extreme example. Since first being licensed for a children's writing tablet in 1929, their Mickey Mouse mascot has been depicted on an enormous amount of products, as have many other Disney characters. This may have influenced some pejorative use of Mickey's name, but licensed Disney products sell well, and the so-called Disneyana has many avid collectors, and even a dedicated Disneyana Fan Club (since 1984). Disneyland opened in 1955 and features many attractions that were based on Disney's cartoon characters. Its enormous success spawned several other Disney theme parks and resorts. Disney's earnings from the theme parks have relatively often been higher than those from their movies. Awards As with any other form of media, animation has instituted awards for excellence in the field. Many are part of general or regional film award programs, like the China's Golden Rooster Award for Best Animation (since 1981). Awards programs dedicated to animation, with many categories, include ASIFA-Hollywood's Annie Awards, the Emile Awards in Europe and the Anima Mundi awards in Brazil. Academy Awards Apart from Academy Awards for Best Animated Short Film (since 1932) and Best Animated Feature (since 2002), animated movies have been nominated and rewarded in other categories, relatively often for Best Original Song and Best Original Score. Beauty and the Beast was the first animated film nominated for Best Picture, in 1991. Up (2009) and Toy Story 3 (2010) also received Best Picture nominations, after the academy expanded the number of nominees from five to ten. Production The creation of non-trivial animation works (i.e., longer than a few seconds) has developed as a form of filmmaking, with certain unique aspects. Traits common to both live-action and animated feature films are labor intensity and high production costs. The most important difference is that once a film is in the production phase, the marginal cost of one more shot is higher for animated films than live-action films. It is relatively easy for a director to ask for one more take during principal photography of a live-action film, but every take on an animated film must be manually rendered by animators (although the task of rendering slightly different takes has been made less tedious by modern computer animation). It is pointless for a studio to pay the salaries of dozens of animators to spend weeks creating a visually dazzling five-minute scene if that scene fails to effectively advance the plot of the film. Thus, animation studios starting with Disney began the practice in the 1930s of maintaining story departments where storyboard artists develop every single scene through storyboards, then handing the film over to the animators only after the production team is satisfied that all the scenes make sense as a whole. While live-action films are now also storyboarded, they enjoy more latitude to depart from storyboards (i.e., real-time improvisation). Another problem unique to animation is the requirement to maintain a film's consistency from start to finish, even as films have grown longer and teams have grown larger. Animators, like all artists, necessarily have individual styles, but must subordinate their individuality in a consistent way to whatever style is employed on a particular film. Since the early 1980s, teams of about 500 to 600 people, of whom 50 to 70 are animators, typically have created feature-length animated films. It is relatively easy for two or three artists to match their styles; synchronizing those of dozens of artists is more difficult. This problem is usually solved by having a separate group of visual development artists develop an overall look and palette for each film before the animation begins. While animators must "sacrifice their personal drawing styles so that the work of many hands appears to be that of one", visual development artists are allowed to "create new worlds, new characters, and new entertainment possibilities in their own individualistic graphic styles". Character designers on the visual development team draw model sheets to show how each character should look like with different facial expressions, posed in different positions, and viewed from different angles. On traditionally animated projects, maquettes were often sculpted to further help the animators see how characters would look from different angles. Unlike live-action films, animated films were traditionally developed beyond the synopsis stage through the storyboard format; the storyboard artists would then receive credit for writing the film. The traditional approach worked for several decades because prior to the 1960s, no one except Disney was attempting to regularly produce feature-length animated films. All other animation studios, with occasional exceptions, were producing short films only a few minutes in length. For short films, it was enough for the storyboard artists to work up a few visual gags and then string them together to form a crude plot. In 1960, Hanna-Barbera pioneered the longer animated sitcom format for television with The Flintstones. Hanna-Barbera and the other early television animation studios soon discovered that storyboarding was far too inefficient to fill up a half-hour episode on the extremely tight budgets typical of television. During the 1960s, these studios experimented with a more efficient method for developing story material: a screenwriter is hired to draft a written screenplay which is approved and handed over to the storyboard artists for storyboarding. This method creates significant tension between screenwriters and storyboard artists, in that some artists feel that people who cannot draw should not be writing for animation, while some writers feel that artists do not understand how to write. Despite that tension, it has become and remains the dominant method by which animation studios develop both feature-length films and television shows.TechniquesTraditional from Eadweard Muybridge's 19th-century photos]] Traditional animation (also called cel animation or hand-drawn animation) is the process that was used for most animated films of the 20th century. The individual frames of a traditionally animated film are photographs of drawings, first drawn on paper. To create the illusion of movement, each drawing differs slightly from the one before it. The animators' drawings are traced or photocopied onto transparent acetate sheets called cels, which are filled in with paints in assigned colors or tones on the side opposite the line drawings. The completed character cels are photographed one-by-one against a painted background by a rostrum camera onto motion picture film. The traditional cel animation process became obsolete by the beginning of the 21st century. In modern traditionally animated films, animators' drawings and the backgrounds are either scanned into or drawn directly into a computer system. Various software programs are used to color the drawings and simulate camera movement and effects. The final animated piece is output to one of several delivery media, including traditional 35 mm film and newer media with digital video. The "look" of traditional cel animation is still preserved, and the character animators' work has remained essentially the same over the past 90 years. Some animation producers have used the term "tradigital" (a play on the words "traditional" and "digital") to describe cel animation that uses significant computer technology. Examples of traditionally animated feature films include Pinocchio (United States, 1940), Animal Farm (United Kingdom, 1954), Lucky and Zorba (Italy, 1998), and The Illusionist (British-French, 2010). Traditionally animated films produced with the aid of computer technology include The Lion King (US, 1994), Anastasia (US, 1997), The Prince of Egypt (US, 1998), Akira (Japan, 1988), Spirited Away (Japan, 2001), The Triplets of Belleville (France, 2003), and The Secret of Kells (Irish-French-Belgian, 2009). Full Full animation is the process of producing high-quality traditionally animated films that regularly use detailed drawings and plausible movement, having a smooth animation. Fully animated films can be made in a variety of styles, from more realistically animated works like those produced by the Walt Disney studio (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, The Lion King) to the more 'cartoon' styles of the Warner Bros. animation studio. Many of the Disney animated features are examples of full animation, as are non-Disney works, The Secret of NIMH (US, 1982), The Iron Giant (US, 1999), and Nocturna (Spain, 2007). Fully animated films are often animated on "twos", sometimes on "ones", which means that 12 to 24 drawings are required for a single second of film.Limited Limited animation involves the use of less detailed or more stylized drawings and methods of movement usually a choppy or "skippy" movement animation. Limited animation uses fewer drawings per second, thereby limiting the fluidity of the animation. This is a more economic technique. Pioneered by the artists at the American studio United Productions of America, limited animation can be used as a method of stylized artistic expression, as in Gerald McBoing-Boing (US, 1951), Yellow Submarine (UK, 1968), and certain anime produced in Japan. Its primary use, however, has been in producing cost-effective animated content for media for television (the work of Hanna-Barbera, Filmation, and other TV animation studios) and later the Internet (web cartoons). Rotoscoping Rotoscoping is a technique patented by Max Fleischer in 1917 where animators trace live-action movement, frame by frame. The source film can be directly copied from actors' outlines into animated drawings, as in The Lord of the Rings (US, 1978), or used in a stylized and expressive manner, as in Waking Life (US, 2001) and A Scanner Darkly (US, 2006). Some other examples are Fire and Ice (US, 1983), Heavy Metal (1981), and Aku no Hana (Japan, 2013).Live-action blending Live-action/animation is a technique combining hand-drawn characters into live action shots or live-action actors into animated shots. One of the earlier uses was in Koko the Clown when Koko was drawn over live-action footage. Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks created a series of Alice Comedies (1923–1927), in which a live-action girl enters an animated world. Other examples include Allegro Non Troppo (Italy, 1976), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (US, 1988), Volere volare (Italy 1991), Space Jam (US, 1996) and Osmosis Jones (US, 2001).Stop motion Stop motion is used to describe animation created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame of film at a time to create the illusion of movement. There are many different types of stop-motion animation, usually named after the materials used to create the animation. Computer software is widely available to create this type of animation; traditional stop-motion animation is usually less expensive but more time-consuming to produce than current computer animation. ; Stop motion : Typically involves stop-motion puppet figures interacting in a constructed environment, in contrast to real-world interaction in model animation. The puppets generally have an armature inside of them to keep them still and steady to constrain their motion to particular joints. Examples include The Tale of the Fox (France, 1937), The Nightmare Before Christmas (US, 1993), Corpse Bride (US, 2005), Coraline (US, 2009), the films of Jiří Trnka and the adult animated sketch-comedy television series Robot Chicken (US, 2005–present). :; Puppetoons : Created using techniques developed by George Pal, are puppet-animated films that typically use a different version of a puppet for different frames, rather than manipulating one existing puppet. television commercial]] ; Clay animation or Plasticine animation : (Often called claymation, which, however, is a trademarked name). It uses figures made of clay or a similar malleable material to create stop-motion animation. The figures may have an armature or wire frame inside, similar to the related puppet animation (below), that can be manipulated to pose the figures. Alternatively, the figures may be made entirely of clay, in the films of Bruce Bickford, where clay creatures morph into a variety of different shapes. Examples of clay-animated works include The Gumby Show (US, 1957–1967), Mio Mao (Italy, 1974–2005), Morph shorts (UK, 1977–2000), Wallace & Gromit shorts (UK, as of 1989), Jan Švankmajer's Dimensions of Dialogue (Czechoslovakia, 1982), The Trap Door (UK, 1984). Films include Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit, Chicken Run and The Adventures of Mark Twain. :; Strata-cut animation : Most commonly a form of clay animation in which a long bread-like "loaf" of clay, internally packed tight and loaded with varying imagery, is sliced into thin sheets, with the animation camera taking a frame of the end of the loaf for each cut, eventually revealing the movement of the internal images within. ; Cutout animation : A type of stop-motion animation produced by moving two-dimensional pieces of material paper or cloth. Examples include Terry Gilliam's animated sequences from ''Monty Python's Flying Circus (UK, 1969–1974); Fantastic Planet (France/Czechoslovakia, 1973); Tale of Tales (Russia, 1979), Matt Stone and Trey Parker the first cutout animation South Park (1992), the pilot episode of the adult television sitcom series (and sometimes in episodes) of South Park (US, 1997) and the music video Live for the moment, from Verona Riots band (produced by Alberto Serrano and Nívola Uyá, Spain 2014). :; Silhouette animation : A variant of cutout animation in which the characters are backlit and only visible as silhouettes. Examples include The Adventures of Prince Achmed (Weimar Republic, 1926) and Princes et Princesses (France, 2000). ; Model animation : Stop-motion animation created to interact with and exist as a part of a live-action world. Intercutting, matte effects and split screens are often employed to blend stop-motion characters or objects with live actors and settings. ; Pixilation : Involves the use of live humans as stop-motion characters. This allows for a number of surreal effects, including disappearances and reappearances, allowing people to appear to slide across the ground, and other effects. Examples of pixilation include The Secret Adventures of Tom Thumb and Angry Kid shorts, and the Academy Award-winning Neighbours by Norman McLaren. Computer Computer animation encompasses a variety of techniques, the unifying factor being that the animation is created digitally on a computer. 2D animation techniques tend to focus on image manipulation while 3D techniques usually build virtual worlds in which characters and objects move and interact. 3D animation can create images that seem real to the viewer.2D 2D animation figures are created or edited on the computer using 2D bitmap graphics and 2D vector graphics. This includes automated computerized versions of traditional animation techniques, interpolated morphing, onion skinning and interpolated rotoscoping. 2D animation has many applications, including After Effects Animation, analog computer animation, Flash animation, and PowerPoint animation. Cinemagraphs are still photographs in the form of an animated GIF file of which part is animated. Final line advection animation is a technique used in 2D animation, to give artists and animators more influence and control over the final product as everything is done within the same department. Speaking about using this approach in Paperman, John Kahrs said that "Our animators can change things, actually erase away the CG underlayer if they want, and change the profile of the arm." When working with game animations, skeletal 2D animations are commonly created using tools like Spine, DragonBones, Blender COA Tools, Rive, and the built-in Unity editor. The primary benefit of this approach is the ability to reuse images, which reduces the amount of graphics stored in RAM. This principle of maximizing resource efficiency means that by reusing existing elements, you can enhance the visual appeal of animations without needing to create additional graphics.3D 3D animation is digitally modeled and manipulated by an animator. The 3D model maker usually starts by creating a 3D polygon mesh for the animator to manipulate. A mesh typically includes many vertices that are connected by edges and faces, which give the visual appearance of form to a 3D object or 3D environment. Sometimes, the mesh is given an internal digital skeletal structure called an armature that can be used to control the mesh by weighting the vertices. This process is called rigging and can be used in conjunction with key frames to create movement. Other techniques can be applied, mathematical functions (e.g., gravity, particle simulations), simulated fur or hair, and effects, fire and water simulations. These techniques fall under the category of 3D dynamics. Terms * Cel shading is used to mimic traditional animation using computer software. The shading looks stark, with less blending of colors. Examples include Skyland (2007, France), The Iron Giant (1999, U.S.), Futurama (1999, U.S.) Appleseed Ex Machina (2007, Japan), The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker (2002, Japan), The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild (2017, Japan) * Machinima – Films created by screen capturing in video games and virtual worlds. The term originated from the software introduction in the 1980s demoscene, as well as the 1990s recordings of the first-person shooter video game Quake. * Motion capture is used when live-action actors wear special suits that allow computers to copy their movements into CG characters. Examples include Polar Express (2004, US), Beowulf (2007, US), A Christmas Carol (2009, US), The Adventures of Tintin (2011, US) kochadiiyan (2014, India) * Computer animation is used primarily for animation that attempts to resemble real life while having a stylized cartoonish appearance, using advanced rendering that mimics in detail skin, plants, water, fire, clouds, etc. Examples include Up (2009, US), How to Train Your Dragon (2010, US) * Physically based animation is animation using computer simulations.Mechanical * Animatronics is the use of mechatronics to create machines that seem animate rather than robotic. Audio-Animatronics is a form of robotics animation, combined with 3-D animation, created by Walt Disney Imagineering for shows and attractions at Disney theme parks move and make noise (generally a recorded speech or song). They are fixed to whatever supports them. They can sit and stand, and they cannot walk. An Audio-Animatron is different from an android-type robot in that it uses prerecorded movements and sounds, rather than responding to external stimuli. In 2009, Disney created an interactive version of the technology called Autonomatronics. Linear Animation Generator is a form of animation by using static picture frames installed in a tunnel or a shaft. The animation illusion is created by putting the viewer in a linear motion, parallel to the installed picture frames. * Chuckimation is a type of animation created by the makers of the television series Action League Now! in which characters/props are thrown, or chucked from off camera or wiggled around to simulate talking by unseen hands. * The magic lantern used mechanical slides to project moving images. Christiaan Huygens was thought to have invented the magic lantern in the mid-1600s. Other '' hydrotechnics at Disney California Adventure creates the illusion of motion using 1,200 fountains with high-definition projections on mist screens.]] * Musical fountain: a hydrautechnical show that includes water and lights, nowadays often combined with lasers and high-definition projections on mist screens. * Drawn-on-film animation: a technique where footage is produced by creating the images directly on film stock; for example, by Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage. * Paint-on-glass animation: a technique for making animated films by manipulating slow drying oil paints on sheets of glass, for example by Aleksandr Petrov. * Erasure animation: a technique using traditional 2D media, photographed over time as the artist manipulates the image. For example, William Kentridge is famous for his charcoal erasure films, and Piotr Dumała for his auteur technique of animating scratches on plaster. * Pinscreen animation: makes use of a screen filled with movable pins that can be moved in or out by pressing an object onto the screen. The screen is lit from the side so that the pins cast shadows. The technique has been used to create animated films with a range of textural effects difficult to achieve with traditional cel animation. * Sand animation: sand is moved around on a back- or front-lighted piece of glass to create each frame for an animated film. This creates an interesting effect when animated because of the light contrast. * Flip book: a flip book (sometimes, especially in British English, called a flick book) is a book with a series of pictures that vary gradually from one page to the next, so that when the pages are turned rapidly, the pictures appear to animate by simulating motion or some other change. Flip books are often illustrated books for children, they also are geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, they appear as an added feature in ordinary books or magazines, often in the page corners. Software packages and websites are also available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. * Character animation * Multi-sketch animation * Special effects animation * 2.5D Animation: A mix of 2D and 3D animation elements that emphasize the illusion of depth utilizing the pseudo-3D effect. During the 1970s, the term "2.5D" started to gain recognition. But its background comes from anime and manga during the 1920s where theatrical stage productions were popular. Stage adaptations of well-liked anime series featured live performances by voice actors called 2.5D. }} Sources Journal articles * * Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Online sources * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * }} External links * [http://www.sparetimelabs.com/animato/animato/cartoon/cartoon.html The making of an 8-minute cartoon short] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091001071111/http://www.nfb.ca/film/animando_english/ "Animando"], a 12-minute film demonstrating 10 different animation techniques (and teaching how to use them) (archived 1 October 2009). Category:Cartooning Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Film and video technology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animation	2025-04-05T18:25:17.459932
594	Apollo	<!-- this article uses the BCE/CE convention --> –140 CE \| god_of = God of oracles, healing, archery, music and arts, light, knowledge, herds and flocks, and protection of the young \| member_of = the Twelve Olympians and the Dii Consentes \| abode = Mount Olympus \| symbol = Lyre, laurel wreath, python, bow and arrows \| tree = laurel, cypress \| animals = Raven, swan, wolf \| consort \| birth_place Delos \| parents = Zeus and Leto \| siblings = Artemis (twin), and many paternal half-siblings \| children = Asclepius, Aristaeus, Corybantes, Hymen, Apollonis, Amphiaraus, Anius, Apis, Cycnus, Eurydice, Hector, Linus of Thrace, Lycomedes, Melaneus, Melite, Miletus, Mopsus, Oaxes, Oncius, Orpheus, Troilus, Phemonoe, Philammon, Tenerus, Trophonius, and various others \| mount = A chariot drawn by swans \| planet Sun<br />Mercury (antiquity) \| equivalent4_type = Celtic \| equivalent4 = Grannus }} ]] Apollo, , ; , <br />, ; , ; , <br />, , , ; , }} is one of the Olympian deities in ancient Greek and Roman religion and Greek and Roman mythology. Apollo has been recognized as a god of archery, music and dance, truth and prophecy, healing and diseases, the Sun and light, poetry, and more. One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. He is considered to be the most beautiful god and is represented as the ideal of the kouros (ephebe, or a beardless, athletic youth). Apollo is known in Greek-influenced Etruscan mythology as Apulu. As the patron deity of Delphi (Apollo Pythios), Apollo is an oracular god—the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle and also the deity of ritual purification. His oracles were often consulted for guidance in various matters. He was in general seen as the god who affords help and wards off evil, and is referred to as , the "averter of evil". Medicine and healing are associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son Asclepius. Apollo delivered people from epidemics, yet he is also a god who could bring ill health and deadly plague with his arrows. The invention of archery itself is credited to Apollo and his sister Artemis. Apollo is usually described as carrying a silver or golden bow and a quiver of arrows. As the god of mousike, Apollo presides over all music, songs, dance, and poetry. He is the inventor of string-music and the frequent companion of the Muses, functioning as their chorus leader in celebrations. The lyre is a common attribute of Apollo. Protection of the young is one of the best attested facets of his panhellenic cult persona. As a , Apollo is concerned with the health and education of children, and he presided over their passage into adulthood. Long hair, which was the prerogative of boys, was cut at the coming of age () and dedicated to Apollo. The god himself is depicted with long, uncut hair to symbolise his eternal youth. Apollo is an important pastoral deity, and he was the patron of herdsmen and shepherds. Protection of herds, flocks and crops from diseases, pests and predators were his primary rustic duties. On the other hand, Apollo also encouraged the founding of new towns and the establishment of civil constitutions, is associated with dominion over colonists, and was the giver of laws. His oracles were often consulted before setting laws in a city. Apollo Agyieus was the protector of the streets, public places and home entrances. In Hellenistic times, especially during the 5th century BCE, as Apollo Helios he became identified among Greeks with Helios, the personification of the Sun. Although Latin theological works from at least 1st century BCE identified Apollo with Sol, there was no conflation between the two among the classical Latin poets until 1st century CE. Etymology , 1st century AD]] Apollo (Attic, Ionic, and Homeric Greek: , ( ); Doric: , ; Arcadocypriot: , ; Aeolic: , ; ) The name Apollo—unlike the related older name Paean—is generally not found in the Linear B (Mycenean Greek) texts, although there is a possible attestation in the lacunose form ]pe-rjo-[ (Linear B: ]}}-[) on the KN E 842 tablet, though it has also been suggested that the name might actually read "Hyperion" ([u]-pe-rjo-[ne]). The etymology of the name is uncertain. The spelling ( in Classical Attic) had almost superseded all other forms by the beginning of the common era, but the Doric form, (), is more archaic, as it is derived from an earlier . It probably is a cognate to the Doric month Apellaios (), and the offerings () at the initiation of the young men during the family-festival (). According to some scholars, the words are derived from the Doric word (), which originally meant "wall," "fence for animals" and later "assembly within the limits of the square." Apella () is the name of the popular assembly in Sparta, Several instances of popular etymology are attested by ancient authors. Thus, the Greeks most often associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb (), "to destroy". Plato in Cratylus connects the name with (), "redemption", with (apolousis), "purification", and with (), "simple", in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, , and finally with (), "ever-shooting". Hesychius connects the name Apollo with the Doric (), which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation (), "fold", in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. In the ancient Macedonian language () means "stone," and some toponyms may be derived from this word: (Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia) and (Pellēnē/Pellene). The Hittite form Apaliunas (<sup>d</sup>) is attested in the Manapa-Tarhunta letter. The Hittite testimony reflects an early form , which may also be surmised from the comparison of Cypriot with Doric . The name of the Lydian god Qλdãns // may reflect an earlier /-/ before palatalization, syncope, and the pre-Lydian sound change * > . Note the labiovelar in place of the labial // found in pre-Doric and Hittite Apaliunas. A Luwian etymology suggested for Apaliunas makes Apollo "The One of Entrapment", perhaps in the sense of "Hunter". Greco-Roman epithets Apollo's chief epithet was Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos ), literally "bright". It was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for Apollo's role as the god of light. Like other Greek deities, he had a number of others applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in Latin literature. Sun Aegletes ( ; , Aiglētēs), from , "light of the Sun" Helius ( ; , Helios), literally "Sun" Lyceus ( ; , Lykeios, from Proto-Greek ), "light". The meaning of the epithet "Lyceus" later became associated with Apollo's mother Leto, who was the patron goddess of Lycia () and who was identified with the wolf (). Phanaeus ( ; , Phanaios), literally "giving or bringing light" Phoebus ( ; , Phoibos), literally "bright", his most commonly used epithet by both the Greeks and Romans Sol (Roman) (), "Sun" in Latin Wolf Lycegenes ( ; , Lukēgenēs), literally "born of a wolf" or "born of Lycia" Lycoctonus ( ; , Lykoktonos), from , "wolf", and , "to kill" Origin and birth Apollo's birthplace was Mount Cynthus on the island of Delos. Cynthius ( ; , Kunthios), literally "Cynthian" Cynthogenes ( ; , Kynthogenēs), literally "born of Cynthus" Delius ( ; , Delios), literally "Delian" Didymaeus ( ; , Didymaios) from δίδυμος, "twin", as the twin of Artemis Place of worship Delphi and Actium were his primary places of worship. Acraephius ( ; , Akraiphios, literally "Acraephian") or Acraephiaeus ( ; , Akraiphiaios), "Acraephian", from the Boeotian town of Acraephia (), reputedly founded by his son Acraepheus. Actiacus ( ; , Aktiakos), literally "Actian", after Actium () Delphinius ( ; , Delphinios), literally "Delphic", after Delphi (Δελφοί). An etiology in the Homeric Hymns associated this with dolphins. Epactaeus, meaning "god worshipped on the coast", in Samos. Pythius ( ; , Puthios, from Πυθώ, Pythō), from the region around Delphi Smintheus ( ; , Smintheus), "Sminthian"—that is, "of the town of Sminthos or Sminthe" near the Troad town of Hamaxitus Napaian Apollo (), from the city of Nape at the island of Lesbos Eutresites, from the city of Eutresis.Healing and diseaseAcesius ( ; , Akesios), from , "healing". Acesius was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in Elis, where he had a temple in the agora. Acestor ( ; , Akestōr), literally "healer" Culicarius (Roman) ( ), from Latin culicārius, "of midges" Iatrus ( ; , Iātros), literally "physician" Medicus (Roman) ( ), "physician" in Latin. A temple was dedicated to Apollo Medicus in Rome, probably next to the temple of Bellona. Paean ( ; , Paiān), physician, healer Parnopius ( ; , Parnopios), from , "locust" Founder and protector Agyieus ( ; , Aguīeus), from , "street", for his role in protecting roads and homes Alexicacus ( ; , Alexikakos), literally "warding off evil" Apotropaeus ( ; , Apotropaios), from , "to avert" Archegetes ( ; , Arkhēgetēs), literally "founder" Averruncus (Roman) ( ; from Latin āverruncare), "to avert" Clarius ( ; , Klārios), from Doric , "allotted lot" Epicurius ( ; , Epikourios), from , "to aid"Music and arts Musagetes ( ; Doric , Mousāgetās), from , "Muse", and "leader" Musegetes ( ; , Mousēgetēs), as the preceding Archery Aphetor ( ; , Aphētōr), from , "to let loose" Aphetorus ( ; , Aphētoros), as the preceding Arcitenens (Roman) ( ), literally "bow-carrying" Argyrotoxus ( ; , Argyrotoxos), literally "with silver bow" Clytotoxus ( ; , Klytótoxos), "he who is famous for his bow", the renowned archer. Hecaërgus ( ; , Hekaergos), literally "far-shooting" Hecebolus ( ; , Hekēbolos), "far-shooting" Ismenius ( ; , Ismēnios), literally "of Ismenus", after Ismenus, the son of Amphion and Niobe, whom he struck with an arrow Appearance Acersecomes (, Akersekómēs), "he who has unshorn hair", the eternal ephebe. * Chrysocomes ( ; , Khrusokómēs), literally "he who has golden hair." Amazons Amazonius (), Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that near Pyrrhichus there was a sanctuary of Apollo, called Amazonius () with an image of the god said to have been dedicated by the Amazons.OtherBoedromius (), was a surname of Apollo in Athens, with varying explanations for its origin. Some claim that the reason the god was given this name was because he had helped the Athenians overcome the Amazons in their battle, which took place on the seventh of Boedromion, the day the Boedromia were later commemorated. Others claim that the term originated from the fact that, in the battle between Eumolpus and Erechtheus and Ion, Apollo had counselled the Athenians to charge the enemy with a war cry (Βοή) if they were going to win. Celtic epithets and cult titles Apollo was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. In the traditionally Celtic lands, he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with Celtic gods of similar character. * Apollo Atepomarus ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at Mauvières (Indre). Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the Sun. * Apollo Belenus ("bright" or "brilliant"). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of Gaul, Northern Italy and Noricum (part of modern Austria). Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. * Apollo Cunomaglus ("hound lord"). A title given to Apollo at a shrine at Nettleton Shrub, Wiltshire. May have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. * Apollo Grannus. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo. * Apollo Maponus. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may be a local fusion of Apollo and Maponus. * Apollo Moritasgus ("masses of sea water"). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as the god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. * Apollo Vindonnus ("clear light"). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at Essarois, near Châtillon-sur-Seine in present-day Burgundy. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes.Origins in the Museum of Delphi]] Apollo is considered the most Hellenic (Greek) of the Olympian gods. The cult centers of Apollo in Greece, Delphi and Delos, date from the 8th century BCE. The Delos sanctuary was primarily dedicated to Artemis, Apollo's twin sister. At Delphi, Apollo was venerated as the slayer of the monstrous serpent Python. For the Greeks, Apollo was the most Greek of all the gods, and through the centuries he acquired different functions. In Archaic Greece he was the prophet, the oracular god who in older times was connected with "healing". In Classical Greece he was the god of light and of music, but in popular religion he had a strong function to keep away evil. Walter Burkert discerned three components in the prehistory of Apollo worship, which he termed "a Dorian-northwest Greek component, a Cretan-Minoan component, and a Syro-Hittite component." Healer and god-protector from evil (1591), depicting Apollo's victory over the serpent Python (The Walters Art Museum)]] In classical times, his major function in popular religion was to keep away evil, and he was therefore called "apotropaios" (, "averting evil") and "alexikakos" ( "keeping off ill"; from v. + n. ). Apollo also had many epithets relating to his function as a healer. Some commonly-used examples are "paion" ( literally "healer" or "helper") "epikourios" (, "succouring"), "oulios" (, "healer, baleful") and "loimios" (, "of the plague"). In later writers, the word, "paion", usually spelled "Paean", becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of healing. Apollo in his aspect of "healer" has a connection to the primitive god Paean (), who did not have a cult of his own. Paean serves as the healer of the gods in the Iliad, and seems to have originated in a pre-Greek religion. It is suggested, though unconfirmed, that he is connected to the Mycenaean figure pa-ja-wo-ne (Linear B: ). Paean was the personification of holy songs sung by "seer-doctors" (), which were supposed to cure disease. Homer uses the noun Paeon to designate both a god and that god's characteristic song of apotropaic thanksgiving and triumph. Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo and afterwards to other gods: to Dionysus, to Apollo Helios, to Apollo's son Asclepius the healer. About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognized as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the Python led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an army on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won. In the Iliad, Apollo is the healer under the gods, but he is also the bringer of disease and death with his arrows, similar to the function of the Vedic god of disease Rudra. He sends a plague () to the Achaeans. Knowing that Apollo can prevent a recurrence of the plague he sent, they purify themselves in a ritual and offer him a large sacrifice of cows, called a hecatomb.Dorian originThe Homeric Hymn to Apollo depicts Apollo as an intruder from the north. The connection with the northern-dwelling Dorians and their initiation festival apellai is reinforced by the month Apellaios in northwest Greek calendars. The family-festival was dedicated to Apollo (Doric: ). Apellaios is the month of these rites, and Apellon is the "megistos kouros" (the great Kouros). However it can explain only the Doric type of the name, which is connected with the Ancient Macedonian word "pella" (Pella), stone. Stones played an important part in the cult of the god, especially in the oracular shrine of Delphi (Omphalos).Minoan origin labrys]] George Huxley considered the identification of Apollo with the Minoan deity Paiawon, worshipped in Crete, to have originated at Delphi. In the Homeric Hymn, Apollo appears as a dolphin carrying Cretan priests to Delphi, to which site they evidently transfer their religious practices. Apollo Delphinios or Delphidios was a sea-god worshipped especially in Crete and in the islands. Apollo's sister Artemis, who was the Greek goddess of hunting, is identified with the Minoan goddess Britomartis (Diktynna), and with Laphria the Pre-Greek "mistress of the animals" who was specially worshipped at Delphi. In her earliest depictions she was accompanied by the "Master of the animals", a bow-wielding god of hunting whose name has been lost; aspects of this figure may have been absorbed into the more popular Apollo. A family of priests at Delphi was named "Lab(r)yaden". The name may derive from Laphria.Anatolian origin ]] A non-Greek origin of Apollo has long been assumed in scholarship. Homer pictures Apollo on the side of the Trojans, fighting against the Achaeans, during the Trojan War. He is pictured as a terrible god, less trusted by the Greeks than other gods. The god seems to be related to Appaliunas, a tutelary god of Wilusa (Troy) in Asia Minor, but the word is not complete. The stones found in front of the gates of Homeric Troy were the symbols of Apollo. A western Anatolian origin may also be bolstered by references to the parallel worship of Artimus (Artemis) and Qλdãns, whose name may be cognate with the Hittite and Doric forms, in surviving Lydian texts. However, recent scholars have cast doubt on the identification of Qλdãns with Apollo. The Greeks gave to him the name agyieus as the protector god of public places and houses who wards off evil and his symbol was a tapered stone or column. However, while usually Greek festivals were celebrated at the full moon, all the feasts of Apollo were celebrated on the seventh day of the month, and the emphasis given to that day (sibutu) indicates a Babylonian origin. Proto-Indo-European <!-- Unless there are reliable secondary sources which make this connection, this should not be here. --> The Vedic Rudra has some functions similar to those of Apollo. The terrible god is called "the archer" and the bow is also an attribute of Shiva. Rudra could bring diseases with his arrows, but he was able to free people of them and his alternative Shiva is a healer physician god. However the Indo-European component of Apollo does not explain his strong association with omens, exorcisms, and an oracular cult.Oracular cult at Delphi, Greece]] Unusually among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: Delos and Delphi. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality. Apollo's cult was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE. Apollo became extremely important to the Greek world as an oracular deity in the archaic period, and the frequency of theophoric names such as Apollodorus or Apollonios and cities named Apollonia testify to his popularity. Oracular sanctuaries to Apollo were established in other sites. In the 2nd and 3rd century CE, those at Didyma and Claros pronounced the so-called "theological oracles", in which Apollo confirms that all deities are aspects or servants of an all-encompassing, highest deity. "In the 3rd century, Apollo fell silent. Julian the Apostate (359–361) tried to revive the Delphic oracle, but failed." His oracular shrines include: * Abae in Phocis. * Bassae in the Peloponnese. * At Clarus, on the west coast of Asia Minor; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a pneuma, from which the priests drank. * In Corinth, the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of Tenea, from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War. * At Khyrse, in Troad, the temple was built for Apollo Smintheus. * In Delos, there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born. * In Delphi, the Pythia became filled with the pneuma of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the Adyton. * In Didyma, an oracle on the coast of Anatolia, south west of Lydian (Luwian) Sardis, in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple. Was believed to have been founded by Branchus, son or lover of Apollo. * In Hierapolis Bambyce, Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise De Dea Syria, the sanctuary of the Syrian Goddess contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image. * At Patara, in Lycia, there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman. * In Segesta in Sicily. Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo. * In Oropus, north of Athens, the oracle Amphiaraus, was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring. * in Labadea, east of Delphi, Trophonius, another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle. Temples of Apollo in southern Greece]] Many temples were dedicated to Apollo in Greece and the Greek colonies. They show the spread of the cult of Apollo and the evolution of Greek architecture, which was mostly based on the rightness of form and on mathematical relations. Some of the earliest temples, especially in Crete, do not belong to any Greek order. It seems that the first peripteral temples were rectangular wooden structures. The different wooden elements were considered divine, and their forms were preserved in the marble or stone elements of the temples of Doric order. The Greeks used standard types because they believed that the world of objects was a series of typical forms which could be represented in several instances. The temples should be canonic, and the architects were trying to achieve this esthetic perfection. From the earliest times there were certain rules strictly observed in rectangular peripteral and prostyle buildings. The first buildings were built narrowly in order to hold the roof, and when the dimensions changed some mathematical relations became necessary in order to keep the original forms. This probably influenced the theory of numbers of Pythagoras, who believed that behind the appearance of things there was the permanent principle of mathematics. The Doric order dominated during the 6th and the 5th century BC but there was a mathematical problem regarding the position of the triglyphs, which could not be solved without changing the original forms. The order was almost abandoned for the Ionic order, but the Ionic capital also posed an insoluble problem at the corner of a temple. Both orders were abandoned for the Corinthian order gradually during the Hellenistic age and under Rome. The most important temples are: Greek temples , dedicated to Apollo (478 BC). 19th-century pen-and-wash restoration.]] , Turkey]] Thebes, Greece: The oldest temple probably dedicated to Apollo Ismenius was built in the 9th century BC. It seems that it was a curvilinear building. The Doric temple was built in the early 7th century BC, but only some small parts have been found. A festival called Daphnephoria was celebrated every ninth year in honour of Apollo Ismenius (or Galaxius). The people held laurel branches (daphnai), and at the head of the procession walked a youth (chosen priest of Apollo), who was called "daphnephoros". Eretria: According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, the god arrived on the plain, seeking for a location to establish its oracle. The first temple of Apollo Daphnephoros, "Apollo, laurel-bearer", or "carrying off Daphne", is dated to 800 BC. The temple was curvilinear hecatombedon (a hundred feet). In a smaller building were kept the bases of the laurel branches which were used for the first building. Another temple probably peripteral was built in the 7th century BC, with an inner row of wooden columns over its Geometric predecessor. It was rebuilt peripteral around 510 BC, with the stylobate measuring 21.00 x 43.00 m. The number of pteron column was 6 x 14. Dreros (Crete). The temple of Apollo Delphinios dates from the 7th century BC, or probably from the middle of the 8th century BC. According to the legend, Apollo appeared as a dolphin, and carried Cretan priests to the port of Delphi. The dimensions of the plan are 10.70 x 24.00 m and the building was not peripteral. It contains column-bases of the Minoan type, which may be considered as the predecessors of the Doric columns. Gortyn (Crete). A temple of Pythian Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. The plan measured 19.00 x 16.70 m and it was not peripteral. The walls were solid, made from limestone, and there was a single door on the east side. Thermon (West Greece): The Doric temple of Apollo Thermios, was built in the middle of the 7th century BC. It was built on an older curvilinear building dating perhaps from the 10th century, on which a peristyle was added. The temple was narrow, and the number of pteron columns (probably wooden) was 5 x 15. There was a single row of inner columns. It measures 12.13 x 38.23 m at the stylobate, which was made from stones. Corinth: A Doric temple was built in the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.36 x 53.30 m, and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 15. There was a double row of inner columns. The style is similar to the Temple of Alcmeonidae at Delphi. The Corinthians were considered to be the inventors of the Doric order. Cyrene, Libya: The oldest Doric temple of Apollo was built in . The number of pteron columns was 6 x 11, and it measures 16.75 x 30.05 m at the stylobate. There was a double row of sixteen inner columns on stylobates. The capitals were made from stone. Syracuse, Sicily: A Doric temple was built at the beginning of the 6th century BC. The temple's stylobate measures 21.47 x 55.36 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. It was the first temple in Greek west built completely out of stone. A second row of columns were added, obtaining the effect of an inner porch. Selinus (Sicily):The Doric Temple C dates from 550 BC, and it was probably dedicated to Apollo. The temple's stylobate measures 10.48 x 41.63 m and the number of pteron columns was 6 x 17. There was a portico with a second row of columns, which is also attested for the temple at Syracuse. Delphi: The first temple dedicated to Apollo, was built in the 7th century BC. According to the legend, it was wooden made of laurel branches. The "Temple of Alcmeonidae" was built in and it is the oldest Doric temple with significant marble elements. The temple's stylobate measures 21.65 x 58.00 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 15. A fest similar with Apollo's fest at Thebes, Greece was celebrated every nine years. A boy was sent to the temple, who walked on the sacred road and returned carrying a laurel branch (dopnephoros). The maidens participated with joyful songs. The oracle was in use from early Mycenaean times to the Roman period, and shows the continuity of Mycenaean and Classical Greek religion. Bassae (Peloponnesus): A temple dedicated to Apollo Epikourios ("Apollo the helper"), was built in 430 BC, designed by Iktinos. It combined Doric and Ionic elements, and the earliest use of a column with a Corinthian capital in the middle. The temple is of a relatively modest size, with the stylobate measuring 14.5 x 38.3 metres containing a Doric peristyle of 6 x 15 columns. The roof left a central space open to admit light and air. Delos: A temple probably dedicated to Apollo and not peripteral, was built in the late 7th century BC, with a plan measuring 10.00 x 15.60 m. The Doric Great temple of Apollo, was built in . The temple's stylobate measures 13.72 x 29.78 m, and the number of pteron columns as 6 x 13. Marble was extensively used. Didyma (near Miletus): The gigantic Ionic temple of Apollo Didymaios started around 540 BC. The construction ceased and then it was restarted in 330 BC. The temple is dipteral, with an outer row of 10 x 21 columns, and it measures 28.90 x 80.75 m at the stylobate. Clarus (near ancient Colophon): According to the legend, the famous seer Calchas, on his return from Troy, came to Clarus. He challenged the seer Mopsus, and died when he lost. The Doric temple of Apollo Clarius was probably built in the 3rd century BC., and it was peripteral with 6 x 11 columns. It was reconstructed at the end of the Hellenistic period, and later from the emperor Hadrian but Pausanias claims that it was still incomplete in the 2nd century BC. Hamaxitus (Troad): In the Iliad, Chryses the priest of Apollo, addresses the god with the epithet Smintheus (Lord of Mice), related to the god's ancient role as bringer of the disease (plague). Recent excavations indicate that the Hellenistic temple of Apollo Smintheus was constructed in 150–125 BC, but the symbol of the mouse god was used on coinage probably from the 4th century . The temple measures 40.00 x 23.00 m at the stylobate, and the number of pteron columns was 8 x 14. Pythion (), this was the name of a shrine of Apollo at Athens near the Ilisos river. It was created by Peisistratos, and tripods were placed there by those who had won in the cyclic chorus at the Thargelia. Setae (Lydia): The temple of Apollo Aksyros located in the city. Apollonia Pontica: There were two temples of Apollo Healer in the city. One from the Late Archaic period and the other from the Early Classical period. Ikaros island in the Persian Gulf (modern Failaka Island): There was a temple of Apollo on the island. Argos in Cyprus: there was a temple of Apollo Erithios (Ἐριθίου Ἀπόλλωνος ἱερῷ). The temple and oracle of Apollo at Eutresis. An altar of Apollo Acritas was at Lacedaemon. In addition, above a sanctuary surnamed Gasepton of Earth in Lacedaemon was set up the Maleatian Apollo. Etruscan and Roman temples Veii (Etruria): The temple of Apollo was built in the late 6th century BC, indicating the spread of Apollo's culture (Aplu) in Etruria. There was a prostyle porch, which is called Tuscan, and a triple cella 18.50 m wide. Falerii Veteres (Etruria): A temple of Apollo was built probably in the 4th–3rd century BC. Parts of a terracotta capital, and a terracotta base have been found. It seems that the Etruscan columns were derived from the archaic Doric. ]] Pompeii (Italy): The cult of Apollo was widespread in the region of Campania since the 6th century BC. The temple was built in 120 BC, but its beginnings lie in the 6th century BC. It was reconstructed after an earthquake in AD 63. It demonstrates a mixing of styles which formed the basis of Roman architecture. The columns in front of the cella formed a Tuscan prostyle porch, and the cella is situated unusually far back. The peripteral colonnade of 48 Ionic columns was placed in such a way that the emphasis was given to the front side. Rome: The temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Apollo Medicus. The first temple building dates to 431 BC, and was dedicated to Apollo Medicus (the doctor), after a plague of 433 BC. It was rebuilt by Gaius Sosius, probably in 34 BC. Only three columns with Corinthian capitals exist today. It seems that the cult of Apollo had existed in this area since at least to the mid-5th century BC. Rome: The temple of Apollo Palatinus was located on the Palatine hill within the sacred boundary of the city. It was dedicated by Augustus in 28 BC. The façade of the original temple was Ionic and it was constructed from solid blocks of marble. Many famous statues by Greek masters were on display in and around the temple, including a marble statue of the god at the entrance and a statue of Apollo in the cella. Melite (modern Mdina, Malta): A Temple of Apollo was built in the city in the 2nd century AD. Its remains were discovered in the 18th century, and many of its architectural fragments were dispersed among private collections or reworked into new sculptures. Parts of the temple's podium were rediscovered in 2002. Mythology In the myths, Apollo is the son of Zeus, the king of the gods, and Leto, his previous wife or one of his mistresses. Apollo often appears in the myths, plays and hymns either directly or indirectly through his oracles. As Zeus' favorite son, he had direct access to the mind of Zeus and was willing to reveal this knowledge to humans. A divinity beyond human comprehension, he appears both as a beneficial and a wrathful god. Birth ]] Homeric Hymn to Apollo Pregnant with the offspring of Zeus, Leto wandered through many lands wanting to give birth to Apollo. However all the lands rejected her out of fear. Upon reaching Delos, Leto requested the island to shelter her, and that in return her son would bring fame and prosperity to the island. Delos then revealed to Leto that Apollo was rumoured to be the god who will "greatly lord it among gods and men all over the fruitful earth". For this reason, all the lands were fearful and Delos feared that Apollo would cast her aside once he is born. Hearing this, Leto swore on the river Styx that if she is allowed to give birth on the island, her son would honour Delos the most amongst all the other lands. Assured by this, Delos agreed to assist Leto. All goddesses except Hera also came to aid Leto.Callimachus' Hymn to DelosThe island Delos used to be Asteria, a goddess who jumped into the waters to escape the advances of Zeus and became a free-floating island of the same name. When Leto got pregnant, Hera was told that Leto's son would become more dear to Zeus than Ares. Enraged by this, Hera watched over the heavens and sent out Ares and Iris to prevent Leto from giving birth on the earth. Ares, stationed over the mainland, and Iris, over the islands, threatened all the lands and prevented them from helping Leto.PindarPindar is the earliest source who explicitly calls Apollo and Artemis as twins. Here, Asteria is also stated to be Leto's sister. Wanting to escape Zeus' advances, she flung herself into the sea and became a floating rock called Ortygia until the twins were born. When Leto stepped on the rock, four pillars with adamantine bases rose from the earth and held up the rock. When Apollo and Artemis were born, their bodies shone radiantly and a chant was sung by Eileithyia and Lachesis, one of the three Moirai.Hyginus Scorning the advances of Zeus, Asteria transformed herself into a bird and jumped into a sea. From her, an island rose which was called Ortygia. When Hera discovered that Leto was pregnant with Zeus' child, she decreed that Leto can give birth only in a place where sun does not shine. During this time, the monster Python also started hounding Leto with an intent of killing her, because he had foreseen his death coming at the hands of Leto's offspring. However, on Zeus' orders, Boreas carried away Leto and entrusted her to Poseidon. To protect her, Poseidon took her to the island Ortygia and covered it with waves so that the sun would not shine on it. Leto gave birth clinging to an olive tree and henceforth the island was called Delos. ]] Other variations Aside from those mentioned above, more variations on the story of Apollo's birth include: Aelian states that it took Leto twelve days and twelve nights to travel from Hyperborea to Delos. Leto changed herself into a she-wolf before giving birth. This is given as the reason why Homer describes Apollo as the "wolf-born god". Libanius wrote that neither land nor visible islands would receive Leto, but by the will of Zeus Delos then became visible, and thus received Leto and the children. According to Strabo, the Curetes helped Leto by creating loud noises with their weapons and thus frightening Hera, they concealed Leto's childbirth. Theognis wrote that the island was filled with ambrosial fragrance when Apollo was born, and the Earth laughed with joy. In some versions, Artemis was born first and subsequently assisted with the birth of Apollo. While in some accounts Apollo's birth itself fixed the floating Delos to the earth, there are accounts of Apollo securing Delos to the bottom of the ocean a little while later. This island became sacred to Apollo and was one of the major cult centres of the god. Apollo was born on the seventh day (, hebdomagenes) of the month Thargelion—according to Delian tradition—or of the month Bysios—according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.Hyperborea , Turkey]] Hyperborea, the mystical land of eternal spring, venerated Apollo above all the gods. The Hyperboreans always sang and danced in his honor and hosted Pythian games. There, a vast forest of beautiful trees was called "the garden of Apollo". Apollo spent the winter months among the Hyperboreans, He returned to the world during the beginning of the spring. The Theophania festival was held in Delphi to celebrate his return. However, Diodorus Silculus states that Apollo visited Hyperborea every nineteen years. This nineteen-year period was called by the Greeks as the 'year of Meton', the time period in which the stars returned to their initial positions. And that visiting Hyperborea at that time, Apollo played on the cithara and danced continuously from the vernal equinox until the rising of the Pleiades (constellations). Hyperborea was also Leto's birthplace. It is said that Leto came to Delos from Hyperborea accompanied by a pack of wolves. Henceforth, Hyperborea became Apollo's winter home and wolves became sacred to him. His intimate connection to wolves is evident from his epithet Lyceus, meaning wolf-like. But Apollo was also the wolf-slayer in his role as the god who protected flocks from predators. The Hyperborean worship of Apollo bears the strongest marks of Apollo being worshipped as the sun god. Shamanistic elements in Apollo's cult are often liked to his Hyperborean origin, and he is likewise speculated to have originated as a solar shaman. Shamans like Abaris and Aristeas were also the followers of Apollo, who hailed from Hyperborea. In myths, the tears of amber Apollo shed when his son Asclepius died mixed with the waters of the river Eridanos, which surrounded Hyperborea. Apollo also buried in Hyperborea the arrow which he had used to kill the Cyclopes. He later gave this arrow to Abaris.Childhood and youthGrowing up, Apollo was nursed by the nymphs Korythalia and Aletheia, the personification of truth. Phoebe, his grandmother, gave the oracular shrine of Delphi to Apollo as a birthday gift. As a four-year-old child, Apollo built a foundation and an altar on Delos using the horns of the goats that his sister Artemis hunted. Since he learnt the art of building when young, he came to be known as Archegetes, (the founder of towns) and guided men to build new cities. To keep the child amused, the Delian nymphs ran around the altar beating it, and then with their hands tied behind their backs, bit an olive branch. It later became a custom for all the sailors who passed by the island to do the same. From his father Zeus, Apollo received a golden headband and a chariot driven by swans. In his early years when Apollo spent his time herding cows, he was reared by the Thriae, who trained him and enhanced his prophetic skills. The god Pan was also said to have mentored him in the prophetic art. Apollo is also said to have invented the lyre, and along with Artemis, the art of archery. He then taught the humans the art of healing and archery.Lycian peasants ]] Soon after giving birth to her twins, Leto fled from Delos fearing Hera. Upon reaching Lycia, her infants had drained all of their mother's milk and cried for more to satisfy their hunger. The exhausted mother then tried drinking from a nearby lake but was stopped by some Lycian peasants. When she begged them to let her quench her thirst, the haughty peasants not only threatened her but also stirred the mud in the lake to dirty the waters. Angered by this, Leto turned them into frogs. In a slightly varied version, Leto took her infants and crossed over to Lycia where she attempted to bathe her children in a spring she found there. But the local herdsmen drove her away. After that, some wolves found Leto and guided her to the river Xanthos, where Leto was able to bathe her children and quench her thirst. She then returned to the spring and turned the herdsmen into frogs. Slaying of Python \|left]] Python, a chthonic serpent-dragon, was a child of Gaia and the guardian of the Delphic Oracle. In the Callimachus' hymn to Delos, fetal Apollo foresees the death of Python at his hands. Other authors have Apollo kill the monster using a hundred arrows or a thousand arrows. (1609–1668)]] According to Euripides, Leto had brought her twins to the cliffs of Parnassus shortly after giving birth to them. Upon seeing the monster there, Apollo, still a child being carried in his mother's arms, leapt forth and killed Python. Some authors also mention that Python was killed for displaying lustful affections towards Leto. In another account, Python chased pregnant Leto with an intent of killing her because his death was fated to come at the hands of Leto's child. However, he had to stop the chase when Leto came under the protection of Poseidon. After his birth, four days old Apollo killed the serpent with the bow and arrows gifted to him by Hephaestus and avenged the trouble given to his mother. The god then put the bones of the slain monster in a cauldron and deposited it in his temple. This legend is also narrated as the origin of the cry "Hië paian". According to Athenaeus, Python attacked Leto and her twins during their visit to Delphi. Taking Artemis into her arms, Leto climbed upon a rock and cried at Apollo to shoot the monster. The cry let out by her, "ιε, παῖ" ("Shoot, boy") later got slightly altered as "ἰὴ παιών" (Hië paian), an exclamation to avert evils. Callimachus attributes the origin of this phrase to the Delphians, who let out the cry to encourage Apollo when the young god battled with Python. Strabo has recorded a slightly different version where Python was actually a cruel and lawless man who was also known by the name "Drakon". When Apollo was teaching the humans to cultivate fruits and civilise themselves, the residents of Parnassus complained to the god about Python. In response to their pleas, Apollo killed the man with his arrows. During the fight, the Parnassians shouted "Hië paian" to encourage the god.Establishment of worship in Delphi Continuing from his victory over Python, the Homeric hymn describes how the young god established his worship among the humans. As Apollo was pondering about what kind of men he should recruit to serve him, he spotted a ship full of Cretan merchants or pirates. He took the form of a dolphin and sprang aboard the ship. Whenever the oblivious crew members tried throwing the dolphin overboard, the god shook the ship until the crew was awed into submission. Apollo then created a breeze that directed the ship to Delphi. Upon reaching the land, he revealed himself as a god and initiated them as his priests. He instructed them to guard his temple and always keep righteousness in their hearts. Alcaeus narrates the following account: Zeus, who had adorned his newborn son with a golden headband, also provided him with a chariot driven by swans and instructed Apollo to visit Delphi to establish his laws among the people. But Apollo disobeyed his father and went to the land of Hyperborea. The Delphians continuously sung paeans in his honour and pleaded him to come back to them. The god returned only after a year and then carried out Zeus' orders. In other variations, the shrine at Delphi was simply handed over to Apollo by his grandmother Phoebe as a gift, gifts the oracular tripod to Apollo, by John Flaxman]] However, in many other accounts, Apollo had to overcome certain obstacles before he was able to establish himself at Delphi. Gaea came in conflict with Apollo for killing Python and claiming the Delphic oracle for himself. According to Pindar, she sought to banish Apollo to Tartarus as a punishment. According to Euripides, soon after Apollo took the ownership of the oracle, Gaea started sending prophetic dreams to the humans. As a result, people stopped visiting Delphi to obtain prophecies. Troubled by this, Apollo went to Olympus and supplicated to Zeus. Zeus, admiring the ambitions of his young son, granted his request by putting an end to the dream visions. This sealed the role of Apollo as the oracular deity of Delphi. Since Apollo had committed a blood crime, he also had to be purified. Pausanias has recorded two of the many variations of this purification. In one of them, both Apollo and Artemis fled to Sicyon and were purified there. In the other tradition that had been prevalent among the Cretans, Apollo alone travelled to Crete and was purified by Carmanor. In another account, the Argive king Crotopus was the one who performed the purification rites on Apollo alone. According the Aristonous and Aelian, Apollo was purified by the will of Zeus in the Vale of Tempe. Aristonous has continued the tale, saying that Apollo was escorted back to Delphi by Athena. As a token of gratitude, he later built a temple for Athena at Delphi, which served as a threshold for his own temple. Upon reaching Delphi, Apollo convinced Gaea and Themis into handing over the seat of oracle to him. To celebrate this event, other immortals also graced Apollo with gifts – Poseidon gave him the land of Delphi, the Delphian nymphs gifted him the Corycian cave, and Artemis set her dogs to patrol and safeguard the land. Some others have also said that Apollo was exiled and subjected to servitude under king Admetus as a means of punishment for the murder he had committed. It was when he was serving as a cowherd under Admetus that the theft of the cattle by Hermes happened. The servitude was said to have lasted for either one year, or one great year (a cycle of eight years), or nine years. Plutarch, however, has mentioned a variation where Apollo was neither purified in Tempe nor banished to Earth as a servant for nine years, but was driven out to another world for nine great years. The god who returned was cleansed and purified, thus becoming a "true Phoebus – that is to say, clear and bright". He then took over the Delphic oracle, which had been under the care of Themis in his absence. Henceforth, Apollo became the god who cleansed himself from the sin of murder, made men aware of their guilt and purified them. The Pythian games were also established by Apollo, either as funeral games to honor PythonTityus , Attic red-figure kylix, 460–450 BC]] Tityus was another giant who tried to rape Leto, either on his own accord when she was on her way to Delphi or at the order of Hera. Leto called upon on her children who instantly slew the giant. Apollo, still a young boy, shot him with his arrows. In some accounts, Artemis also joined him in protecting their mother by attacking Tityos with her arrows. For this act, he was banished to Tartarus and there he was pegged to the rock floor and stretched on an area of , while a pair of vultures feasted daily on his liver After completing his years of servitude, Apollo went back to Olympus as a god. Because Admetus had treated Apollo well, the god conferred great benefits on him in return. Apollo's mere presence is said to have made the cattle give birth to twins. by taming a lion and a boar to draw Admetus' chariot. He was present during their wedding to give his blessings. When Admetus angered the goddess Artemis by forgetting to give her the due offerings, Apollo came to the rescue and calmed his sister. Apollo would have been banished to Tartarus for this, but his mother Leto intervened, and reminding Zeus of their old love, pleaded with him not to kill their son. Zeus obliged and sentenced Apollo to one year of hard labor once again under Admetus. Building the walls of Troy ]] Once Apollo and Poseidon served under the Trojan king Laomedon in accordance with Zeus' words. Apollodorus states that the gods willingly went to the king disguised as humans in order to check his hubris. Apollo guarded the cattle of Laomedon in the valleys of Mount Ida, while Poseidon built the walls of Troy. Other versions make both Apollo and Poseidon the builders of the wall. In Ovid's account, Apollo completes his task by playing his tunes on his lyre. In Pindar's odes, the gods took a mortal named Aeacus as their assistant. When the work was completed, three snakes rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus. Apollo immediately prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e. his son Telamon joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule. Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse that leads to the downfall of Troy). However, the king not only refused to give the gods the wages he had promised, but also threatened to bind their feet and hands, and sell them as slaves. Angered by the unpaid labour and the insults, Apollo infected the city with a pestilence and Poseidon sent the sea monster Cetus. To deliver the city from it, Laomedon had to sacrifice his daughter Hesione (who would later be saved by Heracles). During his stay in Troy, Apollo had a lover named Ourea, who was a nymph and daughter of Poseidon. Together they had a son named Ileus, whom Apollo loved dearly. Trojan War Apollo sided with the Trojans during the Trojan War waged by the Greeks against the Trojans. During the war, the Greek king Agamemnon captured Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest Chryses, and refused to return her. Angered by this, Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment. He demanded that they return the girl, and the Achaeans (Greeks) complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the Iliad. with his aegis, and dispersing the Greeks, by John Flaxman]] Receiving the aegis from Zeus, Apollo entered the battlefield as per his father's command, causing great terror to the enemy with his war cry. He pushed the Greeks back and destroyed many of the soldiers. He is described as "the rouser of armies" because he rallied the Trojan army when they were falling apart. When Zeus allowed the other gods to get involved in the war, Apollo was provoked by Poseidon to a duel. However, Apollo declined to fight him, saying that he would not fight his uncle for the sake of mortals. from pursuing Aeneas]] When the Greek hero Diomedes injured the Trojan hero Aeneas, Aphrodite tried to rescue him, but Diomedes injured her as well. Apollo then enveloped Aeneas in a cloud to protect him. He repelled the attacks Diomedes made on him and gave the hero a stern warning to abstain from attacking a god. Aeneas was then taken to Pergamos, a sacred spot in Troy, where he was healed. After the death of Sarpedon, a son of Zeus, Apollo rescued the corpse from the battlefield as per his father's wish and cleaned it. He then gave it to Sleep (Hypnos) and Death (Thanatos). Apollo had also once convinced Athena to stop the war for that day, so that the warriors can relieve themselves for a while. ]] The Trojan hero Hector (who, according to some, was the god's own son by Hecuba) was favored by Apollo. When he got severely injured, Apollo healed him and encouraged him to take up his arms. During a duel with Achilles, when Hector was about to lose, Apollo hid Hector in a cloud of mist to save him. When the Greek warrior Patroclus tried to get into the fort of Troy, he was stopped by Apollo. Encouraging Hector to attack Patroclus, Apollo stripped the armour of the Greek warrior and broke his weapons. Patroclus was eventually killed by Hector. At last, after Hector's fated death, Apollo protected his corpse from Achilles' attempt to mutilate it by creating a magical cloud over the corpse, shielding it from the rays of the sun. Apollo held a grudge against Achilles throughout the war because Achilles had murdered his son Tenes before the war began and brutally assassinated his son Troilus in his own temple. Not only did Apollo save Hector from Achilles, he also tricked Achilles by disguising himself as a Trojan warrior and driving him away from the gates. Finally, Apollo caused Achilles' death by guiding an arrow shot by Paris into Achilles' heel. In some versions, Apollo himself killed Achilles by taking the disguise of Paris. Apollo helped many Trojan warriors—including Agenor, Polydamas, and Glaucus—in the battlefield. Though he greatly favored the Trojans, Apollo was bound to follow the orders of Zeus and served his father loyally during the war. Nurturer of the young Apollo Kourotrophos is the god who nurtures and protects children and the young, especially boys. He oversees their education and their passage into adulthood. Education is said to have originated from Apollo and the Muses. Many myths have him train his children. It was a custom for boys to cut and dedicate their long hair to Apollo after reaching adulthood. Chiron, the abandoned centaur, was fostered by Apollo, who instructed him in medicine, prophecy, archery and more. Chiron would later become a great teacher himself. Asclepius in his childhood gained much knowledge pertaining to medicinal arts from his father. However, he was later entrusted to Chiron for further education. Anius, Apollo's son by Rhoeo, was abandoned by his mother soon after his birth. Apollo brought him up and educated him in mantic arts. Anius later became the priest of Apollo and the king of Delos. Iamus was the son of Apollo and Evadne. When Evadne went into labour, Apollo sent the Moirai to assist his lover. After the child was born, Apollo sent snakes to feed the child some honey. When Iamus reached the age of education, Apollo took him to Olympia and taught him many arts, including the ability to understand and explain the languages of birds. Idmon was educated by Apollo to be a seer. Even though he foresaw his death that would happen in his journey with the Argonauts, he embraced his destiny and died a brave death. To commemorate his son's bravery, Apollo commanded Boeotians to build a town around the tomb of the hero, and to honor him. Apollo adopted Carnus, the abandoned son of Zeus and Europa. He reared the child with the help of his mother Leto and educated him to be a seer. When his son Melaneus reached the age of marriage, Apollo asked the princess Stratonice to be his son's bride and carried her away from her home when she agreed. Apollo saved a shepherd boy (name unknown) from death in a large deep cave, by means of vultures. To thank him, the shepherd built Apollo a temple under the name Vulturius. God of music and Cyparissus singing and playing, by Alexander Ivanov 1831–1834]] Immediately after his birth, Apollo demanded a lyre and invented the paean, thus becoming the god of music. As the divine singer, he is the patron of poets, singers and musicians. The invention of string music is attributed to him. Plato said that the innate ability of humans to take delight in music, rhythm and harmony is the gift of Apollo and the Muses. According to Socrates, ancient Greeks believed that Apollo is the god who directs the harmony and makes all things move together, both for the gods and the humans. For this reason, he was called Homopolon before the Homo was replaced by A. Apollo's harmonious music delivered people from their pain, and hence, like Dionysus, he is also called the liberator. \|left]] Among the Pythagoreans, the study of mathematics and music were connected to the worship of Apollo, their principal deity. Their belief was that music purifies the soul, just as medicine purifies the body. They also believed that music was delegated to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos, evolving into an idea known as the music of the spheres. Apollo appears as the companion of the Muses, and as Musagetes ("leader of Muses") he leads them in dance. They spend their time on Parnassus, which is one of their sacred places. Apollo is also the lover of the Muses and by them he became the father of famous musicians like Orpheus and Linus. Apollo is often found delighting the immortal gods with his songs and music on the lyre. In his role as the god of banquets, he was always present to play music at weddings of the gods, like the marriage of Eros and Psyche, Peleus and Thetis. He is a frequent guest of the Bacchanalia, and many ancient ceramics depict him being at ease amidst the maenads and satyrs. Apollo also participated in musical contests when challenged by others. He was the victor in all those contests, but he tended to punish his opponents severely for their hubris.Apollo's lyreThe invention of the lyre is attributed either to Hermes or to Apollo himself. Distinctions have been made that Hermes invented lyre made of tortoise shell, whereas the lyre Apollo invented was a regular lyre. Myths tell that the infant Hermes stole a number of Apollo's cows and took them to a cave in the woods near Pylos, covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a tortoise and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made his lyre. ]] Upon discovering the theft, Apollo confronted Hermes and asked him to return his cattle. When Hermes acted innocent, Apollo took the matter to Zeus. Zeus, having seen the events, sided with Apollo, and ordered Hermes to return the cattle. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo fell in love with the instrument and offered to exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo then became the master of the lyre. According to other versions, Apollo had invented the lyre himself, whose strings he tore in repenting of the excess punishment he had given to Marsyas. Hermes' lyre, therefore, would be a reinvention. Contest with Pan ]] Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo and to challenge the god of music to a contest. The mountain-god Tmolus was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, Midas, who happened to be present. Then, Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. It was so beautiful that Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and everyone was pleased with the judgement. Only Midas dissented and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo did not want to suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a donkey.Contest with MarsyasMarsyas was a satyr who was punished by Apollo for his hubris. He had found an aulos on the ground, tossed away after being invented by Athena because it made her cheeks puffy. Athena had also placed a curse upon the instrument, that whoever would pick it up would be severely punished. When Marsyas played the flute, everyone became frenzied with joy. This led Marsyas to think that he was better than Apollo, and he challenged the god to a musical contest. The contest was judged by the Muses, or the nymphs of Nysa. Athena was also present to witness the contest. Marsyas taunted Apollo for "wearing his hair long, for having a fair face and smooth body, for his skill in so many arts". He also further said, The rock of Leukas Leukatas was believed to be a white-colored rock jutting out from the island of Leukas into the sea. It was present in the sanctuary of Apollo Leukates. A leap from this rock was believed to have put an end to the longings of love. Once, Aphrodite fell deeply in love with Adonis, a young man of great beauty who was later accidentally killed by a boar. Heartbroken, Aphrodite wandered looking for the rock of Leukas. When she reached the sanctuary of Apollo in Argos, she confided in him her love and sorrow. Apollo then brought her to the rock of Leukas and asked her to throw herself from the top of the rock. She did so and was freed from her love. When she sought the reason behind this, Apollo told her that Zeus, before taking another lover, would sit on this rock to free himself from his love for Hera. Another tale relates that a man named Nireus, who fell in love with the cult statue of Athena, came to the rock and jumped in order to relieve himself. After jumping, he fell into the net of a fisherman in which, when he was pulled out, he found a box filled with gold. He fought with the fisherman and took the gold, but Apollo appeared to him in the night in a dream and warned him not to appropriate gold which belonged to others. Female lovers Apollo is said to have been the lover of all nine Muses, and not being able to choose one of them, he decided to remain unwed. He fathered the Corybantes by the Muse Thalia. By Calliope, he had Hymenaios, Ialemus, Orpheus and Linus. Alternatively, Linus was said to be the son of Apollo and either Urania or Terpsichore. In the Great Eoiae that is attributed to Hesiod, Scylla is the daughter of Apollo and Hecate. Cyrene was a Thessalian princess whom Apollo loved. In her honor, he built the city Cyrene and made her its ruler. She was later granted longevity by Apollo who turned her into a nymph. The couple had two sons, Aristaeus, and Idmon. Evadne was a nymph daughter of Poseidon and a lover of Apollo. They had a son, Iamos. During the time of the childbirth, Apollo sent Eileithyia, the goddess of childbirth to assist her. Rhoeo, a princess of the island of Naxos was loved by Apollo. Out of affection for her, Apollo turned her sisters into goddesses. On the island Delos she bore Apollo a son named Anius. Not wanting to have the child, she entrusted the infant to Apollo and left. Apollo raised and educated the child on his own. Ourea, a daughter of Poseidon, fell in love with Apollo when he and Poseidon were serving the Trojan king Laomedon. They both united on the day the walls of Troy were built. She bore to Apollo a son, whom Apollo named Ileus, after the city of his birth, Ilion (Troy). Ileus was very dear to Apollo. Thero, daughter of Phylas, a maiden as beautiful as the moonbeams, was loved by the radiant Apollo, and she loved him in return. Through their union, she became the mother of Chaeron, who was famed as "the tamer of horses". He later built the city Chaeronea. Hyrie or Thyrie was the mother of Cycnus. Apollo turned both the mother and son into swans when they jumped into a lake and tried to kill themselves. Hecuba was the wife of King Priam of Troy, and Apollo had a son with her named Troilus. An oracle prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by Achilleus, and Apollo avenged his death by killing Achilles. After the sack of Troy, Hecuba was taken to Lycia by Apollo. Coronis was daughter of Phlegyas, King of the Lapiths. While pregnant with Asclepius, Coronis fell in love with Ischys, son of Elatus and slept with him. When Apollo found out about her infidelity through his prophetic powers or thanks to his raven who informed him, he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. Apollo rescued the baby by cutting open Coronis' belly and gave it to the centaur Chiron to raise. Dryope, the daughter of Dryops, was impregnated by Apollo in the form of a snake. She gave birth to a son named Amphissus. In Euripides' play Ion, Apollo fathered Ion by Creusa, wife of Xuthus. He used his powers to conceal her pregnancy from her father. Later, when Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, Apollo asked Hermes to save the child and bring him to the oracle at Delphi, where he was raised by a priestess. Apollo loved and kidnapped an Oceanid nymph, Melia. Her father Oceanus sent one of his sons, Caanthus, to find her, but Caanthus could not take her back from Apollo, so he burned Apollo's sanctuary. In retaliation, Apollo shot and killed Caanthus. Male lovers ]] , 1850–1900]] Hyacinth (or Hyacinthus), a beautiful and athletic Spartan prince, was one of Apollo's favourite lovers. The pair was practicing throwing the discus when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous Zephyrus and struck Hyacinthus in the head, killing him instantly. Apollo is said to be filled with grief. Out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a flower named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with the interjection , meaning alas. He was later resurrected and taken to heaven. The festival Hyacinthia was a national celebration of Sparta, which commemorated the death and rebirth of Hyacinthus. Another male lover was Cyparissus, a descendant of Heracles. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a javelin as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus was so saddened by its death that he asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the Cypress named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk. , by Jean-Pierre Granger (1779–1840)]] Admetus, the king of Pherae, was also Apollo's lover. During his exile, which lasted either for one year or nine years, Apollo served Admetus as a herdsman. The romantic nature of their relationship was first described by Callimachus of Alexandria, who wrote that Apollo was "fired with love" for Admetus. Latin poet Ovid in his said that even though he was a god, Apollo forsook his pride and stayed in as a servant for the sake of Admetus. Tibullus describes Apollo's love to the king as servitium amoris (slavery of love) and asserts that Apollo became his servant not by force but by choice. He would also make cheese and serve it to Admetus. His domestic actions caused embarrassment to his family. , 19th century]] When Admetus wanted to marry princess Alcestis, Apollo provided a chariot pulled by a lion and a boar he had tamed. This satisfied Alcestis' father and he let Admetus marry his daughter. Further, Apollo saved the king from Artemis' wrath and also convinced the Moirai to postpone Admetus' death once. Branchus, a shepherd, one day came across Apollo in the woods. Captivated by the god's beauty, he kissed Apollo. Apollo requited his affections and wanting to reward him, bestowed prophetic skills on him. His descendants, the Branchides, were an influential clan of prophets. Other male lovers of Apollo include: Adonis, who is said to have been the lover of both Apollo and Aphrodite. He behaved as a man with Aphrodite and as a woman with Apollo. Atymnius, otherwise known as a beloved of Sarpedon Boreas, the god of North winds Cinyras, king of Cyprus and the priest of Aphrodite Helenus, a Trojan prince (son of Priam and Hecuba). He received from Apollo an ivory bow with which he later wounded Achilles in the hand. Hippolytus of Sicyon (not the same as Hippolytus, the son of Theseus) Iapis, to whom Apollo taught the art of healing Phorbas, the dragon slayer (probably the son of Triopas)Children Apollo sired many children, from mortal women and nymphs as well as the goddesses. His children grew up to be physicians, musicians, poets, seers or archers. Many of his sons founded new cities and became kings. with the education of Aescalapius]] Asclepius is the most famous son of Apollo. His skills as a physician surpassed that of Apollo's. Zeus killed him for bringing back the dead, but upon Apollo's request, he was resurrected as a god. Aristaeus was placed under the care of Chiron after his birth. He became the god of beekeeping, cheese-making, animal husbandry and more. He was ultimately given immortality for the benefits he bestowed upon humanity. The Corybantes were spear-clashing, dancing demigods. The sons of Apollo who participated in the Trojan War include the Trojan princes Hector and Troilus, as well as Tenes, the king of Tenedos, all three of whom were killed by Achilles over the course of the war. Apollo's children who became musicians and bards include Orpheus, Linus, Ialemus, Hymenaeus, Philammon, Eumolpus and Eleuther. Apollo fathered 3 daughters, Apollonis, Borysthenis and Cephisso, who formed a group of minor Muses, the "Musa Apollonides". Plutarch recounts that the Delphians believed the three Muses to be Nete, Mese, and Hypate, after the highest, middle, and lowest strings of the lyre. Phemonoe was a seer and poet who was the inventor of Hexameter. Apis, Idmon, Iamus, Tenerus, Mopsus, Galeus, Telmessus and others were gifted seers. Anius, Pythaeus and Ismenus lived as high priests. Most of them were trained by Apollo himself. Arabus, Delphos, Dryops, Miletos, Tenes, Epidaurus, Ceos, Lycoras, Syrus, Pisus, Marathus, Megarus, Patarus, Acraepheus, Cicon, Chaeron and many other sons of Apollo, under the guidance of his words, founded eponymous cities. He also had a son by Agathippe who was named Chrysorrhoas who was a mechanic artist. His other daughters include Eurynome, Chariclo wife of Chiron, Eurydice the wife of Orpheus, Eriopis, famous for her beautiful hair, Melite the heroine, Pamphile the silk weaver, Parthenos, and by some accounts, Phoebe, Hilyra and Scylla. Apollo turned Parthenos into a constellation after her early death. Additionally, Apollo fostered and educated Chiron, the centaur who later became the greatest teacher and educated many demigods, including Apollo's sons. Apollo also fostered Carnus, the son of Zeus and Europa. List of offspring and their mothers The following is a list of Apollo's offspring, by various mothers. Beside each offspring, the earliest source to record the parentage is given, along with the century to which the source (in some cases approximately) dates. <div style=display:inline-table> {\| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" ! scope"col" style"width: 100pt;" \| Offspring ! scope"col" style"width: 95pt;" \| Mother ! scope"col" style"width: 55pt;" \| Source ! scope"col" style"width: 70pt;" \| Date ! class"unsortable" scope"col" style="width: 10pt;" \| \|- \| Amphithemis \| rowspan="4" \| Acacallis \| Ap. Rhod. \| data-sort-value=11 \| 3rd cent. BC \| \|- \| Miletus \| Ant. Lib. \| data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD \| \|- \| Naxos \| \| \| \|- \| Phylacides, Philander \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Oaxes \| Anchiale \| Servius \| data-sort-value=24 \| 4th/5th cent. AD \| \|- \| Eleuther \| Aethusa \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Chrysorrhoas \| Agathippe \| Ps.-Plut. Fluv. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Linus \| Alciope \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Miletus \| Areia \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Deione \| Ovid Met. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Eumolpus \| Astycome \| \| \| \|- \| Asclepius \| rowspan="2" \| Arsinoe \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Eriopis \| \| \| \|- \| Arabus \| Babylon \| Pliny \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Orpheus \| rowspan="2" \| Calliope \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Ialemus \| \| \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| Linus \| Calliope \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Terpsichore \| Suda \| data-sort-value=35 \| 10th cent. AD \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| Delphus \| Celaeno \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Melaina \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Thyia \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| rowspan="3" \| Philammon \| Chione \| Ovid Met. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Leuconoe \| Hyg. Fab. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Philonis \| Pherecydes \| data-sort-value=7 \| 5th cent. BC \| \|- \| Coronus \| Chrysorthe \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Parthenos \| Chrysothemis \| Hyg. De astr. \| data-sort-value=16 \| 1st cent. BC/AD \| \|- \| Asclepius \| Coronis \| HH 19 \| data-sort-value=4 \| 7th/6th cent. BC \| \|- \| Lycorus \| Corycia \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Ion \| Creusa \| Euripides \| data-sort-value=7 \| 5th cent. BC \| \|- \| Aristaeus \| rowspan="3" \| Cyrene \| Hes. Cat. \| data-sort-value=5 \| 6th cent. BC \| \|- \| Autuchos \| Schol. Ap. Rh. \| data-sort-value=50 \| \| \|- \| Idmon \| \| \| \|- \| The Curetes \| Danais \| Tzetzes \| data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD \| \|- \| Dryops \| Dia \| Tzetzes \| data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD \| \|- \| Amphissus \| Dryope \| Ant. Lib. \| data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD \| \|- \| Agreus \| Euboea \| Hyg. Fab. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Iamus \| Evadne \| Pindar \| data-sort-value=7 \| 5th cent. BC \| \|- \| Amphiaraus \| Hypermnestra \| Hyg. Fab. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Hector \| Hecuba \| Stesichorus \| data-sort-value=5 \| 6th cent. BC \| \|- \| Cycnus \| Hyria \| Ant. Lib. \| data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD \| \|- \| Icadius \| rowspan="2" \| Lycia \| Servius \| data-sort-value=24 \| 4th/5th cent. AD \| \|- \| Patarus \| Steph. Byz. \| data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD \| \|- \| Mopsus \| Manto \| Strabo \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Ismenus, Tenerus \| Melia \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Phagrus \| Othreis \| Ant. Lib. \| data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD \| \|- \| Cynnes \| Parnethia \| \| \| \|- \| Lycomedes \| Parthenope \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Cinyras \| Pharnace \| \| \| \|- \| Dorus, Laodocus, Polypoetes \| Phthia \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Tenes \| Procleia \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Linus \| Psamathe \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \| The Corybantes \| Rhetia \| Pherecydes \| data-sort-value=7 \| 5th cent. BC \| \|- \| Thalia \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Anius \| Rhoeo \| Diod. Sic. \| data-sort-value=15 \| 1st cent. BC \| \|- \| Ceos \| Rhodoessa \| Etym. M. \| data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD \| \|- \| Cicon \| Rhodope \| Etym. M. \| data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD \| \|- \| Syrus \| Sinope \| Plutarch \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Centaurus, Lapithes \| rowspan="2" \| Stilbe \| Diod. Sic. \| data-sort-value=15 \| 1st cent. BC \| \|- \| Aineus \| \| \| \|- \| Zeuxippus \| Syllis \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Hymenaeus \| Terpsichore \| Tzetzes \| data-sort-value=39 \| 12th cent. AD \| \|- \| Clio \| \| \| \|- \| Galeus \| Themisto \| Steph. Byz. \| data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD \| \|- \| Chaeron \| Thero \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Ileus \| Urea \| Hyg. Fab. \| data-sort-value=17 \| 1st cent. AD \| \|- \| Acraepheus \| rowspan="14" \| No mother mentioned \| Steph. Byz. \| data-sort-value=27 \| 6th cent. AD \| \|- \| Chariclo \| Schol. Pind. \| data-sort-value=50 \| \| \|- \| Erymanthus \| \| \| \|- \| Marathus \| Suda \| data-sort-value=35 \| 10th cent. AD \| \|- \| Melaneus \| Ant. Lib. \| data-sort-value=20 \| 2nd/3rd cent. AD \| \|- \| Oncius \| Paus. \| data-sort-value=19 \| 2nd cent. AD \| \|- \| Phemonoe \| \| \| \|- \| Pisus \| Servius \| data-sort-value=24 \| 4th/5th cent. AD \| \|- \| Cephisso, Apollonis, Borysthenis \| Eumelus \| \| \|- \| Troilus \| Apollod. \| data-sort-value=18 \| 1st/2nd cent. AD \| \|- \|} </div> Failed love attempts Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology. Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favorites of painters since the Renaissance, the result being that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination. by Bernini in the Galleria Borghese\|left]] Daphne was a nymph who scorned Apollo's advances and ran away from him. When Apollo chased her in order to persuade her, she changed herself into a laurel tree. According to other versions, she cried for help during the chase, and Gaia helped her by taking her in and placing a laurel tree in her place. According to Roman poet Ovid, the chase was brought about by Cupid, who hit Apollo with a golden arrow of love and Daphne with a leaden arrow of hatred. The myth explains the origin of the laurel and the connection of Apollo with the laurel and its leaves, which his priestess employed at Delphi. The leaves became the symbol of victory and laurel wreaths were given to the victors of the Pythian games. Marpessa was kidnapped by Idas but was loved by Apollo as well. Zeus made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old. Sinope, a nymph, was approached by the amorous Apollo. She made him promise that he would grant to her whatever she would ask for, and then cleverly asked him to let her stay a virgin. Apollo kept his promise and went back. Bolina was admired by Apollo but she refused him and jumped into the sea. To avoid her death, Apollo turned her into a nymph, saving her life. Castalia was a nymph whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dove into the spring at Delphi, at the base of Mt. Parnassos, which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire the priestesses. Cassandra was a daughter of Hecuba and Priam. Apollo wished to court her. Cassandra promised to return his love on one condition – he should give her the power to see the future. Apollo fulfilled her wish, but she went back on her word and rejected him soon after. Angered that she broke her promise, Apollo cursed her that even though she would see the future, no one would ever believe her prophecies. The Sibyl of Cumae like Cassandra promised Apollo her love in exchange for a boon. asking for as many years of life as the grains of sand in her hand. Apollo granted her wish, but she broke her word. While she lived longer, Apollo did not grant her agelessness, causing her to wither until only her voice remained. Hestia, the goddess of the hearth, rejected both Apollo's and Poseidon's marriage proposals and swore that she would always stay unmarried. In one version of the prophet Tiresias's origins, he was originally a woman who promised Apollo to sleep with him if he would give her music lessons. Apollo gave her her wish, but then she went back on her word and refused him. Apollo in anger turned her into a man.Female counterparts\|left]]Artemis , by Brygos (potter signed). Tondo of an Attic red-figure cup , Musée du Louvre.]] Artemis as the sister of Apollo, is thea apollousa, that is, she as a female divinity represented the same idea that Apollo did as a male divinity. In the pre-Hellenic period, their relationship was described as the one between husband and wife, and there seems to have been a tradition which actually described Artemis as the wife of Apollo. However, this relationship was never sexual but spiritual, which is why they both are seen being unmarried in the Hellenic period. Artemis, like her brother, is armed with a bow and arrows. She is the cause of sudden deaths of women. She also is the protector of the young, especially girls. Though she has nothing to do with oracles, music or poetry, she sometimes led the female chorus on Olympus while Apollo sang. The laurel (daphne) was sacred to both. Artemis Daphnaia had her temple among the Lacedemonians, at a place called Hypsoi. Apollo Daphnephoros had a temple in Eretria, a "place where the citizens are to take the oaths". In later times when Apollo was regarded as identical with the sun or Helios, Artemis was naturally regarded as Selene or the moon.Hecate ]] Hecate, the goddess of witchcraft and magic, is the chthonic counterpart of Apollo. They both are cousins, since their mothers – Leto and Asteria – are sisters. One of Apollo's epithets, Hecatos, is the masculine form of Hecate, and both names mean "working from afar". While Apollo presided over the prophetic powers and magic of light and heaven, Hecate presided over the prophetic powers and magic of night and chthonian darkness. If Hecate is the "gate-keeper", Apollo Agyieus is the "door-keeper". Hecate is the goddess of crossroads and Apollo is the god and protector of streets. ]] The oldest evidence found for Hecate's worship is at Apollo's temple in Miletos. There, Hecate was taken to be Apollo's sister counterpart in the absence of Artemis. As patrons of arts, Apollo and Athena were companions of the Muses, the former a much more frequent companion than the latter. Apollo was sometimes called the son of Athena and Hephaestus. In the Trojan War, as Zeus' executive, Apollo is seen holding the aegis like Athena usually does. Apollo's decisions were usually approved by his sister Athena, and they both worked to establish the law and order set forth by Zeus.Apollo in the Oresteia , Nicosia]] In Aeschylus' Oresteia trilogy, Clytemnestra kills her husband, King Agamemnon because he had sacrificed their daughter Iphigenia to proceed forward with the Trojan war. Apollo gives an order through the Oracle at Delphi that Agamemnon's son, Orestes, is to kill Clytemnestra and Aegisthus, her lover. Orestes and Pylades carry out the revenge, and consequently Orestes is pursued by the Erinyes or Furies (female personifications of vengeance). Apollo and the Furies argue about whether the matricide was justified; Apollo holds that the bond of marriage is sacred and Orestes was avenging his father, whereas the Erinyes say that the bond of blood between mother and son is more meaningful than the bond of marriage. They invade his temple, and he drives them away. He says that the matter should be brought before Athena. Apollo promises to protect Orestes, as Orestes has become Apollo's supplicant. Apollo advocates Orestes at the trial, and ultimately Athena rules in favor of Apollo.Roman ApolloThe Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially Greek god, Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as Phoebus. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the kings of Rome during the reign of Tarquinius Superbus. On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BCE, Apollo's first temple at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare". During the Second Punic War in 212 BCE, the Ludi Apollinares ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius. In the time of Augustus, who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the Battle of Actium, which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple to the god on the Palatine hill. Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and Diana formed the culmination of the Secular Games, held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.FestivalsThe chief Apollonian festival was the Pythian Games held every four years at Delphi and was one of the four great Panhellenic Games. Also of major importance was the Delia held every four years on Delos. Athenian annual festivals included the Boedromia, Metageitnia, Pyanepsia, and Thargelia. Spartan annual festivals were the Carneia and the Hyacinthia. Thebes every nine years held the Daphnephoria.Attributes and symbolsApollo's most common attributes were the bow and arrow. Other attributes of his included the kithara (an advanced version of the common lyre), the plectrum and the sword. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The Pythian Games were held in Apollo's honor every four years at Delphi. The bay laurel plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. king Antiochus I Soter (reigned 281–261 BCE), showing on the reverse a nude Apollo holding his key attributes: two arrows and a bow]] The palm tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in Delos. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins, roe deer, swans, cicadas (symbolizing music and song), ravens, hawks, crows (Apollo had hawks and crows as his messengers), In many myths Apollo is transformed into a hawk. In addition, Claudius Aelianus wrote that in Ancient Egypt people believed that hawks were sacred to the god Eusebius wrote that the second appearance of the moon is held sacred in the city of Apollo in Egypt and that the city's symbol is a man with a hawklike face (Horus). Claudius Aelianus wrote that Egyptians called Apollo Horus in their own language. ("Apollo with a kithara"), Musei Capitolini, Rome]] As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped Cretan or Arcadian colonists found the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: Hittite cuneiform texts mention an Asia Minor god called Appaliunas or Apalunas'' in connection with the city of Wilusa attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek Ilion by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo's title of Lykegenes can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a folk etymology). In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of Dionysus, god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives Apollonian and Dionysian. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the Borghese Vase. Apollo is often associated with the Golden Mean. This is the Greek ideal of moderation and a virtue that opposes gluttony. In antiquity, Apollo was associated with the planet Mercury. The ancient Greeks believed that the Mercury as observed during the morning was different from the one during the evening, because each twilight Mercury would appear farther from the Sun as it set than it had the night before. The morning planet was called Apollo, and the one at evening Hermes/Mercury before they realised they were the same, thereupon the name 'Mercury/Hermes' was kept, and 'Apollo' was dropped. The naked bodies of the statues are associated with the cult of the body which was essentially a religious activity. The muscular frames and limbs combined with slim waists indicate the Greek desire for health, and the physical capacity which was necessary in the hard Greek environment. The statues of Apollo and the other gods present them in their full youth and strength. "In the balance and relation of their limbs, such figures express their whole character, mental and physical, and reveal their central being, the radiant reality of youth in its heyday". Archaic sculpture Numerous statues of male youths from Archaic Greece exist, and were once thought to be representations of Apollo, though later discoveries indicated that many represented mortals. In 1895, V. I. Leonardos proposed the term kouros ("male youth") to refer to those from Keratea; this usage was later expanded by Henri Lechat in 1904 to cover all statues of this format. The earliest examples of life-sized statues of Apollo may be two figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos. Such statues were found across the Greek-speaking world, the preponderance of these were found at the sanctuaries of Apollo with more than one hundred from the sanctuary of Apollo Ptoios, Boeotia alone. Significantly more rare are the life-sized bronze statues. One of the few originals which survived into the present day—so rare that its discovery in 1959 was described as "a miracle" by Ernst Homann-Wedeking—is the masterpiece bronze, Piraeus Apollo. It was found in Piraeus, a port city close to Athens, and is believed to have come from north-eastern Peloponnesus. It is the only surviving large-scale Peloponnesian statue.Classical sculpture , marble Roman copy after a 5th-century-BCE Greek original attributed to Polykleitos, Musée du Louvre]] by Walter Runeberg, at the arrivals hall of Ateneum in Helsinki, Finland]] The famous Apollo of Mantua and its variants are early forms of the Apollo Citharoedus statue type, in which the god holds the cithara, a sophisticated seven-stringed variant of the lyre, in his left arm. While none of the Greek originals have survived, several Roman copies from approximately the late 1st or early 2nd century exist, of which an example is the Apollo Barberini.Hellenistic Greece-RomeApollo as a handsome beardless young man, is often depicted with a cithara (as Apollo Citharoedus) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the Apollo Lykeios and Apollo Sauroctonos types). The Apollo Belvedere is a marble sculpture that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of Classical Antiquity for Europeans, from the Renaissance through the 19th century. The marble is a Hellenistic or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor Leochares, made between 330 and 320 BCE. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict Alexander the Great. Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ would also be beardless and haloed. Modern reception Apollo often appears in modern and popular culture due to his status as the god of music, dance and poetry. Postclassical art and literature Dance and music Apollo has featured in dance and music in modern culture. Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of Igor Stravinsky's Apollon musagète (1927–1928). In 1978, the Canadian band Rush released an album with songs "Apollo: Bringer of Wisdom"/"Dionysus: Bringer of Love". Books Apollo has been portrayed in modern literature, such as when Charles Handy in Gods of Management (1978) uses Greek gods as a metaphor to portray various types of organizational culture. Apollo represents a "role" culture where order, reason, and bureaucracy prevail. Psychology and philosophy In the philosophical discussion of the arts, a distinction is sometimes made between the Apollonian and Dionysian impulses, where the former is concerned with imposing intellectual order and the latter with chaotic creativity. Friedrich Nietzsche argued that a fusion of the two was most desirable. Psychologist Carl Jung's Apollo archetype represents what he saw as the disposition in people to over-intellectualise and maintain emotional distance. Spaceflight In spaceflight, the 1960s and 1970s NASA program for orbiting and landing astronauts on the Moon was named after Apollo, by NASA manager Abe Silverstein: Genealogy See also * * * * * * * * * * Notes References Sources Primary sources * Aelian, On Animals, Volume II: Books 6–11. Translated by A. F. Scholfield. Loeb Classical Library 447. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958. * Aeschylus, The Eumenides in Aeschylus, with an English translation by Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes, Vol 2, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1926, [http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0085.tlg007.perseus-eng1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis translated by Francis Celoria (Routledge 1992). [https://topostext.org/work/216 Online version at the Topos Text Project.] * Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionidC431BA809CA4DEA22A15DA9C666F3400?docPerseus%3atext%3a1999.01.0022%3atext%3dLibrary Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Apollonius of Rhodes, Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. [http://www.archive.org/stream/argonautica00apoluoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. * Callimachus, Callimachus and Lycophron with an English Translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English Translation by G. R. Mair, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam 1921. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL129/1921/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://archive.org/stream/callimachuslycop00calluoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. * Campbell, David A., Greek Lyric, Volume III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides, and Others, Loeb Classical Library No. 476, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1991. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL476/1991/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. * Cicero, Marcus Tullius, De Natura Deorum in Cicero in Twenty-eight Volumes, XIX De Natura Deorum; Academica, with an English translation by H. Rackham, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd, 1967. [https://archive.org/stream/denaturadeorumac00ciceuoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. * Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Volume III: Books 4.59-8, translated by C. H. Oldfather, Loeb Classical Library No. 340. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1939. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL340/1939/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/home.html Online version by Bill Thayer]. * Etymologicum Magnum, edited by Thomas Gaisford, Oxford, E. Typographeo Academico, 1848. [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/en/view/bsb10209806?page=,1 Online version at the Munich Digitization Center]. * Herodotus, Herodotus, with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126 Online version available at The Perseus Digital Library]. * Hesiod, Catalogue of Women, in Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments, edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL503/2018/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. * Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Homeric Hymn 4 to Hermes, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0013.tlg004.perseus-eng1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De astronomia, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/207 Online version at ToposText]. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/206 Online version at ToposText]. * Livy, The History of Rome, Books I and II With An English Translation. Cambridge. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. * Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, I Books I-XV. Loeb Classical Library No. 344, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca01nonnuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Internet Archive] * Nonnus, Dionysiaca; translated by Rouse, W H D, II Books XVI-XXXV. Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1940. [https://archive.org/stream/dionysiaca01nonnuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Internet Archive] * Page, Denys Lionel, Sir, Poetae Melici Graeci, Oxford University Press, 1962. . * Statius, 'Thebaid'. Translated by Mozley, J H. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. * Strabo, The Geography of Strabo. Edition by H.L. Jones. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Sophocles, Oedipus Rex * Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE) * Ovid, Metamorphoses, Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE) * Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Philostratus the Elder, Imagines, in Philostratus the Elder, Imagines. Philostratus the Younger, Imagines. Callistratus, Descriptions. Translated by Arthur Fairbanks. Loeb Classical Library No. 256. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1931. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL256/1931/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://archive.org/stream/imagines00philuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Internet Archive 1926 edition]. i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * Philostratus the Younger, Imagines, in Philostratus the Elder, Imagines. Philostratus the Younger, Imagines. Callistratus, Descriptions. Translated by Arthur Fairbanks. Loeb Classical Library No. 256. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1931. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL256/1931/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://archive.org/stream/imagines00philuoft#page/n9/mode/2up Internet Archive 1926 edition]. 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE) * Pindar, Odes, Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Pliny, Natural History, Volume I: Books 1-2, translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library No. 330, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1938. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL330/1938/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. * Plutarch. Lives, Volume I: Theseus and Romulus. Lycurgus and Numa. Solon and Publicola. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Loeb Classical Library No. 46. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL046/1914/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0052%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D1 Numa at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Pseudo-Plutarch, De fluviis, in ''Plutarch's morals, Volume V, edited and translated by William Watson Goodwin, Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1874. [http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0094.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Lucian, Dialogues of the Dead. Dialogues of the Sea-Gods. Dialogues of the Gods. Dialogues of the Courtesans, translated by M. D. MacLeod, Loeb Classical Library No. 431, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1961. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL431/1961/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://archive.org/details/lucianvolviiloeb00luci/page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. * First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae * Servius, Servii grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii, Volume I, edited by Georgius Thilo and Hermannus Hagen, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1881. [https://archive.org/details/invergiliicarmin01servuoft/page/n3/mode/2up?viewtheater Internet Archive]. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docServ.+A.+1.pr Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt, edited by August Meineke, Berlin, Impensis G. Reimeri, 1849. [https://archive.org/details/stephanibyzanti00meingoog/page/n6/mode/2up?viewtheater Internet Archive]. [https://books.google.com.au/books?idMMZiAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover Google Books]. [https://topostext.org/work/241 Online version at ToposText]. * Tzetzes, John, Chiliades, editor Gottlieb Kiessling, F.C.G. Vogel, 1826. [https://books.google.com/books?id=dG0GAAAAQAAJ Google Books]. (English translation: Book I by Ana Untila; Books II–IV, by Gary Berkowitz; Books V–VI by Konstantino Ramiotis; Books VII–VIII by Vasiliki Dogani; Books IX–X by Jonathan Alexander; Books XII–XIII by Nikolaos Giallousis. [https://archive.org/stream/TzetzesCHILIADES/Chiliades#page/n0/mode/1up Internet Archive]). * Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, translated by J. H. Mozley, Loeb Classical Library No. 286. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL286/1934/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://www.theoi.com/Text/ValeriusFlaccus1.html Online translated text available at theoi.com]. * Vergil, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] Secondary sources * Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, The Orphic Hymns, Johns Hopkins University Press; owlerirst Printing edition (29 May 2013). . [https://books.google.com/books?id=TTo3r8IHy0wC Google Books]. * M. Bieber, 1964. Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art. Chicago. * Hugh Bowden, 2005. Classical Athens and the Delphic Oracle: Divination and Democracy. Cambridge University Press. * Walter Burkert, 1985. [https://books.google.com/books?id=sxurBtx6shoC Greek Religion] (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 passim * * Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, University of California Press, 1959. . * Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). * * Miranda J. Green, 1997. Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend, Thames and Hudson. * Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . * Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology", Psychology Press, 2004, . [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC Google Books]. * Karl Kerenyi, 1953. Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität revised edition. * Kerényi, Karl 1951, The Gods of the Greeks, Thames and Hudson, London. * Mertens, Dieter; Schutzenberger, Margareta. Città e monumenti dei Greci d'Occidente: dalla colonizzazione alla crisi di fine V secolo a.C.''. Roma L'Erma di Bretschneider, 2006. . * Martin Nilsson, 1955. Die Geschichte der Griechische Religion, vol. I. C.H. Beck. * Parada, Carlos, Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. . * Pauly–Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft: II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert). * Peck, Harry Thurston, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, New York. Harper and Brothers. 1898. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0062 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo. * D.S.Robertson (1945) A handbook of Greek and Roman Architecture Cambridge University Press * West, M. L. (2003), Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC, Loeb Classical Library No. 497, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. . [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL497/2003/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://archive.org/details/L497GreekEpicFragmentsVIIVcBC/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0104 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * * Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. William Smith, LLD. William Wayte. G. E. Marindin. Albemarle Street, London. John Murray. 1890. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0063 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Spivey Nigel (1997) Greek art Phaedon Press Ltd. * Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). . [https://archive.org/details/crowellshandbook00trip/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. External links * [http://www.maicar.com/GML/Apollo.html Apollo] at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada * [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000095 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (c. 1650 images of Apollo)] Category:Greek gods Category:Roman gods Category:Beauty gods Category:Health gods Category:Knowledge gods Category:Light gods Category:Music and singing gods Category:Oracular gods Category:Solar gods Category:Plague gods Category:Dragonslayers Category:Mythological Greek archers Category:Mythological rapists Category:Divine twins Category:Deities in the Iliad Category:Metamorphoses characters Category:Musicians in Greek mythology Category:LGBTQ themes in Greek mythology Category:Children of Zeus Category:Characters in the Odyssey Category:Characters in the Argonautica Category:Childhood gods Category:Mythological Greek physicians Category:Arts gods Category:Dii Consentes Category:Health deities Category:Mercurian deities Category:Twelve Olympians Category:Dance gods Category:Kourotrophoi Category:Shapeshifters in Greek mythology Category:Supernatural healing Category:Wolf deities Category:Raven deities Category:Classical oracles Category:Delian mythology	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo	2025-04-05T18:25:17.638780
595	Andre Agassi	\| residence = Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.<!-- either "Las Vegas, Nevada" or "Las Vegas, Nevada", NOT "Las Vegas, Nevada" per MOS:GEOLINK --> \| birth_date = \| birth_place = Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S. \| height \| turnedpro = 1986 \| retired = 2006 \| plays = Right-handed (two-handed backhand) \| coach = \| careerprizemoney $31,152,975 * 14th all-time in earnings \| tennishofyear = 2011 \| tennishofid = andre-agassi \| singlesrecord (76.0%) \| singlestitles = 60 \| highestsinglesranking = No. 1 (April 10, 1995) \| AustralianOpenresult = W (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003) \| FrenchOpenresult = W (1999) \| Wimbledonresult = W (1992) \| USOpenresult = W (1994, 1999) \|Othertournaments = Yes \|MastersCupresult = W (1990) \|Olympicsresult = W (1996) \|GrandSlamCupresult= F (1998) \| doublesrecord = 40–42 (48.8%) \| doublestitles = 1 \| FrenchOpenDoublesresult = QF (1992) \| USOpenDoublesresult = 1R (1987) \| highestdoublesranking = No. 123 (August 17, 1992) \| Team = yes \| DavisCupresult = W (1990, 1992, 1995) \|CoachYears = 2017–2020 \|CoachPlayers = \| medaltemplates-expand = yes \| medaltemplates = }} \| module = <!-- Infobox person --> }}<!-- Infobox tennis biography --> Andre Kirk Agassi ( ; born April 29, 1970) is an American former professional tennis player. He was ranked as the world No. 1 in men's singles by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) for 101 weeks, including as the year-end No. 1 in 1999. Agassi won 60 ATP Tour-level singles titles, including eight majors, completing the career Grand Slam. He also won an Olympic gold medal, the 1990 ATP Tour World Championships, 17 Masters titles and was part of the winning United States Davis Cup teams in 1990, 1992 and 1995. and one of three men to complete the career Golden Slam in singles. He was the first man to win all four singles majors across three different surfaces (hard, clay and grass), and remains the most recent American man to win the French Open (in 1999) and the Australian Open (in 2003). During his 20-plus year tour career, Agassi was known as "The Punisher" due to his excellent return of serve. Outside of tennis, he is the founder of the Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation, which has raised over $60 million for at-risk children in Southern Nevada. In 2001, the Foundation opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a K–12 public charter school for at-risk children. He has been married to fellow tennis player Steffi Graf since 2001. Early life Andre Agassi was born in Las Vegas, Nevada, to Iranian Emmanuel "Mike" Agassi (Aghassian), a former Olympic boxer from Salmas,Iran and American Elizabeth "Betty" Agassi (née Dudley). His father is of Iranian Armenian Assyrian heritage and was a casino worker in Tehran and former amateur boxer. His parents married in 1959 after dating for two months, then moved from Chicago to Las Vegas. He has three older siblings: Rita (who was married to former number one tennis player Pancho Gonzales), Philip and Tami. Andre was given the middle name Kirk after Kirk Kerkorian, an Armenian-American businessman. Emmanuel Agassi, then a waiter at Tropicana Las Vegas, had met his employer Kerkorian in 1963 and they became friends. At the age of 12, Agassi and his good friend and doubles partner, Roddy Parks, won the 1982 National Indoor Boys 14s Doubles Championship in Chicago. Agassi describes memorable experiences and juvenile pranks with Roddy in his book Open. When he was 13, Agassi was sent to Nick Bollettieri's Tennis Academy in Florida. He was meant to stay for only three months, because that was all his father could afford. After thirty minutes of watching Agassi play, Bollettieri, deeply impressed by his talent, called Mike and said: "Take your check back. He's here for free." Agassi then dropped out of school in the ninth grade to pursue a full-time tennis career.Professional career1986–1993: Breakthrough and the first major titleAgassi turned professional at the age of 16 and competed in his first tournament at La Quinta, California. He won his first match against John Austin, but then lost his second match to Mats Wilander. By the end of 1986, Agassi was ranked No. 91. He won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at the Sul American Open in Itaparica During 1988, he also set the open-era record for most consecutive victories by a male teenager (a record that stood for 17 years until Rafael Nadal broke it in 2005). His year-end ranking was No. 3, behind second-ranked Ivan Lendl and top-ranked Mats Wilander. Both the Association of Tennis Professionals and Tennis magazine named Agassi the Most Improved Player of the Year for 1988. Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. While still a teenager, he reached the semi-finals of both the French Open and the US Open in 1988 and made the US Open semi-finals in 1989. He began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the French Open, where he was favored before losing in four sets to Andrés Gómez, which he later attributed in his book to worrying about his wig falling off during the match. He reached his second Grand Slam final of the year at the US Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the semi-finals. His opponent in the final was Pete Sampras; a year earlier, Agassi had crushed Sampras, after which time he told his coach that he felt bad for Sampras because he was never going to make it as a pro. Agassi lost the US Open final to Sampras in three sets. He reached the quarterfinals on that occasion, losing in five sets to David Wheaton. Agassi's Grand Slam tournament breakthrough came at Wimbledon, not at the French Open or the US Open, where he had previously enjoyed success. In 1992, he defeated Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. Along the way, Agassi overcame two former Wimbledon champions: Boris Becker and John McEnroe. No other baseliner would triumph at Wimbledon until Lleyton Hewitt ten years later. Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992. Agassi once again played on the United States' Davis Cup winning team in 1992. It was their second Davis cup title in three years. Agassi famously played the game wearing Oakley brand sunglasses, and a photo of him from the day appeared on the cover of Tennis magazine. In his memoir, he wrote that he was covering up bloodshot eyes from a hangover and claimed that the founder of Oakley, Jim Jannard, had sent him a Dodge Viper to thank him for the inadvertent publicity. In 1993, Agassi won the only doubles title of his career, at the Cincinnati Masters, partnered with Petr Korda. He missed much of the early part of that year due to injuries. Although he made the quarterfinals in his Wimbledon title defense, he lost to eventual champion and No. 1 Pete Sampras in five sets. Agassi lost in the first round at the US Open to Thomas Enqvist and required wrist surgery late in the year. 1994–1997: Rise to the top, Olympic Gold and the fall With new coach Brad Gilbert on board, Agassi began to employ more of a tactical, consistent approach, which fueled his resurgence. He started slowly in 1994, losing in the first week at the French Open and Wimbledon, although he did receive a much-needed confidence boost after defeating Mark Petchey at the Miami Open in March. Nevertheless, he emerged during the hard-court season, winning the Canadian Open. His comeback culminated at the 1994 US Open with a five-set fourth-round victory against Michael Chang. He then became the first man to capture the US Open as an unseeded player, beating Michael Stich in the final. Agassi reached the world No. 1 ranking for the first time in April 1995. He held that ranking until November, for a total of 30 weeks. Agassi skipped most of the fall indoor season which allowed Sampras to surpass him and finish ranked No. 1 at the year-end ranking. In terms of win–loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year. He won 73 and lost 9 matches, and was also once again a key player on the United States' Davis Cup winning team—the third and final Davis Cup title of his career. 1996 was a less successful year for Agassi, as he failed to reach any Grand Slam final. He suffered two early-round losses to Chris Woodruff and Doug Flach at the French Open and Wimbledon, respectively, and lost to Chang in straight sets in the Australian and US Open semi-finals. At the time, Agassi blamed the Australian Open loss on the windy conditions, but later said in his biography that he had lost the match on purpose, as he did not want to play Boris Becker, whom he would have faced in that final. The high point for Agassi was winning the men's singles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Atlanta, beating Sergi Bruguera of Spain in the final. He failed an ATP drug test, but wrote a letter claiming the same friend had spiked a drink. The ATP dropped the failed drug test as a warning. In his autobiography, Agassi admitted that the letter was a lie. He quit the drug soon after. At this time Agassi was also in a failing marriage with actress, model, and socialite Brooke Shields and had lost interest in the game. He won no top-level titles, and his ranking sank to No. 141 on November 10, 1997, prompting many to believe that his run as one of the sport's premier competitors was over and he would never again win any significant tournaments. At Wimbledon, he had an early loss in the second round to Tommy Haas. He won five titles in ten finals and was runner-up at the Masters Series tournament in Key Biscayne, losing to Marcelo Ríos, who became No. 1 as a result. At the year end he was awarded the ATP Most Improved Player of the Year for the second time in his career (the first being 10 years earlier in 1988). Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he came back from two sets to love down to beat Andrei Medvedev in a five-set French Open final, becoming, at the time, only the fifth male player (joining Rod Laver, Fred Perry, Roy Emerson and Don Budge—these have since been joined by Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, and Novak Djokovic) to win all four Grand Slam singles titles during his career. Only Laver, Agassi, Federer, Nadal and Djokovic have achieved this feat during the Open Era. This win also made him the first (of only four, the next being Federer, Nadal and Djokovic respectively) male player in history to have won all four Grand Slam titles on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard courts). Agassi also became the first male player to win the Career Super Slam, consisting of all four Grand Slam tournaments plus an Olympic gold medal in singles and a Year-end championship. He began the next year 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating Sampras in a five-set semi-final and Yevgeny Kafelnikov in a four-set final. At the inaugural Tennis Masters Cup in Lisbon, Agassi reached the final after defeating world No. 1 Marat Safin in the semi-finals to end the Russian's hopes of becoming the youngest year-end No. 1 in the history of tennis. Agassi then lost to Gustavo Kuerten in the final, allowing Kuerten to be crowned year-end No. 1. Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over Arnaud Clément. with Sampras, 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 6–7, with no breaks of serve during the 52-game match. Despite the setback, Agassi finished 2001 ranked No. 3, becoming the only male tennis player to finish a year ranked in the top 3 in three different decades. Agassi recovered from the injury and later that year defended his Key Biscayne title beating then rising Roger Federer in a four-set final. At the US Open, Agassi overcame No.1 ranked and defending champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semi-finals. This led to what turned out to be the last duel between Agassi and Sampras in final of the US Open, which Sampras won in four sets and left Sampras with a 20–14 edge in their 34 career meetings. The match was the last of Sampras's career. Agassi's US Open finish, along with his Masters Series victories in Key Biscayne, Rome and Madrid, helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months. On April 28, 2003, he recaptured the No. 1 ranking to become the oldest top-ranked male player since the ATP rankings began at 33 years and 13 days. The record was later surpassed by Roger Federer in 2018. He had held the No. 1 ranking for two weeks, when Lleyton Hewitt took it back on May 12, 2003. Agassi then recaptured the No. 1 ranking once again on June 16, 2003, which he held for 12 weeks until September 7, 2003. There he managed to reach the US Open semi-finals, where he lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero, surrendering his No. 1 ranking to him. During his career, Agassi held the ranking for a total of 101 weeks. Agassi's ranking slipped when injuries forced him to withdraw from a number of events. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, Agassi lost in the final to Federer, his third time to finish as runner-up in the event after losses in 1999 and 2000, and finished the year ranked No. 4. At age 33, he had been one of the oldest players to rank in the top 5 since Connors, at age 35, was No. 4 in 1987. At Wimbledon, Agassi announced his plans to retire following the US Open. Agassi played only two events during the summer hard-court season with his best result being a quarterfinal loss at the Countrywide Classic in Los Angeles to Fernando González of Chile, which resulted in him being unseeded at the US Open. Agassi had a short, but dramatic, run in his final US Open. Because of extreme back pain, Agassi was forced to receive anti-inflammatory injections after every match. After a four-set win against Andrei Pavel, Agassi faced eighth-seeded Marcos Baghdatis in the second round who had earlier advanced to the 2006 Australian Open final and Wimbledon semi-finals. Agassi won in five sets as the younger Baghdatis succumbed to muscle cramping in the final set. In his last match, Agassi fell to 112th-ranked big-serving Benjamin Becker of Germany in four sets. Agassi received a four-minute standing ovation from the crowd after the match and delivered a retirement speech. Rivalries Agassi vs. Sampras The rivalry has been called the greatest of the generation of players competing in the 1990s, as Sampras and Agassi were the most successful players of that decade. They also had very contrasting playing styles, with Sampras being considered the greatest server and Agassi the greatest serve returner at the time. Agassi and Sampras met 34 times on the tour level with Agassi trailing 14–20. The 1990 US Open was their first meeting in a Grand Slam tournament final. Agassi was favored as he was ranked No. 4 at the time, compared to the No. 12 ranking of Sampras and because Agassi had defeated Sampras in their only previously completed match. Agassi, however, lost the final to Sampras in straight sets. Their next meeting in a Grand Slam was at the 1992 French Open, where they met in the quarterfinals. Although Sampras was ranked higher, Agassi came out winning in straight sets. They met again on a Grand Slam level at the quarterfinals of Wimbledon in 1993, where Agassi was the defending champion and Sampras was the newly minted world No. 1. Agassi dug himself out from a two-sets-to-love hole, levelling the match at two sets apiece; however, Sampras prevailed in five sets, and went on to win his first Wimbledon championship. With both Sampras and Agassi participating, the US won the Davis Cup in 1995. The year should be considered the peak of the rivalry as together they won three out of four major titles, meeting each other twice in the finals, and were occupying the top two spots in the rankings for the whole year. They met five times during the year, all in the title matches, including the Australian Open, the Newsweek Champions Cup (now Indian Wells), the Lipton International Players Championships (now Miami Open), the Canadian Open, and the US Open. Agassi won three of the finals, including the Australian Open; however, Sampras took the US Open title, ending Agassi's 26-match winning streak. After Agassi had taken most of the fall season off, Sampras took over the No. 1 ranking for the end of the season. Agassi admitted this loss, which gave Sampras a 9–8 lead in their head-to-head meetings, took two years for him to get over it mentally.Agassi vs. Chang Michael Chang was the opponent Agassi faced most frequently from all the players other than Sampras. They met 22 times on the tour level with Agassi leading 15–7. Chang, unlike most of Agassi's big rivals, had a playing style similar to his. Both players preferred to stay at the baseline with Chang being more defensive-minded. The outcome was that most of their meetings were built on long and entertaining rallies. The rivalry began late in the 1980s with both players being considered the prodigies of the next great generation of American tennis players and both being of foreign descent. Agassi won the first four matches including a straight-set victory in round 16 of the 1988 US Open and defeating Chang, the defending champion, in the 1990 French Open in a four-set quarterfinal. Arguably their best match took place in the round of 16 of the 1994 US Open. While both players presented high-quality shot-making, the momentum changed from set to set with Agassi eventually prevailing in a five-set victory. It turned out to be the toughest contest on his way to his first US Open title. Their next two Grand Slam meetings came in 1996, with Chang recording easy straight-set victories in the semi-finals of both the Australian Open and the US Open. Years after, Agassi shockingly admitted in his book that he had lost the first of the matches on purpose as he did not want to face Boris Becker, who was awaiting the winner in the final. Agassi won the last four of their matches, with the last being in 2003 at the Miami Open with Chang being clearly past his prime. Agassi vs. Becker Boris Becker and Agassi played 14 times with Agassi leading 10–4. Becker won their first three matches in 1988 and 1989 before Agassi reversed the rivalry in 1990, and won 10 of their last 11 matches. One contributing factor is that after their third match, Agassi picked up a tell regarding Becker's serve and knew where his serves would be directed. They first played at Indian Wells in 1988, with Becker prevailing. Their most notable match was the 1989 Davis Cup semi-final match, which Becker won in five sets after losing the first two in tiebreaks. Agassi, considered a baseliner with a playing style not suiting grass, shocked Becker, a three-time champion, in a five-set quarterfinal at Wimbledon in 1992 on his way to his first Grand Slam title. The intensity of the rivalry peaked in 1995. Becker won that year's Wimbledon semi-final after being down a set and two breaks, to eventually win in four sets. In a highly anticipated rematch in the US Open semi-final, this time it was Agassi who came out victorious in four tight sets. Their final match was played at Hong Kong in 1999, which Agassi won in three sets.Agassi vs. RafterAgassi and Pat Rafter played fifteen times with Agassi leading 10–5. The rivalry has been considered special and delivered memorable encounters, because of the players' contrasting styles of play, with Rafter using traditional serve-&-volley methods against Agassi's variety of return of serves and passing shots as his main weapons. Agassi led 8–2 on hard courts, but Rafter surprisingly won their sole match on clay at the 1999 Rome Masters. They played four matches at Wimbledon with both winning two matches each. Agassi won the first two in 1993 and 1999, while Rafter took their 2000 and 2001 encounters, the latter two matches being gruelling 5-setters often being presented on the lists of best matches ever played. Agassi also won both their meetings at the Australian Open, in 1995 and 2001, on his way to the title on both occasions. Rafter, however, took their only US Open encounter in 1997 and went on to win the title.Agassi vs. FedererAgassi and Roger Federer played 11 times, and Federer led their head-to-head series 8–3. With the retirement of Sampras, the rivalry against the 11-years-younger Federer, who was another great server like Sampras, became Agassi's main rivalry for the final years of his career. Agassi won their first three matches, but then went on to lose eight consecutive ones. They first met in just the third tournament of Federer's career at the 1998 Swiss Indoors in Federer's hometown, with Agassi prevailing over the 17-year-old. Agassi also defeated Federer at the 2001 US Open and the finals of the Miami Open in 2002. Federer began to turn the tide at the Masters Cup in 2003, when he defeated Agassi in both the round-robin and the final. They played a quarterfinal match at the 2004 US Open that spanned over two windy days, with Federer eventually prevailing in five sets. At the 2005 Dubai Championships, Federer and Agassi attracted worldwide headlines with a publicity stunt that saw the two tennis legends play on a helipad almost 220 meters above sea level at the hotel Burj al-Arab. Their final duel took place in the final of the 2005 US Open. Federer was victorious in four sets in front of a pro-Agassi crowd. The match was the last appearance by Agassi in a Grand Slam final.Agassi vs. LendlAgassi and Ivan Lendl played eight times, and Lendl led their head-to-head series 6–2. Agassi vs. Edberg Agassi and Stefan Edberg played nine times, and Agassi led their head-to-head series 6–3.Post-retirement: Exhibition appearancesSince retiring after the 2006 US Open, Agassi has participated in a series of charity tournaments and continues his work with his own charity. On September 5, 2007, he was a surprise guest commentator for the Andy Roddick/Roger Federer US Open quarterfinal. He played an exhibition match at Wimbledon, teaming with his wife, Steffi Graf, to play with Tim Henman and Kim Clijsters. He played World Team Tennis for the Philadelphia Freedoms in the summer of 2009. At the 2009 French Open, Agassi was on hand to present Roger Federer, who completed his Career Grand Slam by winning the tournament and joined Agassi as one of six men to complete the Career Grand Slam, with the trophy. Also in 2009, Agassi played at the Outback Champions Series event for the first time. He played the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Tennis Championships at Surprise, Arizona, where he reached the final before bowing to eventual champion Todd Martin. Agassi returned to the tour renamed for the PowerShares Series in 2011 and participated in a total of seven events while winning two. Agassi beat Courier in the final of the Staples Champions Cup in Boston and later defeated Sampras at the CTCA Championships at his hometown Las Vegas. In 2012, Agassi took part in five tournaments, winning three of those. In November, at first he won BILT Champions Showdown in San Jose, beating John McEnroe in the final. The following day, he defended his title of the CTCA Championships, while defeating Courier in the decisive match. In the series season finale, he beat Michael Chang for the Acura Champions Cup. The series and Agassi came back to action in 2014. Agassi won both tournaments he participated in. At the Camden Wealth Advisors Cup's final in Houston, Agassi beat James Blake for a rematch of their 2005 US Open quarterfinal. He defeated Blake again in Portland to win the title of the Cancer Treatment Centers of America Championships. In 2015, Agassi took part in just one event of the PowerShares Series, losing to Mark Philippoussis in the final of the Champions Shootout. The following year he took part in two events, at first losing to Blake in Chicago, and the next day defeating Mardy Fish, but losing to Roddick in Charleston. In 2009, in Macau Agassi and Sampras met for the first time on court since the 2002 US Open final. Sampras won the exhibition in three sets. The rivalry between the former champions headlined sports media again in March 2010 after the two participated in the "Hit for Haiti" charity event organized to raise money for the victims of the earthquake. Partnered with Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal, the old rivals began making jokes at each other's expense, which ended up with Sampras intentionally striking a serve at Agassi's body. After the event, Agassi admitted that he had crossed the line with his jokes and publicly apologized to Sampras. Agassi and Sampras met again one year later for an exhibition match at Madison Square Garden in New York in front of 19 000 spectators as Sampras defeated Agassi in two sets. On March 3, 2014, Agassi and Sampras squared off for an exhibition in London for the annual World Tennis Day. This time, it was Agassi who came out on top in two straight sets. He returned to the tour in May 2017 in the position of coach to Novak Djokovic for the French Open. Agassi announced the end of the partnership on March 31, 2018, stating that there were too many disagreements in the relationship. Legacy Considered by numerous sources to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time, Agassi has also been called one of the greatest service returners ever to play the game, and was described by the BBC upon his retirement as "perhaps the biggest worldwide star in the sport's history". As a result, he is credited for helping to revive the popularity of tennis during the 1990s. Among his numerous career accolades, Agassi was named the BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year in 1992, and the 7th greatest male player of all time by Sports Illustrated in 2010.Playing styleEarly in his career, Agassi would look to end points quickly by playing first-strike tennis, typically by inducing a weak return with a deep, hard shot, and then playing a winner at an extreme angle. On the rare occasion that he charged the net, Agassi liked to take the ball in the air and hit a swinging volley for a winner. His favored groundstroke was his flat, accurate two-handed backhand, hit well cross-court but especially down the line. His forehand was nearly as strong, especially his inside-out to the ad court. Agassi's strength was in dictating play from the baseline, and he was able to consistently take the ball on the rise. While he was growing up, his father and Nick Bollettieri trained him in this way. When in control of a point, Agassi would often pass up an opportunity to attempt a winner and hit a conservative shot to minimize his errors, and to make his opponent run more. This change to more methodical, less aggressive baseline play was largely initiated by his longtime coach, Brad Gilbert, in their first year together in 1994. Gilbert encouraged Agassi to wear out opponents with his deep, flat groundstrokes and to use his fitness to win attrition wars, and noted Agassi's two-handed backhand down the line as his very best shot. Agassi, along with five athlete partners (including Wayne Gretzky, Joe Montana, Shaquille O'Neal, Ken Griffey Jr., and Monica Seles) opened a chain of sports-themed restaurant named Official All Star Café in April 1996. The restaurant closed down in 2001. In 1999, he paid $1 million for a 10 percent stake in Nevada First Bank and made a $10 million profit when it was sold to Western Alliance Bancorp in 2006. In 2002, he joined the Tennis Channel to promote the channel to consumers and cable and satellite industry, and made an equity investment in the network. After meeting chef Michael Mina at one of his restaurants in San Francisco, Agassi partnered with him in 2002 to start Mina Group Inc. and opened 18 concept restaurants in San Francisco, San Jose, Dana Point, Atlantic City and Las Vegas. Agassi was an equity investor of a group that acquired Golden Nugget Las Vegas and Golden Nugget Laughlin from MGM Mirage for $215 million in 2004. One year later, the group sold the hotel-casino to Landry's, Inc. for $163 million in cash and $182 million in assumed debt. In 2007, he sat on the board of Meadows Bank, an independent bank in Nevada. He has invested in start-up companies backed by Allen & Company. Agassi and Graf formed a company called Agassi Graf Holdings. They invested in PURE, a nightclub at Caesars Palace, which opened in 2004, In August 2006, Agassi and Graf developed a joint venture with high-end furniture maker Kreiss Enterprises. In September, Agassi and Graf, through their company Agassi Graf Development LLC, along with Bayview Financial LP, finalized an agreement to develop a condominium hotel, Fairmont Tamarack, at Tamarack Resort in Donnelly, Idaho. Owing to difficult market conditions and delays, they withdrew from the project in 2009. The group still owns three small chunks of land. In September, they collaborated with Steve Case's Exclusive Resorts to co-develop luxury resorts and design Agassi-Graf Tennis and Fitness Centers. They also invested in online ticket reseller viagogo in 2009 and both serve as board members and advisors of the company. In October 2012, Village Roadshow and investors including Agassi and Graf announced plans to build a new water park called Wet'n'Wild Las Vegas in Las Vegas. Village Roadshow has a 51% stake in the park while Agassi, Graf, and other private investors hold the remaining 49%. The park opened in May 2013. IMG managed Agassi from the time he turned pro in 1986 through January 2000 before switching to SFX Sports Group. His business manager, lawyer and agent was childhood friend Perry Rogers, but they have been estranged since 2008. In 2009, he and Graf signed with CAA. Equipment and endorsements Agassi used Prince Graphite rackets early in his career. He signed a $7 million endorsement contract with Belgian tennis racquet makers Donnay. He later switched to Head Ti Radical racket and Head's LiquidMetal Radical racket, having signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Head in 1993. He renewed his contract in 1999, and in November 2003 he signed a lifetime agreement with Head. He also endorses Penn tennis balls. On July 25, 2005, Agassi left Nike after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with Adidas. A major reason for Agassi leaving Nike was because Nike refused to donate to Agassi's charities, and Adidas did. On May 13, 2013, Agassi rejoined Nike. Agassi was sponsored by DuPont, Ebel, Mazda in 1997, Kia Motors in 2002, and Deutsche Bank in 2003. In 1990, he appeared in a television commercial for Canon Inc., promoting the Canon EOS Rebel camera. Between 1999 and 2000, he signed a multimillion-dollar, multiyear endorsement deal with Schick and became the worldwide spokesman for the company. Agassi signed a multiyear contract with Twinlab and promoted the company's nutritional supplements. In mid-2003, he was named the spokesman of Aramis Life, a fragrance by Aramis, and signed a five-year deal with the company. In March 2004, he signed a ten-year agreement worth $1.5 million a year with 24 Hour Fitness, which will open five Andre Agassi fitness centers by year-end. In 2007, watchmaker Longines named Agassi as their brand ambassador. Agassi and his mother appeared in a Got Milk? advertisement in 2002. Agassi has appeared in many advertisements and television commercials with Graf. They both endorsed Deutsche Telekom in 2002, Genworth Financial and Canon Inc. and Nintendo Wii and Wii Fit U and Longines in 2013. In popular culture In 2017, Agassi appeared in the documentary film Love Means Zero, which highlighted the troubled relationship between his coach Nick Bollettieri and him. Other endeavors Politics Agassi has donated more than $100,000 to Democratic candidates, and $2,000 to Republicans. On September 1, 2010, when he appeared on daily WNYC public radio program The Brian Lehrer Show, he stated that he is registered as Independent.PhilanthropyAgassi founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association in 1994, which assists Las Vegas' young people. He was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award in 1995 for his efforts to help disadvantaged youth. He has been cited as the most charitable and socially involved player in professional tennis. It has also been claimed that he may be the most charitable athlete of his generation. Agassi's charities help in assisting children reach their athletic potential. His Boys & Girls Club sees 2,000 children throughout the year and boasts a world-class junior tennis team. It also has a basketball program (the Agassi Stars) and a rigorous system that encourages a mix of academics and athletics. In 2001, Agassi opened the Andre Agassi College Preparatory Academy in Las Vegas, a tuition-free charter school for at-risk children in the area. He personally donated $35 million to the school. In 2009, the graduating class had a 100 percent graduation rate and expected a 100 percent college acceptance rate. Among other child-related programs that Agassi supports through his Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation is Clark County's only residential facility for abused and neglected children, Child Haven. In 1997, Agassi donated funding to Child Haven for a six-room classroom building now named the Agassi Center for Education. His foundation also provided $720,000 to assist in the building of the Andre Agassi Cottage for Medically Fragile Children. This 20-bed facility opened in December 2001, and accommodates developmentally delayed or handicapped children and children quarantined for infectious diseases. In 2007, along with several other athletes, Agassi founded the charity Athletes for Hope, which helps professional athletes get involved in charitable causes and aims to inspire all people to volunteer and support their communities. He created the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund, now known as the Turner-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. The Fund is an investment initiative for social change, focusing on the "nationwide effort to move charters from stopgap buildings into permanent campuses." In September 2013, the Andre Agassi Foundation for Education formed a partnership with V20 Foods to launch Box Budd!es, a line of kids' healthy snacks. All proceeds go to the Foundation. In February 2014, Agassi remodeled the vacant University of Phoenix building in Las Vegas as a new school, called the Doral Academy West through the Canyon-Agassi Charter School Facilities Fund. Doral Academy opened in August 2014. The Fund purchased a 4.6-acre plot in Henderson, Nevada, to house the Somerset Academy of Las Vegas, which will relocate from its campus inside a church. On April 2, 2023, Agassi participated with Michael Chang, Andy Roddick and John McEnroe in the first live airing of Pickleball on ESPN in the Million dollar Pickleball Slam at the Hard Rock Casino in Hollywood, Fla. Personal life Relationships and family In the early 1990s, after dating Wendi Stewart, Agassi dated American singer and entertainer Barbra Streisand. He wrote about the relationship in his 2009 autobiography, "We agree that we're good for each other, and so what if she's twenty-eight years older? We're sympatico, and the public outcry only adds spice to our connection. It makes our friendship feel forbidden, taboo — another piece of my overall rebellion. Dating Barbra Streisand is like wearing Hot Lava." He was married to actress Brooke Shields from 1997 to 1999. He married Steffi Graf on October 22, 2001, at their Las Vegas home; the only witnesses were their mothers. They have two children: son Jaden Gil (born 2001) and daughter Jaz Elle (born 2003). The Graf-Agassi family resides in Summerlin, a community in the Las Vegas Valley. Graf's mother and brother, Michael, with his four children, also live there. His mother is a breast cancer survivor. Long-time trainer Gil Reyes has been called one of Agassi's closest friends; some have described him as being a "father figure" to Agassi. In 2012, Agassi and Reyes introduced their own line of fitness equipment, BILT By Agassi and Reyes. In December 2008, Agassi's childhood friend and former business manager, Perry Rogers, sued Graf for $50,000 in management fees he claimed that she owed him. Autobiography Agassi's autobiography, Open: An Autobiography, (written with assistance from J. R. Moehringer), was published in November 2009. In it, Agassi talks about his childhood and his unconventional Armenian father, who came to the United States from Iran, where he was a professional boxer. Overly demanding and emotionally abusive to the whole family, his father groomed young Agassi for tennis greatness by building a tennis court in their backyard and sending Agassi to tennis boarding school under the supervision of Nick Bollettieri, who later coached and managed part of Agassi's professional career. There is also mention in the book of using and testing positive for methamphetamine in 1997. In response to this revelation, Roger Federer declared himself shocked and disappointed, while Marat Safin argued that Agassi should return his prize money and be stripped of his titles. In an interview with CBS, Agassi justified himself and asked for understanding, saying that "It was a period in my life where I needed help." Agassi said that he had always hated tennis during his career because of the constant pressure it exerted on him. He also said he wore a hairpiece earlier in his career and thought Pete Sampras was "robotic". The book reached No. 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list and received favorable reviews. It won the Autobiography category of the 2010 British Sports Book Awards. In 2018, the book was listed on Esquire as one of "The 30 Best Sports Books Ever Written", and was also recommended by self-help author Tim Ferriss who described it as "very candid, very amusing, and very instructional".Career statisticsSingles performance timeline <div style="overflow:auto;"> {\| class"wikitable nowrap" styletext-align:center;font-size:90% ! Tournament !!1986!!1987!!1988!!1989!!1990!!1991!!1992!!1993!!1994!!1995!!1996!!1997!!1998!!1999!!2000!!2001!!2002!!2003!!2004!!2005!!2006!! SR !! W–L !! Win % \|- \| colspan"25" style"text-align:left;"\| Grand Slam tournaments \|- \| align=left \| Australian Open \| style=color:#767676\|NH \| A \| A \| A \| A \| A \| A \| A \| A \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| A \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| A \| 4 / 9 \| 48–5 \| 90.6 \|- \| align=left \| French Open \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 3R \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| A \| 1 / 17 \| 51–16 \| 76.1 \|- \| align=left \| Wimbledon \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| A \| A \| A \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| A \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 3R \| 1 / 14 \| 46–13 \| 78.0 \|- \| align=left \| US Open \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 1R \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 4R \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 2R \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| style="background:#ffebcd;"\| QF \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| 3R \| 2 / 21 \| 79–19 \| 80.6 \|- \|-style="background:#efefef;" \|style=text-align:left\|W–L \|0–1 \|1–3 \|10–2 \|7–2 \|12–2 \|10–3 \|16–2 \|4–2 \|11–2 \|22–3 \|11–4 \|3–1 \|7–4 \|23–2 \|14–3 \|20–3 \|11–3 \|19–3 \|9–3 \|10–3 \|4–2 \|8 / 61 \|224–53 \|80.9 \|- \| colspan"25" style"text-align:left;"\| Year-end championships \|- \| align=left \| Masters Cup \|DNQ \|DNQ \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style="background:lime;"\| W \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \|DNQ \|DNQ \| style="background:yellow;"\| SF \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \|DNQ \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style="background:thistle;"\| F \| A \| style="background:#afeeee;"\| RR \| style=color:#767676\|RET \| 1 / 13 \| 22–20 \| 52.4 \|- \| align=left \| Year-end ranking \| 91 \| 25 \| style="background:#9cf;"\| 3 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 7 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 4 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 10 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 9 \| 24 \| style="background:thistle;"\| 2 \| style="background:thistle;"\| 2 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 8 \| 110 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 6 \| style="background:lime;"\| 1 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 6 \| style="background:#9cf;"\| 3 \| style="background:thistle;"\| 2 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 4 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 8 \| style="background:#eee8aa;"\| 7 \| 150 \| colspan=3 \| \|} </div> Grand Slam finals (8 titles, 7 runner-ups) By winning the 1999 French Open, Agassi completed a men's singles Career Grand Slam. He is the 5th of 8 male players in history (after Budge, Perry, Laver and Emerson, and before Federer, Nadal and Djokovic) to achieve this. {\|class="sortable wikitable" !scope="col"\|Result !scope="col"\|Year !scope="col"\|Tournament !scope="col"\|Surface !scope="col"\|Opponent !scope"col" class"unsortable"\|Score \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1990 \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|French Open \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|Clay \| data-sort-value="Gómez" \| Andrés Gómez \| 3–6, 6–2, 4–6, 4–6 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1990 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Sampras" \| Pete Sampras \| 4–6, 3–6, 2–6 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1991 \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|French Open \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|Clay \| data-sort-value="Courier" \| Jim Courier \| 6–3, 4–6, 6–2, 1–6, 4–6 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1992 \| style="background:#cfc;"\|Wimbledon \| style="background:#cfc;"\|Grass \| data-sort-value="Ivanišević" \| Goran Ivanišević \| 6–7<sup>(8–10)</sup>, 6–4, 6–4, 1–6, 6–4 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1994 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Stich" \| Michael Stich \| 6–1, 7–6<sup>(7–5)</sup>, 7–5 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1995 \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Australian Open \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Sampras" \| Pete Sampras \| 4–6, 6–1, 7–6<sup>(8–6)</sup>, 6–4 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1995 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Sampras" \| Pete Sampras \| 4–6, 3–6, 6–4, 5–7 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1999 \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|French Open \| style="background:#ebc2af;"\|Clay \| data-sort-value="Medvedev" \| Andrei Medvedev \| 1–6, 2–6, 6–4, 6–3, 6–4 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 1999 \| style="background:#cfc;"\|Wimbledon \| style="background:#cfc;"\|Grass \| data-sort-value="Sampras" \| Pete Sampras \| 3–6, 4–6, 5–7 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 1999 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Martin" \| Todd Martin \| 6–4, 6–7<sup>(5–7)</sup>, 6–7<sup>(2–7)</sup>, 6–3, 6–2 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 2000 \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Australian Open \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Kafelnikov" \| Yevgeny Kafelnikov \| 3–6, 6–3, 6–2, 6–4 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 2001 \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Australian Open \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Clément" \| Arnaud Clément \| 6–4, 6–2, 6–2 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 2002 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Sampras" \| Pete Sampras \| 3–6, 4–6, 7–5, 4–6 \|- \| style="background:#98fb98;"\|Win \| 2003 \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Australian Open \| style="background:#ffc;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Schüttler" \| Rainer Schüttler \| 6–2, 6–2, 6–1 \|- \| style="background:#ffa07a;"\|Loss \| 2005 \| style="background:#ccf;"\|US Open \| style="background:#ccf;"\|Hard \| data-sort-value="Federer" \| Roger Federer \| 3–6, 6–2, 6–7<sup>(1–7)</sup>, 1–6 \|} Open Era records * These records were attained in the Open Era of tennis and in ATP World Tour Masters 1000 series since 1990. * Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements. {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Time span ! Selected Grand Slam tournament records ! Players matched \|- \| 1990 YEC – 1999 French Open \|\| Career Super Slam \|\| Rafael Nadal<br />Novak Djokovic \|- \| 1992 Wimbledon – 1999 French Open \|\| Career Grand Slam \|\| \|- \| 1999 French Open\|\|Won a Grand Slam final from two sets down.\|\| \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Grand Slam tournaments ! Time span ! Records at each Grand Slam tournament ! Players matched \|- \|rowspan=2\| Australian Open \|\| 1995 \|\| Won tournament on the first attempt \|\| \|- \| 2003 \|\| 71.6% (121–48) games winning percentage in 1 tournament \|\| Stands alone \|- \| US Open \|\| 1986–2006 \|\| 21 consecutive tournaments played \|\| Stands alone \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Time span ! Other selected records ! Players matched \|- \| 1990–2003 \|\| 6 Miami Masters titles \|\| Novak Djokovic \|- \| 2001–2003 \|\| 3 consecutive Miami Masters titles \|\| Novak Djokovic \|- \| 1990–2003 \|\| 8 Miami Masters finals \|\| Stands alone \|- \| 1988–2005 \|\| 61 match wins at Miami Masters \|\| Stands alone \|- \| 2001–2004 \|\| 19 consecutive wins at Miami Masters \|\| Stands alone \|- \| 1990–1999 \|\| 5 Washington Open titles \|\| Stands alone \|- \| 1993–2002 \|\| 4 Los Angeles Open titles \|\| \|} Professional awards * ITF World Champion: 1999. * ATP Player of the Year: 1999. * ATP Most Improved Player: 1988, 1998 Video * Wimbledon 2000 Semi-final – Agassi vs. Rafter (2003) Starring: Andre Agassi, Patrick Rafter; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 213 minutes, . * Charlie Rose with Andre Agassi (May 7, 2001) Charlie Rose, Inc., DVD Release Date: August 15, 2006, Run Time: 57 minutes. * Wimbledon: The Record Breakers (2005) Starring: Andre Agassi, Boris Becker; Standing Room Only, DVD Release Date: August 16, 2005, Run Time: 52 minutes, . Video games * Andre Agassi Tennis for Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Genesis, Game Gear, Master System, and mobile phones * Agassi Tennis Generation for PlayStation 2, Game Boy Advance, and Windows * Agassi Tennis Generation 2002 for Windows * Smash Court Pro Tournament for PlayStation 2 * Top Spin 4 for Xbox 360, PlayStation 3, and Wii * Tennis World Tour for Xbox One, PlayStation 4, Nintendo Switch, and Windows * Top Spin 2K25 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X, and Windows See also * All-time tennis records – men's singles * List of Grand Slam men's singles champions * Tennis male players statistics * Tennis records of the Open Era – men's singles Notes References Sources * * External links * * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180118081134/http://www.andreagassi.com/ Andre Agassi Ventures] * } \|list1=<div> Pete Sampras<br /> Pete Sampras<br /> Pete Sampras<br /> Pete Sampras<br /> Lleyton Hewitt<br /> Lleyton Hewitt}} Pete Sampras<br /> Thomas Muster<br /> Patrick Rafter<br /> Pete Sampras<br /> Lleyton Hewitt<br /> Juan Carlos Ferrero}} Mike Powell}} Greg Norman}} Paul McNamee<br /> Richard Krajicek}} Paul Flory<br /> Amir Hadad & Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi}} Pete Sampras}} Gustavo Kuerten}} Pete Sampras}} Gustavo Kuerten}} Zinedine Zidane}} Tiger Woods}} Peter Lundgren<br /> Patrick Rafter}} Michael Chang<br /> Nicolás Lapentti}} Pete Sampras}} Pete Sampras}} Lleyton Hewitt}} Andy Roddick}} </div> }} }} }} }} Category:1970 births Category:Living people Category:American male tennis players Category:American autobiographers Category:American investors Category:American businesspeople in real estate Category:American sportspeople in doping cases Category:Doping cases in tennis Category:ATP number 1 ranked singles tennis players Category:Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles Category:Australian Open (tennis) champions Category:French Open champions Category:US Open (tennis) champions Category:Wimbledon champions Category:Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics Category:ITF World Champions Category:International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Category:Novak Djokovic coaches Category:Steffi Graf Category:Nevada Democrats Category:Philanthropists from Nevada Category:Tennis players from Nevada Category:Writers from Las Vegas Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American sportsmen Category:21st-century American businesspeople Category:21st-century American sportsmen Category:Sportspeople of Iranian descent Category:American people of Armenian descent Category:Sportspeople of Armenian descent Category:American sportspeople of Armenian descent	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Agassi	2025-04-05T18:25:17.758608
597	Austroasiatic languages	117 million \| family = One of the world's primary language families \| protoname = Proto-Austroasiatic \| child1 = Munda \| child2 = Khasi-Palaungic \| child3 = Khmuic \| child4 = Mang \| child5 = Pakanic \| child6 = Vietic \| child7 = Katuic \| child8 = Bahnaric \| child9 = Khmer \| child10 = Pearic \| child11 = Monic \| child12 = Aslian \| child13 = Nicobarese \| iso5 = aav \| glotto = aust1305 \| glottoname = Austroasiatic \| map = Austroasiatic-en.svg \| mapcaption = Austroasiatic languages }} \| ancestor \| notes }} The Austroasiatic languages ( ) are a large language family spoken throughout Mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. These languages are natively spoken by the majority of the population in Vietnam and Cambodia, and by minority populations scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China. Approximately 117 million people speak an Austroasiatic language, of which more than two-thirds are Vietnamese speakers. Of the Austroasiatic languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have lengthy, established presences in the historical record. Only two are presently considered to be the national languages of sovereign states: Vietnamese in Vietnam, and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand, while the Wa language is a "recognized national language" in the de facto autonomous Wa State within Myanmar. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The remainder of the family's languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status. Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer, and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic), while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family. Scholars generally date the ancestral language to with a homeland in southern China or the Mekong River valley. Sidwell (2022) proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area around .EtymologyThe name Austroasiatic was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt () based on , the Latin word for "South" (but idiosyncratically used by Schmidt to refer to the southeast), and "Asia". Despite the literal meaning of its name, only three Austroasiatic branches are actually spoken in South Asia: Khasic, Munda, and Nicobarese. Typology Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants among the modern languages. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches. The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice. Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast. However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure. Proto-language Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows: {\| class="wikitable" ! colspan="2" \| !Labial !Alveolar !Palatal !Velar !Glottal \|- ! rowspan="3" \|Plosive !<small>voiceless</small> \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- !<small>voiced</small> \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- !<small>implosive</small> \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! colspan="2" \|Nasal \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! colspan="2" \|Liquid \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- ! colspan="2" \|Fricative \| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for . is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in. Internal classification Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh and Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published. Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995). Diffloth (1974) Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue. * Austro‑Asiatic Munda * North Munda ** Korku Kherwarian * South Munda ** Kharia–Juang Koraput Munda Mon–Khmer * Eastern Mon–Khmer Khmer (Cambodian) Pearic Bahnaric Katuic Vietic (Vietnamese, Muong) * Northern Mon–Khmer ** Khasi (Meghalaya, India) Palaungic Khmuic * Southern Mon–Khmer ** Mon Aslian (Malaya) ** Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands) Peiros (2004) Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below. * Austro‑Asiatic Nicobarese Munda–Khmer * Munda * Mon–Khmer ** Khasi Nuclear Mon–Khmer * Mangic (Mang + Palyu) (perhaps in Northern MK) * Vietic (perhaps in Northern MK) * Northern Mon–Khmer ** Palaungic ** Khmuic * Central Mon–Khmer ** Khmer dialects ** Pearic ** Asli-Bahnaric *** Aslian *** Mon–Bahnaric **** Monic **** Katu–Bahnaric ***** Katuic ******* Bahnaric Diffloth (2005) Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have: \|2= }} }} \| label2=Khasi–Khmuic \| 2= }} }} \| label3=(Nuclear) Mon–Khmer \| 3= Sidwell (2009–2015) and Roger Blench propose that the Austroasiatic phylum dispersed via the Mekong River drainage basin.]] Paul Sidwell (2009), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic. He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic. If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly. Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179) proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian, just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other. \| 1= \| 3=Khmuic \| 4Mang \| 5=Pakanic \| 6=Vietic \| 7=Katuic \| 8=Bahnaric \| 9=Khmer \| 10=Pearic \| label11=Aslian–Monic \| 11= \| 12= }} }} A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b) suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious. Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c) further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China. Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan. considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructible in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum. Roger Blench (2017) suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years ago (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P. proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before present, instead of the Middle Mekong as he had previously proposed. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red River valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals. Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan. (quoted in Sidwell 2021) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included. }} \| 2= }} \| 2=Mang \| label3=Northern \| 3= }} \| 4=Monic \| label5=Southern \| 5= \| 6=Munda }} }} Possible extinct branches Roger Blench (2009) also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages. * Pre-Chamic languages (the languages of coastal Vietnam before the Chamic migrations). Chamic has various Austroasiatic loanwords that cannot be clearly traced to existing Austroasiatic branches (Sidwell 2006, 2007). Larish (1999) also notes that Moklenic languages contain many Austroasiatic loanwords, some of which are similar to the ones found in Chamic. * Acehnese substratum (Sidwell 2006). Blench cites Austroasiatic-origin words in modern-day Bornean branches such as Land Dayak (Bidayuh, Dayak Bakatiq, etc.), Dusunic (Central Dusun, Visayan, etc.), Kayan, and Kenyah, noting especially resemblances with Aslian. As further evidence for his proposal, Blench also cites ethnographic evidence such as musical instruments in Borneo shared in common with Austroasiatic-speaking groups in mainland Southeast Asia. Adelaar (1995) has also noticed phonological and lexical similarities between Land Dayak and Aslian. Kaufman (2018) presents dozens of lexical comparisons showing similarities between various Bornean and Austroasiatic languages. * Lepcha substratum ("Rongic"). Many words of Austroasiatic origin have been noticed in Lepcha, suggesting a Sino-Tibetan superstrate laid over an Austroasiatic substrate. Blench (2013) calls this branch "Rongic" based on the Lepcha autonym Róng. Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are: * Jiamao, based on evidence from the register system of Jiamao, a Hlai language (Thurgood 1992). Jiamao is known for its highly aberrant vocabulary in relation to other Hlai languages. * Kerinci: van Reijn (1974) notes that Kerinci, a Malayic language of central Sumatra, shares many phonological similarities with Austroasiatic languages, such as sesquisyllabic word structure and vowel inventory. John Peterson (2017) suggests that "pre-Munda" (early languages related to Proto-Munda) languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not. Writing systems Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer, Thai, Lao, and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages. * Chữ Nôm * Khmer alphabet * Khom script (used for a short period in the early 20th century for indigenous languages in Laos) * Old Mon script * Mon script * Pahawh Hmong was once used to write Khmu, under the name "Pahawh Khmu" * Tai Le (Palaung, Blang) * Tai Tham (Blang) * Ol Chiki alphabet (Santali alphabet) * Mundari Bani (Mundari alphabet) * Warang Citi (Ho alphabet) * Ol Onal (Bhumij alphabet) * Sorang Sompeng alphabet (Sora alphabet) External relations Austric languages Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis, which also includes the Austronesian languages, and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the Hmong–Mien languages. Hmong-Mien Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze. According to Cai (et al. 2011), Hmong–Mien people are genetically related to Austroasiatic speakers, and their languages were heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan, especially Tibeto-Burman languages.Indo-Aryan languagesIt is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally, French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha (Satyavati from Mahabharata'') and the Nāgas. Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1, which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China, and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today's Japanese and Koreans, are the carriers of early rice agriculture from southern China. Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Koreans and Yayoi people. A full genomic study by Lipson et al. (2018) identified a characteristic lineage that can be associated with the spread of Austroasiatic languages in Southeast Asia and which can be traced back to remains of Neolithic farmers from Mán Bạc () in the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam, and to closely related Ban Chiang and Vat Komnou remains in Thailand and Cambodia respectively. This Austroasiatic lineage can be modeled as a sister group of the Austronesian peoples with significant admixture (ca. 30%) from a deeply diverging eastern Eurasian source (modeled by the authors as sharing some genetic drift with the Onge, a modern Andamanese hunter-gatherer group) and which is ancestral to modern Austroasiatic-speaking groups of Southeast Asia such as the Mlabri and the Nicobarese, and partially to the Austroasiatic Munda-speaking groups of South Asia (e.g. the Juang). Significant levels of Austroasiatic ancestry were also found in Austronesian-speaking groups of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo. A 2020 study states that present Austroasiatic groups in Mainland Southeast Asia can be modeled as an admixture of Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers and ancestral East Asians associated with the Neolithic farming expansion, with the exception of Kinh and Muong who share more drift with Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien groups. Kinh and Muong are also more related to Dongsonian culture and are implied to have roots in southern China instead of Southeast Asia. Austroasiatic-speaking groups in southern China (such as the Wa and Blang in Yunnan) predominatly carry the same Mainland Southeast Asian Neolithic farmer ancestry, but with additional geneflow from northern and southern East Asian lineages that can be associated with the spread of Tibeto-Burman and Kra-Dai languages, respectively. Huang et. al (2020) states that Austroasiatic ancestry most likely originated from southwest China and that the 'core Austroasiatic' population derives most of their ancestry from Mekong Neolithic (58.0%–75.2%) instead of Late Neolithic Fujian, which is more common in the 'core Austronesian' population. Austroasiatic-related ancestry is widespread in Mainland Southeast Asia. Hmong-Mien groups in southern China also show closer affinities with Austroasiatic groups but there is evidence of Kra-Dai admixture, which increases in groups that live further east. This admixture is also present in Mainland Southeast Asians. Migration into India According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations." According to Riccio et al., the Munda peoples are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia. Notes References Sources * Adams, K. L. (1989). Systems of numeral classification in the Mon–Khmer, Nicobarese and Aslian subfamilies of Austroasiatic. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. * * Alves, Mark J. (2015). Morphological functions among Mon-Khmer languages: beyond the basics. In N. J. Enfield & Bernard Comrie (eds.), Languages of Mainland Southeast Asia: the state of the art. Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton, 531–557. * Bradley, David (2012). "[https://www.academia.edu/1542763/Languages_and_Language_Families_in_China Languages and Language Families in China] ", in Rint Sybesma (ed.), Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics. * Chakrabarti, Byomkes. (1994). A Comparative Study of Santali and Bengali. * * Diffloth, Gérard. (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austro-Asiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon. * Filbeck, D. (1978). ''T'in: a historical study. Pacific linguistics, no. 49. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. * Hemeling, K. (1907). Die Nanking Kuanhua. (German language) * Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). [http://www.brill.com/products/reference-work/handbook-austroasiatic-languages-2-vols The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages] . Leiden: Brill. * Peck, B. M., Comp. (1988). An Enumerative Bibliography of South Asian Language Dictionaries. * Peiros, Ilia. 1998. Comparative Linguistics in Southeast Asia. Pacific Linguistics Series C, No. 142. Canberra: Australian National University. * Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). [https://www.academia.edu/11344550/A_Mon-Khmer_comparative_dictionary A Mon–Khmer comparative dictionary] . Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. * Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. * * * * van Driem, George. (2007). Austroasiatic phylogeny and the Austroasiatic homeland in light of recent population genetic studies. Mon-Khmer Studies, 37, 1–14. * Zide, Norman H., and Milton E. Barker. (1966) Studies in Comparative Austroasiatic Linguistics, The Hague: Mouton (Indo-Iranian monographs, v. 5.). * Further reading * * Mann, Noel, Wendy Smith and Eva Ujlakyova. 2009. [http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/Linguistic%20Clusters%20of%20Mainland%20Southeast%20Asia%20A%20Description%20of%20the%20Clusters.pdf Linguistic clusters of Mainland Southeast Asia: an overview of the language families.] '' Chiang Mai: Payap University. * * * Sidwell, Paul. 2016. [https://sites.google.com/view/paulsidwell/bibliography-of-austroasiatic-linguistics Bibliography of Austroasiatic linguistics and related resources] . * E. K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier Press. * Gregory D. S. Anderson and Norman H. Zide. 2002. Issues in Proto-Munda and Proto-Austroasiatic Nominal Derivation: The Bimoraic Constraint. In Marlys A. Macken (ed.) Papers from the 10th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, South East Asian Studies Program, Monograph Series Press. pp. 55–74. External links * Swadesh lists for Austro-Asiatic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110322035535/http://people.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/languages.html Mon–Khmer.com] Lectures by Paul Sidwell * [http://sealang.net/monkhmer/ Mon–Khmer Languages Project] at SEAlang * [http://sealang.net/munda/ Munda Languages Project] at SEAlang * [http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI] (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage) * RWAAI Digital Archive * [http://lacito.vjf.cnrs.fr/pangloss/languages/AA_Ferlus_en.php Michel Ferlus's recordings of Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) languages] (CNRS) Category:Language families	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages	2025-04-05T18:25:17.804897
599	Afroasiatic languages	million \| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic \| family = One of the world's primary language families \| protoname = Proto-Afroasiatic \| child1 = Berber \| child2 = Chadic \| child3 = Cushitic \| child4 = Egyptian \| child5 Omotic \| child6 = Semitic \| iso2 = afa \| iso5 = afa \| glotto = afro1255 \| glottorefname = Afro-Asiatic \| map = Detailed Afroasiatic map.svg \| mapcaption = Distribution of the Afroasiatic languages \| ancestor \| glottoname \| notes \| altname Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, Afrasian }} The Afroasiatic languages (also known as Afro-Asiatic, Afrasian, Hamito-Semitic, or Semito-Hamitic) are a language family (or "phylum") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara and Sahel. Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and Niger–Congo. Most linguists divide the family into six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Omotic, and Semitic. The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the African continent, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch. Arabic is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa. Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic Oromo language with 45 million native speakers, the Chadic Hausa language with over 34 million, the Semitic Amharic language with 25 million, and the Cushitic Somali language with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic Tigrinya language and Modern Hebrew, the Cushitic Sidama language, and the Omotic Wolaitta language, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size. There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since died or gone extinct, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, Phoenician, Amorite, and Ugaritic. There is no consensus among historical linguists as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as Proto-Afroasiatic, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the Levant. Even the latest plausible dating for its proto-language makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists. Reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the fourth millennium BC, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries. While systematic sound laws have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns. Other widely shared features include a prefix m- which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel "a" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of pharyngeal fricatives. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving middle (t-), causative (s-), and passive (m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic). Name In current scholarship, the most common names for the family are Afroasiatic (or Afro-Asiatic), Hamito-Semitic, and Semito-Hamitic. Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include Erythraic/Erythraean, Lisramic, Noahitic, and Lamekhite. Friedrich Müller introduced the name Hamito-Semitic to describe the family in his (1876). The variant Semito-Hamitic is mostly used in older Russian sources. The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of Noah as attested in the Book of Genesis's Table of Nations passage: "Semitic" from the first-born Shem, and "Hamitic" from the second-born Ham (Genesis 5:32). Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, while Ham was the father of the Egyptians and Cushites. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a Canaanite language, while the Elamites are ascribed to Shem despite their language being totally unrelated to Hebrew. The term Semitic for the Semitic languages had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlözer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. Hamitic was first used by Ernest Renan in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as Isidore of Seville in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages. The term Hamito-Semitic has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German. Several issues with the label Hamito-Semitic have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests that a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition, Joseph Greenberg has argued that Hamitic possesses racial connotations, and that "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and does not imply a duality of Semitic and "Hamitic" any more than Indo-European implies a duality of Indic and "European". Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of Hamito-Semitic is difficult. While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by Maurice Delafosse, as French , in 1914. The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia. Due to concerns that "Afroasiatic" could imply the inclusion of all languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name "Afrasian" () was proposed by Igor Diakonoff in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars. The names Lisramic—based on the Afroasiastic root lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rmṯ ("person")—and Erythraean—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the Red Sea—have also been proposed.Distribution and branchesScholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Most specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a "linguistic phylum" rather than a "language family". M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic; Ethnologue lists 375 languages. Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of "language" and "dialect".Berber The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt; since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places. There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. Chadic Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages. The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Most Chadic languages are located in the Chad Basin, with the exception of Hausa. Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct. Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.Cushitic There are about 30 Cushitic languages, more if Omotic is included, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers. Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area, Meroitic or Old Nubian. The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770; written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century. Egyptian (c. 2690 BCE), containing the first complete sentence in Ancient Egyptian.]] The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Egyptian (often called "Ancient Egyptian"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Coptic is the only stage written alphabetically to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian hieroglyphs, which only represent consonants. In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt, but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church.Omotic The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the Ganza language, spoken in Sudan. Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are Wolaitta and Gamo-Gofa-Dawro, with about 1.2 million speakers each. A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch; some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. Semitic There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Arabic, spoken in both Asia and Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today, with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers. Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Geʽez and Amharic. The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.Other proposed branches There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars: Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct Ongota language is a separate branch of Afroasiatic; however, this is only one of several competing theories. About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way. * Robert Hetzron proposed that Beja is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch. The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic. * The extinct Meroitic language has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic. Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński. * The Kujarge language is usually considered part of the Chadic languages; however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic. Further subdivisions <!---Proto-Berbero-Semitic language redirects here---> {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Some proposed Afroasiatic subdivisions \|- ! !! !! !! !! \|- style="vertical-align:top;" \| Omotic Afroasiatic * Semitic * Old East Africa Cushitic * Erythraic Cushitic Beja Egyptian Berber-Chadic * Berber * Chadic \| Omotic Erythraean * Cushitic * North Erythrean Chadic Boreafrasian * Egyptian * Berber * Semitic \| Omotic Chadic Central Afroasiatic * Egyptian * Macro-Cushtic ** Berber Cushitic Semitic \| East–West Afrasian * Semitic * Cushitic * Berber (Berbero-Libyan) North-South Afrasian * Egyptian * Chadic * Omotic \| Cushomotic * Cushitic * Omotic North Afrasian * Semitic * African North Afrasian Egyptian Chado-Berber * Chadic *** Berber \|} There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Whereas Marcel Cohen (1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals, with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012. Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic. In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to argue that Chadic and Egyptian are closely related, and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber. Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997). In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group. Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off. Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and Igor Diakonoff. Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup. Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with Egyptian, presently with Omotic). Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing isoglosses on which to base genetic distinctions. One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as lexicostatistics, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983. This is also the method used by Alexander Militarev and Sergei Starostin to create a family tree. Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin. Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship. They note the method's inability to detect various strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA. Classification history A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. The French orientalist Guillaume Postel had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and Hiob Ludolf noted similarities also to Geʽez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781. In 1844, Theodor Benfey first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. In 1855, Ernst Renan named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876 Friedrich Müller first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family. Müller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book . On one hand, the "Hamitic" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic", and an unrelated non-Hamitic "Chadic" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender. On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa. The first scholar to question the existence of "Hamitic languages" was Marcel Cohen in 1924, with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s. However, Meinhof's "Hamitic" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by Joseph Greenberg in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data. Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. In 1969, Harold Fleming proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent "Omotic" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted. These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family. Greenberg relied on his own method of mass comparison of vocabulary items rather than the comparative method of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family. An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967. As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly established. Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its genetic validity. Origin Timeline There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is , after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000BCE to 8,000BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to areal contact, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.LocationLikewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated. Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia. Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Further subdivisions) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-Southern Cushitic languages and the East African Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the Proto-Cushitic speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 years ago, as well as the speakers of the Proto-Zenati variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the Maghreb in the 5th century CE. An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support, and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data. Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution, "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa". The Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there. Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherers, arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”. A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic, most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.Phonological characteristics (Berber branch)]] language, a descendant of Old Aramaic]] (Cushitic branch)]] (Semitic branch)]] Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.Syllable structureEgyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch require every syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes). Igor Diakonoff argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel; however, in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. Typically, syllables begin with only a single consonant. Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable. With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both open syllables (ending in a vowel) and closed syllables (ending in a consonant); many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. Syllable weight plays an important role in Afroasiatic, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.Consonant systemsSeveral Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. Afroasiatic languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing ħ and ʕ. In all Afroasiatic languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" consonants.}} The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others; they can be realized variously as glottalized, pharyngealized, uvularized, ejective, and/or implosive consonants in the different branches. This distinction between three manners of articulation is not generally reconstructed for continuant obstruents (such as fricatives), which are generally reconstructed as being only voiceless in Proto-Afroasiatic. A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match. Consonant incompatibility {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; font-size:smaller;" \|+ Examples of root consonant incompatibilities from Egyptian, after \|- ! consonant !! cannot occur with \|- \| p \|\| b, f, m, h \|- \| r \|\| ꜣ, b \|- \| ḫ \|\| h, ḥ, ẖ, q, k, g, ṯ, ḏ \|- \| s \|\| ḥ, z \|- \| t \|\| ꜥ, z, q, g, d, ḏ \|} Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation. A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants" (glottal, pharyngeal, uvular, laryngeal, and velar consonants), "front consonants" (dental or alveolar consonants), liquid consonants, and labial consonants. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. These rules also have a number of exceptions: # velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; # dental consonants can co-occur with sibilants; However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with ḍ and a sibilant, and roots with d and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second. Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other Afroasiatic branches that have these restrictions to their root formation. James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. Vowel systems There is a large variety of vocalic systems in Afroasiatic, and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout Afroasiatic is schwa. In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of epenthesis). Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of vowel harmony.TonesThe majority of Afroasiatic languages are tonal languages: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a pitch accent. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Examples of tones marking lexical and morphological changes in some Afroasiatic languages, after \|- ! Language !! colspan="3" \| Examples \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Somali (Cushitic) \|\| díbi bull, absolutive case \|\| dibi bull, nominative case \|\| dibí bull, genitive case \|- \| ínan, boy \|\| colspan="2" \| inán girl \|- \| Bench (Omotic) \|\| k'áyts' work! do it! (active imperative) \|\| colspan="2" \| k'àyts' be done! (passive imperative) \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Hausa (Chadic) \|\| màatáa woman, wife \|\| colspan"2" \| máatáa women, wives \|- \| dáfàa to cook (infinitive) \|\| colspan="2" \| dàfáa cook! (imperative) \|} Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations. Moreover, all Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages. There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of suffixes, infixes, vowel lengthening and shortening as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology. Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below.General featuresConsonantal root structuresA widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. This structure is particularly visible in the verbs, and is particularly noticeable in Semitic. Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber, where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. For Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template. In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well. Most Semitic verbs are triliteral (have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants). The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated. It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Examples of verbal templates in AA languages, after \|- ! Language !! Akkadian (Semitic) !! Berber !! Beja (Cushitic) !! Ron/Daffo (Chadic) !! Coptic (Egyptian) \|- \| Root \|\| p-r-s to divide \|\| k-n-f to roast \|\| d-b-l to gather \|\| m-(w)-t to die \|\| k-t to build \|- \| rowspan="6" \| Templates \|\| iprus- (preterite) \|\| ǎknəf (aorist) \|\| -dbil- (past) \|\| mot (perfective) \|\| kôt (infintive) \|- \| iparras- (present) \|\| əknǎf (perfective) \|\| -i:-dbil- (aorist) \|\| mwaát (imperfective) \|\| kêt (qualitative) \|- \| iptaras (perfect) \|\| əkǎnnǎf (imperfective) \|\| i:-dbil- (modal) \|- \| rowspan="3" \| \|\| əknəf (neg. perfective) \|\| da:n-bi:l (present sg) \|- \| əkənnəf (neg. imperfective) \|\| -e:-dbil- (present pl) \|- \| \|\| -dabi:l- (negative) \|} As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait; the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.Word orderIt remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order, but most Chadic languages have subject-verb-object word order. Reduplication and gemination Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of reduplication and gemination (which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (pluractionality), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed. Nouns Grammatical gender and number The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family. This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns. Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness. In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Use of T on feminine nouns, using data from ! Kabyle (Berber) !! Hausa (Chadic) !! Beja (Cushitic) !! Egyptian !! Arabic (Semitic) \|- \| wəl-t 'daughter' \|\| yārinyà-r̃ 'the girl' (r̃ < final -t)<br> \|\| ʔo:(r)-t 'a daughter'<br> t-ʔo:r 'the daughter' \|\| zꜣ-t 'daughter' \|\| bin-t 'daughter' \|} Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity), while in others, plural forms are ungendered. In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -uu/-w and -n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). These so-called "internal-a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development.}} Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Some examples of internal plurals in AA, using data from and ! Language !! Meaning !! Singular !! Plural \|- \| Geʽez (Semitic) \|\| king \|\| nɨgus \|\| nägäs-t \|- \| Teshelhiyt (Berber) \|\| country \|\| ta-mazir-t \|\| ti-mizar \|- \| Afar (Cushitic) \|\| body \|\| galab \|\| galo:b-a \|- \| Hausa (Chadic)\|\| stream \|\| gulbi \|\| gulà:be: \|- \| Mubi (Chadic) \|\| eye \|\| irin \|\| aràn \|} Noun cases and states Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Subject-Object case marking in some AA branches, using data in , and \|- ! rowspan"2" \|Case !! colspan"2" \|Oromo (Cushitic) !! colspan"2" \| Berber !! colspan"2" \| Akkadian (Semitic) !! colspan="2" \| Wolaitta (Omotic) \|- \| Masculine \|\| Feminine \|\| Masculine \|\| Feminine \|\| Masculine \|\| Feminine \|\| Masculine \|\| Feminine \|- \|Nominative/bound \|\| nam-(n)i boy \|\| intal-t-i girl \|\| u-frux boy \|\| t-frux-t girl \|\| šarr-u-m king \|\| šarr-at-u-m queen \|\| keett-i house \|\| macci-yo woman \|- \| Accusative/absolutive/unbound \|\|nam-a \|\| intal-a \|\| a-frux \|\| t-a-frux-t \|\| šarr-a-m \|\| šarr-at-a-m \|\| keett-a \|\| macci-ya \|} A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state". Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state", and a "pronominal state". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Noun states in different AA branches, using data from , , , and \|- ! Language !! Free/absolute state !! Construct State !! Additional state \|- \| Aramaic (Semitic) \|\| malkā(h) queen \|\| malkat \|\| Emphatic: malkətā \|- \| Coptic (Egyptian) \|\| jôj head \|\| jaj- \|\| Pronominal: jô- \|- \| Iraqw (Cushitic) \|\| afee mouths \|\| afé-r\|\| – \|- \| Riffian (Berber) \|\| a-ryaz man \|\| – \|\| Annexed: wə-ryaz \|} Modifiers and agreement There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic. All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of adjectives except for Chadic; some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and stative verbs. In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun. In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun. In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying. However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking). A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Masculine, Feminine, Plural agreement patterns in N T N, using data from \|- ! Language !! meaning !!Masculine !! Feminine !! Plural \|- \| Old South Arabian (Semitic) \|\| this \|\| ð-n \|\| ð-t \|\| ʔl-n \|- \| Egyptian \|\| this \|\| (p-n) \|\| t-n \|\| n-n \|- \| Beja (Cushitic) \|\| this \|\| be-n \|\| be-t \|\| bal-īn \|- \| Tuareg (Berber) \|\| relative verb form \|\| ilkəm-ən \|\| təlkəm-ət \|\| ilkəm-ən-in \|- \| Hausa (Chadic) \|\| possessive base \|\| na- \|\| ta- \|\| na- \|} Verb forms Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs) There is no agreement about which tenses, aspects, or moods (TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between perfective and imperfective verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived (marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb. Another common trait across the family is the use of a suppletive imperative for verbs of motion. "Prefix conjugation" Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic, where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Prefixes of ʔ- (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.}} {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ The "prefix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following \|- ! rowspan"2"\| Number !!rowspan"2"\| Person !! rowspan"2"\| Gender !! colspan"2" \| Akkadian (Semitic) !! colspan"2" \| Berber !! colspan"3" \| Beja (Cushitic) \|- \| Preterite \|\| Present \|\| Aorist \|\| Imperfective \|\| "Old Past" \|\| "Old Present" \|\| "New Present" \|- \| rowspan"5" \| Singular \|\| colspan"2" \| 1 \|\| a-prus \|\| a-parras \|\| ăknəf-ăʕ \|\| əkănnăf-ăʕ \|\| ʔ-i:-dbíl \|\| ʔ-a-dbíl \|\| ʔ-a-danbí:l \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 2 \|\| m \|\| ta-prus \|\| ta-parras \|\| rowspan"2" \| t-ăknəf-ət \|\| rowspan="2" \| t-əkănnăf-ət \|\| t-i:-dbíl-a \|\| t-i-dbíl-a \|\| danbí:l-a \|- \| f \|\| ta-prus-i: \|\| ta-parras-i \|\| t-i:-dbíl-i \|\| t-i-dbíl-i \|\| danbí:l-i \|- \|rowspan"2"\| 3 \|\| m \|\| i-prus \|\| i-parras \|\| y-ăknəf \|\| y-əkănnăf \|\| ʔ-i:-dbíl \|\| ʔ-i-dbíl \|\| rowspan"2" \| danbí:l \|- \| f \|\| ta-prus \|\| ta-parras \|\| t-ăknəf \|\| t-əkănnăf \|\| t-i:-dbíl \|\| t-i-dbíl \|- \| rowspan"5" \| Plural \|\| colspan"2" \| 1 \|\| ni-prus \|\| ni-parras \|\| n-ăknəf \|\| n-əkănnăf \|\| n-i:-dbíl \|\| n-i-dbíl \|\| n-e:-dbíl \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 2 \|\| m \|\| rowspan"2" \| ta-prus-a: \|\| a-parras \|\| t-ăknəf-ăm \|\| t-əkănnăf-ăm \|\| rowspan"2" \| t-i:-dbíl-na \|\| rowspan"2" \| t-i-dbíl-na \|\| rowspan="2" \| t-e:-dbíl-na \|- \| f \|\| ta-parras \|\| t-ăknəf-măt \|\| t-əkănnăf-măt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 3 \|\| m \|\| i-prus-u: \|\| ta-parras-i: \|\| ăknəf-ăn \|\| əkănnăf-ăn \|\| rowspan"2" \| ʔ-i:-dbíl \|\| rowspan"2" \| ʔ-i-dbíl \|\| rowspan"2" \| ʔ-e:-dbíl-na \|- \| f \|\| i-prus-a: \|\| i-parras \|\| ăknəf-năt \|\| əkănnăf-năt \|- \|} "Suffix conjugation" Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective. In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments, as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ The "suffix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following \|- ! Number !! Person !! Gender !! Akkadian (Semitic) !! Egyptian !! Berber !! Afar (Cushitic) \|- \| rowspan"5" \| Singular \|\| colspan"2" \| 1 \|\| pars-a:ku \|\| sḏm-kw \|\| măttit-ăʕ \|\| miʕ-iyo-h \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 2 \|\| m \|\| pars-a:ta \|\| rowspan"2" \| sḏm-tj \|\| rowspan"2" \| măttit-ət \|\| rowspan"2" \|miʕ-ito-h \|- \| f \|\| pars-a:ti \|- \|rowspan"2"\| 3 \|\| m \|\| paris \|\| sḏm-w \|\| măttit \|\| rowspan"2" \| meʕ-e-h \|- \| f \|\| pars-at \|\| sḏm-tj \|\| măttit-ăt \|- \| rowspan"5" \| Plural \|\| colspan"2" \| 1 \|\| pars-a:nu \|\| sḏm-wjn \|\| rowspan="5" \| măttit-it \|\| miʕ-ino-h \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 2 \|\| m \|\| pars-a:tunu \|\| rowspan"2" \| sḏm-tjwnj \|\| rowspan="2" \| miʕ-ito:nu-h \|- \| f \|\| pars-a:tina \|- \| rowspan"2" \| 3 \|\| m \|\| pars-u: \|\| rowspan"2" \| sḏm-wj \|\| rowspan="2" \| moʕ-o:nu-h \|- \| f \|\| pars-a: \|- \|} Common derivational affixes M-prefix noun derivation A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns, and is one of the features Joseph Greenberg used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms agent nouns, place nouns, and instrument nouns. In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender. Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun m-. Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Examples of m-prefix noun derivations, using data from , , and \|- ! Language !! Root !! Agent/Instrument !! Place/Abstract \|- \|Egyptian \|\| swr to drink \|\| m-swr drinking bowl \|\| – \|- \| Arabic (Semitic) \|\| k-t-b to write \|\| mu-katib-un writer \|\| ma-ktab-un school \|- \| Hausa (Chadic) \|\| hayf- to give birth \|\| má-hàif-íi father \|\| má-háif-áa birthplace \|- \| Beja (Cushitic) \|\| firi to give birth \|\| – \|\| mi-frey birth \|- \| Tuareg (Berber) \|\| äks to eat \|\| em-äks eater \|\| – \|} Verbal extensions Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: s- 'causative', t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and n- 'passive'; the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches. Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Common verbal extensions in Afroasiatic, using data from , , and \|- ! Language !! Causative s- !! Reflexive/middle t- !! Passive n- \|- \| Akkadian (Semitic) \|\| u-š-apris 'make cut' \|\| mi-t-gurum 'agree (with one another)' \|\| i-p-paris (> i-n-paris) 'be cut' \|- \| Figuig (Berber) \|\| ssu-fəɣ 'let out' \|\| i-ttə-ska 'it has been built' \|\| mmu-bḍa 'divide oneself' \|- \| Beja (Cushitic) \|\| s-dabil 'make gather' \|\| t-dabil 'be gathered' \|\| m-dabaal 'gather each other' \|- \| Egyptian \|\| s-ꜥnḫ 'make live' \|\| pr-tj 'is sent forth'}} \|\| n-hp 'escape'}} \|} <span class"anchor" id"nisba"></span>"Nisba" derivation The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic, taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to "nisba" adjective derivation. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+"Nisba" derivation in Semitic and Egyptian, using data from and \|- ! Language !! Noun/preposition !! Derived adjective \|- \| Hebrew (Semitic) \|\| yārēaḥ moon \|\| yərēḥī lunar \|- \| rowspan="2" \| Egyptian \|\| nṯr god \|\| nṯr.j divine \|- \| ḥr upon \|\| ḥr.j upper, which is upon \|} Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -ay in addition to -iy in some cases.Vocabulary comparisonPronounsThe forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a nasal consonant (n, m), whereas the third person displays a sibilant consonant (s, sh). Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|+ Pronouns in the Afroasiatic family, following \|- ! Meaning !! North Omotic (Yemsa) !! Beja Cushitic (Baniamer) !! East Cushitic (Somali) !! West Chadic (Hausa) !! East Chadic (Mubi) !! Egyptian !! East Semitic (Akkadian) !! West Semitic (Arabic) !! Berber (Tashelhiyt) \|- \| 'I' (ind.) \|\| tá \|\| aní \|\| aní-ga \|\| ni: \|\| ndé \|\| jnk \|\| ana:ku \|\| ʔana \|\| nkki \|- \| 'me, my' (dep.) \|\| -ná-<br /> -tá- \|\| -u: \|\| -ʔe \|\| na \|\| ní \|\| -j<br /> wj \|\| -i:<br /> -ya \|\| -i:<br /> -ni: \|\| -i \|- \| 'we' (ind.) \|\| ìnno \|\| hinín \|\| anná-ga<br /> inná-ga \|\| mu: \|\| ána<br /> éné \|\| jnn \|\| ni:nu: \|\| naħnu \|\| nkkwni \|- \| 'you' (masc. sing. ind.) \|\| rowspan"2" \| né\|\| barú:k \|\| rowspan"2" \| adí-ga \|\| kai \|\| kám \|\| nt-k \|\| at-ta \|\| ʔan-ta \|\| kiji \|- \| 'you' (fem. sing. ind.) \|\| batú:k \|\| ke: \|\| kín \|\| nt-ṯ \|\| at-ti \|\| ʔan-ti \|\| kmmi (f) \|- \| 'you' (masc. sing., dep.) \|\| rowspan="2" \| -né-\|\| -ú:k(a) \|\| ku \|\| ka \|\| ká \|\| -k \|\| -ka \|\|-ka \|\| -k \|- \| 'you' (fem. sing., dep.) \|\| -ú:k(i) \|\| ku \|\| ki \|\| kí \|\| -ṯ \|\| -ki \|\| -ki \|\| -m \|- \| 'you' (plural, dep.) \|\| -nitì- \|\| -ú:kna \|\| idin \|\| ku \|\| ká(n) \|\| -ṯn \|\| -kunu (m)<br /> -kina (f) \|\|-kum (m)<br /> -kunna (f) \|\| -un (m)<br /> -un-t (f) \|- \| 'he' (ind.) \|\| rowspan="2" \| bár \|\| barú:s \|\| isá-ga \|\| ši:\|\| ár \|\| nt-f \|\| šu \|\| huwa \|\| ntta (m) \|- \| 'she' (ind.) \|\| batú:s \|\| ijá-ga \|\| ita \|\| tír \|\| nt-s \|\| ši \|\| hiya \|\| ntta-t \|- \| 'he' (dep.) \|\| rowspan"2" \| -bá- \|\| rowspan"2" \| -ūs \|\| rowspan"2" \| – \|\| ši \|\| à \|\| -f<br /> sw \|\|-šu \|\| -hu \|\| rowspan"2" \| -s \|- \| 'she' (dep.) \|\| ta \|\| dì \|\| -s<br /> sy \|\| -ša \|\| -ha: \|- \|} Numerals Unlike in the Indo-European or Austronesian language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes decimal, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes base-5, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way. Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two, and Semitic has four words for one. Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one", "two", and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|- \|+ Numerals from throughout Afroasiatic, using data from , , , and \|- ! colspan="2" \| Meaning !! Egyptian !! Tuareg (Berber) !! Akkadian (East Semitic) !! Arabic (West Semitic) !! Beja (North Cushitic) !! West Central Oromo (Cushitic) !! Lele (East Chadic) !! Gidar (Central Chadic) !! Bench (North Omotic) \|- \| rowspan"2" \| One \|\| m. \|\| wꜥ \|\| yiwən, yan, iğ \|\| ištēn \|\| wāḥid\|\| gáal \|\| rowspan"2" \| tokko \|\| rowspan"2" \| pínà \|\| rowspan"2" \| tákà \|\| rowspan="2" \| mat' \|- \| f. \|\| wꜥ.t \|\| yiwət, išt \|\| ištiāt \|\| wāḥida \|\|gáat \|- \|rowspan"2" \|Two \|\| m. \|\| sn.wj \|\| sin, sən \|\| šinā \|\| ʔiṯnāni \|\| máloob \|\| rowspan"2" \| lama \|\| rowspan"2" \| sò \|\| rowspan"2" \| súlà \|\| rowspan="2" \| nam \|- \| f. \|\| sn.tj \|\| snat, sənt \|\| šittā \|\| ʔiṯnatāni \|\| máloot \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Three \|\| m. \|\| ḫmt.w \|\| ḵraḍ, šaṛḍ \|\| šalāšat \|\| ṯalāṯa \|\| mháy \|\| rowspan"2" \| sadii \|\|rowspan"2" \| súbù \|\| rowspan"2" \| hókù \|\| rowspan="2" \| kaz \|- \| f. \|\| ḫmt.t \|\| ḵraṭt, šaṛṭ \|\| šalāš \|\| ṯalāṯ \|\| mháyt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Four \|\| m. \|\| (j)fd.w \|\| kkuẓ \|\| erbet(t) \|\| ʔarbaʕa \|\| faḍíg \|\| rowspan"2" \| afur \|\| rowspan"2" \| pórìn \|\| rowspan"2" \| póɗó \|\| rowspan="2" \| od \|- \| f. \|\| (j)fd.t \|\| kkuẓt \|\| erba \|\| ʔarbaʕ \|\| faḍígt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Five \|\| m. \|\| dj.w \|\| səmmus, afus \|\| ḫamšat \|\| ḫamsa \|\| áy \|\| rowspan"2" \| šani \|\| rowspan"2" \| bày \|\| rowspan"2" \| ɬé \|\| rowspan="2" \| ut͡ʃ \|- \| f. \|\| dj.t \|\| səmmust \|\| ḫamiš \|\| ḫams \|\| áyt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Six \|\| m \|\| sjs.w \|\| sḍis \|\| šiššet \|\| sitta \|\| aságwir \|\| rowspan"2" \| jaha \|\| rowspan"2" \| ménéŋ \|\| rowspan"2" \| ɬré \|\| rowspan="2" \| sapm \|- \| f. \|\| sjs.t \|\| sḍist \|\| šiš(š) \|\| sitt \|\| asagwitt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Seven \|\| m \|\| sfḫ.w \|\| sa \|\| sebet(t) \|\| sabʕa \|\| asarámaab \|\| rowspan"2" \| tolba \|\| rowspan"2" \| mátàlíŋ \|\| rowspan"2" \| bùhúl \|\|rowspan="2" \| napm \|- \| f. \|\| sfḫ.t \|\| sat \|\| seba \|\| sabʕ \|\| asarámaat \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Eight \|\| m. \|\| ḫmn.w \|\| tam \|\| samānat \|\| ṯamāniya \|\| asúmhay \|\| rowspan"2" \| saddet \|\| rowspan"2" \| jurgù \|\| rowspan"2" \| dòdòpórò \|\| rowspan="2" \| nyartn \|- \| f. \|\| ḫmn.t \|\| tamt \|\| samānē \|\| ṯamānin \|\| asúmhayt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Nine \|\| m. \|\| psḏ.w \|\| tẓa \|\| tišīt \|\| tisʕa \|\| aššaḍíg \|\| rowspan"2" \| sagal \|\| rowspan"2" \| célà \|\|rowspan"2" \| váyták \|\| rowspan="2" \| irstn \|- \| f. \|\| psḏ.t \|\| tẓat \|\| tiše \|\| tisʕ \|\| aššaḍígt \|- \| rowspan"2" \| Ten \|\| m. \|\| mḏ.w\|\| mraw \|\| ešeret \|\| ʕašara \|\| támin \|\| rowspan"2" \| kuḍan \|\|rowspan"2" \| gòrò \|\| rowspan"2" \| kláù \|\|rowspan="2" \| tam \|- \| f. \|\| mḏ.t \|\| mrawt \|\| ešer \|\| ʕašr \|\| támint \|} Cognates <!-- One sound sample per phylum - alphabetical --> Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Writing in 2004, John Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages. There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages. Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:smaller;" \|- \|+ Some widely recognized cognates in Afroasiatic, following , , and \|- ! rowspan"2" \| Meaning !! colspan"2" \| Proto-Afroasiatic !! rowspan"2" \| Omotic !! rowspan"2" \| Cushitic !!rowspan"2" \| Chadic !! rowspan"2" \|Egyptian !! rowspan"2" \|Semitic !! rowspan"2" \| Berber \|- ! !! \|- \| to strike, to squeeze \|\| – \|\| bak- \|\| Gamo bak- 'strike' \|\| Afar bak \|\| Wandala bak 'to strike, beat'; (possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike \| bk 'kill (with a sword)' \|\| Arabic bkk 'to squeeze, tear' \|\| Tuareg bakkat 'to strike, pound' \|- \| blood \|\| dîm-<br /> dâm- \|\| dam- \|\| Kaffa damo 'blood';<br /> Aari zomʔi 'to blood' \|\| (cf. Oromo di:ma 'red') \|\| Bolewa dom \|\| (cf. jdmj 'red linen') \|\| Akkadian damu 'blood' \|\| Ghadames dəmmm-ən 'blood' \|- \| food \|\| – \|\| kamaʔ- / kamay- \|\| – \|\| Afar okm- 'to eat' \|\| Hausa ka:ma:ma: 'snack';<br /> Tumak ka:m 'mush' \|\| kmj 'food' \|\| – \|\| – \|- \| to be old, elder \|\| gâd-/gûd- \|\| gad- \|\| – \|\| Oromo gada 'age group, generation';<br /> Burji gad-uwa 'old man'\|\| Ngizim ''gad'e'' 'old' \|\| – \|\| Arabic gadd- 'grandfather, ancestor' \|\| – \|- \| to say \|\| geh- \|\| gay- \|\| Sheko ge 'to say';<br /> Aari gai- 'to say' \|\| – \|\| Hausa gaya 'to say' \|\| ḏwj 'to call, say' \|\| (cf. Hebrew gʕy 'to shout') \|\| – \|- \| tongue \|\| lis'- 'to lick' \|\| les- 'tongue' \|\| Kaffa mi-laso 'tongue' \|\| – \|\| Mwaghavul liis tongue,<br /> Gisiga eles 'tongue Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick' \| ns 'tongue' \|\| Akkadian liša:nu 'tongue' \|\| Kabyle iləs 'tongue' \|- \| to die \|\| maaw- \|\| mawut- \|\| – \|\| Rendille amut 'to die, to be ill' \|\| Hausa mutu 'to die',<br /> Mubi ma:t 'to die' \|\| mwt 'to die' \|\| Hebrew mwt, 'to die'<br /> Geʽez mo:ta 'to die' \|\| Kabyle ammat 'to die' \|- \| to fly, to soar \|\| pîr- \|\| pir- \|\| (cf. Yemsa fill- 'to jump';<br /> Dime far 'to jump') \|\| Beja fir 'to fly' \|\| Hausa fi:ra 'to soar';<br> Mafa parr, perr 'bird's flight' \|\| pꜣ 'to fly';<br /> prj 'to soar, rise' \|\| Ugaritic pr 'to flee';<br /> Arabic frr 'to flee' \|\| Ahogar fərə-t 'to fly' \|- \| name \|\| sǔm / sǐm- \|\| süm- \|\| – \|\| – \|\| Hausa su:na: 'name';<br /> Sura sun 'name';<br /> Ga'anda ɬim 'name' \|\| – \|\| Akkadian šumu 'name' \|\| – \|- \| to sour \|\| s'ăm- \|\| – \|\| Mocha ''č'àm-'' 'to be bitter' \|\| PEC cam- 'to rot' \|\| ''s'am'' 'sour'; Hausa (t)sʼáː.mí 'sour' \| smj 'curds' \| Arabic sumūț 'to begin to turn sour' \|\| – \|- \| to spit \|\| tuf- \|\| tuf- \|\| – \|\| Beja tuf 'to spit';<br /> Kemant təff y- 'to spit';<br /> Somali tuf 'to spit' \|\| Hausa t''u:fa 'to spit'\|\| tf'' 'to spit' \|\| Aramaic tpp 'to spit';<br /> Arabic tff 'to spit' \|\| – \|- \| to rend, tear \|\| zaaʕ- \|\| – \|\| Gamo zaʔ 'to rend, split' \|\| Dahalo ḏaaʕ- 'to rend, to tear (of an animal tearing its prey)'<br /> Kw'adza daʔ- 'to bite'.}} \|\| Ngizim dáar- 'to cut into long strips' \|\| \|\| Arabic zaʕy- 'to snatch violently from, tear out' \|\| – \|} :Abbreviations: PEC'Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.See also Afroasiatic phonetic notation * Borean languages * Languages of Africa * Languages of Asia * Nostratic languages Notes Citations Works cited * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://archive.today/20130113032053/http://multitree.org/codes/afas Afro-Asiatic] at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006 * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees], presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; [https://web.archive.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html short annotations of the talks given there] * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/semroot.pdf Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian], by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129. * [http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/akkegypt.pdf Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches], by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145. * [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions] * [http://www.uio.no/studier/emner/hf/iln/LING2110/v07/THEIL%20Is%20Omotic%20Afroasiatic.pdf "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"] by Rolf Theil (2006) * [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/AAOP.htm Afro-Asiatic webpage] of Roger Blench (with [http://rogerblench.info/Language/Afroasiatic/General/AALIST.pdf family tree]). * Category:Language families Category:Ethnic groups in Africa Category:Ethnic groups in Asia Category:Ethnic groups in Europe	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages	2025-04-05T18:25:17.926917
600	Andorra	\| image_flag = Flag of Andorra.svg \| image_coat = Coat of arms of Andorra.svg \| symbol_type = Coat of arms \| national_motto (Latin)<br />"United virtue is stronger" \| national_anthem "El Gran Carlemany" <br />"The Great Charlemagne"<div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| image_map = Location Andorra Europe.png \| map_caption \| image_map2 \| capital Andorra la Vella \| coordinates \| largest_city = capital \| official_languages Catalan ** 5.3% other Christian \| 6.9% no religion \| 2.3% others }} \| religion_year = 2020 \| religion_ref \| demonym = Andorran \| government_type = Unitary parliamentary diarchic constitutional co-principality \| leader_title1 = Co-Princes \| leader_name1 = \| leader_title2 = Representatives \| leader_name2 = \| leader_title3 = Prime Minister \| leader_name3 = Xavier Espot Zamora \| leader_title4 = General Syndic \| leader_name4 = Carles Enseñat Reig \| legislature = General Council \| sovereignty_type = Independence \| established_event1 = From the Crown of Aragon \| established_date1 8 September 1278 \| established_event2 = From the Kingdom of France \| established_date2 = 12 October 1652 \| established_event3 = From the French Empire \| established_date3 = 1814 \| established_event4 = Constitution \| established_date4 = 2 February 1993 \| area_km2 = 467.63 \| area_rank = 178th \| area_sq_mi = 180.55 \| percent_water 0.26 (121.4 ha<!-- Not including areas of rivers -->) Girard P & Gomez P (2009), Lacs des Pyrénées: Andorre.}} \| population_estimate 80,856 \| population_estimate_rank = 185th \| population_estimate_year = 2023 \| population_census_year = 2021 \| population_density_km2 = 179.8 \| population_density_sq_mi = 465.7 \| population_density_rank = 71st \| GDP_PPP $6.001 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 168th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $69,146}} \| HDI = 0.884<!-- number only --> \| HDI_year = 2022 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 35th \| currency = Euro (€) \| currency_code = EUR \| time_zone = CET \| utc_offset = +01:00 \| utc_offset_DST = +02:00 \| time_zone_DST = CEST \| date_format = dd/mm/yyyy \| drives_on right \| calling_code = +376 \| cctld = .ad \| today = }} Andorra, or * Catalan: .}} officially the Principality of Andorra,, ; in ; in . Andorra is the world's 16th-smallest country by land and 11th-smallest by population. Its capital, Andorra la Vella, is the highest capital city in Europe, at an elevation of above sea level. The official language is Catalan, but Spanish, Portuguese, and French are also commonly spoken. Tourism in Andorra brings approximately 8 million visitors to the country annually. Andorra is not a member state of the European Union. It has been a member of the Council of Europe and of the United Nations since 1993. Etymology The origin of the word Andorra is unknown, although several hypotheses have been proposed. The oldest is one put forward by the Greek historian Polybius (Histories III, 35, 1), who describes the Andosins, an Iberian Pre-Roman tribe, as historically located in the valleys of Andorra and facing the Carthaginian army in its passage through the Pyrenees during the Punic Wars. The word Andosini or Andosins () may derive from the Basque , meaning "big" or "giant". The Andorran toponymy shows evidence of Basque language in the area. Another theory suggests that the word Andorra may derive from the old word Anorra that contains the Basque word ("water"). Another theory suggests that Andorra may derive from Arabic (), indicating a vast land which is located among mountains or a thickly wooded place (with being the definite article). When the Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula, the valleys of the High Pyrenees were covered by large tracts of forest. These regions were not administered by Muslims, because of the geographic difficulty of direct rule. Other theories suggest that the term derives from the Navarro-Aragonese "andurrial", which means "land covered with bushes" or "scrubland". The folk etymology holds that Charlemagne had named the region as a reference to the Biblical Canaanite valley of Endor or Andor (where the Midianites had been defeated), a name bestowed by his heir and son Louis the Pious after defeating the Moors in the "wild valleys of Hell". History Prehistory (detail)]] La Balma de la Margineda, found by archaeologists at Sant Julià de Lòria, was settled in 9,500 BCE as a passing place between the two sides of the Pyrenees. The seasonal camp was perfectly located for hunting and fishing by the groups of hunter-gatherers from Ariege and Segre. During the Neolithic, a group of people moved to the Valley of Madriu (the present-day Natural Park located in Escaldes-Engordany declared UNESCO World Heritage Site) as a permanent camp in 6640 BCE. The population of the valley grew cereals, raised domestic livestock, and developed commercial trade with people from Ségre and Occitania. Other archaeological deposits include the Tombs of Segudet (Ordino) and Feixa del Moro (Sant Julià de Lòria), both dated in 4900–4300 BCE as an example of the Urn culture in Andorra. The model of small settlements began to evolve to complex urbanism during the Bronze Age. Metallurgical items of iron, ancient coins, and reliquaries can be found in the ancient sanctuaries scattered around the country. The sanctuary of Roc de les Bruixes (Stone of the Witches) is perhaps the most important archeological complex of this age in Andorra, located in the parish of Canillo, about the rituals of funerals, ancient scripture and engraved stone murals. Iberian and Roman Andorra 's route (red) during the Second Punic War. The Iberian tribes (green) fought against the Carthaginian army in the Pyrenees]] The inhabitants of the valleys were traditionally associated with the Iberians and historically located in Andorra as the Iberian tribe Andosins or Andosini () during the 7th and 2nd centuries BC. Influenced by the Celtic, Aquitanian, Basque and Iberian languages, the locals developed some current toponyms. Early writings and documents relating to this group of people goes back to the second century BC by the Greek writer Polybius in his Histories during the Punic Wars. Some of the most significant remains of this era are the Castle of the Roc d'Enclar (part of the early Marca Hispanica), l'Anxiu in Les Escaldes and Roc de L'Oral in Encamp. The presence of Roman influence is recorded from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE. The places with the most Roman presence are in Camp Vermell (Red Field) in Sant Julià de Lòria, and in some places in Encamp and in the Roc d'Enclar. People continued trading, mainly with wine and cereals, with the Roman cities of Urgellet (the present-day La Seu d'Urgell) and across Segre through the via romana Strata Ceretana (also known as Strata Confluetana).Visigoths and Carolingians: the legend of Charlemagne instructing his son, Louis the Pious]] After the fall of the Roman Empire, Andorra came under the influence of the Visigoths, the Kingdom of Toledo, and the Diocese of Urgell. The Visigoths remained in the valleys for 200 years, during which time Christianity spread. When the Muslim Empire of Al-Andalus replaced the ruling Visigoths in most of the Iberian Peninsula, Andorra was sheltered from these Arab invaders by the Franks. Tradition holds that Charles the Great (Charlemagne) granted a charter to the Andorran people for a contingent of 5,000 soldiers under the command of Marc Almugaver, in return for fighting against the Moors near Porté-Puymorens (Cerdanya). , as depicted in the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell (839)]] Andorra remained part of the Frankish Marca Hispanica, the buffer zone between the Frankish Empire and the Muslim territories, Andorra being part of the territory ruled by the Count of Urgell and eventually the bishop of the Diocese of Urgell. Tradition also holds that it was guaranteed by the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious, writing the Carta de Poblament'' or a local municipal charter . In 988, Count Borrell II of Urgell gave the Andorran valleys to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. Since then, the bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has been co-prince of Andorra. The first document that mentions Andorra as a territory is the ''Acta de Consagració i Dotació de la Catedral de la Seu d'Urgell'' (Deed of Consecration and Endowment of the Cathedral of La Seu d'Urgell). The document, dated 839, depicts the six old parishes of the Andorran valleys that made up the country's administrative division.Middle Ages: The Paréages and the founding of the Co-Principality church, dating from the 11th century, part of the Andorran Romanesque heritage]] Before 1095, Andorra had no military protection, and the bishop of Urgell, who knew that the count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, married the count of Foix, Roger-Bernard II. Roger-Bernard II and Ermessenda shared rule over Andorra with the bishop of Urgell. In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the bishop of Urgell and the count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon, Peter III, between the bishop and the count, by the signing of the first paréage, which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix]] Although there are remains of ecclesiastical works dating before the 9th century (Sant Vicenç d'Enclar or Església de Santa Coloma), Andorra developed exquisite Romanesque Art during the 9th through 14th centuries, particularly in the construction of churches, bridges, religious murals and statues of the Virgin and Child (Our Lady of Meritxell being the most important). Nowadays, the Romanesque buildings that form part of Andorra's cultural heritage stand out in a remarkable way, with an emphasis on Església de Sant Esteve, Sant Joan de Caselles, Església de Sant Miquel d'Engolasters, Sant Martí de la Cortinada and the medieval bridges of Margineda and Escalls among many others. The Catalan Pyrenees were embryonic of the Catalan language at the end of the 11th century. Andorra was influenced by this language, which was adopted locally decades before it expanded to the rest of the Crown of Aragon. The local economy during the Middle Ages was based on livestock, agriculture, furs and weavers. Later, at the end of the 11th century, the first iron foundries began to appear in Northern Parishes like Ordino, much appreciated by the master artisans who developed the art of the forges, an important economic activity in the country from the 15th century. 16th to 18th centuries (High Court of Justice) inside Casa de la Vall, the central Judiciary Court of Andorra]] In 1601 the Tribunal de Corts (High Court of Justice) was created as a result of Huguenot rebellions in France, Inquisition courts coming from Spain and witchcraft-related beliefs native to the area, in the context of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. With the passage of time, the co-title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After Henry III of Navarre became king of France, he issued an edict in 1607 that established the head of the French state and the bishop of Urgell as Co-Princes of Andorra, a political arrangement that still holds. During 1617, communal councils form the sometent (popular militia or army) to deal with the rise of bandolerisme (brigandage) and the Consell de la Terra was defined and structured in terms of its composition, organisation and competences current today. Andorra continued with the same economic system that it had during the 12th–14th centuries with a large production of metallurgy (fargues, a system similar to Farga Catalana) and with the introduction of tobacco circa 1692 and import trade. In 1371 and 1448, the co-princes ratified the fair of Andorra la Vella, the most important annual national festival commercially ever since. of the Rossell family in Ordino, Casa Rossell, built in 1611. The family also owned the largest ironwork forges in Andorra as Farga Rossell and Farga del Serrat]] The country had a unique and experienced guild of weavers, Confraria de Paraires i Teixidors, in Escaldes-Engordany. Founded in 1604, it took advantage of the local thermal waters. By this time, the country was characterised by the social system of prohoms (wealthy society) and casalers (rest of the population with smaller economic acquisition), deriving from the tradition of pubilla and hereu. Three centuries after its foundation, the Consell de la Terra located its headquarters and the Tribunal de Corts in Casa de la Vall in 1702. The manor house built in 1580 served as a noble fortress of the Busquets family. Inside the parliament was placed the Closet of the six keys (Armari de les sis claus), representative of each Andorran parish, where the Andorran constitution and other documents and laws were later kept. In both the Reapers' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, the Andorran people (while professing to be a neutral country) supported the Catalans who saw their rights reduced in 1716. The reaction was the promotion of Catalan writings in Andorra, with cultural works such as the Book of Privileges (Llibre de Privilegis de 1674), Manual Digest (1748) by Antoni Fiter i Rossell or the Polità andorrà (1763) by Antoni Puig. 19th century: the New Reform and the Andorran Question <span class"anchor" id"New Reform of Andorra"></span> led the New Reform of 1866]] After the French Revolution, Napoleon I reestablished the Co-Principate in 1809 and removed the French medieval title. In 1812–1813, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia during the Peninsular War () and divided the region into four départements, with Andorra as a part of the district of Puigcerdà. In 1814, an imperial decree reestablished the independence and economy of Andorra. During this period, Andorra's late medieval institutions and rural culture remained largely unchanged. In 1866, the syndic Guillem d'Areny-Plandolit led the reformist group in a Council General of 24 members elected by suffrage limited to heads of families. The Council General replaced the aristocratic oligarchy that previously ruled the state. The New Reform () began after ratification by both Co-Princes and established the basis of the constitution and symbolssuch as the tricolour flagof Andorra. A new service economy arose as a demand of the valley inhabitants and began to build infrastructure such as hotels, spa resorts, roads and telegraph lines. scenery during the Revolution of 1881]] The authorities of the Co-Princes banned casinos and betting houses throughout the country. The ban resulted in an economic conflict and the Revolution of 1881, which began when revolutionaries assaulted the house of the syndic on 8 December 1880, and established the Provisional Revolutionary Council led by Joan Pla i Calvo and Pere Baró i Mas. The Provisional Revolutionary Council allowed for the construction of casinos and spas by foreign companies. From 7 to 9 June 1881, the loyalists of Canillo and Encamp reconquered the parishes of Ordino and La Massana by establishing contact with the revolutionary forces in Escaldes-Engordany. After a day of combat the Treaty of the Bridge of Escalls was signed on 10 June. The council was replaced and new elections were held. The economic situation worsened, as the populace was divided over the – the "Andorran Question" in relation to the Eastern Question. The struggles continued between pro-bishops, pro-French, and nationalists based on the troubles of Canillo in 1882 and 1885. Andorra participated in the cultural movement of the Catalan Renaixença. Between 1882 and 1887, the first academic schools were formed where trilingualism coexisted with the official language, Catalan. Romantic authors from France and Spain reported the awakening of the national consciousness of the country. Jacint Verdaguer lived in Ordino during the 1880s where he wrote and shared works related to the Renaixença with writer and photographer Joaquim de Riba. In 1848, Fromental Halévy had premiered the opera ''Le val d'Andorre'' to great success in Europe, where the national consciousness of the valleys was exposed in the romantic work during the Peninsular War.20th and 21st century: Modernisation of the country and constitutional Andorra , briefly self-proclaimed King of Andorra in 1934]] In 1933 France occupied Andorra following social unrest which occurred before elections due to the Revolution of 1933 and the FHASA strikes (Vagues de FHASA); the revolt led by Joves Andorrans (a labour union group related to the Spanish CNT and FAI) called for political reforms, the universal suffrage vote of all Andorrans and acted in defence of the rights of local and foreign workers during the construction of FHASA's hydroelectric power station in Encamp. On 5 April 1933 Joves Andorrans seized the Andorran Parliament. These actions were preceded by the arrival of Colonel René-Jules Baulard with 50 gendarmes and the mobilisation of 200 local militias or sometent led by the Síndic Francesc Cairat. On 6 July 1934, adventurer and nobleman Boris Skossyreff, with his promise of freedoms and modernisation of the country and wealth through the establishment of a tax haven and foreign investments, received the support of the members of the General Council to proclaim himself the sovereign of Andorra. On 8 July 1934 Boris issued a proclamation in Urgell, declaring himself Boris I, King of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell and approving the King's constitution on 10 July. He was arrested by the Co-Prince and Bishop Justí Guitart i Vilardebó and their authorities on 20 July and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 until 1940, a French military detachment of Garde Mobile led by well-known Colonel René-Jules Baulard was garrisoned in Andorra to secure the principality against disruption from the Spanish Civil War and Francoist Spain and also face the rise of Republicanism in the aftermath of the 1933 Revolution. During the Spanish Civil War, the inhabitants of Andorra welcomed refugees from both sides, and many of them settled permanently in the country thus contributing to the subsequent economic boom and the entry into the capitalist era of Andorra. Francoist troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war. (centre). The local comite was led by Francesc Cairat (left), the First General Syndic with the longest regencie, from 1936 to 1960]] During World War II, Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between Vichy France and Francoist Spain. Many Andorrans criticised the passivity of the General Council for impeding both the entry and expulsion of foreigners and refugees, committing economic crimes, reducing the rights of citizens and sympathy with Francoism. General Council members justified the council's political and diplomatic actions as necessary for Andorra's survival and the protection of its sovereignty. Andorra was relatively unscathed by the two world wars and the Spanish Civil War. Certain groups formed to help victims of oppression in Nazi-occupied countries, while participating in smuggling to help Andorra survive. Among the most prominent was the Hostal Palanques Evasion Network Command, which, in contact with the British MI6, helped almost 400 fugitives, among whom were Allied military personnel. The Command remained active between 1941 and 1944, although there were struggles with pro-Axis informers and Gestapo agents in Andorra. in the streets of Sant Julià de Lòria in Andorra, October 1967]] In the capital city there was a smuggling black market of propaganda, culture and cinematic art not favourable to totalitarian regimes, promulgated in such places as the Hotel Mirador or the Casino Hotel, as a meeting place for Free French forces and a route for escorting crashed Allied pilots out of Europe. The network was maintained after the war, when film societies were formed, where movies, music and books censored in Franco's Spain were imported, becoming an anti-censorship attraction for the Catalan or foreign public even within Andorra. The Andorran opening to the capitalist economy resulted in two axes: mass tourism and the country's tax exemption. The first steps towards the capitalist boom date from the 1930s, with the construction of FHASA and the creation of professional banking with Banc Agrícol (1930) and Crèdit Andorrà (1949), later with Banca Mora (1952), Banca Cassany (1958) and SOBANCA (1960). Shortly after, activities such as skiing and shopping become a tourist attraction, with the inauguration of ski resorts and cultural entities in the late 1930s. All in all, a renovated hotel industry has developed. In April 1968 a social health insurance system was created (CASS). \|alt=]] meeting Austrian foreign minister Sebastian Kurz at the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 2014]] The Andorran government necessarily involved planning, projection and forecasts for the future: with the official visit of the French co-prince Charles de Gaulle in 1967 and 1969, it was given approval for the economic boom and national demands within the framework of human rights and international openness. Andorra experienced an era commonly known as the "Andorran dream" (similar to the American Dream) along with the Trente Glorieuses: the mass culture rooted the country experiencing radical changes in the economy and culture. Proof of this was Ràdio Andorra, the top musical radio station in Europe in this period, with guests and speakers of great importance promoting musical hits of chanson française, swing, rhythm & blues, jazz, rock and roll and American country music. During this period Andorra achieved a GDP per capita and a life expectancy higher than the most standard countries of the current economy. Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France, Spain and Portugal. But in recent times its thriving tourist industry, along with developments in transport and communications, have removed the country from its isolation. Since 1976 the country has seen the need to reform Andorran institutions due to anachronisms in sovereignty, human rights and the balance of powers as well as the need to adapt legislation to modern demands. In 1982 a first separation of powers took place when instituting the Govern d'Andorra, under the name of the executive board (Consell Executiu), chaired by the first prime minister Òscar Ribas Reig with the co-princes' approval. In 1989 the Principality signed an agreement with the European Economic Community to regularise trade relations. Its political system was modernised in 1993 after the Andorran constitutional referendum, when the constitution was drafted by the co-princes and the General Council and approved on 14 March by 74.2% of voters, with a 76% turnout. The first elections under the new constitution were held later in the year. Andorra formalised diplomatic relations with the United States in 1996, participating in the 51st UN General Assembly. First General Syndic Marc Forné took part in a speech in Catalan in the General Assembly to defend the reform of the organisation, and after three days he took part in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe to defend Andorra's linguistic rights and economy. In 2006 a monetary agreement with the European Union was formalised that allows Andorra to use the euro officially, as well as minting its own euro coins.Politics <!--Pls add new info to relevant articles of the series--> Andorra is a parliamentary co-principality with the bishop of Urgell and the president of France as co-princes. This peculiarity makes the president of France, in his capacity as prince of Andorra, an elected monarch, although he is not elected by a popular vote of the Andorran people. The politics of Andorra take place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democracy with a unicameral legislature, and of a pluriform multi-party system. The prime minister is the chief executive. The current prime minister is Xavier Espot Zamora of the Democrats for Andorra (DA). Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both government and parliament. The Parliament of Andorra is known as the General Council. The General Council consists of between 28 and 42 councillors. The magistrates and judges are appointed by the High Court, as is the president of the Criminal Law Court. The High Court also appoints members of the Office of the Attorney General. The Constitutional Court is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and reviewing all appeals of unconstitutionality against laws and treaties. It is composed of four judges, one appointed by each of the co-princes and two by the General Council. They serve eight-year terms. The Court is presided over by one of the judges on a two-year rotation so that each judge at one point will preside over the Court. Foreign relations, defence and security ]] Andorra does not have its own armed forces, However, in case of emergencies or natural disasters, the Sometent (an alarm) is called and all able-bodied men between 21 and 60 of Andorran nationality must serve. This is why all Andorrans, and especially the head of each house (usually the eldest able-bodied man of a house) should, by law, keep a rifle, even though the law also states that the police will offer a firearm in case of need. On 16 October 2020, Andorra became the 190th member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), during the COVID-19 pandemic.Military Andorra has a small army, which has historically been raised or reconstituted at various dates, but has never in modern times amounted to a standing army. The basic principle of Andorran defence is that all able-bodied men are available to fight if called upon by the summoning of the Sometent (a civil defence organisation of Andorra, made up of the heads of households). The Sometent was used sparingly against French "Lutheran" raids during the late 16th century. Being a landlocked country, Andorra has no navy. Before World War I, Andorra maintained an armed militia force of about 600 part-time militiamen under the supervision of a Captain (Capità or Cap de Sometent) and a Lieutenant (Desener or Lloctinent del Capità). This body was not liable for service outside the principality and was commanded by two officials (veguers) appointed by France and the Bishop of Urgell. In the modern era, the army has consisted of a very small body of volunteers willing to undertake ceremonial duties. Uniforms and weaponry were handed down from generation to generation within families and communities. The army's role in internal security was largely taken over by the formation of the Police Corps of Andorra in 1931. Brief civil disorder associated with the elections of 1933 led to assistance being sought from the French National Gendarmerie, with a detachment resident in Andorra for two months under the command of René-Jules Baulard. The Andorran Police was reformed in the following year, with eleven soldiers appointed to supervisory roles. The force consisted of six corporals, one for each parish (although there are currently seven parishes, there were only six until 1978), plus four junior staff officers to co-ordinate action, and a commander with the rank of major. It was the responsibility of the six corporals, each in his own parish, to be able to raise a fighting force from among the able-bodied men of the parish. The only permanent section of the present-day Sometent is a twelve-man ceremonial unit. However, all able-bodied men are technically available for military service, with a requirement for each family to have access to a firearm. An area weapon, such as a shotgun per household, is unregulated; however, ranged weapons, such as pistols and rifles, require a licence. According to Marc Forné Molné, Andorra's military budget is strictly from voluntary donations, and the availability of full-time volunteers. The only more recent general emergency call to the Sometent was given during the floods of 1982 in the Catalan Pyrenees (when 12 Andorran citizens perished), to help the population and establish a public order along with the local police units. Andorra in the Council of Europe Andorra is one of the 46 member states of the Council of Europe, having joined on 10 November 1994. Through its membership in the Council of Europe, Andorra is or has been involved in the following areas: * Prevention of torture: Inspections by the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture in detention facilities such as juvenile centres, immigration detention sites, police stations, and psychiatric hospitals. * Fight against racism: Monitoring and advice provided by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance. * Protection of social rights: Oversight by the European Committee of Social Rights under the European Social Charter, which guarantees social and economic human rights. * Protection of minorities: Although the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities sets up a monitoring system, Andorra has not signed this convention. * Anti-corruption: Evaluations by the Group of States against Corruption (GRECO) to improve national capacities against corruption. * Countering money laundering and terrorism financing: Reviews by the MONEYVAL Committee and monitoring by COP198. * Democracy through law: Advisory support from the Venice Commission, which assists in aligning constitutional frameworks with European democratic standards. * Combating human trafficking: Monitoring by the Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA) through regular evaluation reports. * Enhancing the justice system: Assessments by the European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice (CEPEJ) and the Consultative Council of European Prosecutors (CCPE) to improve judicial efficiency. * Cultural contributions: In 1994, Andorra donated “Incles Valley, Andorra” (oil on canvas by Francesc Galobardes) as part of the council's art collection, symbolising its commitment to human rights and cultural heritage. Andorra's representation in the Council includes: * Committee of Ministers: Represented by Imma Tor Faus (Minister for Foreign Affairs) and Andreu Jordi (Ambassador and Permanent Representative). * Parliamentary Assembly: A delegation of 2 representatives and 2 substitutes. * Congress of Local and Regional Authorities: A delegation of 2 representatives and 2 substitutes. * European Court of Human Rights: Represented by Judge Pere Pastor Vilanova, with 14 applications allocated to a decision body in 2024. * Commissioner for Human Rights: Conducts visits to monitor the human rights situation and engage in dialogue with national authorities and civil society. * Council of Europe Treaties: Andorra has ratified and signed several treaties that reinforce its commitment to the council's principles. For 2025, the Council of Europe's budget is €655.7 million, with Andorra contributing €368,842. Police Corps patrolling the central area of the capital city]] Andorra maintains a small but modern and well-equipped internal police force, with around 240 police officers supported by civilian assistants. The principal services supplied by the corps are uniformed community policing, criminal detection, border control, and traffic policing. There are also small specialist units including police dogs, mountain rescue, and a bomb disposal team.GIPAThe ' (GIPA) is a small special forces squad trained in counter-terrorism, and hostage recovery tasks. Although it is the closest in style to an active military force, it is part of the Police Corps, and not the army. As terrorist and hostage situations are a rare threat to the country, the GIPA is commonly assigned to prisoner escort duties, and at other times to routine policing. Fire brigade The Andorran Fire Brigade, with headquarters at Santa Coloma, operates from four modern fire stations, and has a staff of around 120 firefighters. The service is equipped with 16 heavy appliances (fire tenders, turntable ladders, and specialist four-wheel drive vehicles), four light support vehicles (cars and vans) and four ambulances. Historically, the families of the six ancient parishes of Andorra maintained local arrangements to assist each other in fighting fires. The first fire pump purchased by the government was acquired in 1943. Serious fires which lasted for two days in December 1959 led to calls for a permanent fire service, and the Andorran Fire Brigade was formed on 21 April 1961. The fire service maintains full-time cover with five fire crews on duty at any time: two at the brigade's headquarters in Santa Coloma, and one crew at each of the other three fire stations.GeographyParishes Andorra consists of seven parishes: * Andorra la Vella * Canillo * Encamp * Escaldes-Engordany * La Massana * Ordino * Sant Julià de Lòria Physical geography Due to its location in the eastern Pyrenees mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains, the highest being the Coma Pedrosa at , and the average elevation of Andorra is . These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the Gran Valira river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of ). Andorra's land area is .EnvironmentPhytogeographically, Andorra belongs to the Atlantic European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Andorra belongs to the ecoregion of Pyrenees conifer and mixed forests. Andorra had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.45/10, ranking it 127th globally out of 172 countries. In Andorra forest cover is around 34% of the total land area, equivalent to 16,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 16,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 0 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas.Important Bird AreaThe whole country has been recognised as a single Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, because it is important for forest and mountain birds and supports populations of red-billed choughs, citril finches and rock buntings.Climate Andorra has alpine, continental and oceanic climates, depending on altitude. Its higher elevation means there is, on average, more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer. The diversity of landmarks, the different orientation of the valleys and the irregularity relief typical of the Mediterranean climates make the country have a great diversity of microclimates that hinder the general dominance of the high mountain climate. The great differences of altitude in the minimum and maximum points, together with the influence of a Mediterranean climate, develop the climate of the Andorran Pyrenees. When in precipitation, a global model characterised by convective and abundant rains can be defined during spring and summer, which can last until autumn (May, June and August are usually the rainiest months). In winter, however, it is less rainy, except in the highlands, subject to the influence of fronts from the Atlantic, which explains the great amount of snowfall in the Andorran mountains. The temperature regime is characterised, broadly, by a temperate summer and a long and cold winter, in accordance with the mountainous condition of the Principality. As a small mountainous country, Andorra is highly vulnerable to climate change. Temperatures in its high-altitude regions have risen by about 0.17 °C per decade, while annual rainfall has decreased by 49 mm. These shifts are impacting water resources and snow cover, which are key elements for Andorra's tourism-driven economy. The number of days with enough snow for skiing is declining, and the snow line is retreating to higher altitudes. Although its national greenhouse gas emissions are one of the lowest in the world (534 thousand tonnes emitted in 2023), Andorra has a strong climate change mitigation strategy, with a focus on renewable energy and energy efficiency. In its Nationally Determined Contribution, Andorra has committed to reducing its emissions by 55% by 2030, and to carbon neutrality by 2050. However, the adaptation part of the strategy is still in early stages and may be difficult and costly to implement. Given the country's reliance on tourism, speeding up adaptation is essential for building a more resilient economy. The banking sector, with its tax haven status, also contributes substantially to the economy with revenues raised exclusively through import tariffs (the financial and insurance sector accounts for approximately 19% of GDP). However, during the European sovereign-debt crisis of the 21st century, the tourist industry suffered a decline, partly caused by a drop in the prices of goods in Spain, undercutting duty-free shopping and increasing unemployment. On 1 January 2012, a business tax of 10% was introduced, followed by a sales tax of 2% a year later, which raised just over 14 million euros in its first quarter. Agricultural production is limited; only 1.7% of the land is arable, and most food has to be imported. Some tobacco is grown locally. The principal livestock activity is domestic sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra's natural resources include hydroelectric power, mineral water, timber, iron ore, and lead. Andorra is not a member of the European Union, but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacked a currency of its own and used both the French franc and the Spanish peseta in banking transactions until 31 December 1999, when both currencies were replaced by the EU's single currency, the euro. Coins and notes of both the franc and the peseta remained legal tender in Andorra until 31 December 2002. Andorra negotiated to issue its own euro coins, beginning in 2014. Andorra has historically had one of the world's lowest unemployment rates. In 2023 it stood at 1.5%. On 31 May 2013, it was announced that Andorra intended to legislate for the introduction of an income tax by the end of June, against a background of increasing dissatisfaction with the existence of tax havens among EU members. The announcement was made following a meeting in Paris between the Prime Minister Antoni Martí and the French President and Prince of Andorra François Hollande. Hollande welcomed the move as part of a process of Andorra "bringing its taxation in line with international standards". By the mid-2010s, the financial system comprised five banking groups, one specialised credit entity, eight investment undertaking management entities, three asset management companies, and 29 insurance companies, 14 of which are branches of foreign insurance companies authorised to operate in the principality. Demographics , as seen from the Vall dels Cortals]] Population The population of Andorra is estimated at (). The Andorrans are a Romance ethnic group of originally Catalan descent. or to own more than 33% of the capital stock of a privately held company. The largest national groups in Andorra are Spanish (34.3%), Andorrans (32.1%), Portuguese (10%), and French (5.6%). The remaining 18% of the population includes British, Dutch, Germans, Italians and other Europeans, as well as Argentinians, Chileans, Indians, Moroccans and Uruguayans. \|label_type = Language \|data_type = Speakers \|label1 = Catalan \|data1 = 44.1 \|label2 = Spanish \|data2 = 40.3 \|label3 =Portuguese \|data3 = 13.5 \|label4 = French \|data4 = 10.0 \|label5 = Other \|data5 = 9.8 }} The historic and official language is Catalan, a Romance language. The Andorran government encourages the use of Catalan. It funds a Commission for Catalan Toponymy in Andorra (Catalan: ), and provides free Catalan classes to assist immigrants. Andorran television and radio stations use Catalan. Because of immigration, historical links, and close geographic proximity, Spanish, Portuguese and French are commonly spoken. Most Andorran residents can speak one or more of these, in addition to Catalan. English is less commonly spoken among the general population, though it is understood to varying degrees in the major tourist resorts. Andorra is one of only four European countries (together with France, Monaco, and Turkey) that have never signed the Council of Europe Framework Convention on National Minorities.Religion Few official statistics are available on religion; estimates of the Catholic population in 2020 range from 89.5% to 99.21%. The patron saint is Our Lady of Meritxell. There are also members of various Protestant denominations and small numbers of Hindus, and Bahá'ís, In 2022 there were approximately 2000 Muslims and roughly 100 Jews. Largest cities Santa Coloma \|div_6 = Andorra la Vella \|pop_6 = 3,323 \|city_7 = Ordino \|div_7 = Ordino \|pop_7 = 3,217 \|city_9 = El Pas de la Casa \|div_9 = Encamp \|pop_9 = 2,156 \|city_8 = Canillo \|div_8 = Canillo \|pop_8 = 2,550 \|city_10 = Arinsal \|div_10 = La Massana \|pop_10 = 2,127 }} Education The Qualified Education Law (''Ilei qualificada d'educacio'') of Andorra was passed in 1993. It guarantees free, public education from age four until the end of compulsory schooling.SchoolsChildren between the ages of 6 and 16 are required by law to have full-time education. Bus services cover all metropolitan areas and many rural communities, with services on most major routes running half-hourly or more frequently during peak travel times. There are frequent long-distance bus services from Andorra to Barcelona and Toulouse, plus a daily tour from the former city. Bus services mostly are run by private companies, but some local ones are operated by the government. (La Tor de Querol), one of the two stations serving Andorra. Andorra has no railways, although the line connecting Latour-de-Carol and Toulouse, which in turn connects to France's TGVs at Toulouse, runs within of the Andorran border]] There are no airports for fixed-wing aircraft within Andorra's borders but there are, however, heliports in La Massana (Camí Heliport), Arinsal and Escaldes–Engordany with commercial helicopter services and an airport located in the neighbouring Spanish comarca of Alt Urgell, south of the Andorran–Spanish border. Since July 2015, Andorra–La Seu d'Urgell Airport has operated commercial flights to Madrid and Palma de Mallorca, and is the main hub for Andorra Airlines. Nearby airports located in Spain and France provide access to international flights for the principality. The nearest airports are at Perpignan, France ( from Andorra) and Lleida, Spain ( from Andorra). The largest nearby airports are at Toulouse, France ( from Andorra and Barcelona, Spain ( from Andorra). There are hourly bus services from both Barcelona and Toulouse airports to Andorra. The nearest railway station is Andorre-L'Hospitalet station east of Andorra which is on the -gauge line from Latour-de-Carol () southeast of Andorra, to Toulouse and on to Paris by the French high-speed trains. This line is operated by the SNCF. Latour-de-Carol has a scenic trainline to Villefranche-de-Conflent, as well as the SNCF's -gauge line connecting to Perpignan, and the Renfe's -gauge line to Barcelona. There are also direct Intercités de nuit trains between L'Hospitalet-près-l'Andorre and Paris on certain dates. Media and telecommunications , the public service television and radio broadcaster in Andorra]] , the national telecom company in Andorra]] In Andorra, mobile and fixed telephone and internet services are operated exclusively by the Andorran national telecommunications company, SOM, also known as Andorra Telecom (STA). The same company also manages the technical infrastructure for national broadcasting of digital television and radio. In 2010 Andorra became the first country to provide a direct optical fiber link to all homes (FTTH) and businesses. The first commercial radio station to broadcast was Radio Andorra, which was active from 1939 to 1981. On 12 October 1989, the General Council established radio and television as essential public services creating and managing the entity ORTA, becoming on 13 April 2000, in the public company Ràdio i Televisió d'Andorra (RTVA). In 1990, the public radio was founded on the Radio Nacional d'Andorra. As an autochthonous television channel, there is only the national public television network Andorra Televisió, created in 1995. Additional TV and radio stations from Spain and France are available via digital terrestrial television and IPTV. There are three national newspapers, ''Diari d'Andorra, El Periòdic d'Andorra, and Bondia as well as several local newspapers. The history of the Andorran press begins in the period between 1917 and 1937 with the appearance of several periodicals papers such as Les Valls d'Andorra (1917), Nova Andorra (1932) and Andorra Agrícola'' (1933). In 1974, the Poble Andorrà became the first regular newspaper in Andorra. There is also an amateur radio society and news agency ANA with independent management. Culture Andorra is home to folk dances like the contrapàs and marratxa, which survive in Sant Julià de Lòria especially. Andorran folk music has similarities to the music of its neighbours, but is especially Catalan in character, especially in the presence of dances such as the sardana. Other Andorran folk dances include contrapàs in Andorra la Vella and Saint Anne's dance in Escaldes-Engordany. Andorra's national holiday is Our Lady of Meritxell Day, 8 September. Andorra participated regularly in the Eurovision Song Contest between 2004 and 2009, being the only participating country presenting songs in Catalan. In popular folklore, the best-known Andorran legends are the legend of Charlemagne, according to which this Frankish King would have founded the country, the White Lady of Auvinyà, the Buner d'Ordino, the legend of Engolasters Lake and the legend of Our Lady of Meritxell. Andorran gastronomy is mainly Catalan, although it has also adopted other elements of French and Italian cuisines. The cuisine of the country has similar characteristics with the neighbours of Cerdanya and Alt Urgell, with whom it has strong cultural ties. Andorra's cuisine is marked by its nature as mountain valleys. Typical dishes of the country are quince all-i-oli, duck with winter pear, roast lamb with nuts, pork civet, massegada cake, escarole with pears, duck confit and mushrooms, escudella, spinach with raisins and pine nuts, jelly marmalade, stuffed murgues (mushrooms) with pork, dandelion salad, and Andorran river trout. To drink, mulled wine and beer are also popular. Some of the dishes are very common in the mountainous regions of Catalonia, such as trinxat, embotits, cooked snails, rice with mushrooms, mountain rice and mató. Pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art are one of the most important artistic manifestations and characteristics of the Principality. The Romanesque one allows to know the formation of the parochial communities, the relations of (social and political) power and the national culture. There are a total of forty Romanesque churches that stand out as being small austere ornamentation constructions, as well as bridges, fortresses and manor houses of the same period. Summer solstice fire festivals in the Pyrenees was included as UNESCO Intangible cultural heritage in 2015. Also the Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley became Andorra's first, and to date its only, UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004, with a small extension in 2006. <gallery class"center" mode"packed"> File:HPIM0309.JPG\|Andorran flag on a balcony, Ordino File:Halévy - Le val d'Andorre - M.elle Lavoye, rôle de Georgette, 2.e acte - Alexandre Lacauchie, 1848.png\|Women's Folk costume (Le val d'Andorre) File:Halévy - Le val d'Andorre - Audran, rôle de Stéphan, 1.er acte - Alexandre Lacauchie, 1848.png\|Men's Folk costume (Le val d'Andorre) File:Narcisa 0012.JPG\|Grandalla flower, the national symbol File:Vall del Madriu-Perafita-Claror - 68.jpg\|View of Madriu-Perafita-Claror Valley, a UNESCO World Heritage Site File:(Barcelona) Altar de Sant Romà de Vila - Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya.jpg\|Altar of Sant Romà de Vila File:Església de Santa Coloma - 10.jpg\|Santa Coloma d'Andorra </gallery> Sports Andorra is famous for its winter sports. Andorra has the largest territory of ski slopes in the Pyrenees (3100 hectares and about 350 km of slopes) and two ski resorts. Grandvalira is the largest and most popular resort. Other popular sports played in Andorra include football, rugby union, basketball, and roller hockey. For roller hockey, Andorra usually plays in the CERH Euro Cup and FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup. In 2011, Andorra was the host country to the 2011 European League Final Eight. The country is represented in association football by the Andorra national football team. The team gained its first competitive win in a European Championship qualifier on 11 October 2019, against Moldova. Football is governed in Andorra by the Andorran Football Federation – founded in 1994, it organises the national competitions of association football (Primera Divisió, Copa Constitució and Supercopa) and futsal. Andorra was admitted to UEFA and FIFA in the same year, 1996. FC Andorra, a club based in Andorra la Vella founded in 1942, compete in the Spanish football league system. Rugby is a traditional sport in Andorra, mainly influenced by its popularity in southern France. The Andorra national rugby union team, nicknamed Els Isards, plays on the international stage in rugby union and rugby sevens. VPC Andorra XV is a rugby team based in Andorra la Vella, which actually plays in the French championship. Basketball's popularity has increased in the country since the 1990s, when the Andorran team BC Andorra played in the top league of Spain (Liga ACB). After 18 years the club returned to the top league in 2014. Other sports practised in Andorra include cycling, volleyball, judo, Australian Rules football, handball, swimming, gymnastics, tennis, and motorsports. In 2012, Andorra raised its first national cricket team and played a home match against the Dutch Fellowship of Fairly Odd Places Cricket Club, the first match played in the history of Andorra at an altitude of . Andorra first participated at the Olympic Games in 1976. The country has appeared in every Winter Olympic Games since 1976. Andorra competes in the Games of the Small States of Europe, being twice the host country, in 1991 and 2005. As one of the Catalan Countries, Andorra is home to a team of castellers, or Catalan human tower builders. The , based in the town of Santa Coloma d'Andorra, are recognised by the , the governing body of castells. <gallery class"center" mode"packed"> File:2010 Opening Ceremony - Andorra entering.jpg\|The athletes from Andorra at the opening ceremonies of the 2010 Winter Olympics File:Laure Soulie 3.jpg\|Laure Soulié, Olympic biathlete File:Laurent Recouderc Serve.jpg\|Laurent Recouderc serving at the 2010 French Open File:Irina KALENTYEVA.JPG\|2015 UCI Mountain Bike and Trials World Championships in Vallnord, La Massana File:Cycling in Andorra.jpg\|Volta als Ports d'Andorra, the national road cycling tour File:Estadi Comunal Vella.jpg\|Estadi Comunal d'Andorra la Vella </gallery> Tourism Skiing, hiking, cross-country running, and cycling are all popular sports tourism activities in Andorra. Andorra's economy is heavily built on tourism. Outside of the ski season, some of the ski lift facilities continue to operate at lower capacity, facilitating access to popular view points such as the Tristaina solar viewpoint, a viewpoint–sundial located on the peak of Peyreguils at an altitude of 2,701 metres and a few metres from the geographical border between Andorra and France. This peak is part of the Tristaina cirque, along with the Costa Rodona, Tristaina, Creussans, and Cabanyó peaks. See also * Index of Andorra-related articles * Outline of Andorra * Bibliography of Andorra Explanatory notes Citations General and cited bibliography * * * * * Further reading * Berthet, Elie, The Valley of Andorra. Bristol, UK: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1886. * Butler, Michael, Frisch: Andorra. * Carrick, Noel, ''Let's Visit Andorra. London: Macmillan, 1988. * * Deane, Shirley, The Road to Andorra. London: John Murray, 1960. * Duursma, John C., Fragmentation and the International Relations of Micro-States. Cambridge University Press, 1996. * Jenner, Paul; Christine Smith, Landscapes of the Pyrenees. London: Sunflower Books, 1990. * Johnson, Virginia W., Two Quaint Republics: Andorra and San Marino. * Leary, Lewis Gaston, Andorra the Hidden Republic. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912. * Mackintosh, May, Assignment in Andorra. London: Pan, 1976. * Murray, James Erskine, A Summer in the Pyrenees. London: John Macrone, 1837. * Newman, Bernard, Round About Andorra. London: George Allen; Unwin, 1928. * Piesold, Werner, Andorra. * Reichert, Thomas, Andorra: A Country Survey. Nuremberg, 1986. * Spender, Harold; H. Llewellyn Smith, Through the High Pyrenees. London: A. D. Innes, 1898. * Vila, Linda Armengol, Approach to the History of Andorra''. Perpignan: Institut d'Estudis Andorrans, 1989. * Vilajoana, Ricard Fiter; M. Marti Rebols, All Andorra. Barcelona: Escudo de Oro, 1979. * Waagenaar, Sam, The Little Five. London: Andre Deutsch, 1960. External links * [https://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra] – Official governmental site * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/andorra/ Andorra]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Portals to the World] from the United States Library of Congress * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090227101123/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/andorra.htm Andorra] from UCB Libraries GovPubs * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17028050 Andorra] from the BBC News * [https://web.archive.org/web/20141018002545/http://bloggordo.com/andorra-guia-turismo-y-de-viajes/ Andorra – Guía, turismo y de viajes] * [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_Andorra:_Primary_Documents History of Andorra: Primary Documents] from EuroDocs * [https://www.nytimes.com/slideshow/2010/08/27/business/global/28andorra-slideshow.html A New Path for Andorra] – slideshow by The New York Times * * }} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:1278 establishments in Europe Category:Catalan Countries Category:Christian states Category:Countries in Europe Category:Diarchies Category:Duty-free zones of Europe Category:Iberian Peninsula countries Category:Important Bird Areas of Andorra Category:Landlocked countries Category:Member states of the Council of Europe Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Monarchies of Europe Category:Prince-bishoprics Category:Principalities Category:Pyrenees Category:Religion and politics Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories Category:Special economic zones Category:States and territories established in 1278 Category:Microstates in Europe	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra	2025-04-05T18:25:18.019657
612	Arithmetic mean	In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean ( ), arithmetic average, or just the mean or average (when the context is clear) is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the count of numbers in the collection. The collection is often a set of results from an experiment, an observational study, or a survey. The term "arithmetic mean" is preferred in some mathematics and statistics contexts because it helps distinguish it from other types of means, such as geometric and harmonic. In addition to mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean is frequently used in economics, anthropology, history, and almost every academic field to some extent. For example, per capita income is the arithmetic average income of a nation's population. While the arithmetic mean is often used to report central tendencies, it is not a robust statistic: it is greatly influenced by outliers (values much larger or smaller than most others). For skewed distributions, such as the distribution of income for which a few people's incomes are substantially higher than most people's, the arithmetic mean may not coincide with one's notion of "middle". In that case, robust statistics, such as the median, may provide a better description of central tendency. Definition The arithmetic mean of a set of observed data is equal to the sum of the numerical values of each observation, divided by the total number of observations. Symbolically, for a data set consisting of the values <math>x_1,\dots,x_n</math>, the arithmetic mean is defined by the formula: :<math>\bar{x}\frac{1}{n}\left (\sum_{i1}^n{x_i}\right) \frac{x_1+x_2+\dots+x_n}{n}</math> (For an explanation of the summation operator, see summation.) In simpler terms, the formula for the arithmetic mean is: <math>\frac{\text{Total of all numbers within the data}}{\text{Amount of total numbers within the data}} </math> For example, if the monthly salaries of <math>10</math> employees are <math>\{2500,2700,2400,2300,2550,2650,2750,2450,2600,2400\}</math>, then the arithmetic mean is: :<math>\frac{2500+2700+2400+2300+2550+2650+2750+2450+2600+2400}{10}=2530</math> If the data set is a statistical population (i.e., consists of every possible observation and not just a subset of them), then the mean of that population is called the population mean and denoted by the Greek letter <math>\mu</math>. If the data set is a statistical sample (a subset of the population), it is called the sample mean (which for a data set <math>X</math> is denoted as <math>\overline{X}</math>). The arithmetic mean can be similarly defined for vectors in multiple dimensions, not only scalar values; this is often referred to as a centroid. More generally, because the arithmetic mean is a convex combination (meaning its coefficients sum to <math>1</math>), it can be defined on a convex space, not only a vector space. History The statistician Churchill Eisenhart, senior researcher fellow at the U. S. National Bureau of Standards, traced the history of the arithmetic mean in detail. In the modern age it started to be used as a way of combining various observations that should be identical, but were not such as estimates of the direction of magnetic north. In 1635 the mathematician Henry Gellibrand described as “meane” the midpoint of a lowest and highest number, not quite the arithmetic mean. In 1668, a person known as “DB” was quoted in the Transactions of the Royal Society describing “taking the mean” of five values: Motivating properties The arithmetic mean has several properties that make it interesting, especially as a measure of central tendency. These include: If numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math> have mean <math>\bar{x}</math>, then <math>(x_1-\bar{x})+\dotsb+(x_n-\bar{x})0</math>. Since <math>x_i-\bar{x}</math> is the distance from a given number to the mean, one way to interpret this property is by saying that the numbers to the left of the mean are balanced by the numbers to the right. The mean is the only number for which the residuals (deviations from the estimate) sum to zero. This can also be interpreted as saying that the mean is translationally invariant in the sense that for any real number <math>a</math>, <math>\overline{x + a} \bar{x} + a</math>. If it is required to use a single number as a "typical" value for a set of known numbers <math>x_1,\dotsc,x_n</math>, then the arithmetic mean of the numbers does this best since it minimizes the sum of squared deviations from the typical value: the sum of <math>(x_i-\bar{x})^2</math>. The sample mean is also the best single predictor because it has the lowest root mean squared error. If the arithmetic mean of a population of numbers is desired, then the estimate of it that is unbiased is the arithmetic mean of a sample drawn from the population. The arithmetic mean is independent of scale of the units of measurement, in the sense that <math>\text{avg}(ca_{1},\cdots,ca_{n})c\cdot\text{avg}(a_{1},\cdots,a_{n}).</math> So, for example, calculating a mean of liters and then converting to gallons is the same as converting to gallons first and then calculating the mean. This is also called first order homogeneity.Additional properties The arithmetic mean of a sample is always between the largest and smallest values in that sample. The arithmetic mean of any amount of equal-sized number groups together is the arithmetic mean of the arithmetic means of each group. Contrast with median The arithmetic mean may be contrasted with the median. The median is defined such that no more than half the values are larger, and no more than half are smaller than it. If elements in the data increase arithmetically when placed in some order, then the median and arithmetic average are equal. For example, consider the data sample <math>\{1,2,3,4\}</math>. The mean is <math>2.5</math>, as is the median. However, when we consider a sample that cannot be arranged to increase arithmetically, such as <math>\{1,2,4,8,16\}</math>, the median and arithmetic average can differ significantly. In this case, the arithmetic average is <math>6.2</math>, while the median is <math>4</math>. The average value can vary considerably from most values in the sample and can be larger or smaller than most. There are applications of this phenomenon in many fields. For example, since the 1980s, the median income in the United States has increased more slowly than the arithmetic average of income.GeneralizationsWeighted average A weighted average, or weighted mean, is an average in which some data points count more heavily than others in that they are given more weight in the calculation. For example, the arithmetic mean of <math>3</math> and <math>5</math> is <math>\frac{3+5}{2}4</math>, or equivalently <math>3 \cdot \frac{1}{2}+5 \cdot \frac{1}{2}4</math>. In contrast, a weighted mean in which the first number receives, for example, twice as much weight as the second (perhaps because it is assumed to appear twice as often in the general population from which these numbers were sampled) would be calculated as <math>3 \cdot \frac{2}{3}+5 \cdot \frac{1}{3}\frac{11}{3}</math>. Here the weights, which necessarily sum to one, are <math>\frac{2}{3}</math> and <math>\frac{1}{3}</math>, the former being twice the latter. The arithmetic mean (sometimes called the "unweighted average" or "equally weighted average") can be interpreted as a special case of a weighted average in which all weights are equal to the same number (<math>\frac{1}{2}</math> in the above example and <math>\frac{1}{n}</math> in a situation with <math>n</math> numbers being averaged). Functions Continuous probability distributions s with equal median, but different skewness, resulting in various means and modes]] If a numerical property, and any sample of data from it, can take on any value from a continuous range instead of, for example, just integers, then the probability of a number falling into some range of possible values can be described by integrating a continuous probability distribution across this range, even when the naive probability for a sample number taking one certain value from infinitely many is zero. In this context, the analog of a weighted average, in which there are infinitely many possibilities for the precise value of the variable in each range, is called the mean of the probability distribution. The most widely encountered probability distribution is called the normal distribution; it has the property that all measures of its central tendency, including not just the mean but also the median mentioned above and the mode (the three Ms), are equal. This equality does not hold for other probability distributions, as illustrated for the log-normal distribution here.Angles Particular care is needed when using cyclic data, such as phases or angles. Taking the arithmetic mean of 1° and 359° yields a result of 180°. This is incorrect for two reasons: Firstly, angle measurements are only defined up to an additive constant of 360° (<math>2\pi</math> or <math>\tau</math>, if measuring in radians). Thus, these could easily be called 1° and -1°, or 361° and 719°, since each one of them produces a different average. Secondly, in this situation, 0° (or 360°) is geometrically a better average value: there is lower dispersion about it (the points are both 1° from it and 179° from 180°, the putative average). In general application, such an oversight will lead to the average value artificially moving towards the middle of the numerical range. A solution to this problem is to use the optimization formulation (that is, define the mean as the central point: the point about which one has the lowest dispersion) and redefine the difference as a modular distance (i.e., the distance on the circle: so the modular distance between 1° and 359° is 2°, not 358°). Symbols and encoding The arithmetic mean is often denoted by a bar (vinculum or macron), as in <math>\bar{x}</math>. In some document formats (such as PDF), the symbol may be replaced by a "¢" (cent) symbol when copied to a text processor such as Microsoft Word. See also Fréchet mean Generalized mean Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means * Sample mean and covariance * Standard deviation * Standard error of the mean * Summary statistics Notes ReferencesFurther readingExternal links [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic mean and geometric mean of two numbers] *[http://www.fxsolver.com/browse/formulas/Arithmetic+Mean Calculate the arithmetic mean of a series of numbers on fxSolver] Category:Means	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_mean	2025-04-05T18:25:18.041261
615	American Football Conference	The American Football Conference (AFC) is one of the two conferences of the National Football League (NFL), the highest level of professional American football in the United States. The AFC and its counterpart, the National Football Conference (NFC), each have 16 teams organized into four divisions. Both conferences were created as part of the 1970 merger between the National Football League, and the American Football League (AFL). All ten of the AFL teams, and three NFL teams, became members of the new AFC, with the remaining thirteen NFL teams forming the NFC. A series of league expansions and division realignments have occurred since the merger, thus making the current total of 16 teams in each conference. The current AFC champions are the Kansas City Chiefs, who defeated the Buffalo Bills in the 2024 season's AFC Championship Game for their fifth conference championship and went on to lose Super Bowl LIX against the Philadelphia Eagles. Teams Like the NFC, the conference has 16 teams organized into four divisions each with four teams: East, North, South and West. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:left" ! Division ! Team ! Location ! Stadium !Ref(s) \|- ! stylebackground:white rowspan4 \| East \| Buffalo Bills \| Orchard Park, New York \| Highmark Stadium \| \|- \| Miami Dolphins \| Miami Gardens, Florida \| Hard Rock Stadium \| \|- \| New England Patriots \| Foxborough, Massachusetts \| Gillette Stadium \| \|- \| New York Jets \| East Rutherford, New Jersey \| MetLife Stadium \| \|- ! stylebackground:white rowspan4 \| North \| Baltimore Ravens \| Baltimore, Maryland \| M&T Bank Stadium \| \|- \| Cincinnati Bengals \| Cincinnati, Ohio \| Paycor Stadium \| \|- \| Cleveland Browns \| Cleveland, Ohio \| Huntington Bank Field \| \|- \| Pittsburgh Steelers \| Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania \| Acrisure Stadium \| \|- ! stylebackground:white rowspan4 \| South \| Houston Texans \| Houston, Texas \| NRG Stadium \| \|- \| Indianapolis Colts \| Indianapolis, Indiana \| Lucas Oil Stadium \| \|- \| Jacksonville Jaguars \| Jacksonville, Florida \| EverBank Stadium \| \|- \| Tennessee Titans \| Nashville, Tennessee \| Nissan Stadium \| \|- ! stylebackground:white rowspan4 \| West \| Denver Broncos \| Denver, Colorado \| Empower Field at Mile High \| \|- \| Kansas City Chiefs \| Kansas City, Missouri \| Arrowhead Stadium \| \|- \| Las Vegas Raiders \| Paradise, Nevada \| Allegiant Stadium \| \|- \| Los Angeles Chargers \| Inglewood, California \|SoFi Stadium \| \|} Season structure <!--Table must be updated for AFC champions--> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class"thumbinner" style"width:375px;"> {\| class"wikitable" style"font-size:90%" \|- ! !! AFC East !! AFC North !! AFC South !! AFC West \|- \| 1st \|\| style"background-color:#ffaa00"\|Bills \|\| style"background-color:#ffaa00"\|Ravens \|\| style"background-color:#ffff00"\|Texans \|\| style"background-color:#00ff00"\|Chiefs \|- \| 2nd \|\| Dolphins \|\| Steelers \|\| style"background-color:#ffff00"\|Colts \|\| style"background-color:#add8e6"\|Chargers \|- \| 3rd \|\| Jets \|\| Bengals \|\| style"background-color:#ffff00"\|Jaguars \|\| style"background-color:#add8e6"\|Broncos \|- \| 4th \|\| Patriots \|\| Browns \|\| style"background-color:#ffff00"\|Titans \|\| style"background-color:#add8e6"\|Raiders \|- ! !! NFC East !! NFC North !! NFC South !! NFC West \|- \| 1st \|\| style"background-color:#ffff00"\|Eagles \|\| style"background-color:#ffcccc"\|Lions \|\| Buccaneers \|\| Rams \|- \| 2nd \|\| style="background-color:#ffff00"\|Commanders \|\| Vikings \|\| Falcons \|\| Seahawks \|- \| 3rd \|\| style="background-color:#ffff00"\|Cowboys \|\| Packers \|\| Panthers \|\| Cardinals \|- \| 4th \|\| style="background-color:#ffff00"\|Giants \|\| Bears \|\| Saints \|\| 49ers \|} <div class="thumbcaption"> This chart of the 2024 season standings displays an application of the NFL scheduling formula. The Chiefs in 2024 (highlighted in green) finished in first place in the AFC West. Thus, in 2025, the Chiefs will play two games against each of its division rivals (highlighted in light blue), one game against each team in the AFC South and NFC East (highlighted in yellow), and one game each against the first-place finishers in the AFC East, AFC North (highlighted in orange) and NFC North (highlighted in pink).</div> </div> </div> Currently, the fourteen opponents each team faces over the 17-game regular season schedule are set using a predetermined formula: Each AFC team plays the other teams in their respective division twice (home and away) during the regular season, in addition to eleven other games assigned to their schedule by the NFL: three games are assigned on the basis of a particular team's final divisional standing from the previous season, and the remaining eight games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions. This assignment shifts each year and will follow a standard cycle. Using the 2023 regular season schedule as an example, each team in the AFC West plays against every team in the AFC East and NFC North. In this way, non-divisional competition will be mostly among common opponents – the exception being the three games assigned based on the team's prior-season divisional standing. At the end of each season, the four division winners and three wild cards (non-division winners with best regular season record) in the AFC qualify for the playoffs. The AFC playoffs culminate in the AFC Championship Game, with the winner receiving the Lamar Hunt Trophy. The AFC champion then plays the NFC champion in the Super Bowl. History With the impending merger with the American Football League (AFL) for the 1970 NFL season, the league had careful discussion over the nature of which teams would play in the newly instituted conferences. Then-NFL President and owner of the Cleveland Browns Art Modell had suggested of a format in which three teams from the NFL would move to the AFC to create two thirteen-team conferences. But negotiations between NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle and other owners was rampant in who would move (for his part, Modell had first assumed the three most recent expansion NFL teams - Minnesota Vikings, Atlanta Falcons, New Orleans Saints would be the ones to move to the AFC), since others wanted to simply have no realignment of NFL teams. The AFL had begun play in 1960 with eight teams before adding two more expansion clubs (the Miami Dolphins in 1966 and the Cincinnati Bengals in 1968) before the merger. Modell was hospitalized for internal bleeding around the time negotiations were still going. Moreover, Modell was struggling to service the debt he incurred from his purchase of the Browns. Furthermore, he realized there was an opportunity to establish a lucrative in-state rivalry with the newly-established Bengals, who had been founded by Paul Brown after Modell had forced him out of Cleveland after purchasing the team. When Modell was visited in the hospital by Art Rooney (owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers) and Wellington Mara (owner of the New York Giants), Modell offered to have his franchise move to the AFC, provided two other "old guard" franchises did so as well and the three affected teams to move were adequately compensated for joining what was still looked down on in NFL circles as a "junior" or "inferior" circuit. Not wanting to lose his long-established rivalry with Cleveland, the equally cash-strapped Rooney quickly agreed to join the Browns in the AFC. The other NFL owner to ultimately agree to move was the Baltimore Colts' Carroll Rosenbloom. Thus, in order to equalize the number of teams in each conference, three NFL teams that predated the AFL's launch (the Cleveland Browns, Pittsburgh Steelers, and the then-Baltimore Colts) joined the ten former AFL teams to form the AFC in exchange for $3 million each in indemnities, with the announcement coming on May 10, 1969. The two AFL divisions AFL East and AFL West were more or less intact, while the NFL's Century Division, in which the Browns and the Steelers had played since 1967, was moved from the NFL to become the new AFC Central. Upon the completion of the merger of the AFL and NFL in 1970, the newly minted American Football Conference had already agreed upon their divisional setup along mostly geographical lines for the 1970 season; the National Football Conference, however, could not agree upon their setup, and one was chosen from a fishbowl on January 16, 1970. Since the merger, five expansion teams have joined the AFC and two have left, thus making the current total 16. When the Seattle Seahawks and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers joined the league in 1976, they were temporarily placed in the NFC and AFC respectively. This arrangement lasted for one season only before the two teams switched conferences. The Seahawks eventually returned to the NFC as a result of the 2002 realignment. The expansion Jacksonville Jaguars joined the AFC in 1995. There have been five teams that have relocated at least once. In 1984, the Baltimore Colts relocated to Indianapolis. In 1995, the Cleveland Browns had attempted to move to Baltimore; the resulting dispute between Cleveland and the team led to Modell establishing the Baltimore Ravens with the players and personnel from the Browns, while the Browns were placed in suspended operations before they were reinstated by the NFL. The Ravens were treated as an expansion team. In California, the Oakland Raiders relocated to Los Angeles in 1982, back to Oakland in 1995, and then to Las Vegas in 2020, while the San Diego Chargers returned to Los Angeles in 2017 after 56 years in San Diego. The Houston Oilers moved to Tennessee in 1997, where they were renamed the Tennessee Oilers. The team would change its name again, two years later, to the Tennessee Titans. The NFL would again expand in 2002, adding the Houston Texans to the AFC. With the exception of the aforementioned relocations since that time, the divisional setup has remained static ever since. Between 1995 and 2022, the AFC has sent only 9 of its 16 teams to the Super Bowl: New England Patriots (10 times), Pittsburgh Steelers (4 times), Denver Broncos (4 times), Baltimore Ravens (2 times), Indianapolis Colts (2 times), Kansas City Chiefs (3 times), Cincinnati Bengals (1 time), Las Vegas Raiders (1 time), Tennessee Titans (1 time). By contrast, the NFC has sent 13 of the 16 NFC teams during that same time frame with only the Detroit Lions, Minnesota Vikings, and Washington Commanders missing out on an appearance in the Super Bowl. 17 of the 19 AFC champions from 2001 to 2019 have started one of just three quarterbacks - Tom Brady, Peyton Manning and Ben Roethlisberger - in the Super Bowl. The AFC has started 7 quarterbacks in the last 20 Super Bowls, while the NFC has started 16. Logo The original AFC logo was very similar to the AFL logo, however the merged league quickly created an updated logo for the AFC that, while preserving the basic elements of the old AFL logo, used a much bolder red "A" and six similarly bold red stars surrounding it, in contrast to the six blue AFL stars. The league also created a logo for the NFC in 1970, which like the AFL and AFC logos also contained only the first letter as opposed to a full abbreviation, but with only three stars (to represent the then-three divisions of the Conference). The AFC logo basically remained unchanged from 1970 to 2009. The 2010 NFL season introduced an updated AFC logo, with the most notable revision being the removal of two stars (leaving four representing the four divisions of the AFC), and moving the stars inside the letter, similar to the NFC logo, which itself was updated at the same time to add a fourth star. Notably, the Kansas City Chiefs (still owned by the descendants of AFL founder Lamar Hunt) continue to regularly feature the original AFL logo on their jerseys as of . Television NBC aired the AFC's Sunday afternoon and playoff games from 1970 through the 1997 season. From 1998 to 2013, CBS was the primary broadcast rightsholder to the AFC; in those years, all interconference games in which the AFC team was the visiting team were broadcast on either NBC or CBS. Since 2014, the cross-flex policy allows select AFC games (that involve them playing an NFC team at home or intraconference games) to be moved from CBS to Fox. Since 1990, select AFC playoff games have been seen on ABC or ESPN. See also AFC Championship Game AFC Divisions AFC East AFC North AFC South AFC West AFC Rivalries AFC East Bills–Dolphins rivalry Bills–Patriots rivalry Bills–Jets rivalry Dolphins–Patriots rivalry Dolphins–Jets rivalry Jets–Patriots rivalry AFC North Bengals–Ravens rivalry Bengals–Browns rivalry Bengals–Steelers rivalry Browns–Ravens rivalry Browns–Steelers rivalry Ravens–Steelers rivalry AFC South Colts–Jaguars rivalry Colts–Texans rivalry Colts–Titans rivalry Jaguars–Texans rivalry Jaguars–Titans rivalry Texans–Titans rivalry AFC West Broncos–Raiders rivalry Broncos–Chiefs rivalry Broncos–Chargers rivalry Chargers–Raiders rivalry Chargers–Chiefs rivalry Chiefs–Raiders rivalry Interdivisional Bills–Chiefs rivalry Bills–Titans rivalry Broncos–Patriots rivalry Broncos–Steelers rivalry Colts–Patriots rivalry Dolphins–Raiders rivalry Raiders–Steelers rivalry Patriots–Ravens rivalry Patriots–Steelers rivalry Steelers–Titans rivalry Ravens–Titans rivalry AFC Television Network NFL on NBC (1970–1997) NFL on CBS (1998–present) References }} Category:National Football League Conference Category:Sports organizations established in 1970	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Football_Conference	2025-04-05T18:25:18.069025
620	Animal Farm	Animal Farm is a satirical allegorical novella, in the form of a beast fable, by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. It tells the story of a group of anthropomorphic farm animals who rebel against their human farmer, hoping to create a society where the animals can be equal, free, and happy. Ultimately, the rebellion is betrayed, and under the dictatorship of a pig named Napoleon, the farm ends up in a far worse state than before. According to Orwell, Animal Farm reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union, a period when Russia lived under the Marxist–Leninist ideology of Joseph Stalin. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Barcelona May Days conflicts between the POUM and Stalinist forces, during the Spanish Civil War. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as a satirical tale against Stalin (""), and in his essay, "Why I Write" (1946), wrote: "Animal Farm was the first book in which I tried, with full consciousness of what I was doing, to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole". The original title of the novel was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story. American publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations, during Orwell's lifetime, the Telugu version, kept it. Other title variations include subtitles like "A Satire" and "A Contemporary Satire". Orwell suggested the title for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin word for "bear", a symbol of Russia. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, . Orwell wrote the book between November 1943 and February 1944, when the United Kingdom was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany and the British intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, which Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by several British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear, as international relations and public opinion were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War. Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels, and number 46 on the BBC's The Big Read poll. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996, and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection. Plot summary The animal populace of the poorly run Manor Farm near Willingdon, England, is ripened for rebellion by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer Mr. Jones. One night, the exalted boar Old Major holds a conference, at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England". When Old Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and stage a revolt, driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. To commemorate the start of Animal Farm, Snowball raises a green flag with a white hoof and horn. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm (later dubbed the "Battle of the Cowshed"), Snowball announces his plans to modernise the farm by building a windmill. Napoleon disputes this idea, and matters come to a head, which culminates in Napoleon's dogs chasing Snowball away and Napoleon effectively declaring himself supreme commander. Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young porker named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the idea of building the windmill, claiming that Snowball was only trying to win animals to his side. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer persuade the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project, and begin to purge the farm of animals accused by Napoleon of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) gradually smears Snowball to the point of saying he is a collaborator of Mr. Jones, even dismissing the fact that Snowball was given an award of courage, while falsely representing himself as the main hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with "Animal Farm", while an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who is presumably adopting the lifestyle of a man ("Comrade Napoleon"), is composed and sung. Napoleon then conducts a second purge, during which many animals who are alleged to be helping Snowball in plots are executed by Napoleon's dogs, which troubles the rest of the animals. Despite their hardships, the animals are easily pacified by Napoleon's retort that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones, as well as by the sheep's continual bleating of "four legs good, two legs bad". Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Although he recovers from this, Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill (being almost 12 years old at that point). He is taken away in a knacker's van and a donkey called Benjamin alerts the animals of this, but Squealer quickly waves off their alarm by persuading the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and honours him with a festival the following day. In truth, Napoleon had engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing him and his inner circle to acquire money to buy whisky for themselves. Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals that Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water, are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. Snowball has been forgotten, alongside Boxer, with "the exception of the few who knew him". Many of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones is also now known to be dead, having "died in an inebriates' home in another part of the country". The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, drink alcohol, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just one phrase: "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others". The maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad" is similarly changed to "Four legs good, two legs better". Other changes include the Hoof and Horn flag being replaced with a plain green banner and Old Major's skull, which was previously put on display, being reburied. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. The other farm animals, who have not been invited, gather toward the window to watch. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the ace of spades at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two. Characters Pigs * Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is also called Willingdon Beauty when showing. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Vladimir Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was left in indefinite repose. By the end of the book, the skull is reburied. * Napoleon – "A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the leader of Animal Farm. * Snowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones's overthrow. His life parallels that of Leon Trotsky, although there is no reference to Snowball having been murdered (as Trotsky was); he may also combine some elements from Lenin.}} * Squealer – A small, white, fat large white who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, is a collective portrait of the Soviet nomenklatura and journalists, such as of the national daily Pravda (The Truth), able to justify every twist and turn in Stalin's policy. * Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second national anthem of Animal Farm after the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned; later he composes a poem "Comrade Napoleon". Literary theorist John Rodden compares him to the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky, who eulogized Lenin and the Soviet Union, although Mayakovsky neither wrote anthems nor praised Stalin in his poems. * The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. * The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Probably based on the Great Purge of Grigory Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov. * Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the taste-tester that samples Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. Humans * Mr. Jones – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who was forced to abdicate following the February Revolution of 1917 and was executed, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones goes on a drinking binge, returns hungover the following day and neglects them completely. Jones is married, but his wife plays no active role in the book. She seems to live with her husband's drunkenness, going to bed while he stays up drinking until late into the night. In her only other appearance, she hastily throws a few things into a travel bag and flees when she sees that the animals are revolting. Towards the end of the book, Napoleon's "favourite sow" wears her old Sunday dress. * Mr. Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield Farm, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly allies with Napoleon. Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a "buffer zone" between the two bickering farmers. The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with cockfighting. Napoleon allies with Frederick to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and destroying the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Operation Barbarossa. * Mr. Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood Farm, a large neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Pilkington is wealthier than Frederick and owns more land, but his farm needs care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones and is worried that this could also happen to him. * Mr. Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first, he acquires necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin wax, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. Equines * Boxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, powerful, hard-working, and respectable cart-shire horse, although quite naive and gullible. She is only once mentioned again, and has an affinity for hair ribbons and sugar cubes. * Clover – A gentle, caring mare, who shows concern, especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot "put words together". * Benjamin – A donkey, one of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly". Academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless scepticism" and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in Animal Farm". Benjamin manages to evade the purges and survive despite the threat he potentially poses given his knowledge, his age, and his equivocal, albeit apolitical, positions. Other animals * Muriel – A goat who is another of the oldest, wisest animals on the farm and friends with all of the animals on the farm. Similar to Benjamin, Muriel is one of the few animals on the farm who is not a pig but can read. She survives, as does Benjamin, by eschewing politics. * The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, the puppies were taken away at birth by Napoleon and raised by him to serve as his powerful security force. * Moses – The Raven, "Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker". Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays established religion as "the black raven of priestcraft – promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power". His preaching to the animals heartens them, and Napoleon allows Moses to reside at the farm "with an allowance of a gill of beer daily", akin to how Stalin brought back the Russian Orthodox Church during the Second World War. * The sheep – They are not given individual names or personalities. They show limited understanding of Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm, yet nonetheless, they are the voice of blind conformity as they bleat their support of Napoleon's ideals with jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. Their constant bleating of "four legs good, two legs bad" was used as a device to drown out any opposition or alternative views from Snowball, much as Stalin used hysterical crowds to drown out Trotsky. Towards the end of the book, Squealer (the propagandist) trains the sheep to alter their slogan to "four legs good, two legs better", which they dutifully do. * The hens – The hens are promised following the rebellion that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr. Jones, however, their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside the farm. The hens are among the first to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully, against Napoleon, being brutally suppressed through starvation. They represent the Ukrainian victims of the Holodomor. * The cows – Unnamed. The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen but can be used to raise their calves. Their milk is then stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries. * The cat – Unnamed and never seen to carry out any work. The cat is absent for long periods and is forgiven because her excuses are so convincing and she "purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions". She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually "voted on both sides". * The ducks – Unnamed. * The roosters – One arranges to wake Boxer early, and a black one acts as a trumpeter for Napoleon since he was a young cockerel. * The geese – Unnamed. One gander commits suicide by eating nightshade berries. * The rats – Unnamed. Classed among the wild animals, unsuccessful attempts were made to civilise them and teach them the principles of Animalism. Genre and style George Orwell's Animal Farm is an example of a political satire and an allegory that was intended to have a "wider application", according to Orwell himself, in terms of its relevance. Stylistically, the work shares many similarities with some of Orwell's other works, most notably Nineteen Eighty-Four, as both have been considered works of Swiftian satire. Furthermore, these two prominent works seem to suggest Orwell's bleak view of the future for humanity; he seems to stress the potential/current threat of dystopias similar to those in Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four. In these kinds of works, Orwell distinctly references the disarray and traumatic conditions of Europe following the Second World War. Orwell's style and writing philosophy as a whole were very concerned with the pursuit of truth in writing. Orwell was committed to communicating straightforwardly, given the way that he felt words were commonly used in politics to deceive and confuse. For this reason, he is careful, in Animal Farm, to make sure the narrator speaks in an unbiased and uncomplicated fashion. George Orwell wrote the manuscript between November 1943 and February 1944 after his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in Homage to Catalonia (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of Animal Farm, he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals. Homage to Catalonia sold poorly; after seeing Arthur Koestler's best-selling Darkness at Noon about the Moscow Trials, Orwell decided that fiction would be the best way to describe totalitarianism. Immediately before writing the book, Orwell quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination. In the preface, Orwell described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm: In 1944, the manuscript was almost lost when a German V-1 flying bomb destroyed his London home. Orwell spent hours sifting through the rubble to find the pages intact. Publication Publishing Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused to publish Animal Farm, yet one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945. During World War II, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch – including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and "fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally Trotskyite". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed ... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs". Orwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in Animal Farm". In his London Letter on 17 April 1944 for Partisan Review, Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle". The publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted Animal Farm, subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off – although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the "important official" was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying: Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Adolf Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper Posev, and in permitting a Russian translation of Animal Farm, Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission. In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate Animal Farm. Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good time with Animal Farm – an excellent bit of satire – it would illustrate perfectly". Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned. The Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of Animal Farm. Preface Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally: Although the first edition allowed space for the preface in the author's proof, it was not included, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute. As of June 2009, most editions of the book have not included it. In 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his introduction, in The Times Literary Supplement on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of Animal Farm with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it. Reception Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American New Republic magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly". Soule believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real-world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well". The Guardian on 24 August 1945 called Animal Farm "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few". Tosco Fyvel, writing in Tribune on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us". Julian Symons responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in Tribune at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State – Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years perhaps, Animal Farm may be simply a fairy story; today it is a political satire with a good deal of point". Animal Farm has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks. Between 1952 and 1957, the CIA, in an operation codenamed Aedinosaur, sent millions of balloons carrying copies of the novel into Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, whose air forces tried to shoot the balloons down. The Information Research Department, a secret Cold War propaganda agency of the British government, translated the book into various languages such as Arabic. Time magazine chose Animal Farm as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection. Animal Farm has also faced an array of challenges in school settings around the US. The following are examples of this controversy that has existed around Orwell's work: * The John Birch Society in Wisconsin challenged the reading of Animal Farm in 1965 because of its reference to the masses revolting. * New York State English Council's Committee on Defense Against Censorship found that in 1968, Animal Farm had been widely deemed a "problem book". Animal Farm has also faced similar forms of resistance in other countries. However, the book itself, as of 2019, remains sold in stores. Amy Hawkins and Jeffrey Wasserstrom of The Atlantic stated in 2019 that the book is widely available in mainland China for several reasons: censors believe the general public is unlikely to read a highbrow book, because the elites who do read books feel connected to the ruling party anyway, and because the Communist Party sees being too aggressive in blocking cultural products as a liability. The authors stated: "It was – and remains – as easy to buy 1984 and Animal Farm in Shenzhen or Shanghai as it is in London or Los Angeles". An enhanced version of the book, launched in India in 2017, was widely praised for capturing the author's intent, by republishing the proposed preface of the First Edition and the preface he wrote for the Ukrainian edition.AnalysisAnimalism Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism, not to be confused with the philosophy of Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society. and Donald Freeman]] The original commandments are: # Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. # Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. # No animal shall wear clothes. # No animal shall sleep in a bed. # No animal shall drink alcohol. # No animal shall kill any other animal. # All animals are equal. These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad!" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better" as the pigs become more anthropomorphic. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which was supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.Significance and allegory , the Communist symbol. By the end of the book when Napoleon takes full control, the Hoof and Horn is removed from the flag.]] Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory". Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire on the Russian revolution ... [and] that kind of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power-hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [–] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert". In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages". The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The Battle of the Cowshed has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to preeminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald, stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the windmill suggest the various five-year plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their non-existent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten. Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison contend that the Battle of the Windmill, specifically referencing the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow, represents World War II. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Józef Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion. , Skrypnyk, and Stalin – 'When Snowball comes to the crucial points in his speeches he is drowned out by the sheep (Ch. V), just as in the party Congress in 1927 [above], at Stalin's instigation 'pleas for the opposition were drowned in the continual, hysterically intolerant uproar from the floor'. (Isaac Deutscher)]] Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from 1917 to 1943, including the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and Germany (Ch. IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch. V), parallelling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch. VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, parallelling the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill. The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Tehran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West" – but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, each "played an ace of spades simultaneously". Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with "Beasts of England" and the later anthems, parallels "The Internationale" and its adoption and repudiation by the Soviet authorities as the anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s. According to Masha Gessen, the metamorphosis of the eighth commandment ("some animals are more equal") was likely inspired by similar change of a party line which declared all Soviet people equal: the Russian nation and language suddenly became "first among equals" in official CPSU publications in 1936–1937.AdaptationsStage productionsA theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985. A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premiered at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since. In 2021, during pandemic restrictions, the National Youth Theatre toured a stage version of Animal Farm; this run included outdoor performances on a farm at Soulton Hall. A new adaptation written and directed by Robert Icke, designed by Bunny Christie with puppetry designed and directed by Toby Olié opened at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in January 2022 before touring the UK. The Russian composer Alexander Raskatov has written an opera based on the book. Its premiere took place on 4 March 2023 in Amsterdam as part of Dutch National Opera's 2022/2023 season.FilmsAnimal Farm has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects. * Animal Farm (1954) is an animated film, in which Napoleon is eventually overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the CIA's Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency. * Animal Farm (1999) is a live-action TV version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism. Andy Serkis is directing an upcoming animated film adaptation. Radio dramatisations A BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes". A further radio production, again using Orwell's dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated, and the cast included Nicky Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer. Comic strip copy of the first instalment of Pett and Freeman's Animal Farm comic strip]] In 1950, Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired by the Information Research Department, a secret department of the Foreign Office, to adapt Animal Farm into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the United Kingdom but ran in Brazilian and Burmese newspapers. Video game Developers Nerial and The Dairymen released a game based on the book in December 2020, entitled ''Orwell's Animal Farm, for Windows, macOS, iOS and Android in coordination with the Orwell Estate. See also * Information Research Department * Authoritarian personality * History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927) * History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953) * Ideocracy * New class * Anthems in Animal Farm * Animals, an album based on Animal Farm Books * Gulliver's Travels'' was a favourite book of Orwell's. Swift reverses the role of horses and human beings in the fourth book. Orwell brought to Animal Farm "a dose of Swiftian misanthropy, looking ahead to a time 'when the human race had finally been overthrown." * Bunt (Revolt), published in 1924, is a book by Polish Nobel laureate Władysław Reymont with a theme similar to Animal Farm. * White Acre vs. Black Acre, published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for slavery in the United States similar to Animal Farms portrayal of Soviet history. * George Orwell's own Nineteen Eighty-Four is a dystopian novel about totalitarianism. References Explanatory notes Citations General sources <!-- In alphabetical order by last name or organisation name. --> * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * }} Further reading * * * O'Neill, Terry, [https://archive.org/details/readingsonanimal00onei Readings on Animal Farm] (1998), Greenhaven Press. . External links * * * [http://literapedia.wikispaces.com/Animal+Farm Animal Farm Book Notes from Literapedia] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051024060250/http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning Animal Farm] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070108225314/http://www.antigonishreview.com/bi-111/111-pyle.html Literary Journal review] * [http://home.iprimus.com.au/korob/Orwell.html Orwell's original preface to the book] * [https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/molyneux/1989/xx/orwell.html Animal Farm Revisited] by John Molyneux, International Socialism, 44 (1989) * [http://www.bl.uk/works/animal-farm Animal Farm] at the British Library Category:1945 British novels Category:Allegory Category:British novellas Category:British novels adapted for radio Category:British novels adapted into films Category:British novels adapted into plays Category:British novels adapted into television shows Category:British political novels Category:British satirical novels Category:Censored books Category:Dystopian novels Category:English novels Category:Hugo Award for Best Novella–winning works Category:Novels about animals Category:Novels about cats Category:Novels about dogs Category:Novels about pigs Category:Novels about propaganda Category:Novels about revolutionaries Category:Novels about totalitarianism Category:Novels adapted into comics Category:Novels by George Orwell Category:Novels set on farms Category:Novels set in East Sussex Category:Cattle in literature Category:Political literature Category:Political satire novels Category:Roman à clef novels Category:Secker & Warburg books Category:Cultural depictions of Karl Marx Category:Cultural depictions of Vladimir Lenin Category:Cultural depictions of Joseph Stalin Category:Cultural depictions of Leon Trotsky Category:Cultural depictions of Nicholas II of Russia Category:Totalitarianism in fiction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Farm	2025-04-05T18:25:18.121587
621	Amphibian	Amphibia (TV series)\|other uses}} \| image = \| taxon = Amphibia \| authority Gray 1825]] Amphibians are ectothermic, anamniotic, four-limbed vertebrate animals that constitute the class Amphibia. In its broadest sense, it is a paraphyletic group encompassing all tetrapods excluding the amniotes (tetrapods with an amniotic membrane, such as modern reptiles, birds and mammals). All extant (living) amphibians belong to the monophyletic subclass Lissamphibia, with three living orders: Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders), and Gymnophiona (caecilians). Evolved to be mostly semiaquatic, amphibians have adapted to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living in freshwater, wetland or terrestrial ecosystems (such as riparian woodland, fossorial and even arboreal habitats). Their life cycle typically starts out as aquatic larvae with gills known as tadpoles, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this. Young amphibians generally undergo metamorphosis from an aquatic larval form with gills to an air-breathing adult form with lungs. Amphibians use their skin as a secondary respiratory interface and some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs lack lungs and rely entirely on their skin. They are superficially similar to reptiles like lizards, but unlike reptiles and other amniotes, require access to water bodies to breed. With their complex reproductive needs and permeable skins, amphibians are often ecological indicators to habitat conditions; in recent decades there has been a dramatic decline in amphibian populations for many species around the globe. The earliest amphibians evolved in the Devonian period from tetrapodomorph sarcopterygians (lobe-finned fish with articulated limb-like fins) that evolved primitive lungs, which were helpful in adapting to dry land. They diversified and became ecologically dominant during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, but were later displaced in terrestrial environments by early reptiles and basal synapsids (predecessors of mammals). The origin of modern lissamphibians, which first appeared during the Early Triassic, around 250 million years ago, has long been contentious. The most popular hypothesis is that they likely originated from temnospondyls, the most diverse group of prehistoric amphibians, during the Permian period. Another hypothesis is that they emerged from lepospondyls. A fourth group of lissamphibians, the Albanerpetontidae, became extinct around 2 million years ago. The number of known amphibian species is approximately 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a frog from New Guinea (Paedophryne amauensis) with a length of just . The largest living amphibian is the South China giant salamander (Andrias sligoi), but this is dwarfed by prehistoric temnospondyls such as Mastodonsaurus which could reach up to in length. The study of amphibians is called batrachology, while the study of both reptiles and amphibians is called herpetology. Classification , sitting on a U.S. dime. The dime is 17.9 mm in diameter, for scale]] The word amphibian is derived from the Ancient Greek term (), which means 'both kinds of life', meaning 'of both kinds' and meaning 'life'. The term was initially used as a general adjective for animals that could live on land or in water, including seals and otters. Traditionally, the class Amphibia includes all tetrapod vertebrates that are not amniotes. Amphibia in its widest sense () was divided into three subclasses, two of which are extinct: Subclass Lepospondyli† (A potentially polyphyletic Late Paleozoic group of small forms, likely more closely related to amniotes than Lissamphibia) Subclass Temnospondyli† (diverse Late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic grade, some of which were large predators) * Subclass Lissamphibia (all modern amphibians, including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts and caecilians) Salientia (frogs, toads and relatives): Early Triassic to present—7,360 current species in 53 families. Modern (crown group) salientians are described via the name Anura. Caudata (salamanders, newts and relatives): Late Triassic to present—764 current species in 9 families. The numbers of species cited above follows Frost and the total number of known (living) amphibian species as of March 31, 2019, is exactly 8,000, of which nearly 90% are frogs. With the phylogenetic classification, the taxon Labyrinthodontia has been discarded as it is a polyparaphyletic group without unique defining features apart from shared primitive characteristics. Classification varies according to the preferred phylogeny of the author and whether they use a stem-based or a node-based classification. Traditionally, amphibians as a class are defined as all tetrapods with a larval stage, while the group that includes the common ancestors of all living amphibians (frogs, salamanders and caecilians) and all their descendants is called Lissamphibia. The phylogeny of Paleozoic amphibians is uncertain, and Lissamphibia may possibly fall within extinct groups, like the Temnospondyli (traditionally placed in the subclass Labyrinthodontia) or the Lepospondyli, and in some analyses even in the amniotes. This means that advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature have removed a large number of basal Devonian and Carboniferous amphibian-type tetrapod groups that were formerly placed in Amphibia in Linnaean taxonomy, and included them elsewhere under cladistic taxonomy. If the common ancestor of amphibians and amniotes is included in Amphibia, it becomes a paraphyletic group. All modern amphibians are included in the subclass Lissamphibia, which is usually considered a clade, a group of species that have evolved from a common ancestor. The three modern orders are Anura (the frogs), Caudata (or Urodela, the salamanders), and Gymnophiona (or Apoda, the caecilians). It has been suggested that salamanders arose separately from a temnospondyl-like ancestor, and even that caecilians are the sister group of the advanced reptiliomorph amphibians, and thus of amniotes. The oldest known caecilians are Funcusvermis gilmorei (from the Late Triassic) and Eocaecilia micropodia (from the Early Jurassic), both from Arizona. The earliest salamander is Beiyanerpeton jianpingensis from the Late Jurassic of northeastern China. Authorities disagree as to whether Salientia is a superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. The Lissamphibia are traditionally divided into three orders, but an extinct salamander-like family, the Albanerpetontidae, is now considered part of Lissamphibia alongside the superorder Salientia. Furthermore, Salientia includes all three recent orders plus the Triassic proto-frog, Triadobatrachus. Evolutionary history The first major groups of amphibians developed in the Devonian period, around 370 million years ago, from lobe-finned fish which were similar to the modern coelacanth and lungfish. These ancient lobe-finned fish had evolved multi-jointed leg-like fins with digits that enabled them to crawl along the sea bottom. Some fish had developed primitive lungs that help them breathe air when the stagnant pools of the Devonian swamps were low in oxygen. They could also use their strong fins to hoist themselves out of the water and onto dry land if circumstances so required. Eventually, their bony fins would evolve into limbs and they would become the ancestors to all tetrapods, including modern amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Despite being able to crawl on land, many of these prehistoric tetrapodomorph fish still spent most of their time in the water. They had started to develop lungs, but still breathed predominantly with gills. Many examples of species showing transitional features have been discovered. Ichthyostega was one of the first primitive amphibians, with nostrils and more efficient lungs. It had four sturdy limbs, a neck, a tail with fins and a skull very similar to that of the lobe-finned fish, Eusthenopteron''. An affinity between the amphibians and the teleost fish is the multi-folded structure of the teeth and the paired supra-occipital bones at the back of the head, neither of these features being found elsewhere in the animal kingdom. In the early Carboniferous (360 to 323 million years ago), the climate was relatively wet and warm. Extensive swamps developed with mosses, ferns, horsetails and calamites. Air-breathing arthropods evolved and invaded the land where they provided food for the carnivorous amphibians that began to adapt to the terrestrial environment. There were no other tetrapods on the land and the amphibians were at the top of the food chain, with some occupying ecological positions currently held by crocodiles. Though equipped with limbs and the ability to breathe air, most still had a long tapering body and strong tail. Others were the top land predators, sometimes reaching several metres in length, preying on the large insects of the period and the many types of fish in the water. They still needed to return to water to lay their shell-less eggs, and even most modern amphibians have a fully aquatic larval stage with gills like their fish ancestors. It was the development of the amniotic egg, which prevents the developing embryo from drying out, that enabled the reptiles to reproduce on land and which led to their dominance in the period that followed. and amphibians were further devastated by the Permian–Triassic extinction event. During the Triassic Period (252 to 201 million years ago), the reptiles continued to out-compete the amphibians, leading to a reduction in both the amphibians' size and their importance in the biosphere. According to the fossil record, Lissamphibia, which includes all modern amphibians and is the only surviving lineage, may have branched off from the extinct groups Temnospondyli and Lepospondyli at some period between the Late Carboniferous and the Early Triassic. The relative scarcity of fossil evidence precludes precise dating, had sturdy limbs to support its body on land]] The origins and evolutionary relationships between the three main groups of amphibians is a matter of debate. A 2005 molecular phylogeny, based on rDNA analysis, suggests that salamanders and caecilians are more closely related to each other than they are to frogs. It also appears that the divergence of the three groups took place in the Paleozoic or early Mesozoic (around 250 million years ago), before the breakup of the supercontinent Pangaea and soon after their divergence from the lobe-finned fish. The briefness of this period, and the swiftness with which radiation took place, would help account for the relative scarcity of primitive amphibian fossils. There are large gaps in the fossil record, the discovery of the dissorophoid temnospondyl Gerobatrachus'' from the Early Permian in Texas in 2008 provided a missing link with many of the characteristics of modern frogs. Molecular analysis suggests that the frog–salamander divergence took place considerably earlier than the palaeontological evidence indicates. However, most studies support a single monophyletic origin of all modern amphibians within the dissorophoid temnospondyls. Reptiles, birds and mammals are amniotes, the eggs of which are either laid or carried by the female and are surrounded by several membranes, some of which are impervious. Lacking these membranes, amphibians require water bodies for reproduction, although some species have developed various strategies for protecting or bypassing the vulnerable aquatic larval stage. They are not found in the sea with the exception of one or two frogs that live in brackish water in mangrove swamps; the Anderson's salamander meanwhile occurs in brackish or salt water lakes. On land, amphibians are restricted to moist habitats because of the need to keep their skin damp. Modern amphibians have a simplified anatomy compared to their ancestors due to paedomorphosis, caused by two evolutionary trends: miniaturization and an unusually large genome, which result in a slower growth and development rate compared to other vertebrates. Another reason for their size is associated with their rapid metamorphosis, which seems to have evolved only in the ancestors of Lissamphibia; in all other known lines the development was much more gradual. Because a remodeling of the feeding apparatus means they do not eat during the metamorphosis, the metamorphosis has to go faster the smaller the individual is, so it happens at an early stage when the larvae are still small. (The largest species of salamanders do not go through a metamorphosis.) Amphibians that lay eggs on land often go through the whole metamorphosis inside the egg. An anamniotic terrestrial egg is less than 1 cm in diameter due to diffusion problems, a size which puts a limit on the amount of posthatching growth. The smallest amphibian (and vertebrate) in the world is a microhylid frog from New Guinea (Paedophryne amauensis) first discovered in 2012. It has an average length of and is part of a genus that contains four of the world's ten smallest frog species. The largest living amphibian is the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) but this is a great deal smaller than the largest amphibian that ever existed—the extinct Prionosuchus, a crocodile-like temnospondyl dating to 270 million years ago from the middle Permian of Brazil. The largest frog is the African Goliath frog (Conraua goliath), which can reach and weigh . Frogs range in size from the Goliath frog (Conraua goliath) of West Africa to the Paedophryne amauensis, first described in Papua New Guinea in 2012, which is also the smallest known vertebrate. Although most species are associated with water and damp habitats, some are specialised to live in trees or in deserts. They are found worldwide except for polar areas. Anura is divided into three suborders that are broadly accepted by the scientific community, but the relationships between some families remain unclear. Future molecular studies should provide further insights into their evolutionary relationships. The suborder Archaeobatrachia contains four families of primitive frogs. These are Ascaphidae, Bombinatoridae, Discoglossidae and Leiopelmatidae which have few derived features and are probably paraphyletic with regard to other frog lineages. The six families in the more evolutionarily advanced suborder Mesobatrachia are the fossorial Megophryidae, Pelobatidae, Pelodytidae, Scaphiopodidae and Rhinophrynidae and the obligatorily aquatic Pipidae. These have certain characteristics that are intermediate between the two other suborders. Caudata <br/>(Andrias japonicus), a primitive salamander]] The order Caudata (from the Latin cauda meaning "tail") consists of the salamanders—elongated, low-slung animals that mostly resemble lizards in form. This is a symplesiomorphic trait and they are no more closely related to lizards than they are to mammals. Salamanders lack claws, have scale-free skins, either smooth or covered with tubercles, and tails that are usually flattened from side to side and often finned. They range in size from the Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus), which has been reported to grow to a length of , to the diminutive Thorius pennatulus from Mexico which seldom exceeds in length. Salamanders have a mostly Laurasian distribution, being present in much of the Holarctic region of the northern hemisphere. The family Plethodontidae is also found in Central America and South America north of the Amazon basin; Urodela is a name sometimes used for all the extant species of salamanders. Members of several salamander families have become paedomorphic and either fail to complete their metamorphosis or retain some larval characteristics as adults. Most salamanders are under long. They may be terrestrial or aquatic and many spend part of the year in each habitat. When on land, they mostly spend the day hidden under stones or logs or in dense vegetation, emerging in the evening and night to forage for worms, insects and other invertebrates. The males excavate nests, persuade females to lay their egg strings inside them, and guard them. As well as breathing with lungs, they respire through the many folds in their thin skin, which has capillaries close to the surface. The suborder Salamandroidea contains the advanced salamanders. They differ from the cryptobranchids by having fused prearticular bones in the lower jaw, and by using internal fertilisation. In salamandrids, the male deposits a bundle of sperm, the spermatophore, and the female picks it up and inserts it into her cloaca where the sperm is stored until the eggs are laid. The largest family in this group is Plethodontidae, the lungless salamanders, which includes 60% of all salamander species. The family Salamandridae includes the true salamanders and the name "newt" is given to members of its subfamily Pleurodelinae. The third suborder, Sirenoidea, contains the four species of sirens, which are in a single family, Sirenidae. Members of this order are eel-like aquatic salamanders with much reduced forelimbs and no hind limbs. Some of their features are primitive while others are derived. Fertilisation is likely to be external as sirenids lack the cloacal glands used by male salamandrids to produce spermatophores and the females lack spermathecae for sperm storage. Despite this, the eggs are laid singly, a behaviour not conducive for external fertilisation. Anatomy and physiology Skin of the common reed frog (Hyperolius viridiflavus) are typical of a toxic species]] The integumentary structure contains some typical characteristics common to terrestrial vertebrates, such as the presence of highly cornified outer layers, renewed periodically through a moulting process controlled by the pituitary and thyroid glands. Local thickenings (often called warts) are common, such as those found on toads. The outside of the skin is shed periodically mostly in one piece, in contrast to mammals and birds where it is shed in flakes. Amphibians often eat the sloughed skin. thumb\|upright=1.35\|Cross section of frog skin: ]] Amphibian skin is permeable to water. Gas exchange can take place through the skin (cutaneous respiration) and this allows adult amphibians to respire without rising to the surface of water and to hibernate at the bottom of ponds. The main poison-producing glands, the parotoids, produce the neurotoxin bufotoxin and are located behind the ears of toads, along the backs of frogs, behind the eyes of salamanders and on the upper surface of caecilians. The skin colour of amphibians is produced by three layers of pigment cells called chromatophores. These three cell layers consist of the melanophores (occupying the deepest layer), the guanophores (forming an intermediate layer and containing many granules, producing a blue-green colour) and the lipophores (yellow, the most superficial layer). The colour change displayed by many species is initiated by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland. Unlike bony fish, there is no direct control of the pigment cells by the nervous system, and this results in the colour change taking place more slowly than happens in fish. A vividly coloured skin usually indicates that the species is toxic and is a warning sign to predators. Skeletal system and locomotion , a temnospondyl]] Amphibians have a skeletal system that is structurally homologous to other tetrapods, though with a number of variations. They all have four limbs except for the legless caecilians and a few species of salamander with reduced or no limbs. The bones are hollow and lightweight. The musculoskeletal system is strong to enable it to support the head and body. The bones are fully ossified and the vertebrae interlock with each other by means of overlapping processes. The pectoral girdle is supported by muscle, and the well-developed pelvic girdle is attached to the backbone by a pair of sacral ribs. The ilium slopes forward and the body is held closer to the ground than is the case in mammals. <br/>(Ceratophrys cornuta)]] In most amphibians, there are four digits on the fore foot and five on the hind foot, but no claws on either. Some salamanders have fewer digits and the amphiumas are eel-like in appearance with tiny, stubby legs. The sirens are aquatic salamanders with stumpy forelimbs and no hind limbs. The caecilians are limbless. They burrow in the manner of earthworms with zones of muscle contractions moving along the body. On the surface of the ground or in water they move by undulating their body from side to side. In frogs, the hind legs are larger than the fore legs, especially so in those species that principally move by jumping or swimming. In the walkers and runners the hind limbs are not so large, and the burrowers mostly have short limbs and broad bodies. The feet have adaptations for the way of life, with webbing between the toes for swimming, broad adhesive toe pads for climbing, and keratinised tubercles on the hind feet for digging (frogs usually dig backwards into the soil). In most salamanders, the limbs are short and more or less the same length and project at right angles from the body. Locomotion on land is by walking and the tail often swings from side to side or is used as a prop, particularly when climbing. In their normal gait, only one leg is advanced at a time in the manner adopted by their ancestors, the lobe-finned fish. Some salamanders in the genus Aneides and certain plethodontids climb trees and have long limbs, large toepads and prehensile tails. Adult frogs are unable to regrow limbs but tadpoles can do so. Circulatory system thumb\|Juvenile amphibian circulatory systems are single loop systems which resemble fish. <!-- --> Red indicates oxygenated blood, and blue represents oxygen depleted blood. Amphibians have a juvenile stage and an adult stage, and the circulatory systems of the two are distinct. In the juvenile (or tadpole) stage, the circulation is similar to that of a fish; the two-chambered heart pumps the blood through the gills where it is oxygenated, and is spread around the body and back to the heart in a single loop. In the adult stage, amphibians (especially frogs) lose their gills and develop lungs. They have a heart that consists of a single ventricle and two atria. When the ventricle starts contracting, deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Continued contraction then pumps oxygenated blood around the rest of the body. Mixing of the two bloodstreams is minimized by the anatomy of the chambers. Nervous and sensory systems The nervous system is basically the same as in other vertebrates, with a central brain, a spinal cord, and nerves throughout the body. The amphibian brain is relatively simple but broadly the same structurally as in reptiles, birds and mammals. Their brains are elongated, except in caecilians, and contain the usual motor and sensory areas of tetrapods. The pineal body, known to regulate sleep patterns in humans, is thought to produce the hormones involved in hibernation and aestivation in amphibians. Tadpoles retain the lateral line system of their ancestral fishes, but this is lost in terrestrial adult amphibians. Many aquatic salamanders and some caecilians possess electroreceptors called ampullary organs (completely absent in anurans), that allow them to locate objects around them when submerged in water. The ears are well developed in frogs. There is no external ear, but the large circular eardrum lies on the surface of the head just behind the eye. This vibrates and sound is transmitted through a single bone, the stapes, to the inner ear. Only high-frequency sounds like mating calls are heard in this way, but low-frequency noises can be detected through another mechanism. There is a patch of specialized haircells, called papilla amphibiorum, in the inner ear capable of detecting deeper sounds. Another feature, unique to frogs and salamanders, is the columella-operculum complex adjoining the auditory capsule which is involved in the transmission of both airborne and seismic signals. The ears of salamanders and caecilians are less highly developed than those of frogs as they do not normally communicate with each other through the medium of sound. Digestive and excretory systems thumb\|alt=Dissected frog\|Dissected frog: Many amphibians catch their prey by flicking out an elongated tongue with a sticky tip and drawing it back into the mouth before seizing the item with their jaws. Some use inertial feeding to help them swallow the prey, repeatedly thrusting their head forward sharply causing the food to move backwards in their mouth by inertia. Most amphibians swallow their prey whole without much chewing so they possess voluminous stomachs. The short oesophagus is lined with cilia that help to move the food to the stomach and mucus produced by glands in the mouth and pharynx eases its passage. The enzyme chitinase produced in the stomach helps digest the chitinous cuticle of arthropod prey. Amphibians possess a pancreas, liver and gall bladder. The liver is usually large with two lobes. Its size is determined by its function as a glycogen and fat storage unit, and may change with the seasons as these reserves are built or used up. Adipose tissue is another important means of storing energy and this occurs in the abdomen (in internal structures called fat bodies), under the skin and, in some salamanders, in the tail. <!--In aquatic amphibians, the liver plays only a small role in processing nitrogen for excretion, and ammonia is diffused mainly through the skin. The liver of terrestrial amphibians converts ammonia to urea, a less toxic, water-soluble nitrogenous compound, as a means of water conservation. In some species, urea is further converted into uric acid. Bile secretions from the liver collect in the gall bladder and flow into the small intestine. In the small intestine, enzymes digest carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Salamanders lack a valve separating the small intestine from the large intestine. Salt and water absorption occur in the large intestine, as well as mucous secretion to aid in the transport of faecal matter, which is passed out through the cloaca. As a result, they tend to have high rates of urine production to offset this high water intake, and have urine which is low in dissolved salts. The urinary bladder assists such animals to retain salts. Some aquatic amphibian such as Xenopus do not reabsorb water, to prevent excessive water influx. For land-dwelling amphibians, dehydration results in reduced urine output. The amphibian bladder is usually highly distensible and among some land-dwelling species of frogs and salamanders may account for between 20% and 50% of their total body weight. Respiratory system (Ambystoma mexicanum) retains its larval form with gills into adulthood]] The lungs in amphibians are primitive compared to those of amniotes, possessing few internal septa and large alveoli, and consequently having a comparatively slow diffusion rate for oxygen entering the blood. Ventilation is accomplished by buccal pumping. Most amphibians, however, are able to exchange gases with the water or air via their skin. To enable sufficient cutaneous respiration, the surface of their highly vascularised skin must remain moist to allow the oxygen to diffuse at a sufficiently high rate. Because oxygen concentration in the water increases at both low temperatures and high flow rates, aquatic amphibians in these situations can rely primarily on cutaneous respiration, as in the Titicaca water frog and the hellbender salamander. In air, where oxygen is more concentrated, some small species can rely solely on cutaneous gas exchange, most famously the plethodontid salamanders, which have neither lungs nor gills. Many aquatic salamanders and all tadpoles have gills in their larval stage, with some (such as the axolotl) retaining gills as aquatic adults. Reproduction (Litoria xanthomera) grasping the female during amplexus]] For the purpose of reproduction, most amphibians require fresh water although some lay their eggs on land and have developed various means of keeping them moist. A few (e.g. Fejervarya raja) can inhabit brackish water, but there are no true marine amphibians. There are reports, however, of particular amphibian populations unexpectedly invading marine waters. Such was the case with the Black Sea invasion of the natural hybrid Pelophylax esculentus reported in 2010. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., Eleutherodactylus, the Pacific Platymantis, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water for breeding in the wild. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and evolutionary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet tropical rainforests and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, passing through the tadpole stage within the egg. Reproductive success of many amphibians is dependent not only on the quantity of rainfall, but the seasonal timing. In the tropics, many amphibians breed continuously or at any time of year. In temperate regions, breeding is mostly seasonal, usually in the spring, and is triggered by increasing day length, rising temperatures or rainfall. Experiments have shown the importance of temperature, but the trigger event, especially in arid regions, is often a storm. In anurans, males usually arrive at the breeding sites before females and the vocal chorus they produce may stimulate ovulation in females and the endocrine activity of males that are not yet reproductively active. In caecilians, fertilisation is internal, the male extruding an intromittent organ, the , and inserting it into the female cloaca. The paired Müllerian glands inside the male cloaca secrete a fluid which resembles that produced by mammalian prostate glands and which may transport and nourish the sperm. Fertilisation probably takes place in the oviduct. The majority of salamanders also engage in internal fertilisation. In most of these, the male deposits a spermatophore, a small packet of sperm on top of a gelatinous cone, on the substrate either on land or in the water. The female takes up the sperm packet by grasping it with the lips of the cloaca and pushing it into the vent. The spermatozoa move to the spermatheca in the roof of the cloaca where they remain until ovulation which may be many months later. Courtship rituals and methods of transfer of the spermatophore vary between species. In some, the spermatophore may be placed directly into the female cloaca while in others, the female may be guided to the spermatophore or restrained with an embrace called amplexus. Certain primitive salamanders in the families Sirenidae, Hynobiidae and Cryptobranchidae practice external fertilisation in a similar manner to frogs, with the female laying the eggs in water and the male releasing sperm onto the egg mass. Most frogs can be classified as either prolonged or explosive breeders. Typically, prolonged breeders congregate at a breeding site, the males usually arriving first, calling and setting up territories. Other satellite males remain quietly nearby, waiting for their opportunity to take over a territory. The females arrive sporadically, mate selection takes place and eggs are laid. The females depart and territories may change hands. More females appear and in due course, the breeding season comes to an end. Explosive breeders on the other hand are found where temporary pools appear in dry regions after rainfall. These frogs are typically fossorial species that emerge after heavy rains and congregate at a breeding site. They are attracted there by the calling of the first male to find a suitable place, perhaps a pool that forms in the same place each rainy season. The assembled frogs may call in unison and frenzied activity ensues, the males scrambling to mate with the usually smaller number of females. ]] <!--Sexual selection typically manifests as male-male competition where males will arrive at the waters edge first in large number, producing a wide range of vocalizations and other complex behaviours to attract mates, with the fittest males having the deepest croaks and the best territories. It also exists as mate choice, with females known to choose a mate, at least partly based on the male's depth of croaking. This has led to sexual dimorphism, with females being larger than males in 90% of species, males larger in 10% of species and males fighting for groups of females.--> There is a direct competition between males to win the attention of the females in salamanders and newts, with elaborate courtship displays to keep the female's attention long enough to get her interested in choosing him to mate with. Some species store sperm through long breeding seasons, as the extra time may allow for interactions with rival sperm.Unisexual reproductionUnisexual female mole salamanders (genus Ambystoma) are common in the Great Lakes region of North America. These salamanders are the oldest known unisexual vertebrate lineage, having emerged about 5 million years ago. Genome exchange can sometimes occur between the unisexual female Ambystoma and males from sympatric sexual species. Because most embryonic development is outside the parental body, it is subject to many adaptations due to specific environmental circumstances. For this reason tadpoles can have horny ridges instead of teeth, whisker-like skin extensions or fins. They also make use of a sensory lateral line organ similar to that of fish. After metamorphosis, these organs become redundant and will be reabsorbed by controlled cell death, called apoptosis. The variety of adaptations to specific environmental circumstances among amphibians is wide, with many discoveries still being made. Eggs thumb\|Amphibian egg: In the egg, the embryo is suspended in perivitelline fluid and surrounded by semi-permeable gelatinous capsules, with the yolk mass providing nutrients. As the larvae hatch, the capsules are dissolved by enzymes secreted from gland at the tip of the snout. In the wood frog (Rana sylvatica), the interior of the globular egg cluster has been found to be up to warmer than its surroundings, which is an advantage in its cool northern habitat. The eggs may be deposited singly, in cluster or in long strands. Sites for laying eggs include water, mud, burrows, debris and on plants or under logs or stones. The greenhouse frog (Eleutherodactylus planirostris) lays eggs in small groups in the soil where they develop in about two weeks directly into juvenile frogs without an intervening larval stage. The tungara frog (Physalaemus pustulosus) builds a floating nest from foam to protect its eggs. First a raft is built, then eggs are laid in the centre, and finally a foam cap is overlaid. The foam has anti-microbial properties. It contains no detergents but is created by whipping up proteins and lectins secreted by the female. Larvae (Rana temporaria)]] The eggs of amphibians are typically laid in water and hatch into free-living larvae that complete their development in water and later transform into either aquatic or terrestrial adults. In many species of frog and in most lungless salamanders (Plethodontidae), direct development takes place, the larvae growing within the eggs and emerging as miniature adults. Many caecilians and some other amphibians lay their eggs on land, and the newly hatched larvae wriggle or are transported to water bodies. Some caecilians, the alpine salamander (Salamandra atra) and some of the African live-bearing toads (Nectophrynoides spp.) are viviparous. Their larvae feed on glandular secretions and develop within the female's oviduct, often for long periods. Other amphibians, but not caecilians, are ovoviviparous. The eggs are retained in or on the parent's body, but the larvae subsist on the yolks of their eggs and receive no nourishment from the adult. The larvae emerge at varying stages of their growth, either before or after metamorphosis, according to their species. The toad genus Nectophrynoides exhibits all of these developmental patterns among its dozen or so members. The free-living larvae are normally fully aquatic, but the tadpoles of some species (such as Nannophrys ceylonensis) are semi-terrestrial and live among wet rocks. Tadpoles have cartilaginous skeletons, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later), lateral line systems and large tails that they use for swimming. Newly hatched tadpoles soon develop gill pouches that cover the gills. These internal gills and operculum are not homologous with those of fish, and are only found in tadpoles as both salamanders and caecilians have external gills only. Combined with buccal pumping the internal gills has allowed tadpoles to adopt a filter feeding lifestyle, even if several species have since evolved other types of feeding strategies. The lungs develop early and are used as accessory breathing organs, the tadpoles rising to the water surface to gulp air. Some species complete their development inside the egg and hatch directly into small frogs. These larvae do not have gills but instead have specialised areas of skin through which respiration takes place. While tadpoles do not have true teeth, in most species, the jaws have long, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts surrounded by a horny beak. Front legs are formed under the gill sac and hind legs become visible a few days later. Iodine and T4 (over stimulate the spectacular apoptosis [programmed cell death] of the cells of the larval gills, tail and fins) also stimulate the evolution of nervous systems transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into the terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting. In fact, tadpoles developing in ponds and streams are typically herbivorous. Pond tadpoles tend to have deep bodies, large caudal fins and small mouths; they swim in the quiet waters feeding on growing or loose fragments of vegetation. Stream dwellers mostly have larger mouths, shallow bodies and caudal fins; they attach themselves to plants and stones and feed on the surface films of algae and bacteria. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles and fish. Young of the Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) can occasionally be cannibalistic, the younger tadpoles attacking a larger, more developed tadpole when it is undergoing metamorphosis. At metamorphosis, rapid changes in the body take place as the lifestyle of the frog changes completely. The spiral-shaped mouth with horny tooth ridges is reabsorbed together with the spiral gut. The animal develops a large jaw, and its gills disappear along with its gill sac. Eyes and legs grow quickly, and a tongue is formed. There are associated changes in the neural networks such as development of stereoscopic vision and loss of the lateral line system. All this can happen in about a day. A few days later, the tail is reabsorbed, due to the higher thyroxine concentration required for this to take place. Both of these are able to breed. Some have larvae that never fully develop into the adult form, a condition known as neoteny. as well as lack of food. There are fifteen species of obligate neotenic salamanders, including species of Necturus, Proteus and Amphiuma, and many examples of facultative ones, such as the northwestern salamander (Ambystoma gracile) and the tiger salamander (A. tigrinum) that adopt this strategy under appropriate environmental circumstances. Lungless salamanders in the family Plethodontidae are terrestrial and lay a small number of unpigmented eggs in a cluster among damp leaf litter. Each egg has a large yolk sac and the larva feeds on this while it develops inside the egg, emerging fully formed as a juvenile salamander. The female salamander often broods the eggs. In the genus Ensatinas, the female has been observed to coil around them and press her throat area against them, effectively massaging them with a mucous secretion. In newts and salamanders, metamorphosis is less dramatic than in frogs. This is because the larvae are already carnivorous and continue to feed as predators when they are adults so few changes are needed to their digestive systems. Their lungs are functional early, but the larvae do not make as much use of them as do tadpoles. Their gills are never covered by gill sacs and are reabsorbed just before the animals leave the water. Other changes include the reduction in size or loss of tail fins, the closure of gill slits, thickening of the skin, the development of eyelids, and certain changes in dentition and tongue structure. Salamanders are at their most vulnerable at metamorphosis as swimming speeds are reduced and transforming tails are encumbrances on land. Adult salamanders often have an aquatic phase in spring and summer, and a land phase in winter. For adaptation to a water phase, prolactin is the required hormone, and for adaptation to the land phase, thyroxine. External gills do not return in subsequent aquatic phases because these are completely absorbed upon leaving the water for the first time. Caecilians Most terrestrial caecilians that lay eggs do so in burrows or moist places on land near bodies of water. The development of the young of Ichthyophis glutinosus, a species from Sri Lanka, has been much studied. The eel-like larvae hatch out of the eggs and make their way to water. They have three pairs of external red feathery gills, a blunt head with two rudimentary eyes, a lateral line system and a short tail with fins. They swim by undulating their body from side to side. They are mostly active at night, soon lose their gills and make sorties onto land. Metamorphosis is gradual. By the age of about ten months they have developed a pointed head with sensory tentacles near the mouth and lost their eyes, lateral line systems and tails. The skin thickens, embedded scales develop and the body divides into segments. By this time, the caecilian has constructed a burrow and is living on land. (Siphonops annulatus) resembles an earthworm]] In the majority of species of caecilians, the young are produced by viviparity. Typhlonectes compressicauda, a species from South America, is typical of these. Up to nine larvae can develop in the oviduct at any one time. They are elongated and have paired sac-like gills, small eyes and specialised scraping teeth. At first, they feed on the yolks of the eggs, but as this source of nourishment declines they begin to rasp at the ciliated epithelial cells that line the oviduct. This stimulates the secretion of fluids rich in lipids and mucoproteins on which they feed along with scrapings from the oviduct wall. They may increase their length sixfold and be two-fifths as long as their mother before being born. By this time they have undergone metamorphosis, lost their eyes and gills, developed a thicker skin and mouth tentacles, and reabsorbed their teeth. A permanent set of teeth grow through soon after birth. Gills are only necessarily during embryonic development, and in species that give birth the offspring is born after gill degeneration. In egg laying caecilians the gills are either reabsorbed before hatching, or, in species that hatch with gill remnants still present, short lived and only leaves behind a gill slit. For species with scales under their skin, the scales does not form before during metamorphosis. The ringed caecilian (Siphonops annulatus) has developed a unique adaptation for the purposes of reproduction. The progeny feed on a skin layer that is specially developed by the adult in a phenomenon known as maternal dermatophagy. The brood feed as a batch for about seven minutes at intervals of approximately three days which gives the skin an opportunity to regenerate. Meanwhile, they have been observed to ingest fluid exuded from the maternal cloaca. Parental care (Colostethus panamensis) carrying tadpoles on his back]] The care of offspring among amphibians has been little studied but, in general, the larger the number of eggs in a batch, the less likely it is that any degree of parental care takes place. Nevertheless, it is estimated that in up to 20% of amphibian species, one or both adults play some role in the care of the young. Those species that breed in smaller water bodies or other specialised habitats tend to have complex patterns of behaviour in the care of their young. Many woodland salamanders lay clutches of eggs under dead logs or stones on land. The black mountain salamander (Desmognathus welteri) does this, the mother brooding the eggs and guarding them from predation as the embryos feed on the yolks of their eggs. When fully developed, they break their way out of the egg capsules and disperse as juvenile salamanders. The male hellbender, a primitive salamander, excavates an underwater nest and encourages females to lay there. The male then guards the site for the two or three months before the eggs hatch, using body undulations to fan the eggs and increase their supply of oxygen. The male midwife toad (Alytes obstetricans) winds egg strings round his thighs and carries the eggs around for up to eight weeks. He keeps them moist and when they are ready to hatch, he visits a pond or ditch and releases the tadpoles. The female gastric-brooding frog (Rheobatrachus spp.) reared larvae in her stomach after swallowing either the eggs or hatchlings; however, this stage was never observed before the species became extinct. The tadpoles secrete a hormone that inhibits digestion in the mother whilst they develop by consuming their very large yolk supply. The pouched frog (Assa darlingtoni) lays eggs on the ground. When they hatch, the male carries the tadpoles around in brood pouches on his hind legs. The aquatic Surinam toad (Pipa pipa) raises its young in pores on its back where they remain until metamorphosis. The granular poison frog (Oophaga granulifera) is typical of a number of tree frogs in the poison dart frog family Dendrobatidae. Its eggs are laid on the forest floor and when they hatch, the tadpoles are carried one by one on the back of an adult to a suitable water-filled crevice such as the axil of a leaf or the rosette of a bromeliad. The female visits the nursery sites regularly and deposits unfertilised eggs in the water and these are consumed by the tadpoles. Genetics and genomics Amphibians are notable among vertebrates for their diversity of chromosomes and genomes. The karyotypes (chromosomes) have been determined for at least 1,193 (14.5%) of the ≈8,200 known (diploid) species, including 963 anurans, 209 salamanders, and 21 caecilians. Generally, the karyotypes of diploid amphibians are characterized by 20–26 bi-armed chromosomes. Amphibians have also very large genomes compared to other taxa of vertebrates and corresponding variation in genome size (C-value: picograms of DNA in haploid nuclei). The genome sizes range from 0.95 to 11.5 pg in frogs, from 13.89 to 120.56 pg in salamanders, and from 2.94 to 11.78 pg in caecilians. The large genome sizes have prevented whole-genome sequencing of amphibians although a number of genomes have been published recently. The 1.7GB draft genome of Xenopus tropicalis was the first to be reported for amphibians in 2010. Feeding and diet <br/>(Ambystoma gracile) eating a worm]] With a few exceptions, adult amphibians are predators, feeding on virtually anything that moves that they can swallow. The diet mostly consists of small prey that do not move too fast such as beetles, caterpillars, earthworms and spiders. The sirens (Siren spp.) often ingest aquatic plant material with the invertebrates on which they feed and a Brazilian tree frog (Xenohyla truncata) includes a large quantity of fruit in its diet. The Mexican burrowing toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis) has a specially adapted tongue for picking up ants and termites. It projects it with the tip foremost whereas other frogs flick out the rear part first, their tongues being hinged at the front. Food is mostly selected by sight, even in conditions of dim light. Movement of the prey triggers a feeding response. Frogs have been caught on fish hooks baited with red flannel and green frogs (Rana clamitans) have been found with stomachs full of elm seeds that they had seen floating past. Toads, salamanders and caecilians also use smell to detect prey. This response is mostly secondary because salamanders have been observed to remain stationary near odoriferous prey but only feed if it moves. Cave-dwelling amphibians normally hunt by smell. Some salamanders seem to have learned to recognize immobile prey when it has no smell, even in complete darkness. Amphibians usually swallow food whole but may chew it lightly first to subdue it. Among leaf litter frogs in Panama, frogs that actively hunt prey have narrow mouths and are slim, often brightly coloured and toxic, while ambushers have wide mouths and are broad and well-camouflaged. Caecilians do not flick their tongues, but catch their prey by grabbing it with their slightly backward-pointing teeth. The struggles of the prey and further jaw movements work it inwards and the caecilian usually retreats into its burrow. The subdued prey is gulped down whole. When they are newly hatched, frog larvae feed on the yolk of the egg. When this is exhausted some move on to feed on bacteria, algal crusts, detritus and raspings from submerged plants. Water is drawn in through their mouths, which are usually at the bottom of their heads, and passes through branchial food traps between their mouths and their gills where fine particles are trapped in mucus and filtered out. Others have specialised mouthparts consisting of a horny beak edged by several rows of labial teeth. They scrape and bite food of many kinds as well as stirring up the bottom sediment, filtering out larger particles with the papillae around their mouths. Some, such as the spadefoot toads, have strong biting jaws and are carnivorous or even cannibalistic. left\|thumb\|Audio showing Brazilian torrent frog males executing advertisement, peep, and squeal calls. Vocalization ) inflating his air sac as he calls]] The calls made by caecilians and salamanders are limited to occasional soft squeaks, grunts or hisses and have not been much studied. A clicking sound sometimes produced by caecilians may be a means of orientation, as in bats, or a form of communication. Most salamanders are considered voiceless, but the California giant salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus) has vocal cords and can produce a rattling or barking sound. Some species of salamander emit a quiet squeak or yelp if attacked. ) singing]] Frogs are much more vocal, especially during the breeding season when they use their voices to attract mates. The presence of a particular species in an area may be more easily discerned by its characteristic call than by a fleeting glimpse of the animal itself. In most species, the sound is produced by expelling air from the lungs over the vocal cords into one or more air sacs in the throat or at the corner of the mouth. This may distend like a balloon and acts as a resonator, helping to transfer the sound to the atmosphere, or the water at times when the animal is submerged. The main vocalisation is the male's loud advertisement call which seeks to both encourage a female to approach and discourage other males from intruding on its territory. This call is modified to a quieter courtship call on the approach of a female or to a more aggressive version if a male intruder draws near. Calling carries the risk of attracting predators and involves the expenditure of much energy. Other calls include those given by a female in response to the advertisement call and a release call given by a male or female during unwanted attempts at amplexus. When a frog is attacked, a distress or fright call is emitted, often resembling a scream. The usually nocturnal Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) produces a rain call when there is rainfall during daylight hours. Territorial behaviour Little is known of the territorial behaviour of caecilians, but some frogs and salamanders defend home ranges. These are usually feeding, breeding or sheltering sites. Males normally exhibit such behaviour though in some species, females and even juveniles are also involved. Although in many frog species, females are larger than males, this is not the case in most species where males are actively involved in territorial defence. Some of these have specific adaptations such as enlarged teeth for biting or spines on the chest, arms or thumbs. ) defends a territory against intruders.]] In salamanders, defence of a territory involves adopting an aggressive posture and if necessary attacking the intruder. This may involve snapping, chasing and sometimes biting, occasionally causing the loss of a tail. The behaviour of red back salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) has been much studied. 91% of marked individuals that were later recaptured were within a metre (yard) of their original daytime retreat under a log or rock. A similar proportion, when moved experimentally a distance of , found their way back to their home base. These deterred the intrusion of others and delineated the boundaries between neighbouring areas. Much of their behaviour seemed stereotyped and did not involve any actual contact between individuals. An aggressive posture involved raising the body off the ground and glaring at the opponent who often turned away submissively. If the intruder persisted, a biting lunge was usually launched at either the tail region or the naso-labial grooves. Damage to either of these areas can reduce the fitness of the rival, either because of the need to regenerate tissue or because it impairs its ability to detect food. Defence mechanisms (Rhinella marina) with poison glands behind the eyes]] Amphibians have soft bodies with thin skins, and lack claws, defensive armour, or spines. Nevertheless, they have evolved various defence mechanisms to keep themselves alive. The first line of defence in salamanders and frogs is the mucous secretion that they produce. This keeps their skin moist and makes them slippery and difficult to grip. The secretion is often sticky and distasteful or toxic. Snakes have been observed yawning and gaping when trying to swallow African clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis), which gives the frogs an opportunity to escape. Caecilians have been little studied in this respect, but the Cayenne caecilian (Typhlonectes compressicauda) produces toxic mucus that has killed predatory fish in a feeding experiment in Brazil. In some salamanders, the skin is poisonous. The rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) from North America and other members of its genus contain the neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (TTX), the most toxic non-protein substance known and almost identical to that produced by pufferfish. Handling the newts does not cause harm, but ingestion of even the most minute amounts of the skin is deadly. In feeding trials, fish, frogs, reptiles, birds and mammals were all found to be susceptible. The only predators with some tolerance to the poison are certain populations of common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). In locations where both snake and salamander co-exist, the snakes have developed immunity through genetic changes and they feed on the amphibians with impunity. Coevolution occurs with the newt increasing its toxic capabilities at the same rate as the snake further develops its immunity.]] Poisonous species often use bright colouring to warn potential predators of their toxicity. These warning colours tend to be red or yellow combined with black, with the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) being an example. Once a predator has sampled one of these, it is likely to remember the colouration next time it encounters a similar animal. In some species, such as the fire-bellied toad (Bombina spp.), the warning colouration is on the belly and these animals adopt a defensive pose when attacked, exhibiting their bright colours to the predator. The frog Allobates zaparo is not poisonous, but mimics the appearance of other toxic species in its locality, a strategy that may deceive predators. Many amphibians are nocturnal and hide during the day, thereby avoiding diurnal predators that hunt by sight. Other amphibians use camouflage to avoid being detected. They have various colourings such as mottled browns, greys and olives to blend into the background. Some salamanders adopt defensive poses when faced by a potential predator such as the North American northern short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda). Their bodies writhe and they raise and lash their tails which makes it difficult for the predator to avoid contact with their poison-producing granular glands. A few salamanders will autotomise their tails when attacked, sacrificing this part of their anatomy to enable them to escape. The tail may have a constriction at its base to allow it to be easily detached. The tail is regenerated later, but the energy cost to the animal of replacing it is significant. Cognition In amphibians, there is evidence of habituation, associative learning through both classical and instrumental learning, and discrimination abilities. Amphibians are widely considered to be sentient, able to feel emotions such as anxiety and fear. In one experiment, when offered live fruit flies (Drosophila virilis), salamanders chose the larger of 1 vs 2 and 2 vs 3. Frogs can distinguish between low numbers (1 vs 2, 2 vs 3, but not 3 vs 4) and large numbers (3 vs 6, 4 vs 8, but not 4 vs 6) of prey. This is irrespective of other characteristics, i.e. surface area, volume, weight and movement, although discrimination among large numbers may be based on surface area. Conservation (Incilius periglenes), last seen in 1989]] Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized extinction, have been noted since the late 1980s from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived to be one of the most critical threats to global biodiversity. In 2004, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) reported stating that currently birds, mammals, and amphibians extinction rates were at minimum 48 times greater than natural extinction rates—possibly 1,024 times higher. In 2006, there were believed to be 4,035 species of amphibians that depended on water at some stage during their life cycle. Of these, 1,356 (33.6%) were considered to be threatened and this figure is likely to be an underestimate because it excludes 1,427 species for which there was insufficient data to assess their status. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including habitat destruction and modification, over-exploitation, pollution, introduced species, global warming, endocrine-disrupting pollutants, destruction of the ozone layer (ultraviolet radiation has shown to be especially damaging to the skin, eyes, and eggs of amphibians), and diseases like chytridiomycosis. However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and are a topic of ongoing discussion. (Discoglossus nigriventer) was believed to be extinct but was rediscovered in 2011.]] Food webs and predation Any decline in amphibian numbers will affect the patterns of predation. The loss of carnivorous species near the top of the food chain will upset the delicate ecosystem balance and may cause dramatic increases in opportunistic species. Predators that feed on amphibians are affected by their decline. The western terrestrial garter snake (Thamnophis elegans) in California is largely aquatic and depends heavily on two species of frog that are decreasing in numbers, the Yosemite toad (Bufo canorus) and the mountain yellow-legged frog (Rana muscosa), putting the snake's future at risk. If the snake were to become scarce, this would affect birds of prey and other predators that feed on it. Meanwhile, in the ponds and lakes, fewer frogs means fewer tadpoles. These normally play an important role in controlling the growth of algae and also forage on detritus that accumulates as sediment on the bottom. A reduction in the number of tadpoles may lead to an overgrowth of algae, resulting in depletion of oxygen in the water when the algae later die and decompose. Aquatic invertebrates and fish might then die and there would be unpredictable ecological consequences. Pollution and pesticides The decline in amphibian and reptile populations has led to an awareness of the effects of pesticides on reptiles and amphibians. In the past, the argument that amphibians or reptiles were more susceptible to any chemical contamination than any land aquatic vertebrate was not supported by research until recently. Amphibian Ark is an organization that was formed to implement the ex-situ conservation recommendations of this plan, and they have been working with zoos and aquaria around the world, encouraging them to create assurance colonies of threatened amphibians. Another measure would be to stop exploitation of frogs for human consumption. In the Middle East, a growing appetite for eating frog legs and the consequent gathering of them for food was already linked to an increase in mosquitoes and thus has direct consequences for human health. See also * Amphibian and reptile tunnel * Amphibious fish * Cultural depictions of amphibians * List of amphibians * List of amphibian genera * List of threatened reptiles and amphibians of the United States * Softshell turtle – A taxonomic family of a number of turtle genera that ability to able to "breathe" underwater with rhythmic movements of their mouth cavity, which contains numerous processes copiously supplied with blood, acting similarly to gill filaments in fish. * Annulated sea snake – A species of venomous sea snake that has ability to breathe underwater with help of extensive vascular network across the top of its head to absorb oxygen from the surrounding water. * Cutaneous respiration References Cited texts * * Further reading * * * * Duellman, William E., Berg, Barbara (1962), [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73551 Type Specimens of Amphibians and Reptiles in the Museum of Natural History, the University of Kansas] * * * * External links * [http://www.animalspot.net/category/amphibians Amphibians] – AnimalSpot.net * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130726202037/http://photos.archeozoo.org/index/category/54-amphibiens_langen_amphibians_lang_langes_anfibios_lang_?lang=en_UK ArchéoZooThèque : Amphibians skeletons drawings] : available in vector, image and PDF formats * [http://www.amphibians.org/ Amphibian Specialist Group] * [http://www.amphibianark.org/ Amphibian Ark] * [http://www.amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb] * [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ Global Amphibian Assessment] * [http://sounds.bl.uk/Browse.aspx?categoryEnvironment&collectionAmphibians Amphibian vocalisations on Archival Sound Recordings] Category:Amphibious organisms <!-- Category:Animal classes moved to Latin name redirect --> Category:Extant Late Devonian first appearances Category:Taxa named by John Edward Gray	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian	2025-04-05T18:25:18.215401
624	Alaska	<br/><br/><br/><br/><br/></div> \| image_flag = Flag of Alaska.svg \| name = Alaska \| image_seal = Seal of the State of Alaska.svg \| flag_link = Flag of Alaska \| nickname = The Last Frontier \| motto = North to the Future \| anthem = Alaska's Flag<br /> \| image_map = Alaska in United States (US50) (+grid) (W3).svg \| OfficialLangs = Ahtna, Alutiiq, Dena'ina, Cup'ig, Deg Xinag, English, Eyak, Gwich'in, Haida, Hän, Holikachuk, Inupiaq, Koyukon, Lower Tanana, Middle Tanana, St. Lawrence Island Yupik, Tanacross, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Unangax̂, Upper Kuskokwim, Upper Tanana, Yup'ik, Wetał \| Languages = \| population_demonym = Alaskan \| LargestCity = Anchorage \| seat = Juneau \| area_rank = 1st \| area_total_sq_mi 665,384 \| area_total_km2 = 1,723,337 \| width_mi = 2,261 \| width_km = 3,639 \| length_mi = 1,420 \| length_km = 2,285 \| area_water_percent = 13.77 \| Latitude = 51°20'N to 71°50'N \| Longitude = 130°W to 172°E \| population_rank = 48th \| population_as_of = 2024 \| 2010Pop 740,133 \| MedianHouseholdIncome $ (2<span>0</span>23) \| 2020DensityUS = 1.10 \| 2020Density = 0.42 \| population_density_rank = 50th \| IncomeRank = 12th \| elevation_max_point Denali \| elevation_max_ft = 20,310 \| elevation_max_m = 6190.5 \| elevation_ft = 1900 \| elevation_m = 580 \| elevation_min_point \| elevation_min_m 0 \| elevation_min_ft = 0 \| Former = Territory of Alaska \| AdmittanceDate = \| AdmittanceOrder = 49th \| Governor = Mike Dunleavy (R) \| Lieutenant Governor = Nancy Dahlstrom (R) \| Legislature = Alaska State Legislature \| Judiciary = Alaska Supreme Court \| Senators = \| timezone1 = AKST \| utc_offset1 = – 09:00 \| timezone1_DST = AKDT \| utc_offset1_DST = – 08:00 \| timezone1_location = east of 169°30' \| timezone2 = HST \| utc_offset2 = – 10:00 \| timezone2_DST = HDT \| utc_offset2_DST = – 09:00 \| timezone2_location = west of 169°30' \| iso_code = US-AK \| postal_code = AK \| website = alaska.gov \| Upperhouse = State Senate \| Lowerhouse = House of Representatives \| Representative = Nick Begich III (R) \| area_land_km2 = 1,518,800 \| area_land_sq_mi 586,412 square miles \| area_water_km2 = 236,507 \| area_water_sq_mi = 91,316 \| Capital = Juneau, Alaska \| LargestMetro = Anchorage \| Representatives = }} \|dog = Alaskan Malamute \|bird = Willow ptarmigan \|fish = King salmon \|flower = Forget-me-not \|insect = Four-spot skimmer dragonfly \|tree = Sitka Spruce \|fossil = Woolly Mammoth \|mineral = Gold \|gemstone = Jade \|sport = Dog mushing \|image_route = Alaska 2 shield.svg \|image_quarter = 2008 AK Proof.png \|quarter_release_date = 2008 }} \|zoom2\|typeline\|stroke-width3\|text=Interactive map showing border of Alaska (click to zoom)}} Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the northernmost, westernmost, and easternmost (the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian into the eastern hemisphere) state in the United States. It borders the Canadian territory of Yukon and the province of British Columbia to the east. It shares a western maritime border, in the Bering Strait, with Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas of the Arctic Ocean lie to the north, and the Pacific Ocean lies to the south. Technically, it is a semi-exclave of the U.S., and is the largest exclave in the world. Alaska is the largest U.S. state by area, comprising more total area than the following three largest states of Texas, California, and Montana combined, and is the seventh-largest subnational division in the world. It is the third-least populous and most sparsely populated U.S. state; however, with a population of 740,133 as of 2024, it is the most populous territory in North America located mostly north of the 60th parallel, with more than quadruple the combined populations of Northern Canada and Greenland. The state contains the four largest cities in the United States by area, including the state capital of Juneau. The state's most populous city is Anchorage, and approximately half of Alaska's residents live within its metropolitan area. Indigenous people have lived in Alaska for thousands of years, and it is widely believed that the region served as the entry point for the initial settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. The Russian Empire was the first to actively colonize the area beginning in the 18th century, eventually establishing Russian America, which spanned most of the current state and promoted and maintained a native Alaskan Creole population. The expense and logistical difficulty of maintaining this distant possession prompted its sale to the U.S. in 1867 for US$7.2 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The area went through several administrative changes before becoming organized as a territory on May 11, 1912. It was admitted as the 49th state of the U.S. on January 3, 1959. Abundant natural resources have enabled Alaska— with one of the smallest state economies—to have one of the highest per capita incomes, with commercial fishing, and the extraction of natural gas and oil, dominating Alaska's economy. U.S. Armed Forces bases and tourism also contribute to the economy; more than half of the state is federally-owned land containing national forests, national parks, and wildlife refuges. It is among the most irreligious states and one of the first to legalize recreational marijuana. The Indigenous population of Alaska is proportionally the second highest of any U.S. state, at over 15 percent, after only Hawaii.EtymologyThe name "Alaska" () was introduced during the Russian colonial period when it was used to refer to the Alaska Peninsula. It was derived from an Aleut-language idiom, , meaning "the mainland" or, more literally, "the object towards which the action of the sea is directed".HistoryPre-colonizationNumerous indigenous peoples occupied Alaska for thousands of years before the arrival of European peoples to the area. Linguistic and DNA studies done here have provided evidence for the settlement of North America by way of the Bering land bridge. At the Upward Sun River site in the Tanana Valley in Alaska, remains of a six-week-old infant were found. The baby's DNA showed that she belonged to a population that was genetically separate from other native groups present elsewhere in the New World at the end of the Pleistocene. Ben Potter, the University of Alaska Fairbanks archaeologist who unearthed the remains at the Upward Sun River site in 2013, named this new group Ancient Beringian. The Tlingit people developed a society with a matrilineal kinship system of property inheritance and descent in what is today Southeast Alaska, along with parts of British Columbia and the Yukon. Also in Southeast were the Haida, now well known for their unique arts. The Tsimshian people came to Alaska from British Columbia in 1887, when President Grover Cleveland, and later the U.S. Congress, granted them permission to settle on Annette Island and found the town of Metlakatla, Alaska. All three of these peoples, as well as other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast, experienced smallpox outbreaks from the late 18th through the mid-19th century, with the most devastating epidemics occurring in the 1830s and 1860s, resulting in high fatalities and social disruption. Colonization ), Kodiak Island, 1814\|left]] during the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush.\|left]] Some researchers believe the first Russian settlement in Alaska was established in the 17th century. According to this hypothesis, in 1648 several koches of Semyon Dezhnyov's expedition came ashore in Alaska by storm and founded this settlement. This hypothesis is based on the testimony of Chukchi geographer Nikolai Daurkin, who had visited Alaska in 1764–1765 and who had reported on a village on the Kheuveren River, populated by "bearded men" who "pray to the icons". Some modern researchers associate Kheuveren with Koyuk River. The first European vessel to reach Alaska is generally held to be the St. Gabriel under the authority of the surveyor M. S. Gvozdev and assistant navigator I. Fyodorov on August 21, 1732, during an expedition of Siberian Cossack A. F. Shestakov and Russian explorer Dmitry Pavlutsky (1729–1735). Another European contact with Alaska occurred in 1741, when Vitus Bering led an expedition for the Russian Navy aboard the St. Peter. After his crew returned to Russia with sea otter pelts judged to be the finest fur in the world, small associations of fur traders began to sail from the shores of Siberia toward the Aleutian Islands. The first permanent European settlement was founded in 1784. Between 1774 and 1800, Spain sent several expeditions to Alaska to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. In 1789, a Spanish settlement and fort were built in Nootka Sound. These expeditions gave names to places such as Valdez, Bucareli Sound, and Cordova. Later, the Russian-American Company carried out an expanded colonization program during the early-to-mid-19th century. Sitka, renamed New Archangel from 1804 to 1867, on Baranof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in what is now Southeast Alaska, became the capital of Russian America. It remained the capital after the colony was transferred to the United States. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska, and the colony was never very profitable. Evidence of Russian settlement in names and churches survives throughout southeastern Alaska. In 1867, William H. Seward, the United States Secretary of State under President Andrew Johnson, negotiated the Alaska Purchase (referred to pejoratively as Seward's Folly) with the Russians for $7.2 million. Russia's contemporary ruler Tsar Alexander II, the Emperor of the Russian Empire, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland, also planned the sale; the purchase was made on March 30, 1867. Six months later the commissioners arrived in Sitka and the formal transfer was arranged; the formal flag-raising took place at Fort Sitka on October 18, 1867. In the ceremony, 250 uniformed U.S. soldiers marched to the governor's house at "Castle Hill", where the Russian troops lowered the Russian flag and the U.S. flag was raised. This event is celebrated as Alaska Day, a legal holiday on October 18. Alaska was loosely governed by the military initially and was administered as a district starting in 1884, with a governor appointed by the United States president. A federal district court was headquartered in Sitka. For most of Alaska's first decade under the United States flag, Sitka was the only community inhabited by American settlers. They organized a "provisional city government", which was Alaska's first municipal government, but not in a legal sense. Legislation allowing Alaskan communities to legally incorporate as cities did not come about until 1900, and home rule for cities was extremely limited or unavailable until statehood took effect in 1959.U.S. territorial incorporation Starting in the 1890s and stretching in some places to the early 1910s, gold rushes in Alaska and the nearby Yukon Territory brought thousands of miners and settlers to Alaska. From 1879 to 1920, Alaska produced a cumulative total of over $460,000,000 ($6,691,927,500 inflation-adjusted) of mineral production. Alaska was officially incorporated as an organized territory in 1912. Alaska's capital, which had been in Sitka until 1906, was moved north to Juneau. Construction of the Alaska Governor's Mansion began that same year. European immigrants from Norway and Sweden also settled in southeast Alaska, where they entered the fishing and logging industries. in May 1943.]] During World War II, the Aleutian Islands Campaign focused on Attu, Agattu and Kiska, all of which were occupied by the Empire of Japan. away from mainland USSR, from mainland Alaska, from Japan.}} During the Japanese occupation, an American civilian and two United States Navy personnel were killed at Attu and Kiska respectively, and nearly a total of 50 Aleut civilians and eight sailors were interned in Japan. About half of the Aleuts died during the period of internment. Unalaska/Dutch Harbor and Adak became significant bases for the United States Army, United States Army Air Forces and United States Navy. The United States Lend-Lease program involved flying American warplanes through Canada to Fairbanks and then Nome; Soviet pilots took possession of these aircraft, ferrying them to fight the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The construction of military bases contributed to the population growth of some Alaskan cities.Statehood and Ernest Gruening, Alaska's inaugural U.S. Senators, hold the 49 star U.S. Flag after the admission of Alaska as the 49th state.]] Statehood for Alaska was an important cause of James Wickersham early in his tenure as a congressional delegate. Decades later, the statehood movement gained its first real momentum following a territorial referendum in 1946. The Alaska Statehood Committee and Alaska's Constitutional Convention would soon follow. Statehood supporters also found themselves fighting major battles against political foes, mostly in the U.S. Congress but also within Alaska. Statehood was approved by the U.S. Congress on July 7, 1958; Alaska was officially proclaimed a state on January 3, 1959. Good Friday earthquake On March 27, 1964, the massive Good Friday earthquake killed 133 people and destroyed several villages and portions of large coastal communities, mainly by the resultant tsunamis and landslides. It was the fourth-most-powerful earthquake in recorded history, with a moment magnitude of 9.2 (more than a thousand times as powerful as the 1989 San Francisco earthquake). The time of day (5:36 pm), time of year (spring) and location of the epicenter were all cited as factors in potentially sparing thousands of lives, particularly in Anchorage. Alaska suffered a more severe megathrust earthquake on July 11, 1585, estimated at magnitude 9.25, which remains the most powerful earthquake recorded in North American history, and the second most powerful earthquake recorded in world history. The Good Friday earthquake lasted 4 minutes and 38 seconds. of fault ruptured at once and moved up to , releasing about 500 years of stress buildup. Soil liquefaction, fissures, landslides, and other ground failures caused major structural damage in several communities and much damage to property. Anchorage sustained great destruction or damage to many inadequately earthquake-engineered houses, buildings, and infrastructure (paved streets, sidewalks, water and sewer mains, electrical systems, and other human-made equipment), particularly in the several landslide zones along Knik Arm. southwest, some areas near Kodiak were permanently raised by . Southeast of Anchorage, areas around the head of Turnagain Arm near Girdwood and Portage dropped as much as , requiring reconstruction and fill to raise the Seward Highway above the new high tide mark. In Prince William Sound, Port Valdez suffered a massive underwater landslide, resulting in the deaths of 32 people between the collapse of the Valdez city harbor and docks, and inside the ship that was docked there at the time. Nearby, a tsunami destroyed the village of Chenega, killing 23 of the 68 people who lived there; survivors out-ran the wave, climbing to high ground. Post-quake tsunamis severely affected Whittier, Seward, Kodiak, and other Alaskan communities, as well as people and property in British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. Tsunamis also caused damage in Hawaii and Japan. Evidence of motion directly related to the earthquake was also reported from Florida and Texas. Alaska had never experienced a major disaster in a highly populated area before and had very limited resources for dealing with the effects of such an event. In Anchorage, at the urging of geologist Lidia Selkregg, the City of Anchorage and the Alaska State Housing Authority appointed a team of 40 scientists, including geologists, soil scientists, and engineers, to assess the damage done by the earthquake to the city. The team, called the Engineering and Geological Evaluation Group, was headed by Ruth A. M. Schmidt, a geology professor at the University of Alaska Anchorage. The team of scientists came into conflict with local developers and downtown business owners who wanted to immediately rebuild; the scientists wanted to identify future dangers to ensure that the rebuilt infrastructure would be safe. The team produced a report on May 8, 1964, just a little more than a month after the earthquake. The United States military, which has a large active presence in Alaska, also stepped in to assist within moments of the end of the quake. The U.S. Army rapidly re-established communications with the lower 48 states, deployed troops to assist the citizens of Anchorage, and dispatched a convoy to Valdez. On the advice of military and civilian leaders, President Lyndon B. Johnson declared all of Alaska a major disaster area the day after the quake. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard deployed ships to isolated coastal communities to assist with immediate needs. Bad weather and poor visibility hampered air rescue and observation efforts the day after the quake, but on Sunday the 29th the situation improved and rescue helicopters and observation aircraft were deployed. She was effectively designated as the public safety officer by the city's police chief. In the longer term, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers led the effort to rebuild roads, clear debris, and establish new townsites for communities that had been completely destroyed, at a cost of $110 million. The West Coast and Alaska Tsunami Warning Center was formed as a direct response to the disaster. Federal disaster relief funds paid for reconstruction as well as financially supporting the devastated infrastructure of Alaska's government, spending hundreds of millions of dollars that helped keep Alaska financially solvent until the discovery of massive oil deposits at Prudhoe Bay. At the order of the U.S. Defense Department, the Alaska National Guard founded the Alaska Division of Emergency Services to respond to any future disasters. With tourism more vital to the economy, environmentalism also rose in importance. The Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA) of 1980 added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km<sup>2</sup>) to the National Wildlife Refuge system, parts of 25 rivers to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, 3.3 million acres (13,000 km<sup>2</sup>) to National Forest lands, and 43.6 million acres (176,000 km<sup>2</sup>) to National Park land. Because of the Act, Alaska now contains two-thirds of all American national parklands. Today, more than half of Alaskan land is owned by the Federal Government. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez hit a reef in the Prince William Sound, spilling more than 11 million gallons (42 megalitres) of crude oil over of coastline. Today, the battle between philosophies of development and conservation is seen in the contentious debate over oil drilling in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge and the proposed Pebble Mine. Geography Located at the northwest corner of North America, Alaska is the northernmost and westernmost state in the United States, but also has the most easterly longitude in the United States because the Aleutian Islands extend into the Eastern Hemisphere. Alaska is the only non-contiguous U.S. state on continental North America; about of Canadian territory consisting of British Columbia (in Canada) separates Alaska from Washington. It is technically part of the continental U.S., but is not usually included in the colloquial use of the term; Alaska is not part of the contiguous U.S., often called "the Lower 48". The capital city, Juneau, is situated on the mainland of the North American continent but is not connected by road to the rest of the North American highway system. The largest lake in Alaska is Lake Illiamna. The state is bordered by Canada's Yukon and British Columbia to the east (making it the only state to border only a Canadian territory); the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean to the south and southwest; the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea to the west; and the Arctic Ocean to the north. Alaska's territorial waters touch Russia's territorial waters in the Bering Strait, as the Russian Big Diomede Island and Alaskan Little Diomede Island are only apart. Alaska has a longer coastline than all the other U.S. states combined. (Albers equal-area conic projection)]] At in total area, Alaska is by far the largest state in the United States. Alaska is more than twice the size of the second-largest U.S. state (Texas), and it is larger than the next three largest states (Texas, California, and Montana) combined. Alaska is the seventh largest subnational division in the world. If it was an independent nation, it would be the 18th largest country in the world; almost the same size as Iran. With its myriad islands, Alaska has nearly of tidal shoreline. The Aleutian Islands chain extends west from the southern tip of the Alaska Peninsula. Many active volcanoes are found in the Aleutians and in coastal regions. Unimak Island, for example, is home to Mount Shishaldin, which is an occasionally smoldering volcano that rises to above the North Pacific. The chain of volcanoes extends to Mount Spurr, west of Anchorage on the mainland. Geologists have identified Alaska as part of Wrangellia, a large region consisting of multiple states and Canadian provinces in the Pacific Northwest, which is actively undergoing continent building. One of the world's largest tides occurs in Turnagain Arm, just south of Anchorage, where tidal differences can be more than . Alaska has more than 409,000 natural lakes at least one hectare or bigger. Marshlands and wetland permafrost cover (mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands). Glacier ice covers about of Alaska. The Bering Glacier is the largest glacier in North America, covering alone.RegionsThere are no officially defined borders demarcating the various regions of Alaska, however there are five/six regions that the state is most commonly broken up into:Southcentral The most populous region of Alaska contains Anchorage, the Matanuska-Susitna Valley and the Kenai Peninsula. Rural, mostly unpopulated areas south of the Alaska Range and west of the Wrangell Mountains also fall within the definition of South Central, as do the Prince William Sound area and the communities of Cordova and Valdez. Southeast Also referred to as the Panhandle or Inside Passage, this is the region of Alaska closest to the contiguous states. As such, this was where most of the initial non-indigenous settlement occurred in the years following the Alaska Purchase. The region is dominated by the Alexander Archipelago as well as the Tongass National Forest, the largest national forest in the United States. It contains the state capital Juneau, the former capital Sitka, and Ketchikan, at one time Alaska's largest city. The Alaska Marine Highway provides a vital surface transportation link throughout the area and country, as only three communities (Haines, Hyder and Skagway) enjoy direct connections to the contiguous North American road system.Interior is the highest peak in North America]] The Interior is the largest region of Alaska; much of it is uninhabited wilderness. Fairbanks is the only large city in the region. Denali National Park and Preserve is located here. Denali, federally designated as Mount McKinley, is the highest mountain in North America and is also located here. North Slope The North Slope is mostly tundra peppered with small villages. The area is known for its massive reserves of crude oil and contains both the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska and the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field. The city of Utqiaġvik, formerly known as Barrow, is the northernmost city in the United States and is located here. The Northwest Arctic area, anchored by Kotzebue and also containing the Kobuk River valley, is often considered part of this region. The respective Inupiat of the North Slope and of the Northwest Arctic seldom consider themselves to be one people.SouthwestSouthwest Alaska is a sparsely inhabited region stretching some inland from the Bering Sea. Most of the population lives along the coast. Kodiak Island is also located in the Southwest. The massive Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, one of the largest river deltas in the world, is here. Portions of the Alaska Peninsula are considered part of the Southwest, with the Aleutian Islands often (but not always) being grouped in as well. Aleutian Islands (the triangular kink in the line was agreed upon the U.S. acquisition of Alaska), the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian, such that they contain both the westernmost (Amatignak) and the easternmost (Semisopochnoi.) points in the United States.]] While primarily part of Southwest Alaska when grouped economically, the Aleutian islands are sometimes recognized as an alternate group from the rest of the region due to the geographic separation from the continent. More than 300 small volcanic islands make up this chain, which stretches more than into the Pacific Ocean. Some of these islands fall in the Eastern Hemisphere, but the International Date Line was drawn west of 180° to keep the whole state, and thus the entire North American continent, within the same legal day. Two of the islands, Attu and Kiska, were occupied by Japanese forces during World War II. Land ownership According to an October 1998 report by the United States Bureau of Land Management, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the Bureau of Land Management manages , or 23.8% of the state. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. It is the world's largest wildlife refuge, comprising . Of the remaining land area, the state of Alaska owns , its entitlement under the Alaska Statehood Act. A portion of that acreage is occasionally ceded to the organized boroughs presented above, under the statutory provisions pertaining to newly formed boroughs. Smaller portions are set aside for rural subdivisions and other homesteading-related opportunities. These are not very popular due to the often remote and roadless locations. The University of Alaska, as a land grant university, also owns substantial acreage which it manages independently. Another are owned by 12 regional, and scores of local, Native corporations created under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) of 1971. Regional Native corporation Doyon, Limited often promotes itself as the largest private landowner in Alaska in advertisements and other communications. Provisions of ANCSA allowing the corporations' land holdings to be sold on the open market starting in 1991 were repealed before they could take effect. Effectively, the corporations hold title (including subsurface title in many cases, a privilege denied to individual Alaskans) but cannot sell the land. Individual Native allotments are sold on the open market. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling about one percent of the state. Alaska is, by a large margin, the state with the smallest percentage of private land ownership when Native corporation holdings are excluded. Alaska Heritage Resources Survey The Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS) is a restricted inventory of all reported historic and prehistoric sites within the U.S. state of Alaska; it is maintained by the Office of History and Archaeology. The survey's inventory of cultural resources includes objects, structures, buildings, sites, districts, and travel ways, with a general provision that they are more than fifty years old. , more than 35,000 sites have been reported.Cities, towns and boroughs , Alaska's largest city]] , Alaska's second-largest city and by a significant margin the largest city in Alaska's interior]] , Alaska's third-largest city and its capital]] , the largest city in the Unorganized Borough and in rural Alaska]] , showing (from bottom to top) the edge of downtown, its airport and the Spit]] (Browerville neighborhood near Eben Hopson Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname "Top of the World", is the northernmost city in the United States.]] , built in the early 20th century to support the Kennecott Mines and the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, has been preserved as a fishing community since their closure.]] ]] Alaska is not divided into counties, like Louisiana's parishes and unlike most of the other U.S. states, but it is divided into boroughs. Delegates to the Alaska Constitutional Convention wanted to avoid the pitfalls of the traditional county system and adopted their own unique model. Many of the more densely populated parts of the state are part of Alaska's 16 boroughs, which function somewhat similarly to counties in other states. Unlike county-equivalents in the other states, the boroughs do not cover the state's entire land area. The area not part of any borough is referred to as the Unorganized Borough. The Unorganized Borough has no government of its own, but the U.S. Census Bureau in cooperation with the state divided the Unorganized Borough into 11 census areas solely for the purposes of statistical analysis and presentation. A recording district is a mechanism for management of the public record in Alaska. The state is divided into 34 recording districts which are centrally administered under a state recorder. All recording districts use the same acceptance criteria, fee schedule, etc., for accepting documents into the public record. Whereas many U.S. states use a three-tiered system of decentralization—state/county/township—most of Alaska uses only two tiers—state/borough. Owing to the low population density, most of the land is located in the Unorganized Borough. As the name implies, it has no intermediate borough government but is administered directly by the state government. In 2000, 57.71% of Alaska's area has this status, with 13.05% of the population. Anchorage merged the city government with the Greater Anchorage Area Borough in 1975 to form the Municipality of Anchorage, containing the city proper and the communities of Eagle River, Chugiak, Peters Creek, Girdwood, Bird, and Indian. Fairbanks has a separate borough (the Fairbanks North Star Borough) and municipality (the City of Fairbanks). The state's most populous city is Anchorage, home to 291,247 people in 2020. The tally of cities includes four unified municipalities, essentially the equivalent of a consolidated city–county. The majority of these communities are located in the rural expanse of Alaska known as "The Bush" and are unconnected to that contiguous North American road network. The table at the bottom of this section lists the 100 largest cities and census-designated places in Alaska, in population order. Of Alaska's 2020 U.S. census population figure of 733,391, 16,655 people, or 2.27% of the population, did not live in an incorporated city or census-designated place. \|- \| 1 \|\| Anchorage \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 291,247 \|- \| 2 \|\| Fairbanks \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 32,515 \|- \| 3 \|\| Juneau \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 32,255 \|- \| 4 \|\| Knik-Fairview \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 19,297 \|- \| 5 \|\| Badger \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 19,031 \|- \| 6 \|\| College \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 11,332 \|- \| 7 \|\| North Lakes \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 9,450 \|- \| 8 \|\| Meadow Lakes \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 9,197 \|- \| 9 \|\| Wasilla \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 9,054 \|- \| 10 \|\| Tanaina \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 8,817 \|- \| 11 \|\| Kalifornsky \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 8,487 \|- \| 12 \|\| Sitka \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 8,458 \|- \| 13 \|\| Ketchikan \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 8,192 \|- \| 14 \|\| Kenai \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 7,424 \|- \| 15 \|\| Steele Creek \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 6,437 \|- \| 16 \|\| Bethel \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 6,325 \|- \| 17 \|\| Chena Ridge \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 6,015 \|- \| 18 \|\| Sterling \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,918 \|- \| 19 \|\| Palmer \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,888 \|- \| 20 \|\| Gateway \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,748 \|- \| 21 \|\| Kodiak \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,581 \|- \| 22 \|\| Homer \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,522 \|- \| 23 \|\| South Lakes \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,229 \|- \| 24 \|\| Fishhook \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 5,048 \|- \| 25 \|\| Utqiaġvik \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,927 \|- \| 26 \|\| Farmers Loop \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,704 \|- \| 27 \|\| Nikiski \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,456 \|- \| 28 \|\| Soldotna \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,342 \|- \| 29 \|\| Unalaska \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,254 \|- \| 30 \|\| Mill Bay \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 4,216 \|- \| 31 \|\| Valdez \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,985 \|- \| 32 \|\| Big Lake \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,833 \|- \| 33 \|\| Nome \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,699 \|- \| 34 \|\| Butte \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,589 \|- \| 35 \|\| Goldstream \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,299 \|- \| 36 \|\| Kotzebue \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,102 \|- \| 37 \|\| Petersburg \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 3,043 \|- \| 38 \|\| Farm Loop \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,747 \|- \| 39 \|\| Seward \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,717 \|- \| 40 \|\| Eielson AFB \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,610 \|- \| 41 \|\| Cordova \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,609 \|- \| 42 \|\| Ester \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,416 \|- \| 43 \|\| Deltana \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,359 \|- \| 44 \|\| Dillingham \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,249 \|- \| 45 \|\| Fritz Creek \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,248 \|- \| 46 \|\| North Pole \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,243 \|- \| 47 \|\| Willow \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,196 \|- \| 48 \|\| Ridgeway \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,136 \|- \| 49 \|\| Bear Creek \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,129 \|- \| 50 \|\| Wrangell \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,127 \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! No. !! Community name !! Type !! 2020 Pop. \|- \| 51 \|\| Anchor Point \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 2,105 \|- \| 52 \|\| Houston \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,975 \|- \| 53 \|\| Point MacKenzie \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,852 \|- \| 54 \|\| Kodiak Station \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,673 \|- \| 55 \|\| Haines \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,657 \|- \| 56 \|\| Akutan \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,589 \|- \| 57 \|\| Susitna North \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,564 \|- \| 58 \|\| Lazy Mountain \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,506 \|- \| 59 \|\| Cohoe \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,471 \|- \| 60 \|\| Metlakatla \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,454 \|- \| 61 \|\| Hooper Bay \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,375 \|- \| 62 \|\| Diamond Ridge \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,330 \|- \| 63 \|\| Prudhoe Bay \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,310 \|- \| 64 \|\| Tok \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,243 \|- \| 65 \|\| Skagway \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,164 \|- \| 66 \|\| Funny River \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,103 \|- \| 67 \|\| Salamatof \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,078 \|- \| 68 \|\| Talkeetna \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,055 \|- \| 69 \|\| Sutton-Alpine \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,038 \|- \| 70 \|\| Craig \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,036 \|- \| 71 \|\| Buffalo Soapstone \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 1,021 \|- \| 72 \|\| Salcha \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 977 \|- \| 73 \|\| Healy \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 966 \|- \| 74 \|\| Chevak \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 951 \|- \| 75 \|\| Hoonah \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 931 \|- \| 76 \|\| Delta Junction \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 918 \|- \| 77 \|\| Ninilchik \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 845 \|- \| 78 \|\| Savoonga \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 835 \|- \| 79 \|\| Point Hope \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 830 \|- \| 80 \|\| Emmonak \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 825 \|- \| 81 \|\| Togiak \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 817 \|- \| 82 \|\| Kwethluk \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 812 \|- \| 83 \|\| Selawik \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 809 \|- \| 84 \|\| Knik River \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 792 \|- \| 85 \|\| Quinhagak \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 776 \|- \| 86 \|\| Unalakleet \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 765 \|- \| 87 \|\| King Cove \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 757 \|- \| 88 \|\| Alakanuk \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 756 \|- \| 89 \|\| Womens Bay\|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 743 \|- \| 90 \|\| Klawock \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 720 \|- \| 91 \|\| Happy Valley \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 713 \|- \| 92 \|\| Kipnuk \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 704 \|- \| 93 \|\| Noorvik \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 694 \|- \| 94 \|\| Akiachak \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 677 \|- \| 95 \|\| Toksook Bay \|\| City \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 658 \|- \| 96 \|\| Yakutat \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 657 \|- \| rowspan"2" \|97 \|\| Gustavus \|\| CDP \|\| rowspan"2" style="text-align:right;" \| 655 \|- \| Kotlik \|\| CDP \|- \| 99 \|\| Two Rivers \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 650 \|- \| 100 \|\| Fox River \|\| CDP \|\| style="text-align:right;" \| 644 \|} \|} Climate Alaska is the coldest state in the United States. The climate in the south and southeastern Alaska is a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb), and a subarctic oceanic climate (Köppen Cfc) in the northern parts, with cool summers and relatively mild winters. On an annual basis, the southeast is both the wettest and warmest part of Alaska with milder temperatures in the winter and high precipitation throughout the year. Juneau averages over of precipitation a year, and Ketchikan averages over . This is also the only region in Alaska in which the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months. of Alaska]]The climate of Anchorage and south central Alaska is mild by Alaskan standards due to the region's proximity to the seacoast. While the area gets less rain than southeast Alaska, it gets more snow, and days tend to be clearer. On average, Anchorage receives of precipitation a year, with around of snow, although there are areas in the south central which receive far more snow. It is a subarctic climate (Köppen: Dfc) due to its brief, cool summers. The climate of western Alaska is determined in large part by the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. It is a subarctic oceanic climate in the southwest and a continental subarctic climate farther north. The temperature is somewhat moderate considering how far north the area is. This region has a tremendous amount of variety in precipitation. An area stretching from the northern side of the Seward Peninsula to the Kobuk River valley (i.e., the region around Kotzebue Sound) is technically a desert, with portions receiving less than of precipitation annually. On the other extreme, some locations between Dillingham and Bethel average around of precipitation. The climate of the interior of Alaska is subarctic and is a classic example of a continental subarctic climate, except in a few valleys where the climate approaches humid continental (Köppen: Dfb). Some of the highest and lowest temperatures in Alaska occur around the area near Fairbanks. Summers are warm (albeit generally short) and may have temperatures reaching into the 90s °F (the low-to-mid 30s °C), while in the long and very cold winters, the temperature can fall below . Precipitation is sparse in the Interior, often less than a year, but what precipitation falls in the winter tends to stay the entire winter. The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in Alaska are both in the Interior. The highest is in Fort Yukon (which is just inside the arctic circle) on June 27, 1915, making Alaska tied with Hawaii as the state with the lowest high temperature in the United States. The lowest official Alaska temperature is in Prospect Creek on January 23, 1971, The climate in the extreme north of Alaska, north of the Brooks Range, is Arctic (Köppen: ET) with long, very cold winters and short, cool summers. Even in July, the average low temperature in Utqiaġvik is . Precipitation is light in this part of Alaska, with many places averaging less than per year, mostly as snow which stays on the ground almost the entire year. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin:auto;" \|+Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Alaska \|- !Location !July () !July (°C) !January () !January (°C) \|- \|Anchorage \|\| 65/51 \|\| 18/10 \|\| 22/11 \|\| −5/−11 \|- \|Juneau \|\| 64/50 \|\| 17/11 \|\| 32/23 \|\| 0/−4 \|- \|Ketchikan \|\| 64/51 \|\| 17/11 \|\| 38/28 \|\| 3/−1 \|- \|Unalaska \|\| 57/46 \|\| 14/8 \|\| 36/28 \|\| 2/−2 \|- \|Fairbanks \|\| 72/53 \|\| 22/11 \|\| 1/−17 \|\| −17/−27 \|- \|Fort Yukon \|\| 73/51 \|\| 23/10 \|\| −11/−27 \|\| −23/−33 \|- \|Nome \|\| 58/46 \|\| 14/8 \|\| 13/−2 \|\| −10/−19 \|- \|Utqiaġvik \|\| 47/34 \|\| 8/1 \|\| −7/−19 \|\| −21/−28 \|} Fauna Demographics The United States Census Bureau found in the 2020 United States census that the population of Alaska was 733,391 on April 1, 2020, a 3.3% increase since the 2010 United States census. Alaska is the least densely populated state, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in the world, at , with the next state, Wyoming, at . Alaska is by far the largest U.S. state by area, and the tenth wealthiest (per capita income). due to its population size, it is one of 14 U.S. states that still have only one telephone area code. According to HUD's 2022 Annual Homeless Assessment Report, there were an estimated 2,320 homeless people in Alaska. Race and ethnicity {\| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" \|+ Alaska racial breakdown of population \|- ! Racial composition !! 1970 !! 2000!! 2010!! 2020 \|- \| White \|\| 78.8% \|\| 75.5% \|\| 69.3% \|\| 66.7% \|\| 59.4% \|- \| Native \|\| 16.9% \|\| 15.6% \|\| 15.6% \|\| 14.8% \|\| 15.2% \|- \| Asian \|\| 0.9% \|\| 3.6% \|\| 4.0% \|\| 5.4% \|\| 6.0% \|- \| Black \|\| 3.0% \|\| 4.1% \|\| 3.5% \|\| 3.3% \|\| 3.0% \|- \| Native Hawaiian and <br />other Pacific Islander \|\| – \|\| – \|\| 0.5% \|\| 1.0% \|\| 1.7% \|- \| Other race \|\| 0.4% \|\| 1.2% \|\| 1.6% \|\| 1.6% \|\| 2.5% \|- \| Multiracial \|\| – \|\| – \|\| 5.5% \|\| 7.3% \|\| 12.2% \|} The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 60.2% of the population was non-Hispanic white, 3.7% black or African American, 15.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.5% Asian, 1.4% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 7.5% two or more races, and 7.3% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. At the survey estimates, 7.8% of the total population was foreign-born from 2015 to 2019. In 2015, 61.3% was non-Hispanic white, 3.4% black or African American, 13.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 0.9% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 0.3% some other race, and 7.7% multiracial. Hispanics and Latin Americans were 7% of the state population in 2015. From 2015 to 2019, the largest Hispanic and Latin American groups were Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans. The largest Asian groups living in the state were Filipinos, Korean Americans, and Japanese and Chinese Americans. The state was 66.7% white (64.1% non-Hispanic white), 14.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5.4% Asian, 3.3% black or African American, 1.0% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 1.6% from some other race, and 7.3% from two or more races in 2010. Hispanics or Latin Americans of any race made up 5.5% of the population in 2010. , 50.7% of Alaska's population younger than one year of age belonged to minority groups (i.e., did not have two parents of non-Hispanic white ancestry). In 1960, the United States Census Bureau reported Alaska's population as 77.2% white, 3% black, and 18.8% American Indian and Alaska Native. In 2018, the top countries of origin for Alaska's immigrants were the Philippines, Mexico, Canada, Thailand and South Korea. Languages According to the 2011 American Community Survey, 83.4% of people over the age of five spoke only English at home. About 3.5% spoke Spanish at home, 2.2% spoke another Indo-European language, about 4.3% spoke an Asian language (including Tagalog), and about 5.3% spoke other languages at home. In 2019, the American Community Survey determined 83.7% spoke only English, and 16.3% spoke another language other than English. The most spoken European language after English was Spanish, spoken by approximately 4.0% of the state population. Collectively, Asian and Pacific Islander languages were spoken by 5.6% of Alaskans. Since 2010, a total of 5.2% of Alaskans speak one of the state's 20 indigenous languages, known locally as "native languages". The Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks claims that at least 20 Alaskan native languages exist and there are also some languages with different dialects. Most of Alaska's native languages belong to either the Eskimo–Aleut or Na-Dene language families; some languages are thought to be isolates (e.g. Haida) or have not yet been classified (e.g. Tsimshianic). In October 2014, the governor of Alaska signed a bill declaring the state's 20 indigenous languages to have official status. This bill gave them symbolic recognition as official languages, though they have not been adopted for official use within the government. The 20 languages that were included in the bill are: # Inupiaq # Siberian Yupik # Central Alaskan Yup'ik # Alutiiq # Unangax # Dena'ina # Deg Xinag # Holikachuk # Koyukon # Upper Kuskokwim # Gwich'in # Tanana # Upper Tanana # Tanacross # Hän # Ahtna # Eyak # Tlingit # Haida # Tsimshian Religion in downtown Sitka\|left\|265x265px]]Multiple surveys have ranked Alaska among the most irreligious states. According to statistics collected by the Association of Religion Data Archives (ARDA) from 2010, about 34% of Alaska residents were members of religious congregations. Of the religious population, roughly 4% were Mormon, 0.5% Jewish, 0.5% Muslim, 1% Buddhist, 0.2% Baháʼí, and 0.5% Hindu. The largest religious denominations in Alaska was the Catholic Church with 50,866 adherents; non-denominational Evangelicals with 38,070 adherents; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 32,170 adherents; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 19,891 adherents. Alaska has been identified, along with Washington and Oregon in the Pacific Northwest, as being the least religious states in the United States, in terms of church membership. The Pew Research Center in 2014 determined 62% of the adult population practiced Christianity. Of the Christian denominations, Catholicism was the largest Christian group. When Protestant denominations were combined, Protestantism was the largest Christian tradition, with Evangelicalism being the largest movement within the Protestant group. The unaffiliated population made up the largest non-Christian religious affiliation at 37%. Atheists made up 5% of the population and the largest non-Christian religion was Buddhism. In 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI) determined 57% of adults were Christian. By 2022, Christianity increased to 77% of the population according to the PRRI. Through the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, its Christian population was dominated by non/inter-denominational Protestantism as the single largest Christian cohort, with 73,930 adherents. Roman Catholics were second with 40,280 members; throughout its Christian population, non-denominational Christians had an adherence rate of 100.81 per 1,000 residents, and Catholics 54.92 per 1,000 residents. Per 2014's Pew study, religion was seen as very important to 41% of the population, although 29% considered it somewhat important. In 2014, Pew determined roughly 55% believed in God with absolute certainty, and 24% believed fairly certainly. Reflecting the separate 2020 ARDA study, the 2014 Pew study showed 30% attended religious services once a week, 34% once or twice a month, and 36% seldom/never. In 1795, the first Russian Orthodox Church was established in Kodiak. Intermarriage with Alaskan Natives helped the Russian immigrants integrate into society. As a result, an increasing number of Russian Orthodox churches gradually became established within Alaska. Alaska also has the largest Quaker population (by percentage) of any state. In 2009, there were 6,000 Jews in Alaska (for whom observance of halakha may pose special problems). Alaskan Hindus often share venues and celebrations with members of other Asian religious communities, including Sikhs and Jains. In 2010, Alaskan Hindus established the Sri Ganesha Temple of Alaska, making it the first Hindu Temple in Alaska and the northernmost Hindu Temple in the world. There are an estimated 2,000–3,000 Hindus in Alaska. The vast majority of Hindus live in Anchorage or Fairbanks. Estimates for the number of Muslims in Alaska range from 2,000 to 5,000. In 2020, ARDA estimated there were 400 Muslims in the state. There is also a Baháʼí center, and there were 690 adherents in 2020. The 2018 gross state product was $55 billion, 48th in the U.S. Its per capita personal income for 2018 was $73,000, ranking 7th in the nation. According to a 2013 study by Phoenix Marketing International, Alaska had the fifth-largest number of millionaires per capita in the United States, with a ratio of 6.75 percent. The oil and gas industry dominates the Alaskan economy, with more than 80% of the state's revenues derived from petroleum extraction. Alaska's main export product (excluding oil and natural gas) is seafood, primarily salmon, cod, pollock and crab. Agriculture represents a very small fraction of the Alaskan economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as natural resource extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in the Fairbanks North Star, Anchorage and Kodiak Island boroughs, as well as Kodiak. Federal subsidies are also an important part of the economy, allowing the state to keep taxes low. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and tourism sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging. Energy transports oil, Alaska's most financially important export, from the North Slope to Valdez. The heat pipes in the column mounts are pertinent, since they disperse heat upwards and prevent melting of permafrost.]] peaked in 1973 and have declined more than 60% since then. ]] Alaska has vast energy resources, although its oil reserves have been largely depleted. Major oil and gas reserves were found in the Alaska North Slope (ANS) and Cook Inlet basins, but according to the Energy Information Administration, by February 2014 Alaska had fallen to fourth place in the nation in crude oil production after Texas, North Dakota, and California. Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope is still the second highest-yielding oil field in the United States, typically producing about , although by early 2014 North Dakota's Bakken Formation was producing over . Prudhoe Bay was the largest conventional oil field ever discovered in North America, but was much smaller than Canada's enormous Athabasca oil sands field, which by 2014 was producing about of unconventional oil, and had hundreds of years of producible reserves at that rate. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline can transport and pump up to of crude oil per day, more than any other crude oil pipeline in the United States. Additionally, substantial coal deposits are found in Alaska's bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite coal basins. The United States Geological Survey estimates that there are of undiscovered, technically recoverable gas from natural gas hydrates on the Alaskan North Slope. Alaska also offers some of the highest hydroelectric power potential in the country from its numerous rivers. Large swaths of the Alaskan coastline offer wind and geothermal energy potential as well. Alaska's economy depends heavily on increasingly expensive diesel fuel for heating, transportation, electric power and light. Although wind and hydroelectric power are abundant and underdeveloped, proposals for statewide energy systems were judged uneconomical (at the time of the report, 2001) due to low (less than 50¢/gal) fuel prices, long distances and low population. The cost of a gallon of gas in urban Alaska is usually thirty to sixty cents higher than the national average; prices in rural areas are generally significantly higher but vary widely depending on transportation costs, seasonal usage peaks, nearby petroleum development infrastructure and many other factors. Permanent Fund The Alaska Permanent Fund is a constitutionally authorized appropriation of oil revenues, established by voters in 1976 to manage a surplus in state petroleum revenues from oil, largely in anticipation of the then recently constructed Trans-Alaska Pipeline System. The fund was originally proposed by Governor Keith Miller on the eve of the 1969 Prudhoe Bay lease sale, out of fear that the legislature would spend the entire proceeds of the sale (which amounted to $900 million) at once. It was later championed by Governor Jay Hammond and Kenai state representative Hugh Malone. It has served as an attractive political prospect ever since, diverting revenues which would normally be deposited into the general fund. The Alaska Constitution was written so as to discourage dedicating state funds for a particular purpose. The Permanent Fund has become the rare exception to this, mostly due to the political climate of distrust existing during the time of its creation. From its initial principal of $734,000, the fund has grown to $50 billion as a result of oil royalties and capital investment programs. Most if not all the principal is invested conservatively outside Alaska. This has led to frequent calls by Alaskan politicians for the Fund to make investments within Alaska, though such a stance has never gained momentum. Starting in 1982, dividends from the fund's annual growth have been paid out each year to eligible Alaskans, ranging from an initial $1,000 in 1982 (equal to three years' payout, as the distribution of payments was held up in a lawsuit over the distribution scheme) to $3,269 in 2008 (which included a one-time $1,200 "Resource Rebate"). Every year, the state legislature takes out 8% from the earnings, puts 3% back into the principal for inflation proofing, and the remaining 5% is distributed to all qualifying Alaskans. To qualify for the Permanent Fund Dividend, one must have lived in the state for a minimum of 12 months, maintain constant residency subject to allowable absences, and not be subject to court judgments or criminal convictions which fall under various disqualifying classifications or may subject the payment amount to civil garnishment. The Permanent Fund is often considered to be one of the leading examples of a basic income policy in the world. Cost of living The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. Federal government employees, particularly United States Postal Service (USPS) workers and active-duty military members, receive a Cost of Living Allowance usually set at 25% of base pay because, while the cost of living has gone down, it is still one of the highest in the country. Rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods compared to the rest of the country, due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. The peony industry has also taken off, as the growing season allows farmers to harvest during a gap in supply elsewhere in the world, thereby filling a niche in the flower market. Alaska, with no counties, lacks county fairs. Instead, a small assortment of state and local fairs (with the Alaska State Fair in Palmer the largest), are held mostly in the late summer. The fairs are mostly located in communities with historic or current agricultural activity, and feature local farmers exhibiting produce in addition to more high-profile commercial activities such as carnival rides, concerts and food. "Alaska Grown" is used as an agricultural slogan. Alaska has an abundance of seafood, with the primary fisheries in the Bering Sea and the North Pacific. Seafood is one of the few food items that is often cheaper within the state than outside it. Many Alaskans take advantage of salmon seasons to harvest portions of their household diet while fishing for subsistence, as well as sport. This includes fish taken by hook, net or wheel. Hunting for subsistence, primarily caribou, moose, and Dall sheep is still common in the state, particularly in remote Bush communities. An example of a traditional native food is Akutaq, the Eskimo ice cream, which can consist of reindeer fat, seal oil, dried fish meat and local berries. Alaska's reindeer herding is concentrated on Seward Peninsula, where wild caribou can be prevented from mingling and migrating with the domesticated reindeer. Most food in Alaska is transported into the state from "Outside" (the other 49 U.S. states), and shipping costs make food in the cities relatively expensive. In rural areas, subsistence hunting and gathering is an essential activity because imported food is prohibitively expensive. Although most small towns and villages in Alaska lie along the coastline, the cost of importing food to remote villages can be high because of the terrain and difficult road conditions, which change dramatically due to varying climate and precipitation changes. Transport costs can reach 50¢ per pound ($1.10/kg) or higher in some remote areas during times of inclement weather or rough terrain conditions, if these locations can be reached at all. The cost of delivering a gallon (3.8 L) of milk is about $3.50 in many villages where per capita income can be $20,000 or less. Fuel cost per gallon is routinely twenty to thirty cents higher than the contiguous United States average, with only Hawaii having higher prices. Culture ]] Some of Alaska's popular annual events are the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race from Anchorage to Nome, World Ice Art Championships in Fairbanks, the Blueberry Festival and Alaska Hummingbird Festival in Ketchikan, the Sitka Whale Fest, and the Stikine River Garnet Fest in Wrangell. The Stikine River attracts the largest springtime concentration of American bald eagles in the world. The Alaska Native Heritage Center celebrates the rich heritage of Alaska's 11 cultural groups. Their purpose is to encourage cross-cultural exchanges among all people and enhance self-esteem among Native people. The Alaska Native Arts Foundation promotes and markets Native art from all regions and cultures in the State, using the internet.Music Influences on music in Alaska include the traditional music of Alaska Natives as well as folk music brought by later immigrants from Russia and Europe. Prominent musicians from Alaska include singer Jewel, traditional Aleut flautist Mary Youngblood, folk singer-songwriter Libby Roderick, Christian music singer-songwriter Lincoln Brewster, metal/post hardcore band 36 Crazyfists and the groups Pamyua and Portugal. The Man. There are many established music festivals in Alaska, including the Alaska Folk Festival, the Fairbanks Summer Arts Festival, the Anchorage Folk Festival, the Athabascan Old-Time Fiddling Festival, the Sitka Jazz Festival, the Sitka Summer Music Festival, and the Anchorage Chamber Music Festival. The most prominent orchestra in Alaska is the Anchorage Symphony Orchestra, though the Fairbanks Symphony Orchestra and Juneau Symphony are also notable. The Anchorage Opera is currently the state's only professional opera company, though there are several volunteer and semi-professional organizations in the state as well. The official state song of Alaska is "Alaska's Flag", which was adopted in 1955; it celebrates the flag of Alaska. Film and television The 1983 Disney movie Never Cry Wolf was at least partially shot in Alaska. The 1991 film White Fang, based on Jack London's 1906 novel and starring Ethan Hawke, was filmed in and around Haines. Steven Seagal's 1994 On Deadly Ground, starring Michael Caine, was filmed in part at the Worthington Glacier near Valdez. Many reality television shows are filmed in Alaska. In 2011, the Anchorage Daily News found ten set in the state.Sports , arguably the most popular winter event in Alaska]] The following is a list of sporting venues, events, and teams based in Alaska. Anchorage Venues * Alyeska Resort * Chugach State Park, a high alpine park. * Anchorage has many groomed cross-country skiing trails within the urban core. There are of maintained ski trails in the city, some of which reach downtown. * Mulcahy Stadium * Sullivan Arena * Alaska Airlines Center Teams * Anchorage Wolverines * Anchorage Bucs * Anchorage Glacier Pilots * Alaska-Anchorage Seawolves men's ice hockey * Rage City Rollergirls * Arctic Rush (soccer) * Cook Inlet SC (soccer) * Pioneer United FC (men's soccer) Events * Great Alaska Shootout, an annual NCAADivision I basketball tournament * Sadler's Ultra Challenge wheelchair race between Fairbanks and Anchorage * The Tour of Anchorage is an annual 50-kilometer (31 mi) ski race within the city. * World Eskimo Indian Olympics Fairbanks Venues * Carlson Center Teams * Alaska Goldpanners of Fairbanks * Alaska Nanooks men's ice hockey * Fairbanks Ice Dogs * Fairbanks Rollergirls * Fairbanks SC (soccer) Events * Sadler's Ultra Challenge wheelchair race between Fairbanks and Anchorage Suicide rates for rural residents are higher than urban. Domestic abuse and other violent crimes are also at high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse. Alaska has the highest rate of sexual assault in the nation, especially in rural areas. The average age of sexually assaulted victims is 16 years old. In four out of five cases, the suspects were relatives, friends, or acquaintances. Health insurance , CVS Health and Premera account for 47% and 46% of private health insurance, respectively. Premera and Moda Health offer insurance on the federally-run Affordable Care Exchange. Hospitals Providence Alaska Medical Center in Anchorage is the largest hospital in the state as of 2021; Anchorage also hosts Alaska Regional Hospital and Alaska Native Medical Center. Alaska's other major cities such as Fairbanks and Juneau also have local hospitals. In Southeast Alaska, Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium, runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell; although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time.Education of the University of Alaska Anchorage, located in downtown Homer]] The Alaska Department of Education and Early Development administers many school districts in Alaska. In addition, the state operates a boarding school, Mt. Edgecumbe High School in Sitka, and provides partial funding for other boarding schools, including Nenana Student Living Center in Nenana and The Galena Interior Learning Academy in Galena. There are more than a dozen colleges and universities in Alaska. Accredited universities in Alaska include the University of Alaska Anchorage, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Alaska Southeast, and Alaska Pacific University. Alaska is the only state that has no collegiate athletic programs that are members of NCAA Division I, although both Alaska-Fairbanks and Alaska-Anchorage maintain single sport membership in Division I for men's ice hockey. The Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development operates AVTEC, Alaska's Institute of Technology. Campuses in Seward and Anchorage offer one-week to 11-month training programs in areas as diverse as Information Technology, Welding, Nursing, and Mechanics. Alaska has had a problem with a "brain drain". Many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state after high school graduation and do not return. , Alaska did not have a law school or medical school. The University of Alaska has attempted to combat this by offering partial four-year scholarships to the top 10% of Alaska high school graduates, via the Alaska Scholars Program. Beginning in 1998, schools in rural Alaska must have at least 10 students to retain funding from the state, and campuses not meeting the number close. This was due to the loss in oil revenues that previously propped up smaller rural schools. In 2015, there was a proposal to raise that minimum to 25, but legislators in the state largely did not agree.TransportationRoad Alaska has few road connections compared to the rest of the U.S. The state's road system, covering a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the Alaska Highway, the principal route out of the state through Canada. The state capital, Juneau, is not accessible by road, with access only being through ferry or flight; this has spurred debate over decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system, or building a road connection from Haines. The western part of Alaska has no road system connecting the communities with the rest of Alaska. The Interstate Highways in Alaska consists of a total of . One unique feature of the Alaska Highway system is the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel, an active Alaska Railroad tunnel recently upgraded to provide a paved roadway link with the isolated community of Whittier on Prince William Sound to the Seward Highway about southeast of Anchorage at Portage. At , the tunnel was the longest road tunnel in North America until 2007. The tunnel is the longest combination road and rail tunnel in North America. Southwest Alaska is largely coastal, sparsely populated, and unconnected to the road system. Access to most communities in Southwest Alaska is primarily by air taxi, although larger towns like Kodiak, Bethel, King Salmon, Dillingham, and Dutch Harbor are accessible by scheduled air service. Additionally, some coastal communities can be reached via the Alaska Marine Highway ferry. <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> File:Sterling Highway.jpg\|The Sterling Highway, near its intersection with the Seward Highway File:Susitnabridge.JPG\|The Susitna River bridge on the Denali Highway is long. File:Interstate Routes in Alaska.svg\|Alaska Interstate Highways File:AlaskaSign.jpg\|right\|Alaska welcome sign on the Klondike Highway </gallery> Rail Built around 1915, the Alaska Railroad (ARR) played a key role in the development of Alaska through the 20th century. It links shipping lanes on the North Pacific with Interior Alaska with tracks that run from Seward by way of South Central Alaska, passing through Anchorage, Eklutna, Wasilla, Talkeetna, Denali, and Fairbanks, with spurs to Whittier, Palmer and North Pole. The cities, towns, villages, and region served by ARR tracks are known statewide as "The Railbelt". In recent years, the ever-improving paved highway system began to eclipse the railroad's importance in Alaska's economy. The railroad played a vital role in Alaska's development, moving freight into Alaska while transporting natural resources southward, such as coal from the Usibelli coal mine near Healy to Seward and gravel from the Matanuska Valley to Anchorage. It is well known for its summertime tour passenger service. The Alaska Railroad was one of the last railroads in North America to use cabooses in regular service and still uses them on some gravel trains. It continues to offer one of the last flag stop routes in the country. A stretch of about of track along an area north of Talkeetna remains inaccessible by road; the railroad provides the only transportation to rural homes and cabins in the area. Until construction of the Parks Highway in the 1970s, the railroad provided the only land access to most of the region along its entire route. In northern Southeast Alaska, the White Pass and Yukon Route also partly runs through the state from Skagway northwards into Canada (British Columbia and Yukon Territory), crossing the border at White Pass Summit. This line is now mainly used by tourists, often arriving by cruise liner at Skagway. It was featured in the 1983 BBC television series Great Little Railways. These two railroads are connected neither to each other nor any other railroad. The nearest link to the North American railway network is the northwest terminus of the Canadian National Railway at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, several hundred miles to the southeast. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized $6 million to study the feasibility of a rail link between Alaska, Canada, and the lower 48. As of 2021, the Alaska-Alberta Railway Development Corporation had been placed into receivership. Some private companies provides car float service between Whittier and Seattle. <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> File:Alaska Railroad, Girdwood, Alaska, Estados Unidos, 2017-08-31, DD 40.jpg\|An Alaska Railroad locomotive over a bridge in Girdwood approaching Anchorage (2007) File:Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, In to the Tunnel.jpg\|The White Pass and Yukon Route traverses rugged terrain north of Skagway near the Canada–US border. </gallery> Sea Many cities, towns, and villages in the state do not have road or highway access; the only modes of access involve travel by air, river, or the sea. ) is one of the state's many ferries, providing service between the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island and the Aleutian Chain.]] Alaska's well-developed state-owned ferry system (known as the Alaska Marine Highway) serves the cities of southeast, the Gulf Coast and the Alaska Peninsula. The ferries transport vehicles as well as passengers. The system also operates a ferry service from Bellingham, Washington and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, in Canada through the Inside Passage to Skagway. The Inter-Island Ferry Authority also serves as an important marine link for many communities in the Prince of Wales Island region of Southeast and works in concert with the Alaska Marine Highway. In recent years, cruise lines have created a summertime tourism market, mainly connecting the Pacific Northwest to Southeast Alaska and, to a lesser degree, towns along Alaska's gulf coast. The population of Ketchikan for example fluctuates dramatically on many days—up to four large cruise ships can dock there at the same time. Air Cities not served by road, sea, or river can be reached only by air, foot, dogsled, or snowmachine, accounting for Alaska's extremely well developed bush air services—an Alaskan novelty. Anchorage, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, is served by many major airlines. Because of limited highway access, air travel remains the most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (in 2012–2013, Alaska received almost two million visitors). Making regular flights to most villages and towns within the state commercially viable is difficult, so they are heavily subsidized by the federal government through the Essential Air Service program. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger Boeing 737-400s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like Bethel, Nome, Kotzebue, Dillingham, Kodiak, and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. , operated by Era Alaska, on approach to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines such as Ravn Alaska, PenAir, and Frontier Flying Service. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the Cessna Caravan, the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. Many communities have small air taxi services. These operations originated from the demand for customized transport to remote areas. Perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is Lake Hood, located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and many items from stores and warehouse clubs. In 2006, Alaska had the highest number of pilots per capita of any U.S. state. In Alaska there are 8,795 active pilot certificates as of 2020. Snow Another Alaskan transportation method is the dogsled. In modern times (that is, any time after the mid-late 1920s), dog mushing is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, a trail from Anchorage to Nome (although the distance varies from year to year, the official distance is set at ). The race commemorates the famous 1925 serum run to Nome in which mushers and dogs like Togo and Balto took much-needed medicine to the diphtheria-stricken community of Nome when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash, prizes, and prestige. The "Serum Run" is another sled dog race that more accurately follows the route of the famous 1925 relay, leaving from the community of Nenana (southwest of Fairbanks) to Nome. In areas not served by road or rail, primary transportation in summer is by all-terrain vehicle and in winter by snowmobile or "snow machine", as it is commonly referred to in Alaska. Communication Alaska's internet and other data transport systems are provided largely through the two major telecommunications companies: GCI and Alaska Communications. GCI owns and operates what it calls the Alaska United Fiber Optic system and, as of late 2011, Alaska Communications advertised that it has "two fiber optic paths to the lower 48 and two more across Alaska. In January 2011, it was reported that a $1 billion project to connect Asia and rural Alaska was being planned, aided in part by $350 million in stimulus from the federal government. Law and government State government . The large buildings in the background are, from left to right: the Court Plaza Building (known colloquially as the "Spam Can"), the State Office Building (behind), the Alaska Office Building, the John H. Dimond State Courthouse, and the Alaska State Capitol. Many of the smaller buildings in the foreground are also occupied by state government agencies.]] Like all other U.S. states, Alaska is governed as a republic, with three branches of government: an executive branch consisting of the governor of Alaska and their appointees which head executive departments; a legislative branch consisting of the Alaska House of Representatives and Alaska Senate; and a judicial branch consisting of the Alaska Supreme Court and lower courts. The state of Alaska employs approximately 16,000 people statewide. The Alaska State Legislature consists of a 40-member House of Representatives and a 20-member Senate. Senators serve four-year terms and House members two. The governor of Alaska serves four-year terms. The lieutenant governor runs separately from the governor in the primaries, but during the general election, the nominee for governor and nominee for lieutenant governor run together on the same ticket. Alaska's court system has four levels: the Alaska Supreme Court, the Alaska Court of Appeals, the superior courts and the district courts. The superior and district courts are trial courts. Superior courts are courts of general jurisdiction, while district courts hear only certain types of cases, including misdemeanor criminal cases and civil cases valued up to $100,000. \|- style="background:lightgrey;" ! Year ! Democratic ! Republican ! Others \|- \| \|1958 \| \|59.6% 29,189 \| \|39.4% 19,299 \|- \| \|1962 \| \|52.3% 29,627 \| \|47.7% 27,054 \|- \| \|1966 \| \|48.4% 32,065 \| \|50.0% 33,145 \|- \| \|1970 \| \|52.4% 42,309 \| \|46.1% 37,264 \|- \| \|1974 \| \|47.4% 45,553 \| \|47.7% 45,840 \|- \| \|1978 \| \|20.2% 25,656 \| \|39.1% 49,580 \|- \| \|1982 \| \|46.1% 89,918 \| \|37.1% 72,291 \|- \| \|1986 \| \|47.3% 84,943 \| \|42.6% 76,515 \|- \| \|1990 \| \|30.9% 60,201 \| \|26.2% 50,991 \| \|38.9% 75,721 \|- \| \|1994 \| \|41.1% 87,693 \| \|40.8% 87,157 \|- \| \|1998 \| \|51.3% 112,879 \| \|17.9% 39,331 \|- \| \|2002 \| \|40.7% 94,216 \| \|55.9% 129,279 \|- \| \|2006 \| \|41.0% 97,238 \| \|48.3% 114,697 \|- \| \|2010 \| \|37.7% 96,519 \| \|59.1% 151,318 \|- \| \|2014 \| \|0.0% 0 \| \|45.9% 128,435 \| \|48.1% 134,658 \|- \| \|2018 \| \|44.4% 125,739 \| \|51.4% 145,631 \|- \| \|2022 \| \|24.2% 63,755 \| \|50.3% 132,392 \|} Although in its early years of statehood Alaska was a Democratic state, since the early 1970s it has been characterized as Republican-leaning. Local political communities have often worked on issues related to land use development, fishing, tourism, and individual rights. Alaska Natives, while organized in and around their communities, have been active within the Native corporations. These have been given ownership over large tracts of land, which require stewardship. Alaska was formerly the only state in which possession of one ounce or less of marijuana in one's home was completely legal under state law, though the federal law remains in force. The state has an independence movement favoring a vote on secession from the United States, with the Alaskan Independence Party. Six Republicans and four Democrats have served as governor of Alaska. In addition, Republican governor Wally Hickel was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after leaving the Republican party and briefly joining the Alaskan Independence Party ticket just long enough to be reelected. He officially rejoined the Republican party in 1994. Alaska's voter initiative making marijuana legal took effect on February 24, 2015, placing Alaska alongside Colorado and Washington, as well as Washington D.C., as the first three U.S. states where recreational marijuana is legal. The new law means people over 21 can consume small amounts of cannabis. The first legal marijuana store opened in Valdez in October 2016.Voter registration{\| classwikitable ! colspan 6 \| Party registration as of June 3, 2024 \|- ! colspan = 2 \| Party ! Total voters ! Percentage \|- \| \| Unaffiliated \| align=center \| 346,751 \| align=center \| 58.35% \|- \| \| Republican \| align=center \| 143,401 \| align=center \| 24.13% \|- \| \| Democratic \| align=center \| 73,598 \| align=center \| 12.38% \|- \| \|Alaskan Independence \| align=center \| 18,768 \| align=center \| 3.16% \|- \| \|Minor parties \| align=center \| 11,758 \| align=center \| 1.98% \|- ! colspan = 2 \| Total ! align=center \| 594,276 ! align=center \| 100.00% \|} Taxes To finance state government operations, Alaska depends primarily on petroleum revenues and federal subsidies. This allows it to have the lowest individual tax burden in the United States. It is one of five states with no sales tax, one of seven states with no individual income tax, and—along with New Hampshire—one of two that has neither. The Department of Revenue Tax Division reports regularly on the state's revenue sources. The department also issues an annual summary of its operations, including new state laws that directly affect the tax division. In 2014, the Tax Foundation ranked Alaska as having the fourth most "business friendly" tax policy, behind only Wyoming, South Dakota, and Nevada. While Alaska has no state sales tax, 89 municipalities collect a local sales tax, from 1.0 to 7.5%, typically 3–5%. Other local taxes levied include raw fish taxes, hotel, motel, and bed-and-breakfast 'bed' taxes, severance taxes, liquor and tobacco taxes, gaming (pull tabs) taxes, tire taxes and fuel transfer taxes. A part of the revenue collected from certain state taxes and license fees (such as petroleum, aviation motor fuel, telephone cooperative) is shared with municipalities in Alaska. The fall in oil prices after the fracking boom in the early 2010s has decimated Alaska's state treasury, which has historically received about 85 percent of its revenue from taxes and fees imposed on oil and gas companies. The state government has had to drastically reduce its budget, and has brought its budget shortfall from over $2 billion in 2016 to under $500 million by 2018. In 2020, Alaska's state government budget was $4.8 billion, while projected government revenues were only $4.5 billion. Federal politics held Alaska's sole U.S. House seat for 49 years, from 1973 to 2022.]] Alaska regularly supports Republicans in presidential elections and has done so since statehood. Republicans have won the state's electoral college votes in all but one election that it has participated in (1964). No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. Alaska was carried by Democratic nominee Lyndon B. Johnson during his landslide election in 1964, while the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. Since 1972, Republicans have carried the state by large margins. In 2008, Republican John McCain defeated Democrat Barack Obama in Alaska, 59.49% to 37.83%. McCain's running mate was Sarah Palin, the state's governor and the first Alaskan on a major party ticket. Obama lost Alaska again in 2012, but he captured 40% of the state's vote in that election, making him the first Democrat to do so since 1968. In 2020, Joe Biden received 42.77% of the vote for president, marking the high point for a Democratic presidential candidate since Johnson's 1964 victory. The Alaska Bush, central Juneau, midtown and downtown Anchorage, and the areas surrounding the University of Alaska Fairbanks campus and Ester have been strongholds of the Democratic Party. The Matanuska-Susitna Borough, the majority of Fairbanks (including North Pole and the military base), and South Anchorage typically have the strongest Republican showing. Elections Alaska has a history of primary defeats for incumbent U.S. Senators, including Ernest Gruening, Mike Gravel, and Lisa Murkowski. However, Murkowski won re-election with a write-in campaign. Despite this, Alaska has also seen long-serving members of Congress, such as Ted Stevens, who served as a U.S. Senator for 40 years, and Don Young, who held Alaska's sole U.S. House seat for 49 years (from 1973 to 2022). In the 2020 election cycle, Alaskan voters approved Ballot Measure 2. The measure passed by a margin of 1.1%, or about 4,000 votes. Measure 2 makes Alaska the third state with nonpartisan primaries for all statewide races, the second state with ranked choice voting, and the only state with both. The 2022 special election to fill Alaska's only U.S. House seat, left vacant by the death of Don Young, was won by Mary Peltola. She became the first Democrat to win the House seat since 1972 and the first Alaskan Native elected to the United States Congress in history. After winning a full term in the 2022 general election, Peltola lost reelection in 2024 to Republican Nick Begich III.<gallery mode"packed" widths"80" heights"120" perrow"5" caption="Alaska's current statewide elected officials"> File:Mike Dunleavy official photo (cropped).jpg\|Mike Dunleavy, Governor File:Lisa Murkowski official photo.jpg\|Lisa Murkowski, senior United States senator File:Senator Dan Sullivan official.jpg\|Dan Sullivan, junior United States senator File:Rep. Nick Begich III (119th Congress) (3x4 full).jpg\|Nick Begich III, U.S. representative </gallery> See also * Index of Alaska-related articles * Outline of Alaska * List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska * USS Alaska, 4 ships Notes ReferencesExternal links * [http://vilda.alaska.edu/index.php Alaska's Digital Archives] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101120224655/http://aitc.org/ Alaska Inter-Tribal Council] * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170525013530/http://acmedia.alaskacommons.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Who-Owns-Manages-Alaska.gif Who Owns/Manages Alaska?] (map) * [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/1203 Carl J. Sacarlasen Diary Extracts] at Dartmouth College Library * [https://archives-manuscripts.dartmouth.edu/repositories/2/resources/2292 M.E. Diemer Alaska Photographs] at Dartmouth College Library * Alfred Hulse Brooks Photographs and Papers. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. U.S. federal government * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/states/alaska/index.html Alaska State Guide from the Library of Congress] * [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/state/state_energy_profiles.cfm?sid=AK Energy & Environmental Data for Alaska] * [http://www.usgs.gov/state/state.asp?StateAK USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Alaska] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100527092920/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau] * [http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/state-fact-sheets/state-data.aspx?StateFIPS02&StateNameAlaska Alaska State Facts] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/subject_guides/pdf/Alaska_Statehood.pdf Alaska Statehood Subject Guide from the Eisenhower Presidential Library] * [http://eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/alaska_statehood.html Alaska Statehood documents, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library] Alaska state government * [http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111015204815/http://wikis.ala.org/godort/index.php/Alaska Alaska State Databases] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190330022055/http://www.dnr.state.ak.us/ssd/recoff/terminology.cfm Alaska Department of Natural Resources, Recorder's Office] Category:Arctic Ocean Category:Former Russian colonies Category:States and territories established in 1959 Category:States of the United States Category:States of the West Coast of the United States Category:1959 establishments in the United States Category:Western United States Category:Northern America Category:Enclaves and exclaves Category:Russia–United States relations Category:Exclaves in the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska	2025-04-05T18:25:18.356288
627	Agriculture	system on a field]] Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output. , small farms produce about one-third of the world's food, but large farms are prevalent. The largest 1% of farms in the world are greater than and operate more than 70% of the world's farmland. 32 million tonnes of natural fibers and 4 billion m<sup>3</sup> of wood. However, around 14% of the world's food is lost from production before reaching the retail level. Modern agronomy, plant breeding, agrochemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, and technological developments have sharply increased crop yields, but also contributed to ecological and environmental damage. Selective breeding and modern practices in animal husbandry have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about animal welfare and environmental damage. Environmental issues include contributions to climate change, depletion of aquifers, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and other agricultural pollution. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation, and climate change, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield. Genetically modified organisms are widely used, although some countries ban them. Etymology and scope The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin , from 'field' and 'cultivation' or 'growing'. While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant, termite and beetle have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years. Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services". It may also be broadly decomposed into plant agriculture, which concerns the cultivation of useful plants, and animal agriculture, the production of agricultural animals. History , as numbered by Nikolai Vavilov in the 1930s.}} ]] Origins The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by hunting and gathering. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centers of origin. Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000 years ago, cereals cultivation of emmer, barley, and oats has been observed near the sea of Galilee. Rice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago. Pig production emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia, where wild boar were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs. Sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia. In Mesoamerica, wild teosinte was bred into maize (corn) from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago. The horse was domesticated in the Eurasian Steppes around 3500 BC. Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing sedentism; examples are the Natufian culture in the Levant, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated. Civilizations by the expansion of the early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago. ]] In Eurasia, the Sumerians started to live in villages from about 8,000 BC, relying on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and a canal system for irrigation. Ploughs appear in pictographs around 3,000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2,300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs. Ancient Egyptian agriculture relied on the Nile River and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the Paleolithic, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as flax and papyrus. In India, wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated by 9,000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats. Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in Mehrgarh culture by 8,000–6,000 BC. Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC. Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn plough from 2,500 BC in the Indus Valley civilization. In China, from the 5th century BC, there was a nationwide granary system and widespread silk farming. Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC, followed by irrigation. By the late 2nd century, heavy ploughs had been developed with iron ploughshares and mouldboards. These spread westwards across Eurasia. Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the molecular clock estimate that is used– on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice Oryza rufipogon. In Greece<!--this is the only link to Agr of ancient Greece--> and Rome<!--this is the only link to Agr of ancient Rome-->, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products., a grain store, harvesting with sickles, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from ancient Egypt. Tomb of Nakht, 15th century BC]] In the Americas, crops domesticated in Mesoamerica (apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and cacao. Cocoa was domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3,000 BC. The turkey was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest. The Aztecs developed irrigation systems, formed terraced hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed chinampas or artificial islands. The Mayas used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC. In South America agriculture may have begun about 9000 BC with the domestication of squash (Cucurbita) and other plants. Coca was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut, tomato, tobacco, and pineapple. Animals including llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated there. In North America, the indigenous people of the East domesticated crops such as sunflower, tobacco, squash and Chenopodium. Wild foods including wild rice and maple sugar were harvested. The domesticated strawberry is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America. The indigenous people of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest practiced forest gardening and fire-stick farming. The natives controlled fire on a regional scale to create a low-intensity fire ecology that sustained a low-density agriculture in loose rotation; a sort of "wild" permaculture. A system of companion planting called the Three Sisters was developed in North America. The three crops were winter squash, maize, and climbing beans. Indigenous Australians, long supposed to have been nomadic hunter-gatherers, practiced systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming. Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wild karuka fruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life. The Gunditjmara and other groups developed eel farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago. There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period. In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.Revolution ]] In the Middle Ages, compared to the Roman period, agriculture in Western Europe became more focused on self-sufficiency. The agricultural population under feudalism was typically organized into manors consisting of several hundred or more acres of land presided over by a lord of the manor with a Roman Catholic church and priest. Thanks to the exchange with the Al-Andalus where the Arab Agricultural Revolution was underway, European agriculture transformed, with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange). After 1492, the Columbian exchange brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and turnips, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas. Irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilizers advanced from the 17th century with the British Agricultural Revolution, allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900, agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as mechanization replaces human labor, and assisted by synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and selective breeding. The Haber-Bosch method allowed the synthesis of ammonium nitrate fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing crop yields and sustaining a further increase in global population. Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues including water pollution, biofuels, genetically modified organisms, tariffs and farm subsidies, leading to alternative approaches such as the organic movement. Unsustainable farming practices in North America led to the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. Types herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.]] Pastoralism involves managing domesticated animals. In nomadic pastoralism, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practiced in arid and semi-arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia and some parts of India. In shifting cultivation, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin. Subsistence farming is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia. An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's arable land. Intensive farming is cultivation to maximize productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries. Contemporary agriculture Status From the twentieth century onwards, intensive agriculture increased crop productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies. Soil degradation and diseases such as stem rust are major concerns globally; approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In recent years there has been a backlash against the environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the organic, regenerative, and sustainable agriculture movements. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the European Union, which first certified organic food in 1991 and began reform of its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies, also known as decoupling. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as integrated pest management, selective breeding, and controlled-environment agriculture. There are concerns about the lower yield associated with organic farming and its impact on global food security. Recent mainstream technological developments include genetically modified food. By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States. Agriculture employed 873 million people in 2021, or 27% of the global workforce, compared with 1 027 million (or 40%) in 2000. The share of agriculture in global GDP was stable at around 4% since 2000–2023. Despite increases in agricultural production and productivity, between 702 and 828 million people were affected by hunger in 2021. Food insecurity and malnutrition can be the result of conflict, climate extremes and variability and economic swings. Workforce Agriculture provides about one-quarter of all global employment, more than half in sub-Saharan Africa and almost 60 percent in low-income countries. As countries develop, other jobs have historically pulled workers away from agriculture, and labor-saving innovations increase agricultural productivity by reducing labor requirements per unit of output. Over time, a combination of labor supply and labor demand trends have driven down the share of population employed in agriculture., the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.\|220x220px]] During the 16th century in Europe, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%. In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%. At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. This constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries constitutes the largest percentage of women of any industry. In many developed countries, immigrants help fill labor shortages in high-value agriculture activities that are difficult to mechanize. Foreign farm workers from mostly Eastern Europe, North Africa and South Asia constituted around one-third of the salaried agricultural workforce in Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal in 2013. In the United States of America, more than half of all hired farmworkers (roughly 450,000 workers) were immigrants in 2019, although the number of new immigrants arriving in the country to work in agriculture has fallen by 75 percent in recent years and rising wages indicate this has led to a major labor shortage on U.S. farms. Women in agriculture Around the world, women make up a large share of the population employed in agriculture. This share is growing in all developing regions except East and Southeast Asia where women already make up about 50 percent of the agricultural workforce. Women who work in agricultural production tend to do so under highly unfavorable conditions. They tend to be concentrated in the poorest countries, where alternative livelihoods are not available, and they maintain the intensity of their work in conditions of climate-induced weather shocks and in situations of conflict. Women are less likely to participate as entrepreneurs and independent farmers and are engaged in the production of less lucrative crops. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects. As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture; common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles. The International Labor Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors". It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported. The organization has developed the Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play. In the European Union, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry. The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety. Production Overall production varies by country as listed. {\|class="wikitable collapsible" \|- ! colspan=2\|Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according to IMF and CIA World Factbook, at peak level as of 2018 \|- \| \|data1 1,117 \|label2 (02) \|data2 414 \|label3 }} \|data3 308 \|label4 (03) \|data4 185 \|label5 (04) \|data5 162 \|label6 (05) \|data6 141 \|label7 (06) \|data7 123 \|label8 (07) \|data8 108 \|label9 (08) \|data9 76 \|label10 (09) \|data10 70 \|label11 (10) \|data11 64 \|label12 (11) \|data12 62 \|label13 (12) \|data13 59 \|label14 (13) \|data14 57 \|label15 (14) \|data15 56 \|label16 (15) \|data16 51 \|label17 (16) \|data17 50 \|label18 (17) \|data18 43 \|label19 (18) \|data19 41 \|label20 (19) \|data20 40 \|label21 (20) \|data21 40 \|caption= \|isbn978-0-309-04248-2 \|date1 February 1990 }} \|} {\|class="wikitable collapsible" \|- ! colspan2\|Largest countries by agricultural output according to UNCTAD at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015 \|- \| \|data1418,455 \|label2 (02) \|data2196,592 \|label3 (03) \|data3149,023 \|label4 (04) \|data477,113 \|label5 (05) \|data559,977 }} \|} Crop cultivation systems shifting cultivation, Thailand]] Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer. Shifting cultivation (or slash and burn) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then perennial crops for a period of several years. Then the plot is left fallow to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or manure) and some manual pest control. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs. Specific crops are cultivated in distinct growing regions throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on FAO estimates. \|} </div> <div style=display:inline-table> {\|class="wikitable collapsible" \|- ! colspan=2\|Top agricultural products, by individual crops <br />(million tonnes) 2011 data \|- \|Sugar cane \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|1794 \|- \|Maize \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|883 \|- \|Rice \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|722 \|- \|Wheat \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|704 \|- \|Potatoes \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|374 \|- \|Sugar beet \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|271 \|- \|Soybeans \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|260 \|- \|Cassava \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|252 \|- \|Tomatoes \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|159 \|- \|Barley \|\|style="text-align:right;"\|134 \|- \|colspan2\|Source: Food and Agriculture Organization Working animals, including horses, mules, oxen, water buffalo, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields, harvest crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers. Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless. , 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050. Aquaculture or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007. During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock breeds and crossbreeds that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve genetic diversity. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds. Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as shrubland, rangeland, and pastures for feeding ruminant animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists. Production practices an arable field]] Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It can improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO<sub>2</sub>, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms. Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects, mites, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (biocontrol), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation, culling, cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort. Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure, green manure, compost and minerals. Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a fallow period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures. Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Recent technological innovations in precision agriculture allow for water status monitoring and automate water usage, leading to more efficient management. Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide. However, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture vary significantly by income level. In least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture are as high as 90 percent of total water withdrawals and about 60 percent in Small Island Developing States. According to 2014 report by the International Food Policy Research Institute, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other. Using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half. Payment for ecosystem services is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water. Agricultural automation Different definitions exist for agricultural automation and for the variety of tools and technologies that are used to automate production. One view is that agricultural automation refers to autonomous navigation by robots without human intervention. Alternatively, it is defined as the accomplishment of production tasks through mobile, autonomous, decision-making, mechatronic devices. However, FAO finds that these definitions do not capture all the aspects and forms of automation, such as robotic milking machines that are static, most motorized machinery that automates the performing of agricultural operations, and digital tools (e.g., sensors) that automate only diagnosis. The technological evolution in agriculture has involved a progressive move from manual tools to animal traction, to motorized mechanization, to digital equipment and finally, to robotics with artificial intelligence (AI). With digital automation technologies, it also becomes possible to automate diagnosis and decision-making of agricultural operations. Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the adoption of motorized mechanization has stalled over the past decades. Automation technologies are increasingly used for managing livestock, though evidence on adoption is lacking. Global automatic milking system sales have increased over recent years, but adoption is likely mostly in Northern Europe, and likely almost absent in low- and middle-income countries. Automated feeding machines for both cows and poultry also exist, but data and evidence regarding their adoption trends and drivers is likewise scarce. This is especially true when it happens in context of rising scarcity of rural labor, as is the case in high-income countries and many middle-income countries. and changes in sea level. Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world. In a 2022 report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change describes how human-induced warming has slowed growth of agricultural productivity over the past 50 years in mid and low latitudes. Methane emissions have negatively impacted crop yields by increasing temperatures and surface ozone concentrations. Crop alteration and biotechnology Plant breeding (left) compared with non-tolerant variety]] Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist Gregor Mendel. His work on dominant and recessive alleles, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits, self-pollination and cross-pollination, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism. Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley. The Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, and growth control to avoid lodging). protection for agri inventions, as seen in the total number of patents, utility models and plant varieties equivalent protection systems applied for on agricultural innovation worldwide.]] Investments into innovation for agriculture are long term. This is because it takes time for research to become commercialized and for technology to be adapted to meet multiple regions’ needs, as well as meet national guidelines before being adopted and planted in a farmer's fields. For instance, it took at least 60 years from the introduction of hybrid corn technology before its adoption became widespread. Agricultural innovation developed for the specific agroecological conditions of one region is not easily transferred and used in another region with different agroecological conditions. Instead, the innovation would have to be adapted to the specific conditions of that other region and respect its biodiversity and environmental requirements and guidelines. Some such adaptations can be seen through the steadily increasing number of plant varieties protected under the plant variety protection instrument administered by the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV). For some, GMO crops cause food safety and food labeling concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops. The Biosafety Protocol, an international treaty, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not. Herbicide-resistant seeds have a gene implanted into their genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including glyphosate. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide. With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications. Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects. Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes. Environmental impact Effects and costs in a rural stream due to runoff from farming activity in New Zealand]] Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as biodiversity loss, desertification, soil degradation and climate change, which cause decreases in crop yield. Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including insecticides, especially those used on cotton. The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 percent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs. Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare. A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million. Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society. The environmental effects of climate change show that research on pests and diseases that do not generally afflict areas is essential. In 2021, farmers discovered stem rust on wheat in the Champagne area of France, a disease that had previously only occurred in Morocco for 20 to 30 years. Because of climate change, insects that used to die off over the winter are now alive and multiplying. Livestock issues converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into biogas fuel.]] A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases, responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO<sub>2</sub> equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO<sub>2</sub>. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO<sub>2</sub>) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO<sub>2</sub>.) It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feed crops. Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. A well documented phenomenon is woody plant encroachment, caused by overgrazing in rangelands. Furthermore, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) states that "methane emissions from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 per cent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns." It is estimated that 24% of land globally experiences land degradation, a long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, with cropland being disproportionately affected. Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, mineral depletion, acidification, or salinization. Fertilizers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favoring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients. Agriculture simultaneously is facing growing freshwater demand and precipitation anomalies (droughts, floods, and extreme rainfall and weather events) on rainfed areas fields and grazing lands. and an estimated 41 percent of current global irrigation water use occurs at the expense of environmental flow requirements. Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that water scarcity is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources. While industrial withdrawals have declined in the past few decades and municipal withdrawals have increased only marginally since 2010, agricultural withdrawals have continued to grow at an ever faster pace. Pesticides ]] Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant. The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths. Pesticides select for pesticide resistance in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide. An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable, and that pesticides can replace good agronomic practices such as crop rotation. Contribution to climate change Agriculture contributes towards climate change through greenhouse gas emissions and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forests into agricultural land. The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Emissions of nitrous oxide, methane make up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture. Animal husbandry is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions. Approximately 57% of global GHG emissions from the production of food are from the production of animal-based food while plant-based foods contribute 29% and the remaining 14% is for other utilizations. Farmland management and land-use change represented major shares of total emissions (38% and 29%, respectively), whereas rice and beef were the largest contributing plant- and animal-based commodities (12% and 25%, respectively). Sustainability and conservation buffers reduce soil erosion and water pollution on this farm in Iowa.]] Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests. Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights. Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable. Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration. Agricultural automation can help address some of the challenges associated with climate change and thus facilitate adaptation efforts. Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2–3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy. The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset. Energy dependence : from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a cotton picker could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of fossil fuel.]] Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from fossil fuel sources. Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area) as world population doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output. Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery. Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined. Plastic pollution Plastic products are used extensively in agriculture, including to increase crop yields and improve the efficiency of water and agrichemical use. "Agriplastic" products include films to cover greenhouses and tunnels, mulch to cover soil (e.g. to suppress weeds, conserve water, increase soil temperature and aid fertilizer application), shade cloth, pesticide containers, seedling trays, protective mesh and irrigation tubing. The polymers most commonly used in these products are low- density polyethylene (LPDE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The total amount of plastics used in agriculture is difficult to quantify. A 2012 study reported that almost 6.5 million tonnes per year were consumed globally while a later study estimated that global demand in 2015 was between 7.3 million and 9 million tonnes. Widespread use of plastic mulch and lack of systematic collection and management have led to the generation of large amounts of mulch residue. Weathering and degradation eventually cause the mulch to fragment. These fragments and larger pieces of plastic accumulate in soil. Mulch residue has been measured at levels of 50 to 260 kg per hectare in topsoil in areas where mulch use dates back more than 10 years, which confirms that mulching is a major source of both microplastic and macroplastic soil contamination.]] Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services". Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century. Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States to the European feudal system of manorialism. In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to food processing, distribution, and agricultural marketing, sometimes referred to as the value chain, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of value addition (e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities. National government policies, such as taxation, subsidies, tariffs and others, can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products. Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions, exchange rate policies and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions. However, , there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the oilseeds, sesame had the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have decreases more among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy. Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight. Agricultural science mapping a plant genome]] Agricultural science is a broad multidisciplinary field of biology that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modeling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation, waste management, and bioremediation. The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when Johann Friedrich Mayer conducted experiments on the use of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate) as a fertilizer. Research became more systematic when in 1843, John Lawes and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running. In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers. In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the spongy moth and brown-tail moth, establishing parasitoids (such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the US. Policy {\|class="wikitable floatright" \|+ Direct subsidies for animal products and feed by OECD countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars ! Product !! Subsidy \|- \|Beef and veal \|\|18.0 \|- \|Milk \|\|15.3 \|- \|Pigs \|\|7.3 \|- \|Poultry \|\|6.5 \|- \|Soybeans \|\|2.3 \|- \|Eggs \|\|1.5 \|- \|Sheep \|\|1.1 \|} Agricultural policy is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters), economic stability (including policies related to taxes), natural resources and environmental sustainability (especially water policy), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries). Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs. A 2021 report finds that globally, support to agricultural producers accounts for almost US$540 billion a year. This amounts to 15 percent of total agricultural production value, and is heavily biased towards measures that are leading to inefficiency, as well as are unequally distributed and harmful for the environment and human health. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure. See also * Aeroponics * Agricultural aircraft * Agricultural engineering * Agricultural finance * Agricultural robot * Agroecology * Agrominerals * Building-integrated agriculture * Contract farming * Corporate farming * Crofting * Ecoagriculture * Farmworker * Food loss and waste * Food security * Hill farming * List of documentary films about agriculture * Pharming (genetics) * Remote sensing * Rural Development * Soil biodiversity * Subsistence economy * Sustainable agriculture * Urban agriculture * Vertical farming * Vegetable farming References Cited sources * * * External links * [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ Food and Agriculture Organization] * [http://www.usda.gov/ United States Department of Agriculture] * [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture Agriculture] material from the World Bank Group * * Category:Agronomy Category:Food industry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture	2025-04-05T18:25:18.472422
628	Aldous Huxley	\| birth_place = Godalming, Surrey, England \| death_date \| death_place = Los Angeles County, California, U.S. \| resting_place = Compton, Surrey \| occupation = \| education = Balliol College \| notable_works \| spouse \|}} \| children = Matthew \| relatives = \| signature = Aldous Huxley signature.svg }} Aldous Leonard Huxley ( ; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. His bibliography spans nearly 50 books, including non-fiction works, as well as essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the prominent Huxley family, he graduated from Balliol College, Oxford, with a degree in English literature. Early in his career, he published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine Oxford Poetry, before going on to publish travel writing, satire, and screenplays. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature nine times, and was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature in 1962. Huxley was a pacifist. He grew interested in philosophical mysticism, as well as universalism, addressing these subjects in his works such as The Perennial Philosophy (1945), which illustrates commonalities between Western and Eastern mysticism, and The Doors of Perception (1954), which interprets his own psychedelic experience with mescaline. In his most famous novel Brave New World (1932) and his final novel Island (1962), he presented his visions of dystopia and utopia, respectively. Early life blue plaque at 16 Bracknell Gardens, Hampstead, London, commemorating Aldous, his brother Julian, and his father Leonard]] Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, on 26 July 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited The Cornhill Magazine, and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphry Ward. Julia named him Aldous after a character in one of her sister's novels. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist who had often been called "Darwin's Bulldog". His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevenen Huxley (1889–1914), who took his own life after a period of clinical depression. As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie", diminutive for "Ogre". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently contemplated "the strangeness of things". He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside he went on to Eton College. His mother died in 1908, when he was 14 (his father later remarried). He contracted the eye disease keratitis punctata in 1911; this "left [him] practically blind for two to three years" and "ended his early dreams of becoming a doctor". In October 1913, Huxley entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied English literature. He volunteered for the British Army in January 1916, for the Great War; however, he was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. His eyesight later partly recovered. He edited Oxford Poetry in 1916, and in June of that year graduated BA with first class honours. His brother Julian wrote: Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. He taught French for a year at Eton College, where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name George Orwell) and Steven Runciman were among his pupils. He was mainly remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language. Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond, an advanced chemical plant in Billingham in County Durham, northeast England. According to an introduction to his science fiction novel Brave New World (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel. Career Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early twenties, establishing himself as a successful writer and social satirist. His first published novels were social satires, Crome Yellow (1921), Antic Hay (1923), Those Barren Leaves (1925), and Point Counter Point (1928). Brave New World (1932) was his fifth novel and first dystopian work. In the 1920s, he was also a contributor to Vanity Fair and British Vogue magazines. Contact with the Bloomsbury Group members (July 1915). Left to right: Lady Ottoline Morrell (age 42); Maria Nys (age 15), who would become Mrs Huxley; Lytton Strachey (age 35); Duncan Grant (age 30); and Vanessa Bell (age 36)]] During the First World War, Huxley spent much of his time at Garsington Manor near Oxford, home of Lady Ottoline Morrell, working as a farm labourer. While at the Manor, he met several Bloomsbury Group figures, including Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Clive Bell. Later, in Crome Yellow (1921), he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. Jobs were very scarce, but in 1919, John Middleton Murry was reorganising the Athenaeum and invited Huxley to join the staff. He accepted immediately, and quickly married the Belgian refugee Maria Nys (1899–1955), also at Garsington. They lived with their young son in Italy part of the time during the 1920s, where Huxley would visit his friend D. H. Lawrence. Following Lawrence's death in 1930 (he and Maria were present at his death in Provence), Huxley edited Lawrence's letters (1932). Very early in 1929, in London, Huxley met Gerald Heard, a writer and broadcaster, philosopher and interpreter of contemporary science. Heard was nearly five years older than Huxley, and introduced him to a variety of profound ideas, subtle interconnections, and various emerging spiritual and psychotherapy methods. Works of this period included novels about the dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, (his magnum opus Brave New World), and on pacifist themes (Eyeless in Gaza). In Brave New World, set in a dystopian London, Huxley portrays a society operating on the principles of mass production and Pavlovian conditioning. Huxley was strongly influenced by F. Matthias Alexander, on whom he based a character in Eyeless in Gaza. thumb\|Aldous Huxley by David Low (cartoonist)\|Low (1933) During this period, Huxley began to write and edit non-fiction works on pacifist issues, including Ends and Means (1937), An Encyclopedia of Pacifism, and Pacifism and Philosophy, and was an active member of the Peace Pledge Union (PPU). Life in the United States In 1937, Huxley moved to Hollywood with his wife Maria, son Matthew Huxley, and friend Gerald Heard. Cyril Connolly wrote, of the two intellectuals (Huxley and Heard) in the late 1930s, "all European avenues had been exhausted in the search for a way forward – politics, art, science – pitching them both toward the US in 1937." Huxley lived in the U.S., mainly southern California, until his death, and for a time in Taos, New Mexico, where he wrote Ends and Means (1937). The book contains tracts on war, inequality, religion and ethics. Heard introduced Huxley to Vedanta (Upanishad-centered philosophy), meditation, and vegetarianism through the principle of ahimsa. In 1938, Huxley befriended Jiddu Krishnamurti, whose teachings he greatly admired. Huxley and Krishnamurti entered into an enduring exchange (sometimes edging on debate) over many years, with Krishnamurti representing the more rarefied, detached, ivory-tower perspective and Huxley, with his pragmatic concerns, the more socially and historically informed position. Huxley wrote a foreword to Krishnamurti's quintessential statement, The First and Last Freedom (1954). Huxley and Heard became Vedantists in the group formed around Hindu Swami Prabhavananda, and subsequently introduced Christopher Isherwood to the circle. Not long afterwards, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, The Perennial Philosophy, which discussed the teachings of renowned mystics of the world. Huxley became a close friend of Remsen Bird, president of Occidental College. He spent much time at the college in the Eagle Rock neighbourhood of Los Angeles. The college appears as "Tarzana College" in his satirical novel After Many a Summer (1939). The novel won Huxley a British literary award, the 1939 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for fiction. Huxley also incorporated Bird into the novel. During this period, Huxley earned a substantial income as a Hollywood screenwriter; Christopher Isherwood, in his autobiography My Guru and His Disciple, states that Huxley earned more than $3,000 per week (approximately $50,000 in 2020 dollars) as a screenwriter, and that he used much of it to transport Jewish and left-wing writer and artist refugees from Hitler's Germany to the US. In March 1938, Huxley's friend Anita Loos, a novelist and screenwriter, put him in touch with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM), which hired him for Madame Curie which was originally to star Greta Garbo and be directed by George Cukor. (Eventually, the film was completed by MGM in 1943 with a different director and cast.) Huxley received screen credit for Pride and Prejudice (1940) and was paid for his work on a number of other films, including Jane Eyre (1944). He was commissioned by Walt Disney in 1945 to write a script based on ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'' and the biography of the story's author, Lewis Carroll. The script was not used, however. Huxley wrote an introduction to the posthumous publication of J. D. Unwin's 1940 book Hopousia or The Sexual and Economic Foundations of a New Society. On 21 October 1949, Huxley wrote to George Orwell, author of Nineteen Eighty-Four, congratulating him on "how fine and how profoundly important the book is". In his letter, he predicted: In 1953, Huxley and Maria applied for United States citizenship and presented themselves for examination. When Huxley refused to bear arms for the U.S. and would not state that his objections were based on religious ideals, the only excuse allowed under the McCarran Act, the judge had to adjourn the proceedings. He withdrew his application. Nevertheless, he remained in the U.S. In 1959, Huxley turned down an offer to be made a Knight Bachelor by the Macmillan government without giving a reason; his brother Julian had been knighted in 1958, while his brother Andrew would be knighted in 1974. In the fall semester of 1960 Huxley was invited by Professor Huston Smith to be the Carnegie Visiting professor of humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). As part of the MIT centennial program of events organised by the Department of Humanities, Huxley presented a series of lectures titled, "What a Piece of Work is a Man" which concerned history, language, and art. Robert S. de Ropp (scientist, humanitarian, and author), who had spent time with Huxley in England in the 1930s, connected with him again in the U.S. in the early 1960s and wrote that "the enormous intellect, the beautifully modulated voice, the gentle objectivity, all were unchanged. He was one of the most highly civilized human beings I had ever met." Late-in-life perspectives Biographer Harold H. Watts wrote that Huxley's writings in the "final and extended period of his life" are "the work of a man who is meditating on the central problems of many modern men". Huxley had deeply felt apprehensions about the future the developed world might make for itself. From these, he made some warnings in his writings and talks. In a 1958 televised interview conducted by journalist Mike Wallace, Huxley outlined several major concerns: the difficulties and dangers of world overpopulation; the tendency towards distinctly hierarchical social organisation; the crucial importance of evaluating the use of technology in mass societies susceptible to persuasion; the tendency to promote modern politicians to a naive public as well-marketed commodities. In a December 1962 letter to brother Julian, summarizing a paper he had presented in Santa Barbara, he wrote, "What I said was that if we didn't pretty quickly start thinking of human problems in ecological terms rather than in terms of power politics we should very soon be in a bad way." Huxley's engagement with Eastern wisdom traditions was entirely compatible with a strong appreciation of modern science. Biographer Milton Birnbaum wrote that Huxley "ended by embracing both science and Eastern religion". In his last book, Literature and Science, Huxley wrote that "The ethical and philosophical implications of modern science are more Buddhist than Christian...." In "A Philosopher's Visionary Prediction", published one month before he died, Huxley endorsed training in general semantics and "the nonverbal world of culturally uncontaminated consciousness", writing that "We must learn how to be mentally silent, we must cultivate the art of pure receptivity.... [T]he individual must learn to decondition himself, must be able to cut holes in the fence of verbalized symbols that hems him in." Spiritual views For much of his life, Huxley described himself as agnostic, a word coined by his grandfather Thomas Henry Huxley, a scientist who championed the scientific method and was a major supporter of Darwin's theories. This is the definition he gave, “…it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty.” Aldous Huxley's agnosticism, together with his speculative propensity, made it difficult for him fully embrace any form of institutionalised religion. Over the last 30 years of his life, he accepted and wrote about concepts found in Vedanta and was a leading advocate of the Perennial Philosophy, which holds that the same metaphysical truths are found in all the major religions of the world. In the 1920s, Huxley was skeptical of religion, "Earlier in his career he had rejected mysticism, often poking fun at it in his novels [...]" Gerald Heard became an influential friend of Huxley, and since the mid-1920s had been exploring Vedanta, as a way of understanding individual human life and the individual's relationship to the universe. Heard and Huxley both saw the political implications of Vedanta, which could help bring about peace, specifically that there is an underlying reality that all humans and the universe are a part of. In the 1930s, Huxley and Gerald Heard both became active in the effort to avoid another world war, writing essays and eventually publicly speaking in support of the Peace Pledge Union. But, they remained frustrated by the conflicting goals of the political left – some favoring pacifism (as did Huxley and Heard), while other wanting to take up arms against fascism in the Spanish Civil War. After joining the PPU, Huxley expressed his frustration with politics in a letter from 1935, “…the thing finally resolves itself into a religious problem — an uncomfortable fact which one must be prepared to face and which I have come during the last year to find it easier to face.” Huxley and Heard turned their attention to addressing the big problems of the world through transforming the individual, "[...] a forest is only as green as the individual trees of the forest is green [...]" This was the genesis of the Human Potential Movement, that gained traction in the 1960s. In the late 1930s, Huxley and Heard immigrated to the United States, and beginning in 1939 and continuing until his death in 1963, Huxley had an extensive association with the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by Swami Prabhavananda. Together with Gerald Heard, Christopher Isherwood and other followers, he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices. From 1941 until 1960, Huxley contributed 48 articles to Vedanta and the West, published by the society. He also served on the editorial board with Isherwood, Heard, and playwright John Van Druten from 1951 through 1962. In 1942 The Gospel of Ramakrishna was published by the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda Center in New York. The book was translated by Swami Nikhilananda, with help from Joseph Campbell and Margaret Woodrow Wilson, daughter of US president Woodrow Wilson. Aldous Huxley wrote in the foreword, "...a book unique, so far as my knowledge goes, in the literature of hagiography. Never have the small events of a contemplative's daily life been described with such a wealth of intimate detail. Never have the casual and unstudied utterances of a great religious teacher been set down with so minute a fidelity." In 1944, Huxley wrote the introduction to the Bhagavad Gita – The Song of God, translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood, which was published by the Vedanta Society of Southern California. As an advocate of the perennial philosophy, Huxley was drawn to the Gita, as he explained in the Introduction, written during WWII, when it was still not clear who would win: As a means of personally realizing the "divine Reality", he described a "Minimum Working Hypothesis" in the Introduction to Swami Prabhavananda's and Christopher Isherwood's translation of the Bhagavad Gita and in a free-standing essay in Vedanta and the West, a publication of Vedanta Press. This is the outline, that Huxley elaborates on in the article: For Huxley, one of the attractive features of Vedanta is that it provided a historic and established philosophy and practice that embraced the Perennial Philosophy; that there is a commonality of experiences across all the mystical branches of the world's religions. Huxley wrote in the introduction of his book The Perennial Philosophy: Huxley also occasionally lectured at the Hollywood and Santa Barbara Vedanta temples. Two of those lectures have been released on CD: Knowledge and Understanding and Who Are We? from 1955. Many of Huxley's contemporaries and critics were disappointed by Huxley's turn to mysticism; Isherwood describes in his diary how he had to explain the criticism to Huxley's widow, Laura: Psychedelic drug use and mystical experiences In early 1953, Huxley had his first experience with the psychedelic drug mescaline. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Doctor Humphry Osmond, a British psychiatrist then employed in a Canadian institution, and eventually asked him to supply a dose of mescaline; Osmond obliged and supervised Huxley's session in southern California. After the publication of The Doors of Perception, in which he recounted this experience, Huxley and Swami Prabhavananda disagreed about the meaning and importance of the psychedelic drug experience, which may have caused the relationship to cool, but Huxley continued to write articles for the society's journal, lecture at the temple, and attend social functions. Huxley later had an experience on mescaline that he considered more profound than those detailed in The Doors of Perception. Huxley wrote that "The mystical experience is doubly valuable; it is valuable because it gives the experiencer a better understanding of himself and the world and because it may help him to lead a less self-centered and more creative life." Having tried LSD in the 1950s, he became an advisor to Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert in their early-1960s research work with psychedelic drugs at Harvard. Personality differences led Huxley to distance himself from Leary, when Huxley grew concerned that Leary had become too keen on indiscriminately promoting the drugs. Eyesight Differing accounts exist about the details of the quality of Huxley's eyesight at specific points in his life. Circa 1939, Huxley encountered the Bates method, in which he was instructed by Margaret Darst Corbett. In 1940, Huxley relocated from Hollywood to a ranchito in the high desert hamlet of Llano, California, in northern Los Angeles County. Huxley then said that his sight improved dramatically with the Bates method and the extreme and pure natural lighting of the southwestern American desert. He reported that, for the first time in more than 25 years, he was able to read without glasses and without strain. He even tried driving a car along the dirt road beside the ranch. He wrote a book about his experiences with the Bates method, The Art of Seeing, which was published in 1942 (U.S.), 1943 (UK). The book contained some generally disputed theories, and its publication created a growing degree of popular controversy about Huxley's eyesight. It was, and is, widely believed that Huxley was nearly blind since the illness in his teens, despite the partial recovery that had enabled him to study at Oxford. For example, some ten years after publication of The Art of Seeing, in 1952, Bennett Cerf was present when Huxley spoke at a Hollywood banquet, wearing no glasses and apparently reading his paper from the lectern without difficulty: Brazilian author João Ubaldo Ribeiro, who as a young journalist spent several evenings in the Huxleys' company in the late 1950s, wrote that Huxley had said to him, with a wry smile: "I can hardly see at all. And I don't give a damn, really." On the other hand, Huxley's second wife Laura later emphasised in her biographical account, This Timeless Moment: "One of the great achievements of his life: that of having regained his sight." After revealing a letter she wrote to the Los Angeles Times disclaiming the label of Huxley as a "poor fellow who can hardly see" by Walter C. Alvarez, she tempered her statement: Laura Huxley proceeded to elaborate a few nuances of inconsistency peculiar to Huxley's vision. Her account, in this respect, agrees with the following sample of Huxley's own words from The Art of Seeing: Nevertheless, the topic of Huxley's eyesight has continued to endure similar, significant controversy. American popular science author Steven Johnson, in his book Mind Wide Open, quotes Huxley about his difficulties with visual encoding: Personal life Huxley married on 10 July 1919 Maria Nys (10 September 1899 – 12 February 1955), a Belgian epidemiologist from Bellem, In 1955, Maria Huxley died of cancer. Huxley was diagnosed with laryngeal cancer in 1960; in the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the utopian novel Island, and gave lectures on "Human Potentialities" both at the UCSF Medical Center and at the Esalen Institute. These lectures were fundamental to the beginning of the Human Potential Movement. Some are also at the Stanford University Libraries. On 9 April 1962 Huxley was informed he was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature, the senior literary organisation in Britain, and he accepted the title via letter on 28 April 1962. The correspondence between Huxley and the society is kept at the Cambridge University Library.}} At home on his deathbed, unable to speak owing to cancer that had metastasized, Huxley made a written request to his wife Laura for "LSD, 100 μg, intramuscular." According to her account of his death in This Timeless Moment, she obliged with an injection at 11:20 a.m. and a second dose an hour later; Huxley died aged 69, at 5:20 p.m. PST on 22 November 1963. Media coverage of Huxley's death, along with that of fellow British author C. S. Lewis, was overshadowed by the assassination of John F. Kennedy on the same day, less than seven hours before Huxley's death. In a 2009 article for New York magazine titled "The Eclipsed Celebrity Death Club", Christopher Bonanos wrote: This coincidence served as the basis for Peter Kreeft's book Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis, & Aldous Huxley, which imagines a conversation among the three men taking place in Purgatory following their deaths. The main theme of the book is a philosophical debate on the nature and identity of Jesus Christ. Huxley's memorial service took place in London in December 1963; it was led by his elder brother Julian. On 27 October 1971, his ashes were interred in the family grave at the Watts Cemetery, home of the Watts Mortuary Chapel in Compton, Guildford, Surrey, England. Huxley had been a long-time friend of Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, who dedicated his last orchestral composition to Huxley. What became Variations: Aldous Huxley in memoriam was begun in July 1963, completed in October 1964, and premiered by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra on 17 April 1965. Awards * 1939: James Tait Black Memorial Prize * 1959: American Academy of Arts and Letters Award of Merit . * 1962: Companion of Literature Commemoration In 2021, Huxley was one of six British writers commemorated on a series of UK postage stamps issued by Royal Mail to celebrate British science fiction. Publications and adaptations See also List of peace activists References Citations Works cited * * * * * * * * . Reprinted in Perspectives on Schoenberg and Stravinsky, revised edition, edited by Benjamin Boretz and Edward T. Cone. New York: W. W. Norton, 1972. * * Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cvOsZ3z5MUk Aldous Huxley full interview 1958: The Problems of Survival and Freedom in America] [https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp02343/aldous-huxley Portraits] at the National Portrait Gallery * [https://ohfilm.art/aldous-huxley-film-essay/ "Aldous Huxley: The Gravity of Light"], a film essay by Oliver Hockenhull * * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00jn8bc BBC discussion programme In our time: "Brave New World"]. Huxley and the novel. 9 April 2009. (Audio, 45 minutes) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/writers/12233.shtml BBC In their own words series]. 12 October 1958 (video, 12 mins) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131207190508/http://dpg.lib.berkeley.edu/webdb/mrc/search_vod?avr1&keywordhuxley "The Ultimate Revolution"] (talk at UC Berkeley, 20 March 1962) * [http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/huxley_aldous.html Huxley interviewed] on The Mike Wallace Interview 18 May 1958 (video) * [http://www.anglistik.uni-muenster.de/Huxley/huxley_research.html Centre for Huxley Research] at the University of Münster * [https://archive.today/20130615214233/http://digital2.library.ucla.edu/viewItem.do?ark=21198/zz00253vz2 Aldous Huxley Papers] at University of California, Los Angeles Library Special Collections * [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadID=00378 Aldous Huxley Collection] at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin * [https://www.huxleycentre.ch/ Aldous Huxley Centre Zurich] - World's largest exhibition of Huxley's works. * Online editions* * * * * * Category:1894 births Category:1963 deaths Category:20th-century English essayists Category:20th-century English novelists Category:20th-century English philosophers Category:20th-century English short story writers Category:20th-century mystics Category:Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Category:Anti-consumerists Category:Bates method Category:British philosophers of culture Category:British philosophers of mind Category:British psychedelic drug advocates Category:British satirical novelists Category:Burials in Surrey Category:Deaths from laryngeal cancer in the United States Category:Deaths from throat cancer in California Category:Duke University faculty Category:English agnostics Category:English emigrants to the United States Category:English male essayists Category:English male novelists Category:English male poets Category:English male short story writers Category:English pacifists Category:English people of Cornish descent Category:English satirists Category:English science fiction writers Category:English short story writers Category:English travel writers Category:British futurologists Category:Human Potential Movement Aldous Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients Category:Lost Generation writers Category:Neo-Vedanta Category:New Age predecessors Category:People educated at Eton College Category:People from Godalming Category:Perennial philosophy Category:Philosophers of literature Category:Philosophers of technology Category:Writers from Surrey	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldous_Huxley	2025-04-05T18:25:18.529617
630	Ada	Ada may refer to: Arts and entertainment Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle, a novel by Vladimir Nabokov Film and television Ada, a character in 1991 movie Armour of God II: Operation Condor Ada... A Way of Life, a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed Ada (dog actor), a dog that played Colin on the sitcom Spaced Ada (1961 film), a 1961 film by Daniel Mann Ada TV, a television channel in Northern Cyprus Ada (2019 film), a short biopic about Ada Lovelace Aviation Ada Air, a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania Francisco C. Ada Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands IATA airport code for Adana Şakirpaşa Airport in Adana Province, Turkey Places Africa Ada Foah, a town in Ghana Ada (Ghana parliament constituency) Ada, Osun, a town in Nigeria Asia Ada, Karaman, a village in Karaman Province, Turkey Ada, Urmia, a village in West Azerbaijan Province, Iran Europe Ada, Bosnia and Herzegovina, a village Ada Ciganlija or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia Ada, Croatia, a village Ada, Serbia, a town and municipality United States Ada, Alabama, an unincorporated community Ada County, Idaho Ada, Kansas, an unincorporated community Ada, Minnesota, a city Ada, Ohio, a village Ada, Oklahoma, a city Ada, Oregon, an unincorporated community Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota Ada Township, Michigan Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota Ada, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Ada, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community Mount Ada, a mountain in Alaska Elsewhere Ada River (disambiguation), various rivers 523 Ada, an asteroid Schools Ada High School (Ohio), US Ada Independent School District, Oklahoma, US Ada, the National College for Digital Skills, a further education college in Tottenham Hale, London Science and technology Ada, the cryptocurrency of the Cardano blockchain platform List of storms named Ada Biology Ada (plant), a genus of orchids Ada (protein), an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells Adenosine deaminase, an enzyme involved in purine metabolism Computing Ada (computer virus) Ada (programming language), programming language based on Pascal Transportation Ada-class corvette, a class of anti-submarine corvettes developed by Turkey Ada (ship), a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway People Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), computer scientist sometimes regarded as the first computer programmer Ada (name), a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters Ada of Caria (fl. 377 – 326 BCE), satrap of ancient Caria and adoptive mother of Alexander the Great Other uses Ada and Abere, a ceremonial sword of state in Yorubaland and surrounding regions of West Africa Ada Bridge, Belgrade, Serbia Ada (food), a traditional Kerala delicacy Ada Health, a German medical technology company Dangme language (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code: ada), spoken in Ghana See also ADA (disambiguation) Ada regulon, an Escherichia coli adaptive response protein Adah (disambiguation) Adha (disambiguation) Ada'a, a woreda in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia Ade (disambiguation) USS Little Ada, a steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada	2025-04-05T18:25:18.537332
632	Aberdeen (disambiguation)	Aberdeen is a city in Scotland. Aberdeen may also refer to: Places Africa Aberdeen, Sierra Leone Aberdeen, Eastern Cape, South Africa Asia Hong Kong Aberdeen, Hong Kong, an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island Aberdeen Channel, a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong Aberdeen Country Park, a country park in Hong Kong Island Aberdeen floating village, at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between Aberdeen, Hong Kong and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) Aberdeen Tunnel, a tunnel in Hong Kong Island Aberdeen Tunnel Underground Laboratory, an underground particle physics laboratory in Hong Kong Island Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen Island, an island of Hong Kong Aberdeen (Hong Kong constituency), a constituency of Southern District Council India Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in Port Blair, South Andaman Island Sri Lanka Aberdeen Falls, a waterfall in Sri Lanka Australia Aberdeen, New South Wales Aberdeen, South Australia, one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra Aberdeen, Tasmania, a suburb of the City of Devonport Caribbean Aberdeen, Jamaica, a town in Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica Europe Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency) Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency) 1832–1885 Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) 1801–1832 Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency) Aberdeen Central (UK Parliament constituency) Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency) County of Aberdeen, a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen Old Aberdeen, a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland North America Canada Aberdeen, community in the township of Champlain, Prescott and Russell County, Ontario Aberdeen, Abbotsford, a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia Aberdeen Centre, a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario Aberdeen, Kamloops, an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut), a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada Aberdeen, Nova Scotia, part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick Rural Municipality of Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan Aberdeen, Saskatchewan Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern Baffin Island and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec Aberdeen River, a tributary of rivière aux Castors Noirs in Mauricie, Québec New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia United States Aberdeen, Arkansas Aberdeen, Colorado Aberdeen, Florida Aberdeen, Georgia Aberdeen, Idaho Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana Aberdeen, Kentucky Aberdeen, Maryland Aberdeen Proving Ground, a United States Army facility located near Aberdeen, Maryland Aberdeen, Massachusetts, a neighborhood of Brighton, Boston Aberdeen, Mississippi Aberdeen Lake (Mississippi), a lake in northeast Mississippi on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway, close to Aberdeen, Mississippi Aberdeen Township, New Jersey Aberdeen, North Carolina Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, North Carolina) Aberdeen, Ohio Aberdeen, South Dakota Aberdeen Historic District (Aberdeen, South Dakota) Aberdeen, Texas Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia) Aberdeen Gardens (Hampton, Virginia) Aberdeen, Washington Aberdeen Gardens, Washington Aberdeen, West Virginia See also New Aberdeen (disambiguation) Aberdeen City Council, the local authority body of the city in Scotland Arts and entertainment Aberdeen (2000 film), a 2000 Norwegian-British film Aberdeen (2014 film), a 2014 Hong Kong film Aberdeen (2024 film), a Canadian drama film directed by Ryan Cooper and Eva Thomas Aberdeen (band), an American rock band Aberdeen (song), by Cage The Elephant Businesses and organisations Companies Aberdeen (company) Aberdeen Group, global investment company Aberdeen Asset Management, investment management company Aberdeen Strategy and Research, marketing intelligence company formerly known as Aberdeen Group, Aberdeen Education Aberdeen Business School, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Scotland Aberdeen College, Aberdeen, Scotland Aberdeen Grammar School, Aberdeen, Scotland Aberdeen Hall, a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada Aberdeen High School (disambiguation) University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland Sports Aberdeen F.C., a Scottish professional football team Aberdeen L.F.C., a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C. Aberdeen GSFP RFC, an amateur rugby union club in Aberdeen, Scotland Aberdeen IronBirds, a Minor League Baseball team in Aberdeen, Maryland, U.S. Transportation Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation) Aberdeen station (disambiguation) Aberdeen Line, a British shipping company founded in 1825 Aberdeen (ship), the name of several ships See also Aberdeen Act Aberdeen Angus, a Scottish breed of small beef cattle Aberdeen Central (disambiguation) Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation) Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation) Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation) Aberdeen Quarry, a granite quarry in Colorado Aberdonia (disambiguation) Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation) Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney, one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church Etymology of Aberdeen Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:25:18.549557
633	Algae	}} \| image = NSW seabed 1.JPG \| image_caption = A variety of algae growing on the sea bed in shallow waters \| image2 = Водоросли пресноводного водоема 2.jpg \| image2_caption = A variety of microscopic unicellular and colonial freshwater algae \| auto = yes \| parent = Eukaryota \| includes = * Archaeplastida Viridiplantae/green algae * Mesostigmatophyceae * Chlorokybophyceae * Chlorophyta * Charophyta Rhodophyta (red algae) ** Glaucophyta * Chlorarachniophytes * Euglenids * Heterokonts Bacillariophyceae (Diatoms) Axodines Bolidomonas Eustigmatophyceae Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Chrysophyceae (golden algae) Raphidophyceae Synurophyceae ** Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) * Cryptophyta * Dinoflagellata * Haptophyta \| excludes_text = Typically excluded \| excludes = * Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) * Embryophyta (land plants) }} Algae ( , ; : alga ) is an informal term for any organisms of a large and diverse group of photosynthetic eukaryotes, which include species from multiple distinct clades. Such organisms range from unicellular microalgae such as Chlorella, Prototheca and the diatoms, to multicellular macroalgae such as the giant kelp, a large brown alga which may grow up to in length. Most algae are aquatic organisms and lack many of the distinct cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem and phloem that are found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine algae are called seaweeds. In contrast, the most complex freshwater forms are the Charophyta, a division of green algae which includes, for example, Spirogyra and stoneworts. Algae that are carried passively by water are plankton, specifically phytoplankton. Algae constitute a polyphyletic group they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are a prominent example of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiont cyanobacteria. Diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic red algae, which they acquired via phagocytosis. Algae exhibit a wide range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction via spores. Algae lack the various structures that characterize plants (which evolved from freshwater green algae), such as the phyllids (leaf-like structures) and rhizoids of bryophytes (non-vascular plants), and the roots, leaves and other xylemic/phloemic organs found in tracheophytes (vascular plants). Most algae are autotrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species of green algae, many golden algae, euglenids, dinoflagellates, and other algae have become heterotrophs (also called colorless or apochlorotic algae), sometimes parasitic, relying entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are also derived from cells whose ancestors possessed chlorophyllic plastids, but are not traditionally considered as algae. Algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from cyanobacteria that produce oxygen as a byproduct of splitting water molecules, unlike other organisms that conduct anoxygenic photosynthesis such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago. Because of the wide range of types of algae, there is a correspondingly wide range of industrial and traditional applications in human society. Traditional seaweed farming practices have existed for thousands of years and have strong traditions in East Asian food cultures. More modern algaculture applications extend the food traditions for other applications, including cattle feed, using algae for bioremediation or pollution control, transforming sunlight into algae fuels or other chemicals used in industrial processes, and in medical and scientific applications. A 2020 review found that these applications of algae could play an important role in carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change while providing lucrative value-added products for global economies.Etymology and studyThe singular is the Latin word for 'seaweed' and retains that meaning in English. The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin , 'be cold', no reason is known to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is , 'binding, entwining'. The Ancient Greek word for 'seaweed' was (), which could mean either the seaweed (probably red algae) or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, , meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical (), 'paint' (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, or blue. The study of algae is most commonly called phycology (); the term algology is falling out of use.Classifications of the unicellular coccolithophore Gephyrocapsa oceanica]] One definition of algae is that they "have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells". On the other hand, the colorless Prototheca under Chlorophyta are all devoid of any chlorophyll. Although cyanobacteria are often referred to as "blue-green algae", most authorities exclude all prokaryotes, including cyanobacteria, from the definition of algae. The algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and are interpreted as representing reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. However, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. Phylogeny based on plastid not nucleocytoplasmic genealogy: }} \|sublabel2=with chloroplasts \|2= }} }} }} }} }} }} {\|class="wikitable" \|- ! Supergroup affiliation !! Members !! Endosymbiont !! Summary \|- \|Primoplantae/<br />Archaeplastida \| * Chlorophyta * Rhodophyta * Glaucophyta \|Cyanobacteria \|These algae have "primary" chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of red algae have chlorophylls a and c (often), and phycobilins, while those of green algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b without phycobilins. Land plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them, thus the Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes the Chlorophyta, the Charophyta, and land plants are grouped together as the Viridiplantae. \|- \|Excavata and Rhizaria \| Chlorarachniophytes Euglenids \|Green algae \| These groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested green algae. Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus. Euglenids, which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in fresh water and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. The endosymbiotic green algae may have been acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis. (Another group with green algae endosymbionts is the dinoflagellate genus Lepidodinium, which has replaced its original endosymbiont of red algal origin with one of green algal origin. A nucleomorph is present, and the host genome still have several red algal genes acquired through endosymbiotic gene transfer. Also, the euglenid and chlorarachniophyte genome contain genes of apparent red algal ancestry) \|- \|Halvaria and Hacrobia \| * Heterokonts * Dinoflagellates * Haptophyta * Cryptomonads \|Red algae \| These groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins. The shape can vary; they may be of discoid, plate-like, reticulate, cup-shaped, spiral, or ribbon shaped. They have one or more pyrenoids to preserve protein and starch. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with red algae suggest a relationship there. In the first three of these groups, (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the heterokonts, Haptophyta, and cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but considerable diversity exists in chloroplasts within the group, and a number of endosymbiotic events apparently occurred. the starting point for modern botanical nomenclature, recognized 14 genera of algae, of which only four are currently considered among algae. In Systema Naturae, Linnaeus described the genera Volvox and Corallina, and a species of Acetabularia (as Madrepora), among the animals. In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the first book on marine biology to use the then new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves. W. H. Harvey (1811–1866) and Lamouroux (1813) were the first to divide macroscopic algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: red algae (Rhodospermae), brown algae (Melanospermae), green algae (Chlorospermae), and Diatomaceae. At this time, microscopic algae were discovered and reported by a different group of workers (e.g., O. F. Müller and Ehrenberg) studying the Infusoria (microscopic organisms). Unlike macroalgae, which were clearly viewed as plants, microalgae were frequently considered animals because they are often motile. Although used as a taxonomic category in some pre-Darwinian classifications, e.g., Linnaeus (1753), de Jussieu (1789), Lamouroux (1813), Harvey (1836), Horaninow (1843), Agassiz (1859), Wilson & Cassin (1864), Throughout the 20th century, most classifications treated the following groups as divisions or classes of algae: cyanophytes, rhodophytes, chrysophytes, xanthophytes, bacillariophytes, phaeophytes, pyrrhophytes (cryptophytes and dinophytes), euglenophytes, and chlorophytes. Later, many new groups were discovered (e.g., Bolidophyceae), and others were splintered from older groups: charophytes and glaucophytes (from chlorophytes), many heterokontophytes (e.g., synurophytes from chrysophytes, or eustigmatophytes from xanthophytes), haptophytes (from chrysophytes), and chlorarachniophytes (from xanthophytes). With the abandonment of plant-animal dichotomous classification, most groups of algae (sometimes all) were included in Protista, later also abandoned in favour of Eukaryota. However, as a legacy of the older plant life scheme, some groups that were also treated as protozoans in the past still have duplicated classifications (see ambiregnal protists). Some parasitic algae (e.g., the green algae Prototheca and Helicosporidium, parasites of metazoans, or Cephaleuros, parasites of plants) were originally classified as fungi, sporozoans, or protistans of incertae sedis, while others (e.g., the green algae Phyllosiphon and Rhodochytrium, parasites of plants, or the red algae Pterocladiophila and Gelidiocolax mammillatus, parasites of other red algae, or the dinoflagellates Oodinium, parasites of fish) had their relationship with algae conjectured early. In other cases, some groups were originally characterized as parasitic algae (e.g., Chlorochytrium), but later were seen as endophytic algae. Some filamentous bacteria (e.g., Beggiatoa) were originally seen as algae. Furthermore, groups like the apicomplexans are also parasites derived from ancestors that possessed plastids, but are not included in any group traditionally seen as algae. Evolution Algae are polyphyletic thus their origin cannot be traced back to single hypothetical common ancestor. It is thought that they came into existence when photosynthetic coccoid cyanobacteria got phagocytized by a unicellular heterotrophic eukaryote (a protist), giving rise to double-membranous primary plastids. Such symbiogenic events (primary symbiogenesis) are believed to have occurred more than 1.5 billion years ago during the Calymmian period, early in Boring Billion, but it is difficult to track the key events because of so much time gap. Primary symbiogenesis gave rise to three divisions of archaeplastids, namely the Viridiplantae (green algae and later plants), Rhodophyta (red algae) and Glaucophyta ("grey algae"), whose plastids further spread into other protist lineages through eukaryote-eukaryote predation, engulfments and subsequent endosymbioses (secondary and tertiary symbiogenesis). from sessile shallow freshwater charophyte algae much like Chara, which likely got stranded ashore when riverine/lacustrine water levels dropped during dry seasons. These charophyte algae probably already developed filamentous thalli and holdfasts that superficially resembled plant stems and roots, and probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations. They perhaps evolved some 850 mya and might even be as early as 1 Gya during the late phase of the Boring Billion. Morphology exhibit at the Monterey Bay Aquarium: A three-dimensional, multicellular thallus]] A range of algal morphologies is exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three-dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes.—some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps)—the red algae, and the green algae. The most complex forms are found among the charophyte algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The innovation that defines these nonalgal plants is the presence of female reproductive organs with protective cell layers that protect the zygote and developing embryo. Hence, the land plants are referred to as the Embryophytes. Turfs The term algal turf is commonly used but poorly defined. Algal turfs are thick, carpet-like beds of seaweed that retain sediment and compete with foundation species like corals and kelps, and they are usually less than 15 cm tall. Such a turf may consist of one or more species, and will generally cover an area in the order of a square metre or more. Some common characteristics are listed: * Algae that form aggregations that have been described as turfs include diatoms, cyanobacteria, chlorophytes, phaeophytes and rhodophytes. Turfs are often composed of numerous species at a wide range of spatial scales, but monospecific turfs are frequently reported. have served as model experimental organisms to understand the mechanisms of the water permeability of membranes, osmoregulation, salt tolerance, cytoplasmic streaming, and the generation of action potentials. Plant hormones are found not only in higher plants, but in algae, too. Symbiotic algae Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are: Lichens Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure". The fungi, or mycobionts, are mainly from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. In nature, they do not occur separate from lichens. It is unknown when they began to associate. One or more mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, from the green algae, except that alternatively, the mycobiont may associate with a species of cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many different mycobionts or may live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). The photobiont possibly triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont. Trentepohlia is an example of a common green alga genus worldwide that can grow on its own or be lichenised. Lichen thus share some of the habitat and often similar appearance with specialized species of algae (aerophytes) growing on exposed surfaces such as tree trunks and rocks and sometimes discoloring them. Coral reefs Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the order Scleractinia (stony corals). These animals metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. Dinoflagellates (algal protists) are often endosymbionts in the cells of the coral-forming marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating sugar and oxygen immediately available through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced by the host. Reef-building stony corals (hermatypic corals) require endosymbiotic algae from the genus Symbiodinium to be in a healthy condition. The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition which leads to the deterioration of a reef. Sea sponges Endosymbiontic green algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponges (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species.Life cycle Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta, and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal divisions, have life cycles which show considerable variation and complexity. In general, an asexual phase exists where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid, followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Commonly, in sexual reproduction of unicellular and colonial algae, two specialized, sexually compatible, haploid gametes make physical contact and fuse to form a zygote. To ensure a successful mating, the development and release of gametes is highly synchronized and regulated; pheromones may play a key role in these processes. Sexual reproduction allows for more variation and provides the benefit of efficient recombinational repair of DNA damages during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual cycle. However, sexual reproduction is more costly than asexual reproduction. Meiosis has been shown to occur in many different species of algae. Numbers in Taiwan]] The Algal Collection of the US National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320,500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, in the British Isles, the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20,000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5,000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15,000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ..." Regional and group estimates have been made, as well: * 5,000–5,500 species of red algae worldwide * "some 1,300 in Australian Seas" * 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, and 212 species from the coast of KwaZulu-Natal. Some of these are duplicates, as the range extends across both coasts, and the total recorded is probably about 500 species. Most of these are listed in List of seaweeds of South Africa. These exclude phytoplankton and crustose corallines. * 669 marine species from California (US) * 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit microscopic algae, such as phytoplankton. The most recent estimate suggests 72,500 algal species worldwide. Distribution The distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of cryptogamic plants by spores. Spores can be found in a variety of environments: fresh and marine waters, air, soil, and in or on other organisms. To some degree, the distribution of algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is, therefore, possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific algae" or "North Sea algae". When they occur out of their localities, hypothesizing a transport mechanism is usually possible, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and U. fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns." For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. However, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies."Ecology ]] Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments, and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under deep; however, some such as Navicula pennata have been recorded to a depth of . A type of algae, Ancylonema nordenskioeldii, was found in Greenland in areas known as the 'Dark Zone', which caused an increase in the rate of melting ice sheet. The same algae was found in the Italian Alps, after pink ice appeared on parts of the Presena glacier. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms), these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms. Algae can be used as indicator organisms to monitor pollution in various aquatic systems. In many cases, algal metabolism is sensitive to various pollutants. Due to this, the species composition of algal populations may shift in the presence of chemical pollutants. terrestrial, aerial (subaerial), lithophytic, halophytic (or euryhaline), psammon, thermophilic, cryophilic, epibiont (epiphytic, epizoic), endosymbiont (endophytic, endozoic), parasitic, calcifilic or lichenic (phycobiont).Cultural associationsIn classical Chinese, the word }} is used both for "algae" and (in the modest tradition of the imperial scholars) for "literary talent". The third island in Kunming Lake beside the Summer Palace in Beijing is known as the Zaojian Tang Dao (藻鑒堂島), which thus simultaneously means "Island of the Algae-Viewing Hall" and "Island of the Hall for Reflecting on Literary Talent". Cultivation Seaweed farming Bioreactors Uses Agar Agar, a gelatinous substance derived from red algae, has a number of commercial uses. It is a good medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi, as most microorganisms cannot digest agar.Alginates Alginic acid, or alginate, is extracted from brown algae. Its uses range from gelling agents in food, to medical dressings. Alginic acid also has been used in the field of biotechnology as a biocompatible medium for cell encapsulation and cell immobilization. Molecular cuisine is also a user of the substance for its gelling properties, by which it becomes a delivery vehicle for flavours. Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in New Mexico for alginate extraction and abalone feed.Energy source To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae-based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass per unit area in a year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels is estimated to occur by 2025.Fertilizer ]] For centuries, seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales: Today, algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners, and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner. As food Algae are used as foods in many countries: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species such as nori and aonori; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make laverbread in Wales, where it is known as . In Korea, green laver is used to make . Three forms of algae used as food: * Chlorella: This form of alga is found in freshwater and contains photosynthetic pigments in its chloroplast. * Klamath AFA: A subspecies of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae found wild in many bodies of water worldwide but harvested only from Upper Klamath Lake, Oregon. * Spirulina: Known otherwise as a cyanobacterium (a prokaryote or a "blue-green alga") The oils from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Some varieties of algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae (microalgae in particular), which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. reducing the use of large amounts of toxic chemicals that would otherwise be needed. * Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae can be used as fertilizer. * Aquaria and ponds can be filtered using algae, which absorb nutrients from the water in a device called an algae scrubber, also known as an algae turf scrubber. Agricultural Research Service scientists found that 60–90% of nitrogen runoff and 70–100% of phosphorus runoff can be captured from manure effluents using a horizontal algae scrubber, also called an algal turf scrubber (ATS). Scientists developed the ATS, which consists of shallow, 100-foot raceways of nylon netting where algae colonies can form, and studied its efficacy for three years. They found that algae can readily be used to reduce the nutrient runoff from agricultural fields and increase the quality of water flowing into rivers, streams, and oceans. Researchers collected and dried the nutrient-rich algae from the ATS and studied its potential as an organic fertilizer. They found that cucumber and corn seedlings grew just as well using ATS organic fertilizer as they did with commercial fertilizers. Algae scrubbers, using bubbling upflow or vertical waterfall versions, are now also being used to filter aquaria and ponds.PolymersVarious polymers can be created from algae, which can be especially useful in the creation of bioplastics. These include hybrid plastics, cellulose-based plastics, poly-lactic acid, and bio-polyethylene. Several companies have begun to produce algae polymers commercially, including for use in flip-flops and in surf boards. Bioremediation The alga Stichococcus bacillaris has been seen to colonize silicone resins used at archaeological sites; biodegrading the synthetic substance. Pigments The natural pigments (carotenoids and chlorophylls) produced by algae can be used as alternatives to chemical dyes and coloring agents. The presence of some individual algal pigments, together with specific pigment concentration ratios, are taxon-specific: analysis of their concentrations with various analytical methods, particularly high-performance liquid chromatography, can therefore offer deep insight into the taxonomic composition and relative abundance of natural algae populations in sea water samples. Stabilizing substances Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabilizer in milk products. Additional images <gallery widths"200" heights"150"> File:Algae bladder 4290.jpg\|Algae bladder </gallery> See also <!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦---> * AlgaeBase * AlgaePARC * Eutrophication * Iron fertilization * Marimo algae * Microbiofuels * Microphyte * Photobioreactor * Phycotechnology * Plants * Toxoid – anatoxin References Bibliography General * * * * * * . * * * RegionalBritain and Ireland* * * * * * * * Australia* New Zealand* Europe * * * * * * Arctic* Greenland * Faroe Islands* . Canary Islands * Morocco* South Africa * North America * * * * External links * – a database of all algal names including images, nomenclature, taxonomy, distribution, bibliography, uses, extracts * * * Category:Endosymbiotic events Category:Polyphyletic groups Category:Common names of organisms	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae	2025-04-05T18:25:18.605421
634	Analysis of variance	Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a family of statistical methods used to compare the means of two or more groups by analyzing variance. Specifically, ANOVA compares the amount of variation between the group means to the amount of variation within each group. If the between-group variation is substantially larger than the within-group variation, it suggests that the group means are likely different. This comparison is done using an F-test. The underlying principle of ANOVA is based on the law of total variance, which states that the total variance in a dataset can be broken down into components attributable to different sources. In the case of ANOVA, these sources are the variation between groups and the variation within groups. ANOVA was developed by the statistician Ronald Fisher. In its simplest form, it provides a statistical test of whether two or more population means are equal, and therefore generalizes the t-test beyond two means. History While the analysis of variance reached fruition in the 20th century, antecedents extend centuries into the past according to Stigler. These include hypothesis testing, the partitioning of sums of squares, experimental techniques and the additive model. Laplace was performing hypothesis testing in the 1770s. Around 1800, Laplace and Gauss developed the least-squares method for combining observations, which improved upon methods then used in astronomy and geodesy. It also initiated much study of the contributions to sums of squares. Laplace knew how to estimate a variance from a residual (rather than a total) sum of squares. By 1827, Laplace was using least squares methods to address ANOVA problems regarding measurements of atmospheric tides. Before 1800, astronomers had isolated observational errors resulting from reaction times (the "personal equation") and had developed methods of reducing the errors. The experimental methods used in the study of the personal equation were later accepted by the emerging field of psychology which developed strong (full factorial) experimental methods to which randomization and blinding were soon added. An eloquent non-mathematical explanation of the additive effects model was available in 1885. Ronald Fisher introduced the term variance and proposed its formal analysis in a 1918 article on theoretical population genetics, The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance. His first application of the analysis of variance to data analysis was published in 1921, Studies in Crop Variation I. This divided the variation of a time series into components representing annual causes and slow deterioration. Fisher's next piece, Studies in Crop Variation II, written with Winifred Mackenzie and published in 1923, studied the variation in yield across plots sown with different varieties and subjected to different fertiliser treatments. Analysis of variance became widely known after being included in Fisher's 1925 book Statistical Methods for Research Workers. Randomization models were developed by several researchers. The first was published in Polish by Jerzy Neyman in 1923. Example thumb\|No fit: Young vs old, and short-haired vs long-hairedthumb\|Fair fit: Pet vs Working breed and less athletic vs more athleticthumb\|Very good fit: Weight by breedThe analysis of variance can be used to describe otherwise complex relations among variables. A dog show provides an example. A dog show is not a random sampling of the breed: it is typically limited to dogs that are adult, pure-bred, and exemplary. A histogram of dog weights from a show is likely to be rather complicated, like the yellow-orange distribution shown in the illustrations. Suppose we wanted to predict the weight of a dog based on a certain set of characteristics of each dog. One way to do that is to explain the distribution of weights by dividing the dog population into groups based on those characteristics. A successful grouping will split dogs such that (a) each group has a low variance of dog weights (meaning the group is relatively homogeneous) and (b) the mean of each group is distinct (if two groups have the same mean, then it isn't reasonable to conclude that the groups are, in fact, separate in any meaningful way). In the illustrations to the right, groups are identified as X1, X2, etc. In the first illustration, the dogs are divided according to the product (interaction) of two binary groupings: young vs old, and short-haired vs long-haired (e.g., group 1 is young, short-haired dogs, group 2 is young, long-haired dogs, etc.). Since the distributions of dog weight within each of the groups (shown in blue) has a relatively large variance, and since the means are very similar across groups, grouping dogs by these characteristics does not produce an effective way to explain the variation in dog weights: knowing which group a dog is in doesn't allow us to predict its weight much better than simply knowing the dog is in a dog show. Thus, this grouping fails to explain the variation in the overall distribution (yellow-orange). An attempt to explain the weight distribution by grouping dogs as pet vs working breed and less athletic vs more athletic would probably be somewhat more successful (fair fit). The heaviest show dogs are likely to be big, strong, working breeds, while breeds kept as pets tend to be smaller and thus lighter. As shown by the second illustration, the distributions have variances that are considerably smaller than in the first case, and the means are more distinguishable. However, the significant overlap of distributions, for example, means that we cannot distinguish X1 and X2 reliably. Grouping dogs according to a coin flip might produce distributions that look similar. An attempt to explain weight by breed is likely to produce a very good fit. All Chihuahuas are light and all St Bernards are heavy. The difference in weights between Setters and Pointers does not justify separate breeds. The analysis of variance provides the formal tools to justify these intuitive judgments. A common use of the method is the analysis of experimental data or the development of models. The method has some advantages over correlation: not all of the data must be numeric and one result of the method is a judgment in the confidence in an explanatory relationship. Classes of models There are three classes of models used in the analysis of variance, and these are outlined here. Fixed-effects models The fixed-effects model (class I) of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter applies one or more treatments to the subjects of the experiment to see whether the response variable values change. This allows the experimenter to estimate the ranges of response variable values that the treatment would generate in the population as a whole. thumb\|291x291px\|Fixed effects vs Random effects Random-effects models Random-effects model (class II) is used when the treatments are not fixed. This occurs when the various factor levels are sampled from a larger population. Because the levels themselves are random variables, some assumptions and the method of contrasting the treatments (a multi-variable generalization of simple differences) differ from the fixed-effects model. Mixed-effects models A mixed-effects model (class III) contains experimental factors of both fixed and random-effects types, with appropriately different interpretations and analysis for the two types. Example Teaching experiments could be performed by a college or university department to find a good introductory textbook, with each text considered a treatment. The fixed-effects model would compare a list of candidate texts. The random-effects model would determine whether important differences exist among a list of randomly selected texts. The mixed-effects model would compare the (fixed) incumbent texts to randomly selected alternatives. Defining fixed and random effects has proven elusive, with multiple competing definitions. Assumptions The analysis of variance has been studied from several approaches, the most common of which uses a linear model that relates the response to the treatments and blocks. Note that the model is linear in parameters but may be nonlinear across factor levels. Interpretation is easy when data is balanced across factors but much deeper understanding is needed for unbalanced data. Textbook analysis using a normal distribution The analysis of variance can be presented in terms of a linear model, which makes the following assumptions about the probability distribution of the responses: Independence of observations – this is an assumption of the model that simplifies the statistical analysis. Normality – the distributions of the residuals are normal. Equality (or "homogeneity") of variances, called homoscedasticity—the variance of data in groups should be the same. The separate assumptions of the textbook model imply that the errors are independently, identically, and normally distributed for fixed effects models, that is, that the errors (\varepsilon) are independent and \varepsilon \thicksim N(0, \sigma^2). Randomization-based analysis In a randomized controlled experiment, the treatments are randomly assigned to experimental units, following the experimental protocol. This randomization is objective and declared before the experiment is carried out. The objective random-assignment is used to test the significance of the null hypothesis, following the ideas of C. S. Peirce and Ronald Fisher. This design-based analysis was discussed and developed by Francis J. Anscombe at Rothamsted Experimental Station and by Oscar Kempthorne at Iowa State University. Kempthorne and his students make an assumption of unit treatment additivity, which is discussed in the books of Kempthorne and David R. Cox. Unit-treatment additivity In its simplest form, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity states that the observed response y_{i,j} from experimental unit i when receiving treatment j can be written as the sum of the unit's response y_i and the treatment-effect t_j, that is y_{i,j}=y_i+t_j. The assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that, for every treatment j, the jth treatment has exactly the same effect t_j on every experiment unit. The assumption of unit treatment additivity usually cannot be directly falsified, according to Cox and Kempthorne. However, many consequences of treatment-unit additivity can be falsified. For a randomized experiment, the assumption of unit-treatment additivity implies that the variance is constant for all treatments. Therefore, by contraposition, a necessary condition for unit-treatment additivity is that the variance is constant. The use of unit treatment additivity and randomization is similar to the design-based inference that is standard in finite-population survey sampling. Derived linear model Kempthorne uses the randomization-distribution and the assumption of unit treatment additivity to produce a derived linear model, very similar to the textbook model discussed previously. The test statistics of this derived linear model are closely approximated by the test statistics of an appropriate normal linear model, according to approximation theorems and simulation studies. However, there are differences. For example, the randomization-based analysis results in a small but (strictly) negative correlation between the observations. In the randomization-based analysis, there is no assumption of a normal distribution and certainly no assumption of independence. On the contrary, the observations are dependent! The randomization-based analysis has the disadvantage that its exposition involves tedious algebra and extensive time. Since the randomization-based analysis is complicated and is closely approximated by the approach using a normal linear model, most teachers emphasize the normal linear model approach. Few statisticians object to model-based analysis of balanced randomized experiments. Statistical models for observational data However, when applied to data from non-randomized experiments or observational studies, model-based analysis lacks the warrant of randomization. For observational data, the derivation of confidence intervals must use subjective models, as emphasized by Ronald Fisher and his followers. In practice, the estimates of treatment-effects from observational studies generally are often inconsistent. In practice, "statistical models" and observational data are useful for suggesting hypotheses that should be treated very cautiously by the public. Summary of assumptions The normal-model based ANOVA analysis assumes the independence, normality, and homogeneity of variances of the residuals. The randomization-based analysis assumes only the homogeneity of the variances of the residuals (as a consequence of unit-treatment additivity) and uses the randomization procedure of the experiment. Both these analyses require homoscedasticity, as an assumption for the normal-model analysis and as a consequence of randomization and additivity for the randomization-based analysis. However, studies of processes that change variances rather than means (called dispersion effects) have been successfully conducted using ANOVA. There are no necessary assumptions for ANOVA in its full generality, but the F-test used for ANOVA hypothesis testing has assumptions and practical limitations which are of continuing interest. Problems which do not satisfy the assumptions of ANOVA can often be transformed to satisfy the assumptions. The property of unit-treatment additivity is not invariant under a "change of scale", so statisticians often use transformations to achieve unit-treatment additivity. If the response variable is expected to follow a parametric family of probability distributions, then the statistician may specify (in the protocol for the experiment or observational study) that the responses be transformed to stabilize the variance. Also, a statistician may specify that logarithmic transforms be applied to the responses which are believed to follow a multiplicative model. According to Cauchy's functional equation theorem, the logarithm is the only continuous transformation that transforms real multiplication to addition. Characteristics ANOVA is used in the analysis of comparative experiments, those in which only the difference in outcomes is of interest. The statistical significance of the experiment is determined by a ratio of two variances. This ratio is independent of several possible alterations to the experimental observations: Adding a constant to all observations does not alter significance. Multiplying all observations by a constant does not alter significance. So ANOVA statistical significance result is independent of constant bias and scaling errors as well as the units used in expressing observations. In the era of mechanical calculation it was common to subtract a constant from all observations (when equivalent to dropping leading digits) to simplify data entry. This is an example of data coding. Algorithm The calculations of ANOVA can be characterized as computing a number of means and variances, dividing two variances and comparing the ratio to a handbook value to determine statistical significance. Calculating a treatment effect is then trivial: "the effect of any treatment is estimated by taking the difference between the mean of the observations which receive the treatment and the general mean". 380x366px\|right\|text-middle Partitioning of the sum of squares thumb\|324x324px\|One-factor ANOVA table showing example output data ANOVA uses traditional standardized terminology. The definitional equation of sample variance is s^2 = \frac{1}{n-1} \sum_i (y_i-\bar{y})^2, where the divisor is called the degrees of freedom (DF), the summation is called the sum of squares (SS), the result is called the mean square (MS) and the squared terms are deviations from the sample mean. ANOVA estimates 3 sample variances: a total variance based on all the observation deviations from the grand mean, an error variance based on all the observation deviations from their appropriate treatment means, and a treatment variance. The treatment variance is based on the deviations of treatment means from the grand mean, the result being multiplied by the number of observations in each treatment to account for the difference between the variance of observations and the variance of means. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares SS into components related to the effects used in the model. For example, the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. SS_\text{Total} = SS_\text{Error} + SS_\text{Treatments} The number of degrees of freedom DF can be partitioned in a similar way: one of these components (that for error) specifies a chi-squared distribution which describes the associated sum of squares, while the same is true for "treatments" if there is no treatment effect. DF_\text{Total} = DF_\text{Error} + DF_\text{Treatments} The F-test thumb\|338x338px\|To check for statistical significance of a one-way ANOVA, we consult the F-probability table using degrees of freedom at the alpha level. After computing the F-statistic, we compare the value at the intersection of each degrees of freedom, also known as the critical value. If one's F-statistic is greater in magnitude than their critical value, we can say there is statistical significance at the alpha level. The F-test is used for comparing the factors of the total deviation. For example, in one-way, or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test statistic F = \frac{\text{variance between treatments}}{\text{variance within treatments}} F \frac{MS_\text{Treatments}}{MS_\text{Error}} {{SS_\text{Treatments} / (I-1)} \over {SS_\text{Error} / (n_T-I)}} where MS is mean square, I is the number of treatments and n_T is the total number of cases to the F-distribution with I - 1 being the numerator degrees of freedom and n_T - I the denominator degrees of freedom. Using the F-distribution is a natural candidate because the test statistic is the ratio of two scaled sums of squares each of which follows a scaled chi-squared distribution. The expected value of F is 1 + {n \sigma^2_\text{Treatment}} / {\sigma^2_\text{Error}} (where n is the treatment sample size) which is 1 for no treatment effect. As values of F increase above 1, the evidence is increasingly inconsistent with the null hypothesis. Two apparent experimental methods of increasing F are increasing the sample size and reducing the error variance by tight experimental controls. There are two methods of concluding the ANOVA hypothesis test, both of which produce the same result: The textbook method is to compare the observed value of F with the critical value of F determined from tables. The critical value of F is a function of the degrees of freedom of the numerator and the denominator and the significance level (α). If F ≥ FCritical, the null hypothesis is rejected. The computer method calculates the probability (p-value) of a value of F greater than or equal to the observed value. The null hypothesis is rejected if this probability is less than or equal to the significance level (α). The ANOVA F-test is known to be nearly optimal in the sense of minimizing false negative errors for a fixed rate of false positive errors (i.e. maximizing power for a fixed significance level). For example, to test the hypothesis that various medical treatments have exactly the same effect, the F-test's p-values closely approximate the permutation test's p-values: The approximation is particularly close when the design is balanced. Such permutation tests characterize tests with maximum power against all alternative hypotheses, as observed by Rosenbaum. The ANOVA F-test (of the null-hypothesis that all treatments have exactly the same effect) is recommended as a practical test, because of its robustness against many alternative distributions. Extended algorithm ANOVA consists of separable parts; partitioning sources of variance and hypothesis testing can be used individually. ANOVA is used to support other statistical tools. Regression is first used to fit more complex models to data, then ANOVA is used to compare models with the objective of selecting simple(r) models that adequately describe the data. "Such models could be fit without any reference to ANOVA, but ANOVA tools could then be used to make some sense of the fitted models, and to test hypotheses about batches of coefficients." "[W]e think of the analysis of variance as a way of understanding and structuring multilevel models—not as an alternative to regression but as a tool for summarizing complex high-dimensional inferences ..." Consequently, factorial designs are heavily used. The use of ANOVA to study the effects of multiple factors has a complication. In a 3-way ANOVA with factors x, y and z, the ANOVA model includes terms for the main effects (x, y, z) and terms for interactions (xy, xz, yz, xyz). All terms require hypothesis tests. The proliferation of interaction terms increases the risk that some hypothesis test will produce a false positive by chance. Fortunately, experience says that high order interactions are rare. The ability to detect interactions is a major advantage of multiple factor ANOVA. Testing one factor at a time hides interactions, but produces apparently inconsistent experimental results. Graphical methods are recommended to enhance understanding. Regression is often useful. A lengthy discussion of interactions is available in Cox (1958). Some interactions can be removed (by transformations) while others cannot. A variety of techniques are used with multiple factor ANOVA to reduce expense. One technique used in factorial designs is to minimize replication (possibly no replication with support of analytical trickery) and to combine groups when effects are found to be statistically (or practically) insignificant. An experiment with many insignificant factors may collapse into one with a few factors supported by many replications. Associated analysis Some analysis is required in support of the design of the experiment while other analysis is performed after changes in the factors are formally found to produce statistically significant changes in the responses. Because experimentation is iterative, the results of one experiment alter plans for following experiments. Preparatory analysis The number of experimental units In the design of an experiment, the number of experimental units is planned to satisfy the goals of the experiment. Experimentation is often sequential. Early experiments are often designed to provide mean-unbiased estimates of treatment effects and of experimental error. Later experiments are often designed to test a hypothesis that a treatment effect has an important magnitude; in this case, the number of experimental units is chosen so that the experiment is within budget and has adequate power, among other goals. Reporting sample size analysis is generally required in psychology. "Provide information on sample size and the process that led to sample size decisions." The analysis, which is written in the experimental protocol before the experiment is conducted, is examined in grant applications and administrative review boards. Besides the power analysis, there are less formal methods for selecting the number of experimental units. These include graphical methods based on limiting the probability of false negative errors, graphical methods based on an expected variation increase (above the residuals) and methods based on achieving a desired confidence interval. Power analysis Power analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level. Power analysis can assist in study design by determining what sample size would be required in order to have a reasonable chance of rejecting the null hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is true. thumb\|Effect size Effect size Several standardized measures of effect have been proposed for ANOVA to summarize the strength of the association between a predictor(s) and the dependent variable or the overall standardized difference of the complete model. Standardized effect-size estimates facilitate comparison of findings across studies and disciplines. However, while standardized effect sizes are commonly used in much of the professional literature, a non-standardized measure of effect size that has immediately "meaningful" units may be preferable for reporting purposes. Model confirmation Sometimes tests are conducted to determine whether the assumptions of ANOVA appear to be violated. Residuals are examined or analyzed to confirm homoscedasticity and gross normality. Residuals should have the appearance of (zero mean normal distribution) noise when plotted as a function of anything including time and modeled data values. Trends hint at interactions among factors or among observations. Follow-up tests A statistically significant effect in ANOVA is often followed by additional tests. This can be done in order to assess which groups are different from which other groups or to test various other focused hypotheses. Follow-up tests are often distinguished in terms of whether they are "planned" (a priori) or "post hoc." Planned tests are determined before looking at the data, and post hoc tests are conceived only after looking at the data (though the term "post hoc" is inconsistently used). The follow-up tests may be "simple" pairwise comparisons of individual group means or may be "compound" comparisons (e.g., comparing the mean pooling across groups A, B and C to the mean of group D). Comparisons can also look at tests of trend, such as linear and quadratic relationships, when the independent variable involves ordered levels. Often the follow-up tests incorporate a method of adjusting for the multiple comparisons problem. Follow-up tests to identify which specific groups, variables, or factors have statistically different means include the Tukey's range test, and Duncan's new multiple range test. In turn, these tests are often followed with a Compact Letter Display (CLD) methodology in order to render the output of the mentioned tests more transparent to a non-statistician audience. Study designs There are several types of ANOVA. Many statisticians base ANOVA on the design of the experiment, especially on the protocol that specifies the random assignment of treatments to subjects; the protocol's description of the assignment mechanism should include a specification of the structure of the treatments and of any blocking. It is also common to apply ANOVA to observational data using an appropriate statistical model. Some popular designs use the following types of ANOVA: One-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among two or more independent groups (means), e.g. different levels of urea application in a crop, or different levels of antibiotic action on several different bacterial species, or different levels of effect of some medicine on groups of patients. However, should these groups not be independent, and there is an order in the groups (such as mild, moderate and severe disease), or in the dose of a drug (such as 5 mg/mL, 10 mg/mL, 20 mg/mL) given to the same group of patients, then a linear trend estimation should be used. Typically, however, the one-way ANOVA is used to test for differences among at least three groups, since the two-group case can be covered by a t-test. When there are only two means to compare, the t-test and the ANOVA F-test are equivalent; the relation between ANOVA and t is given by . Factorial ANOVA is used when there is more than one factor. Repeated measures ANOVA is used when the same subjects are used for each factor (e.g., in a longitudinal study). Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is used when there is more than one response variable. Cautions Balanced experiments (those with an equal sample size for each treatment) are relatively easy to interpret; unbalanced experiments offer more complexity. For single-factor (one-way) ANOVA, the adjustment for unbalanced data is easy, but the unbalanced analysis lacks both robustness and power. For more complex designs the lack of balance leads to further complications. "The orthogonality property of main effects and interactions present in balanced data does not carry over to the unbalanced case. This means that the usual analysis of variance techniques do not apply. Consequently, the analysis of unbalanced factorials is much more difficult than that for balanced designs." In the general case, "The analysis of variance can also be applied to unbalanced data, but then the sums of squares, mean squares, and F-ratios will depend on the order in which the sources of variation are considered." which in turn is a special case of the general linear model. All consider the observations to be the sum of a model (fit) and a residual (error) to be minimized. The Kruskal-Wallis test and the Friedman test are nonparametric tests which do not rely on an assumption of normality. Connection to linear regression Below we make clear the connection between multi-way ANOVA and linear regression. Linearly re-order the data so that k-th observation is associated with a response y_k and factors Z_{k,b} where b \in \{1,2,\ldots,B\} denotes the different factors and B is the total number of factors. In one-way ANOVA B1 and in two-way ANOVA B 2. Furthermore, we assume the b-th factor has I_b levels, namely \{1,2,\ldots,I_b\}. Now, we can one-hot encode the factors into the \sum_{b=1}^B I_b dimensional vector v_k. The one-hot encoding function g_b : \{1,2,\ldots,I_b\} \mapsto \{0,1\}^{I_b} is defined such that the i-th entry of g_b(Z_{k,b}) is g_b(Z_{k,b})_i = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{if } i=Z_{k,b} \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} The vector v_k is the concatenation of all of the above vectors for all b. Thus, v_k = [g_1(Z_{k,1}), g_2(Z_{k,2}), \ldots, g_B(Z_{k,B})]. In order to obtain a fully general B-way interaction ANOVA we must also concatenate every additional interaction term in the vector v_k and then add an intercept term. Let that vector be X_k. With this notation in place, we now have the exact connection with linear regression. We simply regress response y_k against the vector X_k. However, there is a concern about identifiability. In order to overcome such issues we assume that the sum of the parameters within each set of interactions is equal to zero. From here, one can use F-statistics or other methods to determine the relevance of the individual factors. Example We can consider the 2-way interaction example where we assume that the first factor has 2 levels and the second factor has 3 levels. Define a_i 1 if Z_{k,1}i and b_i 1 if Z_{k,2} i, i.e. a is the one-hot encoding of the first factor and b is the one-hot encoding of the second factor. With that, X_k = [a_1, a_2, b_1, b_2, b_3 ,a_1 \times b_1, a_1 \times b_2, a_1 \times b_3, a_2 \times b_1, a_2 \times b_2, a_2 \times b_3, 1] where the last term is an intercept term. For a more concrete example suppose that \begin{align} Z_{k,1} & = 2 \\ Z_{k,2} & = 1 \end{align} Then, X_k = [0,1,1,0,0,0,0,0,1,0,0,1] See also ANOVA on ranks ANOVA-simultaneous component analysis Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) Analysis of rhythmic variance (ANORVA) Expected mean squares Explained variation Linear trend estimation Mixed-design analysis of variance Multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) Permutational analysis of variance Variance decomposition Footnotes Notes References Pre-publication chapters are available on-line. Cohen, Jacob (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavior sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge Cox, David R. (1958). Planning of experiments. Reprinted as Freedman, David A.(2005). Statistical Models: Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press. Lehmann, E.L. (1959) Testing Statistical Hypotheses. John Wiley & Sons. Moore, David S. & McCabe, George P. (2003). Introduction to the Practice of Statistics (4e). W H Freeman & Co. Rosenbaum, Paul R. (2002). Observational Studies (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. Further reading External links SOCR: ANOVA Activity Examples of all ANOVA and ANCOVA models with up to three treatment factors, including randomized block, split plot, repeated measures, and Latin squares, and their analysis in R (University of Southampton) NIST/SEMATECH e-Handbook of Statistical Methods, section 7.4.3: "Are the means equal?" Analysis of variance: Introduction Category:Design of experiments Category:Statistical tests Category:Parametric statistics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_variance	2025-04-05T18:25:18.681440
639	Alkane	alkaline}} , the simplest alkane]] In organic chemistry, an alkane, or paraffin (a historical trivial name that also has other meanings<!--intentional link to DAB page-->), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear, branched, or cyclic. The third group is sometimes called cycloalkanes. Very complicated structures are possible by combining linear, branched, cyclic alkanes.Isomerism and isobutane are the two C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> isomers; cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are the two C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub> isomers.]] <!--<br/>[[Bicyclobutane\|Bicyclo[1.1.0]butane]] is the only C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>6</sub> alkane and has no alkane isomer; tetrahedrane (below) is the only C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>4</sub> alkane and so has no alkane isomer.]]--> Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in various ways, forming structural isomers. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the n-isomer (n for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However, the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms. For example, for acyclic alkanes: * C<sub>1</sub>: methane only * C<sub>2</sub>: ethane only * C<sub>3</sub>: propane only * C<sub>4</sub>: 2 isomers: butane and isobutane * C<sub>5</sub>: 3 isomers: pentane, isopentane, and neopentane * C<sub>6</sub>: 5 isomers: hexane, 2-methylpentane, 3-methylpentane, 2,2-dimethylbutane, and 2,3-dimethylbutane * C<sub>7</sub>: 9 isomers: heptane, 2-methylhexane, 3-methylhexane, 2,2-dimethylpentane, 2,3-dimethylpentane, 2,4-dimethylpentane, 3,3-dimethylpentane, 3-ethylpentane, 2,2,3-trimethylbutane C<sub>8</sub>: 18 isomers: octane, 2-methylheptane, 3-methylheptane, 4-methylheptane, 2,2-dimethylhexane, 2,3-dimethylhexane, 2,4-dimethylhexane, 2,5-dimethylhexane, 3,3-dimethylhexane, 3,4-dimethylhexane, 3-ethylhexane, 2,2,3-trimethylpentane, 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, 2,3,3-trimethylpentane, 2,3,4-trimethylpentane, 3-ethyl-2-methylpentane, 3-ethyl-3-methylpentane, 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane C<sub>9</sub>: 35 isomers * C<sub>10</sub>: 75 isomers * C<sub>12</sub>: 355 isomers * C<sub>32</sub>: 27,711,253,769 isomers * C<sub>60</sub>: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable Branched alkanes can be chiral. For example, 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues are chiral due to their stereogenic center at carbon atom number 3. The above list only includes differences of connectivity, not stereochemistry. In addition to the alkane isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more rings. Such compounds are called cycloalkanes, and are also excluded from the above list because changing the number of rings changes the molecular formula. For example, cyclobutane and methylcyclopropane are isomers of each other (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>8</sub>), but are not isomers of butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>). Branched alkanes are more thermodynamically stable than their linear (or less branched) isomers. For example, the highly branched 2,2,3,3-tetramethylbutane is about 1.9 kcal/mol more stable than its linear isomer, n-octane.Nomenclature The IUPAC nomenclature (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane". In 1866, August Wilhelm von Hofmann suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the hydrocarbons C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n−2</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n−4</sub>, C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n−6</sub>. In modern nomenclature, the first three specifically name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; while "-one" now represents a ketone.Linear alkanes <!-- redirected from linear paraffins --> Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix "n-" or "n-"(for "normal") where a non-linear isomer exists. Although this is not strictly necessary and is not part of the IUPAC naming system, the usage is still common in cases where one wishes to emphasize or distinguish between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., "n-butane" rather than simply "butane" to differentiate it from isobutane. Alternative names for this group used in the petroleum industry are linear paraffins or '''n-paraffins. The first eight members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: ; methane: CH<sub>4</sub> – one carbon and 4 hydrogen ; ethane : C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> – two carbon and 6 hydrogen ; propane: C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> – three carbon and 8 hydrogen ; butane : C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> – four carbon and 10 hydrogen ; pentane: C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> – five carbon and 12 hydrogen ; hexane : C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub> – six carbon and 14 hydrogen ; heptane: C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub> – seven carbons and 16 hydrogen ; octane: C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> – eight carbons and 18 hydrogen The first four names were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix -ane' to the appropriate numerical multiplier prefix with elision of any terminal vowel (-a or -o) from the basic numerical term. Hence, pentane, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>; hexane, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub>; heptane, C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub>; octane, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub>; etc. The numeral prefix is generally Greek; however, alkanes with a carbon atom count ending in nine, for example nonane, use the Latin prefix non-. Branched alkanes of isopentane (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)]] Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example n-pentane, isopentane, and neopentane. IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name. The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows: * Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms * Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules * Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl" * Number the longest continuous chain in order to give the lowest possible numbers for the side-chains * Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain * If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one. * Add side chain names in alphabetical (disregarding "di-" etc. prefixes) order in front of the name of the root chain {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" \|+ Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> \|- ! Common name ! n''-pentane \|\| isopentane \|\| neopentane \|- ! IUPAC name ! pentane \|\| 2-methylbutane \|\| 2,2-dimethylpropane \|- ! Structure \| \|\| \|\| \|} Saturated cyclic hydrocarbons Though technically distinct from the alkanes, this class of hydrocarbons is referred to by some as the "cyclic alkanes." As their description implies, they contain one or more rings. Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms in their backbones, e.g., cyclopentane (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like pentane (C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub>), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, propane and cyclopropane, butane and cyclobutane, etc. Substituted cycloalkanes are named similarly to substituted alkanes – the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. "Paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between pure compounds and mixtures of isomers, i.e., compounds of the same chemical formula, e.g., pentane and isopentane. ;In IUPAC The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system: * isobutane for 2-methylpropane * isopentane for 2-methylbutane * neopentane for 2,2-dimethylpropane. ;Non-IUPAC Some non-IUPAC trivial names are occasionally used: * cetane, for hexadecane * cerane, for hexacosanePhysical properties All alkanes are colorless. Alkanes with the lowest molecular weights are gases, those of intermediate molecular weight are liquids, and the heaviest are waxy solids. Table of alkanes {\| class="wikitable" \|- !Alkane !Formula !Boiling point<br>[°C] !Melting point \|- \|Methane \|CH<sub>4</sub> \| −162 \| −182 \| 0.656 (gas) \| 1 \|- \|Ethane \|C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>6</sub> \| −89 \| −183 \| 1.26 (gas) \| 1 \|- \|Propane \|C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub> \| −42 \| −188 \| 2.01 (gas) \| 1 \|- \|Butane \|C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> \| 0 \| −138 \| 2.48 (gas) \| 2 \|- \|Pentane \|C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> \| 36 \| −130 \| 626 (liquid) \| 3 \|- \|Hexane \|C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>14</sub> \| 69 \| −95 \| 659 (liquid) \| 5 \|- \|Heptane \|C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>16</sub> \| 98 \| −91 \| 684 (liquid) \| 9 \|- \|Octane \|C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>18</sub> \| 126 \| −57 \| 703 (liquid) \| 18 \|- \|Nonane \|C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>20</sub> \| 151 \| −54 \| 718 (liquid) \| 35 \|- \|Decane \|C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>22</sub> \| 174 \| −30 \| 730 (liquid) \| 75 \|- \|Undecane \|C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>24</sub> \| 196 \| −26 \| 740 (liquid) \| 159 \|- \|Dodecane \|C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>26</sub> \| 216 \| −10 \| 749 (liquid) \| 355 \|- \|Tridecane \|C<sub>13</sub>H<sub>28</sub> \| 235 \| −5.4 \| 756 (liquid) \| 802 \|- \|Tetradecane \|C<sub>14</sub>H<sub>30</sub> \| 253 \| 5.9 \| 763 (liquid) \| 1858 \|- \|Pentadecane \|C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>32</sub> \| 270 \| 10 \| 769 (liquid) \| 4347 \|- \|Hexadecane \|C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>34</sub> \| 287 \| 18 \| 773 (liquid) \| 10,359 \|- \|Heptadecane \|C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub> \| 303 \| 22 \| 777 (solid) \| 24,894 \|- \|Octadecane \|C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub> \| 317 \| 28 \| 781 (solid) \| 60,523 \|- \|Nonadecane \|C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub> \| 330 \| 32 \| 785 (solid) \| 148,284 \|- \|Icosane \|C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>42</sub> \| 343 \| 37 \| 789 (solid) \| 366,319 \|- \|Triacontane \|C<sub>30</sub>H<sub>62</sub> \| 450 \| 66 \| 810 (solid) \| 4,111,846,763 \|- \|Tetracontane \|C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub> \| 525 \| 82 \| 817 (solid) \| 62,481,801,147,341 \|- \|Pentacontane \|C<sub>50</sub>H<sub>102</sub> \| 575 \| 91 \| 824 (solid) \| 1,117,743,651,746,953,270 \|- \|Hexacontane \|C<sub>60</sub>H<sub>122</sub> \| 625 \| 100 \| 829 (solid) \| 2.21587345357704×10<sup>22</sup> \|- \|Heptacontane \|C<sub>70</sub>H<sub>142</sub> \| 653 \| 109 \| 869 (solid) \| 4.71484798515330×10<sup>26</sup> \|- \|colspan6 \| \|} Boiling point Alkanes experience intermolecular van der Waals forces. The cumulative effects of these intermolecular forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes. Two factors influence the strength of the van der Waals forces: * the number of electrons surrounding the molecule, which increases with the alkane's molecular weight * the surface area of the molecule Under standard conditions, from CH<sub>4</sub> to C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub> alkanes are gaseous; from C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>12</sub> to C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>36</sub> they are liquids; and after C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub> they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has an almost linear relationship with the size (molecular weight) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20–30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series. A second difference in crystal structure is that even-numbered alkanes (from octane onwards) tend to form more rotationally-ordered crystals compared to their odd-numbered neighbors. This causes them to have a greater entropy of fusion (increase in disorder from the solid to the liquid state), lowering their melting point. While these effects operate in opposing directions, the first effect tends to be slightly stronger, leading even-numbered alkanes to have slightly higher melting points than the average of their odd-numbered neighbors. This trend does not apply to methane, which has an unusually high melting point, higher than both ethane and propane. This is because it has a very low entropy of fusion, attributable to its high molecular symmetry and the rotational disorder in solid methane near its melting point (Methane I). Molecular geometry<!-- This section is linked from Nylon --> The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the electron configuration of carbon, which has four valence electrons. The carbon atoms in alkanes are described as sp<sup>3</sup> hybrids; that is to say that, to a good approximation, the valence electrons are in orbitals directed towards the corners of a tetrahedron which are derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. Geometrically, the angle between the bonds are cos<sup>−1</sup>(−) ≈ 109.47°. This is exact for the case of methane, while larger alkanes containing a combination of C–H and C–C bonds generally have bonds that are within several degrees of this idealized value. Bond lengths and bond angles An alkane has only C–H and C–C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of an sp<sup>3</sup> orbital of carbon with the 1s orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp<sup>3</sup> orbitals on adjacent carbon atoms. The bond lengths amount to 1.09 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m for a C–H bond and 1.54 × 10<sup>−10</sup> m for a C–C bond. The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp<sup>3</sup> orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not accurately depict the geometry. Conformation s of the two rotamers of ethane]] The spatial arrangement of the C-C and C-H bonds are described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its conformation. In ethane, the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, there is nearly free rotation about a carbon–carbon single bond. Two limiting conformations are important: eclipsed conformation and staggered conformation. The staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol (3.0 kcal/mol) lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable). In highly branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ from the optimal value (109.5°) to accommodate bulky groups. Such distortions introduce a tension in the molecule, known as steric hindrance or strain. Strain substantially increases reactivity.Spectroscopic propertiesSpectroscopic signatures for alkanes are obtainable by the major characterization techniques. Infrared spectroscopy The C-H stretching mode gives a strong absorptions between 2850 and 2960 cm<sup>−1</sup> and weaker bands for the C-C stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm<sup>−1</sup>. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1375 cm<sup>−1</sup>, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm<sup>−1</sup> and 1450 cm<sup>−1</sup>. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm<sup>−1</sup>. NMR spectroscopy The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at δ<sub>H</sub> 0.5–1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: δ<sub>C</sub> 8–30 (primary, methyl, –CH<sub>3</sub>), 15–55 (secondary, methylene, –CH<sub>2</sub>–), 20–60 (tertiary, methyne, C–H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of nuclear Overhauser effect and the long relaxation time, and can be missed in weak samples, or samples that have not been run for a sufficiently long time. Mass spectrometry Since alkanes have high ionization energies, their electron impact mass spectra show weak currents for their molecular ions. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting free radicals. The mass spectra for straight-chain alkanes is illustrated by that for dodecane: the fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M − 15) is absent, fragments are more intense than the molecular ion and are spaced by intervals of 14 mass units, corresponding to loss of CH<sub>2</sub> groups. Chemical properties Alkanes are only weakly reactive with most chemical compounds. They only reacts with the strongest of electrophilic reagents by virtue of their strong C–H bonds (~100 kcal/mol) and C–C bonds (~90 kcal/mol). They are also relatively unreactive toward free radicals. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. Acid-base behavior The acid dissociation constant (pK<sub>a</sub>) values of all alkanes are estimated to range from 50 to 70, depending on the extrapolation method, hence they are extremely weak acids that are practically inert to bases (see: carbon acids). They are also extremely weak bases, undergoing no observable protonation in pure sulfuric acid (H<sub>0</sub> ~ −12), although superacids that are at least millions of times stronger have been known to protonate them to give hypercoordinate alkanium ions (see: methanium ion). Thus, a mixture of antimony pentafluoride (SbF<sub>5</sub>) and fluorosulfonic acid (HSO<sub>3</sub>F), called magic acid, can protonate alkanes. Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction) All alkanes react with oxygen in a combustion reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is: :C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub> + (n + ) O<sub>2</sub> → (n + 1) H<sub>2</sub>O + n CO<sub>2</sub> :or C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub> + () O<sub>2</sub> → (n + 1) H<sub>2</sub>O + n CO<sub>2</sub> In the absence of sufficient oxygen, carbon monoxide or even soot can be formed, as shown below: :C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub> + (n + ) O<sub>2</sub> → (n + 1) H<sub>2</sub>O + n CO :C<sub>n</sub>H<sub>2n+2</sub> + (n + ) O<sub>2</sub> → (n + 1) H<sub>2</sub>O + n C For example, methane: :2 CH<sub>4</sub> + 3 O<sub>2</sub> → 4 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 CO :CH<sub>4</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> → 2 H<sub>2</sub>O + C See the alkane heat of formation table for detailed data. The standard enthalpy change of combustion, Δ<sub>c</sub>H<sup>⊖</sup>, for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH<sub>2</sub> group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δ<sub>c</sub>H<sup>⊖</sup> than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable. Biodegradation Some organisms are capable of metalbolizing alkanes. The methane monooxygenases convert methane to methanol. For higher alkanes, cytochrome P450 convert alkanes to alcohols, which are then susceptible to degradation. Free radical reactions Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes. Free radical halogenation reactions occur with halogens, leading to the production of haloalkanes. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. The reaction of alkanes and fluorine is highly exothermic and can lead to an explosion. These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps: * Initiation the halogen radicals form by homolysis. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required. * Chain reaction or Propagation then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further. * Chain termination where the radicals recombine. Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not statistical: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane: Cracking Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This reaction requires heat and catalysts. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism with formation of free radicals. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of acid catalysts (usually solid acids such as silica-alumina and zeolites), which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of ions of opposite charges, usually a carbocation. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C–C scission in position beta (i.e., cracking) and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen transfer or hydride transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination. Isomerization and reformation Dragan and his colleague were the first to report about isomerization in alkanes. Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a platinum catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In other words, it does not lose any carbons or hydrogens, keeping the same molecular weight. Also on Titan, the Cassini mission has imaged seasonal methane/ethane lakes near the polar regions of Titan. Methane and ethane have also been detected in the tail of the comet Hyakutake. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules. Alkanes have also been detected in meteorites such as carbonaceous chondrites. Occurrence of alkanes on Earth Traces of methane gas (about 0.0002% or 1745 ppb) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by methanogenic microorganisms, such as Archaea in the gut of ruminants. The most important commercial sources for alkanes are natural gas and oil. and cows. The methane is produced from carbon dioxide or other organic compounds. Energy is released by the oxidation of hydrogen: :CO<sub>2</sub> + 4 H<sub>2</sub> → CH<sub>4</sub> + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O It is probable that our current deposits of natural gas were formed in a similar way. Certain types of bacteria can metabolize alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains. Alkanes play a negligible role in higher organisms, with rare exception. Some yeasts, e.g., Candida tropicale, Pichia sp., Rhodotorula sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon or energy. The fungus Amorphotheca resinae prefers the longer-chain alkanes in aviation fuel, and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions. In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the plant cuticle and epicuticular wax of many species, but are only rarely major constituents. They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the leaching of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between 27 and 33 carbon atoms in length, Emission of gaseous and volatile alkanes such as ethane, pentane, and hexane by plants has also been documented at low levels, though they are not generally considered to be a major component of biogenic air pollution. Edible vegetable oils also typically contain small fractions of biogenic alkanes with a wide spectrum of carbon numbers, mainly 8 to 35, usually peaking in the low to upper 20s, with concentrations up to dozens of milligrams per kilogram (parts per million by weight) and sometimes over a hundred for the total alkane fraction. Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% pristane (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>40</sub>). They are important as pheromones, chemical messenger materials, on which insects depend for communication. In some species, e.g. the support beetle Xylotrechus colonus, pentacosane (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>), 3-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C<sub>26</sub>H<sub>54</sub>) are transferred by body contact. With others like the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans, the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C<sub>18</sub>H<sub>38</sub>), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>39</sub>H<sub>80</sub>) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C<sub>40</sub>H<sub>82</sub>), and acts by smell over longer distances. Waggle-dancing honey bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.Ecological relations )]] One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the sand bee (Andrena nigroaenea) and the early spider orchid (Ophrys sphegodes); the latter is dependent for pollination on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of A. nigroaenea, the females emit a mixture of tricosane (C<sub>23</sub>H<sub>48</sub>), pentacosane (C<sub>25</sub>H<sub>52</sub>) and heptacosane (C<sub>27</sub>H<sub>56</sub>) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odor. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result, numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavor is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen, which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to other blooms. Production Petroleum refining at Martinez, California.]] The most important source of alkanes is natural gas and crude oil. Simply heating coal gives alkanes, leaving behind coke. Relevant technologies include the Bergius process and coal liquifaction. Partial combustion of coal and related solid organic compounds generates carbon monoxide, which can be hydrogenated using the Fischer–Tropsch process. This technology allows the synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes. This method is used to produce substitutes for petroleum distillates.Laboratory preparationRarely is there any interest in the synthesis of alkanes, since they are usually commercially available and less valued than virtually any precursor. The best-known method is hydrogenation of alkenes. Many C-X bonds can be converted to C-H bonds using lithium aluminium hydride, Clemmenson reduction, and other specialized routes. Hydrolysis of Alkyl Grignard reagents and alkyl lithium compounds gives alkanes. Applications Fuels The dominant use of alkanes is as fuels. Propane and butane, easily liquified gases, are commonly known as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). From pentane to octane the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in internal combustion engines, as they vaporize easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes knocking, than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the octane rating of the fuel, where 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and heptane has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances. Alkanes from nonane to, for instance, hexadecane (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher viscosity, less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of diesel and aviation fuel. Diesel fuels are characterized by their cetane number, cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly. Precursors to chemicals By the process of cracking, alkanes can be converted to alkenes. Simple alkenes are precursors to polymers, such as polyethylene and polypropylene. When the cracking is taken to extremes, alkanes can be converted to carbon black, which is a significant tire component. Chlorination of methane gives chloromethanes, which are used as solvents and building blocks for complex compounds. Similarly treatment of methane with sulfur gives carbon disulfide. Still other chemicals are prepared by reaction with sulfur trioxide and nitric oxide Other Some light hydrocarbons are used as aerosol sprays. Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of fuel oil and lubricating oil. In the latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as paraffin wax, for example, in candles. This should not be confused however with true wax, which consists primarily of esters. Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in bitumen, used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by cracking. Hazards Alkanes are highly flammable, but they have low toxicities. Methane "is toxicologically virtually inert." Alkanes can be asphyxiants and narcotic.<ref nameUll/>See also * Alkene * Alkyne * Cycloalkane * Higher alkanes * Aliphatic compound Notes References Further reading * [https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/intro1.htm Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry] * [https://log-web.de/chemie/Start.htm?nameethaneCryst&langen Visualizations of the low-temperature crystal structures of alkanes (methane to nonane)] * Category:Hydrocarbons	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkane	2025-04-05T18:25:18.751029
640	Appellate procedure in the United States	thumb\|The Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C., with the statue of Abraham Lincoln in the foreground United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as de novo and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision. An appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts. The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court. Access to appellant status A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called an "appellee", "defendant in error", "respondent". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000. The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence. The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal. An appellee is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed. Ability to appeal An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision. In the Supreme Court, review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari. In tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard. By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court. Direct or collateral: Appealing criminal convictions Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case. The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts. Relief in post-conviction is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence. Appellate review "Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction). In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of. There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04–4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted). In Anglo-American common law courts, appellate review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs. Direct appeal After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process. Preservation issues An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt. State post-conviction relief: collateral appeal All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered. Habeas corpus Notice of appeal A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country. The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both. Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used. The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited. Appellate procedure thumb\|Appellate mandate issued by the United States Court of Appeal for the Second Circuit affirming an order of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in Steven Donziger's criminal contempt case. Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue). If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect. In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony. Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.) Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct. In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court. The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs. In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal. The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record. A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals. In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense, permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense." In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting. In cases where a judge rather than a jury decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard. In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial. A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words "May it please the court." After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur". Results The result of an appeal can be: Affirmed: Where the reviewing court basically agrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s). Reversed: Where the reviewing court basically disagrees with the result of the lower courts' ruling(s), and overturns their decision. Vacated: Where the reviewing court overturns the lower courts' ruling(s) as invalid, without necessarily disagreeing with it/them, e.g. because the case was decided on the basis of a legal principle that no longer applies. Remanded: Where the reviewing court sends the case back to the lower court. There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'". Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than review improvidently granted. In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of review improvidently granted is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval. See also Appellate court Appellee Civil procedure Court of Appeals Courts-martial in the United States Criminal procedure Defendant En banc Interlocutory appeal List of legal topics List of wrongful convictions in the United States Petition for stay Plaintiff Pursuer Reversible error Supreme Court of the United States Writ of Certiorari Writ of habeas corpus Writ of mandamus References External links Category:United States procedural law	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellate_procedure_in_the_United_States	2025-04-05T18:25:18.762405
642	Answer (law)	In law, an answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem. In the common law, an answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an optional "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant must file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment. In a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally, speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment. The famous Latin Responsa Prudentium ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative. Notes Category:Common law Category:Legal documents	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Answer_(law)	2025-04-05T18:25:18.768968
643	Appellate court	, the highest appellate court in Australia]] , the highest court in the United States]] (Helsingin hovioikeus), an intermediate appellate court in Finland]] An appellate court, commonly called a court of appeal(s), appeal court, court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear a case upon appeal from a trial court or other lower tribunal. Appellate courts other than supreme courts are sometimes named as Intermediate appellate court. In much of the world, court systems are divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and considers factual evidence and testimony relevant to the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts, often on a discretionary basis. A particular court system's supreme court is its highest appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules. Under its standard of review, an appellate court determines the extent of the deference it will give to the lower court's decision, based on whether the appeal is one of fact or of law. In certain civil law jurisdictions, especially those following the French legal system, a first-level appellate court has the power to second-guess the trial court's finding of facts and retry the facts of the case at that level under the principle of double degré de juridiction. In common law jurisdictions, an appellate court reviewing an issue of fact ordinarily gives deference to the trial court's findings. Depending on the type of case and the decision below, appellate review primarily consists of: an entirely new hearing (a non trial de novo); a hearing where the appellate court gives deference to factual findings of the lower court; or review of particular legal rulings made by the lower court (an appeal on the record). Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. In the United States, Alabama, Tennessee, and Oklahoma also have separate courts of criminal appeals. Texas and Oklahoma have the final determination of criminal cases vested in their respective courts of criminal appeals, while Alabama and Tennessee allow decisions of its court of criminal appeals to be finally appealed to the state supreme court.Courts of criminal appeals ;Civilian Court of Criminal Appeal (England and Wales), abolished 1966 Court of Criminal Appeal (Ireland), abolished 2014 * U.S. States: Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals Tennessee Court of Criminal Appeals Texas Court of Criminal Appeals ;Military United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals (United States) Courts of civil appeals Alabama Court of Civil Appeals Oklahoma Court of Civil Appeals Appellate courts by country Australia High Court of Australia\|Judiciary of Australia#Australian court hierarchyAustralian courts of appeals}} ]] The High Court has appellate jurisdiction over all other courts. Leave must be granted by the court, before the appeal matter is heard. The High Court is paramount to all federal courts. Further, it has an constitutionally entrenched general power of appeal from the Supreme Courts of the States and Territories. Appeals to the High Court are by special leave only, which is generally only granted in cases of public importance, matters involving the interpretation of the Commonwealth Constitution, or where the law has been inconsistently applied across the States and Territories.[19] Therefore, in the vast majority of cases, the appellate divisions of the Supreme Courts of each State and Territory and the Federal Court are the final courts of appeal.New Zealand The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court. Philippines The Court of Appeals of the Philippines is the principal intermediate appellate court of that country. The Court of Appeals is primarily found in Manila, with three divisions each in Cebu City and Cagayan de Oro. Other appellate courts include the Sandiganbayan for cases involving graft and corruption, and the Court of Tax Appeals for cases involving tax. Appeals from all three appellate courts are to the Supreme Court. Sri Lanka The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system. United Kingdom United States In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal. for Florida, an intermediate appellate court for the Florida judicial system]] In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions result in appeals. Some courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case. <ref name"United States Department of State 2023 j033" /><ref name"Robertson_2013" /> Nomenclature Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court a court of appeal or court of appeals.<ref name"Garner_Page_232" /> Both terms are used in the United States, but the plural form is more common in American English, while in contrast, British English uses only the singular form.<ref name"Garner_Page_232" /> The correct form is whichever is the statutorily prescribed or customary form for a particular court and particular jurisdiction; in other words, one should never write "court of appeal" when the court at issue clearly prefers to be called a "court of appeals", and vice versa.<ref name="Garner_Page_232" /> Historically, certain jurisdictions have titled their appellate court a court of errors (or court of errors and appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division. The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the New York Court of Appeals is the highest appellate court in New York. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Maryland was known as the Court of Appeals, and the Appellate Court of Maryland was known as the Court of Special Appeals, until a 2022 constitutional amendment changed their names. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction. See also Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation) Court of Appeal (Hong Kong) High Court (Hong Kong) Court of Appeal (England and Wales) Court of cassation References Citations Sources Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591–604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012. James D Hopkins, "The Role of an Intermediate Appellate Court" (1974 to 1975) 41 Brook L Rev 459 [https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handlehein.journals/brklr41&div27&id&page HeinOnline] W Warren H Binford, Preston C Greene, Maria C Schmidlkofer, Robert M Wilsey and Hillary A Taylor, "Seeking Best Practices among Intermediate Courts of Appeal: A Nascent Journey" (2007) 9 The Journal of Appellate Practice and Process 37 (Article 4) (No 1, Spring 2007) [https://lawrepository.ualr.edu/appellatepracticeprocess/vol9/iss1/4 Bowen Law Repository]. Calvert Magruder, "The Trials and Tribulations of an Intermediate Appellate Court" (1958) 44 Cornell Law Quarterly 1 (No 1, Fall 1958) [http://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr/vol44/iss1/1 Cornell] Laurence C Harmon and Gregory A Lang, "A Needs Analysis of an Intermediate Appellate Court" (1981) 6 or 7 William Mitchell Law Review 51 (article 7) (No 1) [http://open.mitchellhamline.edu/wmlr/vol7/iss1/7 Mitchell Hamline] McHugh, "Law Making in an Intermediate Appellate Court: The New South Wales Court of Appeal" (1987) 11 The Sydney Law Review 183 (No 2, March 1987) [http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/SydLawRw/1987/1.pdf AustLII] Alan B Handler, "Justice at the Intermediate Appellate Level: The New Jersey Appellate Division" (1979) 10 Seton Hall Law Review 58 [https://scholarship.shu.edu/shlr/vol10/iss1/10/ Seton Hall University] Daryl R Fair, "State Intermediate Appellate Courts: An Introduction" (1971) 24 Political Research Quarterly 415 (No 3, September 1971) [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/106591297102400302?journalCode=prqa SAGE journals] Richard B Hoffman and Barry Mahoney, "Managing caseflow in State Intermediate Appellate Courts: What Mechanisms, Practices, and Procedures can work to reduce Delay?" (2002) 35 Indiana Law Review 467 [https://mckinneylaw.iu.edu/ilr/pdf/vol35p467.pdf McKinney] Kevin M Scott, "Understanding Judicial Hierarchy: Reversals and the Behavior of Intermediate Appellate Judges" (2006) 40 Law & Society Review 163 (No 1, March 2006) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557630 JSTOR] John W Poulos and Bruce D Varner, "Review of Intermediate Appellate Court Decisions in California" (1963) 15 Hastings Law Journal 11 (No 1) [https://repository.uchastings.edu/hastings_law_journal/vol15/iss1/3 UC Hastings] * Douglas M. Fasciale, "A Case Study Analyzing How Trial Judge Experience Shapes Intermediate Appellate Review of Discretionary Determinations," (2023) Seton Hall Law Review: Vol. 53 : Iss. 4 , Article 1. Available at: [https://scholarship.shu.edu/shlr/vol53/iss4/1 Seton Hall University] Category:Courts by type Category:Appellate courts Category:Jurisdiction	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellate_court	2025-04-05T18:25:18.778636
649	Arraignment	, 20 December 1947]] Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant, to inform them of the criminal charges against them. In response to arraignment, in some jurisdictions, the accused is expected to enter a plea; in other jurisdictions, no plea is required. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include guilty, not guilty, and the peremptory pleas (pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of nolo contendere ('no contest') and the Alford plea are allowed in some circumstances. By country Australia In the Australian legal system, arraignment is the first stage in a criminal trial. The indictment is read to the defendant, who is asked to plead guilty or not guilty. Arraignment procedures vary somewhat among jurisdictions. In New South Wales, the arraignment takes place before the judge only. In South Australian practice, the jury hears the arraignment. In Queensland the indictment is read to the defendant by the judge's associate prior to the empanelling of the jury. Canada In British Columbia, arraignment takes place in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each charge. France In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of their arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking, or organised crime. In the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent. New Zealand Under New Zealand law, at the first appearance of the accused, they are read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are: guilty, not guilty, and no plea. The response of "no plea" allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance. South Africa In South Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against them, the demanding of the accused whether they plead guilty or not guilty, and the entering of their plea. United Kingdom In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of 11 stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them, unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (i.e., 36 hours total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours; for terrorism-related offences a person can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable. In federal courts, arraignment takes place in two stages. The first is called the "initial arraignment" and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, or within 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this stage, the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second stage, the post-indictment arraignment, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea. In New York, a person arrested without a warrant and kept in custody must be brought before a local criminal court for arraignment "without unnecessary delay". A delay of more than 24 hours is rebuttably presumed to be unnecessary. In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays. Form of the arraignment The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles: # The accused person (defendant) is addressed by name; # The charge against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and, # The accused person is asked formally how they plead. Video arraignment Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the court to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom. Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation. Guilty and not-guilty pleas If the defendant pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence. If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial. In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today, in common law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence. Pre-trial release This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction. See also *Desk appearance ticket References Category:Legal terminology Category:Prosecution Category:United States criminal procedure Category:Criminal law of the United Kingdom Category:Australian criminal law	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arraignment	2025-04-05T18:25:18.789153
651	America the Beautiful	"America the Beautiful" is a patriotic American song. Its lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates and its music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey, though the two never met. Bates wrote the words as a poem, originally titled "Pikes Peak". It was first published in the Fourth of July 1895 edition of the church periodical, The Congregationalist. At that time, the poem was titled "America". Ward had initially composed the song's melody in 1882 to accompany lyrics to "Materna", basis of the hymn, "O Mother dear, Jerusalem", though the hymn was not first published until 1892. The combination of Ward's melody and Bates's poem was first entitled "America the Beautiful" in 1910. The song is one of the most popular of the many American patriotic songs. History in July 1999]] In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of North America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high atop Pikes Peak. On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in The Congregationalist to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. An amended version was published in 1904. where Samuel Ward worked as organist, and wrote and perfected the tune "Materna" that is used for "America the Beautiful"]] 1953 performance by the United States Marine Band\|filename4"America the Beautiful", performed by the Second Marine Aircraft Wing Band of Cherry Point, North Carolina.oga\|title4"America the Beautiful"\|description4=Performed by the Second Marine Aircraft Wing Band of Cherry Point, North Carolina.}} The first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in The Congregationalist. By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A hymn tune composed in 1882 by Samuel A. Ward, the organist and choir director at Grace Church, Newark, was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home in New York City after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful". Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. The song's popularity was well established by the time of Bates's death in 1929. At various times in the more than one hundred years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner", but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery, while others object to the implicit support of slavery and racism in its third verse; others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" because of its war themes. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans, and was even being considered before 1931 as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States. Lyrics {\| style="white-space:nowrap" \|+America. A Poem for July 4. \|<poem>1893 poem (original) O beautiful for halcyon skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the enameled plain! America! America! God shed his grace on thee Till souls wax fair as earth and air And music-hearted sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet, Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God shed his grace on thee Till paths be wrought through wilds of thought By pilgrim foot and knee! O beautiful for glory-tale Of liberating strife, When once and twice, for man's avail, Men lavished precious life! America! America! God shed his grace on thee Till selfish gain no longer stain The banner of the free! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed his grace on thee, Till nobler men keep once again Thy whiter jubilee!</poem> \|<poem style"margin-left:1em;">1904 version O beautiful for spacious skies, For amber waves of grain, For purple mountain majesties Above the fruited plain! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea! O beautiful for pilgrim feet, Whose stern, impassioned stress A thoroughfare for freedom beat Across the wilderness! America! America! God mend thine every flaw, Confirm thy soul in self-control, Thy liberty in law! O beautiful for heroes proved In liberating strife, Who more than self their country loved And mercy more than life! America! America! May God thy gold refine, Till all success be nobleness, And every gain divine! O beautiful for patriot dream That sees beyond the years Thine alabaster cities gleam Undimmed by human tears! America! America! God shed His grace on thee And crown thy good with brotherhood From sea to shining sea!</poem> \|} Notable performances Elvis Presley performed it many times in concerts starting in 1976. Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album 101 Gang Songs (1961). Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for The Concert Sinatra in February 1963, for a projected 45 single release. The 45 was not commercially issued however, but the song was later added as a bonus track to the enhanced 2012 CD release of The Concert Sinatra. In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B chart. His version was traditionally played on New Year's Eve in Times Square following the ball drop. Charles performed the song at Republican National Convention in August 1984 and Super Bowl XXXV in January 2001. Three different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of "America the Beautiful" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherrié Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks. Barbra Streisand released an official music video footage during Norman Lear's Special in 1982. The song has been sung before many editions of the WWE's flagship annual show WrestleMania beginning at WrestleMania 2 in 1986, interchangeably with The Star-Spangled Banner. The song has been performed by artists such as Ray Charles, Aretha Franklin, Gladys Knight, Willie Nelson, Little Richard, Boyz II Men, Boys Choir of Harlem, John Legend, Nicole Scherzinger and Fifth Harmony. During her rise to stardom, R&B singer Mariah Carey sang the song at the 1990 NBA Finals. Whitney Houston also recorded the song, covering Ray Charles' soulful rearranged version as the B-side to her 1991 rendition of "The Star Spangled Banner." The song has been performed as part of the Indianapolis 500 pre-race ceremonies since 1991. The US singer/songwriter Martin Sexton recorded a gospel-tinged version on his LP "Black Sheep," released in 1996. Popularity of the song increased greatly in the decades following 9/11; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the Late Show with David Letterman following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse. The hymn has been featured in the pregame for a number of Super Bowls, the championship game for each NFL season. It is sung along with the "Star-Spangled Banner" and, more recently, the hymn "Lift Every Voice and Sing," commonly referred to as the "Black national anthem". For Super Bowl XLVIII, The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI, the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and for patriotic holidays. Notable performers at the Super Bowl include Ray Charles, Alicia Keys, John Legend, Jhené Aiko, Faith Hill, Mary J. Blige with Marc Anthony, Blake Shelton with Miranda Lambert, Queen Latifah, Leslie Odom Jr., and Babyface. Post Malone performed the song for the most recent game, Super Bowl LVIII, in 2024. The song, performed by 5 Alarm Music, is featured heavily in a dystopian action horror franchise The Purge in both trailers and films. In 2016, American five-piece girl group Fifth Harmony performed a rendition to honor the United States women's national soccer team on defeating Japan 5–2 in the Final to win the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup last July at BC Place in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada before an undisputed AT&T Stadium audience of 101,763 to open WrestleMania 32 in Dallas, Texas. In 2017, Jackie Evancho released Together We Stand, a disc containing three patriotic songs including "America the Beautiful." The song charted at No. 4 on ''Billboard's Classical Digital Song sales chart. An abbreviated cover with the 1911 lyrics was performed by Greg Jong for the soundtrack of the 2020 video game Wasteland 3'' and is played during the final hostile encounters in the Denver section. In 2021, Jennifer Lopez performed the song at the inauguration of Joe Biden, as the second half of a medley with "This Land Is Your Land" by Woody Guthrie. In 2023, Cécile McLorin Salvant performed the song at the US Open woman's final. In her rendition, Salvant notably skipped ahead to the lyrics of the second half of the second verse while singing the first verse (replacing "God shed His grace on thee..." with "God mend thine every flaw...", etc.). Jazz Critic Nate Chinen wrote the following day of the performance, "What does it mean for a singer such as Salvant to inhabit a platform like the US Open, and implore God to mend America’s every flaw? What does it mean, in the Year of Our Lord 2023, for a singer like Salvant to urge the nation to confirm thy soul in self-control, and find liberty in law? I’m not going to spell it out, but it means a lot." In 2025 Carrie Underwood sang the song a capella after what were described as “technical difficulties” caused the failure of her backing music, during the second inauguration of Donald Trump.Idioms"From sea to shining sea" is an American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase "" ("From sea to sea"), which is the official motto of Canada. "Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which inspired Bates to write the poem. The idiom inspired the Colorado Rockies to have purple as one of its team colors. In 2003, Tori Amos appropriated the phrase "for amber waves of grain" to create a personification for her song "Amber Waves". Amos imagines Amber Waves as an exotic dancer, like the character of the same name portrayed by Julianne Moore in Boogie Nights. Books Lynn Sherr's 2001 book ''America the Beautiful: The Stirring True Story Behind Our Nation's Favorite Song'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates. Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea,<ref nameFromSeatoShiningSea /> draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture. See also * "God Bless America" Explanatory notes ReferencesExternal links * [http://memory.loc.gov/cocoon/ihas/loc.natlib.ihas.200000001/default.html MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress] * * [http://www.springsgov.com/Page.asp?NavID5138 America the Beautiful Park] in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words. * [http://web.me.com/highlandsarchives/The_Highlands_Archives/America.html Archival collection] of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s. * [https://www.partitions-domaine-public.fr/pdf/11748/Traditionnel-America-the-Beautiful.html Another free sheet music] Category:1895 songs Category:American Christian hymns Category:American patriotic songs Category:Pikes Peak Category:History of Colorado Springs, Colorado Category:Songs based on poems Category:Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Category:Concert band pieces Category:Ray Charles songs Category:Whitney Houston songs	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America_the_Beautiful	2025-04-05T18:25:18.806094
653	Assistive technology	]] Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and the elderly. Disabled people often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with assistance. ADLs are self-care activities that include toileting, mobility (ambulation), eating, bathing, dressing, grooming, and personal device care. Assistive technology can ameliorate the effects of disabilities that limit the ability to perform ADLs. Assistive technology promotes greater independence by enabling people to perform tasks they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to, or changing methods of interacting with, the technology needed to accomplish such tasks. For example, wheelchairs provide independent mobility for those who cannot walk, while assistive eating devices can enable people who cannot feed themselves to do so. Due to assistive technology, disabled people have an opportunity of a more positive and easygoing lifestyle, with an increase in "social participation", "security and control", and a greater chance to "reduce institutional costs without significantly increasing household expenses." In schools, assistive technology can be critical in allowing students with disabilities to access the general education curriculum. Students who experience challenges writing or keyboarding, for example, can use voice recognition software instead. Assistive technologies assist people who are recovering from strokes and people who have sustained injuries that affect their daily tasks. A recent study from India led by Dr Edmond Fernandes et al. from Edward & Cynthia Institute of Public Health which was published in WHO SEARO Journal informed that geriatric care policies which address functional difficulties among older people will ought to be mainstreamed, resolve out-of-pocket spending for assistive technologies will need to look at government schemes for social protection. Adaptive technology Adaptive technology and assistive technology are different. Assistive technology is something that is used to help disabled people, while adaptive technology covers items that are specifically designed for disabled people and would seldom be used by a non-disabled person. In other words, assistive technology is any object or system that helps people with disabilities, while adaptive technology is specifically designed for disabled people. Consequently, adaptive technology is a subset of assistive technology. Adaptive technology often refers specifically to electronic and information technology access. Occupational therapy and assistive technology Occupational Therapy (OT) utilizes everyday occupations as a therapeutic tool for enhancing or enabling participation in healthy occupations to promote health and well-being (AOTA, 2020). Occupations include activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), health management, rest and sleep, education, work, play, leisure, and social participation (AOTA, 2020). OT practitioners (OTP) utilize assistive technologies (AT) to modify environments and promote access and fit to facilitate independence. For example, voice activated smart home technology allows an individual to control devices such as light switches, thermostat, oven, blinds, and music from their location. OTP evaluate client's strengths and abilities and connects with desired tasks. OTP help empower the client to match specific goals to AT tools. The theoretical approaches or frameworks OTPs frequently use to guide a client's AT choices may include: 1) The HAAT model by Cook, Polgar & Encarnaçāo (2015) 2) The interdependence - Human Activity Assistive Technology Model (I-HAAT) by Lee, et al. (2020); 3) The SETT Framework by Zabala (2005); or 4) The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT 2) by Venkatesh, Thong & Xu (2012). Also, OTPs may seek advanced training through the Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology Society of North America (RESNA) organization to receive their Assistive Technology Professional (ATP) Certification and/or Seating and Mobility Specialist (SMS) Certification. Additional trainings and certifications may specialize in a focus area such as the Certified Assistive Technology Instructional Specialist for Individuals with Visual Impairments (CATIS™) (ACVREP, 2024). Mobility impairments ]] Wheelchairs Wheelchairs are devices that can be manually propelled or electrically propelled, and that include a seating system and are designed to be a substitute for the normal mobility that most people have. Wheelchairs and other mobility devices allow people to perform mobility-related activities of daily living which include feeding, toileting, dressing, grooming, and bathing. The devices come in a number of variations where they can be propelled either by hand or by motors where the occupant uses electrical controls to manage motors and seating control actuators through a joystick, sip-and-puff control, head switches or other input devices. Often there are handles behind the seat for someone else to do the pushing or input devices for caregivers. Wheelchairs are used by people for whom walking is difficult or impossible due to illness, injury, or disability. People with both sitting and walking disability often need to use a wheelchair or walker. Newer advancements in wheelchair design enable wheelchairs to climb stairs, go off-road or propel using segway technology or additional add-ons like handbikes or power assists. ]] Transfer devices Patient transfer devices generally allow patients with impaired mobility to be moved by caregivers between beds, wheelchairs, commodes, toilets, chairs, stretchers, shower benches, automobiles, swimming pools, and other patient support systems (i.e., radiology, surgical, or examining tables). The most common devices are transfer benches, stretcher or convertible chairs (for lateral, supine transfer), sit-to-stand lifts (for moving patients from one seated position to another i.e., from wheelchairs to commodes), air bearing inflatable mattresses (for supine transfer i.e., transfer from a gurney to an operating room table), gait belts (or transfer belt) and a slider board (or transfer board), usually used for transfer from a bed to a wheelchair or from a bed to an operating table. Highly dependent patients who cannot assist their caregiver in moving them often require a patient lift (a floor or ceiling-suspended sling lift) which though invented in 1955 and in common use since the early 1960s is still considered the state-of-the-art transfer device by OSHA and the American Nursing Association. Walkers A walker or walking frame or Rollator is a tool for disabled people who need additional support to maintain balance or stability while walking. It consists of a frame that is about waist high, approximately twelve inches deep and slightly wider than the user. Walkers are also available in other sizes, such as for children, or for heavy people. Modern walkers are height-adjustable. The front two legs of the walker may or may not have wheels attached depending on the strength and abilities of the person using it. It is also common to see caster wheels or glides on the back legs of a walker with wheels on the front. Treadmills Bodyweight-supported treadmill training (BWSTT) is used to enhance walking ability of people with neurological injury. These machines are therapist-assisted devices that are used in the clinical setting, but is limited by the personnel and labor requirements placed on physical therapists. The BWSTT device, and many others like it, assist physical therapists by providing task-specific practice of walking in people following neurological injury. Prosthesis A prosthesis, prosthetic, or prosthetic limb is a device that replaces a missing body part. It is part of the field of biomechatronics, the science of using mechanical devices with human muscular, musculoskeletal, and nervous systems to assist or enhance motor control lost by trauma, disease, or defect. Prostheses are typically used to replace parts lost by injury (traumatic) or missing from birth (congenital) or to supplement defective body parts. Inside the body, artificial heart valves are in common use with artificial hearts and lungs seeing less common use but under active technology development. Other medical devices and aids that can be considered prosthetics include hearing aids, artificial eyes, palatal obturator, gastric bands, and dentures. Prostheses are specifically not orthoses, although given certain circumstances a prosthesis might end up performing some or all of the same functionary benefits as an orthosis. Prostheses are technically the complete finished item. For instance, a C-Leg knee alone is not a prosthesis, but only a prosthetic component. The complete prosthesis would consist of the attachment system to the residual limb – usually a "socket", and all the attachment hardware components all the way down to and including the terminal device. Despite the technical difference, the terms are often used interchangeably. The terms "prosthetic" and "orthotic" are adjectives used to describe devices such as a prosthetic knee. The terms "prosthetics" and "orthotics" are used to describe the respective allied health fields. An Occupational Therapist's role in prosthetics include therapy, training and evaluations. Prosthetic training includes orientation to prosthetics components and terminology, donning and doffing, wearing schedule, and how to care for residual limb and the prosthesis. This equipment is frequently specialized for specific settings such as in a classroom or nursing home. Positioning is often important in seating arrangements to ensure that user's body pressure is distributed equally without inhibiting movement in a desired way. Positioning devices have been developed to aid in allowing people to stand and bear weight on their legs without risk of a fall. These standers are generally grouped into two categories based on the position of the occupant. Prone standers distribute the body weight to the front of the individual and usually have a tray in front of them. This makes them good for users who are actively trying to carry out some task. Supine standers distribute the body weight to the back and are good for cases where the user has more limited mobility or is recovering from injury.For children Children with severe disabilities can develop learned helplessness, which makes them lose interest in their environment. Robotic arms are used to provide an alternative method to engage in joint play activities. These robotic arms allow children to manipulate real objects in the context of play activities. Children with disabilities have challenges in accessing play and social interactions. Play is essential for the physical, emotional, and social well-being of all children. The use of assistive technology has been recommended to facilitate the communication, mobility, and independence of children with disabilities. Augmentative Alternative Communication (AAC) devices have been shown to facilitate the growth and development of language as well as increase rates of symbolic play in children with cognitive disabilities. AAC devices can be no-tech (sign language and body language), low-tech (picture boards, paper and pencils), or high-tech (tablets and speech generating devices). Powered cars, such as the Go Baby Go program, have emerged as a cost-effective means of facilitating the inclusion of children with mobility impairments in school. Visual impairments Many people with serious visual impairments live independently, using a wide range of tools and techniques. Examples of assistive technology for visually impairment include screen readers, screen magnifiers, Braille embossers, desktop video magnifiers, and voice recorders. Screen readers Screen readers are used to help the visually impaired to easily access electronic information. These software programs run on a computer to convey the displayed information through voice (text-to-speech) or braille (refreshable braille displays) in combination with magnification for low vision users in some cases. There are a variety of platforms and applications available for a variety of costs with differing feature sets. Some example of screen readers are Apple VoiceOver, CheckMeister browser, Google TalkBack and Microsoft Narrator. Screen readers may rely on the assistance of text-to-speech tools. To use the text-to-speech tools, the documents must be in an electronic form, which is uploaded as the digital format. However, people usually will use the hard copy documents scanned into the computer, which cannot be recognized by the text-to-speech software. To solve this issue, people often use Optical Character Recognition technology accompanied with text-to-speech software. Braille and braille technology Braille is a system of raised dots formed into units called braille cells. A full braille cell is made up of six dots, with two parallel rows of three dots, but other combinations and quantities of dots represent other letters, numbers, punctuation marks, or words. People can then use their fingers to read the code of raised dots. Assistive technology using braille is called braille technology. Braille translator A braille translator is a computer program that can translate inkprint into braille or braille into inkprint. A braille translator can be an app on a computer or be built into a website, a smartphone, or a braille device. Braille embosser A braille embosser is, simply put, a printer for braille. Instead of a standard printer adding ink onto a page, the braille embosser imprints the raised dots of braille onto a page. Some braille embossers combine both braille and ink so the documents can be read with either sight or touch. Refreshable braille display A refreshable braille display or braille terminal is an electro-mechanical device for displaying braille characters, usually by means of round-tipped pins raised through holes in a flat surface. Computer users who cannot use a computer monitor use it to read a braille output version of the displayed text. Desktop video magnifier Desktop video magnifiers are electronic devices that use a camera and a display screen to perform digital magnification of printed materials. They enlarge printed pages for those with low vision. A camera connects to a monitor that displays real-time images, and the user can control settings such as magnification, focus, contrast, underlining, highlighting, and other screen preferences. They come in a variety of sizes and styles; some are small and portable with handheld cameras, while others are much larger and mounted on a fixed stand. Screen magnification software A screen magnifier is software that interfaces with a computer's graphical output to present enlarged screen content. It allows users to enlarge the texts and graphics on their computer screens for easier viewing. Similar to desktop video magnifiers, this technology assists people with low vision. After the user loads the software into their computer's memory, it serves as a kind of "computer magnifying glass". Wherever the computer cursor moves, it enlarges the area around it. This allows greater computer accessibility for a wide range of visual abilities. Large-print and tactile keyboards A large-print keyboard has large letters printed on the keys. On the keyboard shown, the round buttons at the top control software which can magnify the screen (zoom in), change the background color of the screen, or make the mouse cursor on the screen larger. The "bump dots" on the keys, installed in this case by the organization using the keyboards, help the user find the right keys in a tactile way. Navigation assistance Assistive technology for navigation has expanded on the IEEE Xplore database since 2000, with over 7,500 engineering articles written on assistive technologies and visual impairment in the past 25 years, and over 1,300 articles on solving the problem of navigation for people who are blind or visually impaired. As well, over 600 articles on augmented reality and visual impairment have appeared in the engineering literature since 2000. Most of these articles were published within the past five years, and the number of articles in this area is increasing every year. GPS, accelerometers, gyroscopes, and cameras can pinpoint the exact location of the user and provide information on what is in the immediate vicinity, and assistance in getting to a destination. Wearable technology Wearable technology are smart electronic devices that can be worn on the body as an implant or an accessory. New technologies are exploring how the visually impaired can receive visual information through wearable devices. Some wearable devices for visual impairment include: OrCam device, eSight and Brainport. Personal emergency response systems disability is making choices on a touchscreen with a head dauber.]] Personal emergency response systems (PERS), or Telecare (UK term), are a particular sort of assistive technology that use electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer. An example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for hypothermia risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild dementia). Notably, these alerts can be customized to the particular person's risks. When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a caregiver or contact center who can respond appropriately. Accessibility software In human–computer interaction, computer accessibility (also known as accessible computing) refers to the accessibility of a computer system to all people, regardless of disability or severity of impairment, examples include web accessibility guidelines. Another approach is for the user to present a token to the computer terminal, such as a smart card, that has configuration information to adjust the computer speed, text size, etc. to their particular needs. This is useful where users want to access public computer based terminals in Libraries, ATM, Information kiosks etc. The concept is encompassed by the CEN EN 1332-4 Identification Card Systems – Man-Machine Interface. This development of this standard has been supported in Europe by SNAPI and has been successfully incorporated into the Lasseo specifications, but with limited success due to the lack of interest from public computer terminal suppliers.Hearing impairments People in the deaf and hard of hearing community have a more difficult time receiving auditory information as compared to hearing individuals. These individuals often rely on visual and tactile mediums for receiving and communicating information. The use of assistive technology and devices provides this community with various solutions to auditory communication needs by providing higher sound (for those who are hard of hearing), tactile feedback, visual cues and improved technology access. Individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing use a variety of assistive technologies that provide them with different access to information in numerous environments. Most devices either provide amplified sound or alternate ways to access information through vision and/or vibration. These technologies can be grouped into three general categories: Hearing Technology, alerting devices, and communication support. Hearing aids A hearing aid or deaf aid is an electro-acoustic device which is designed to amplify sound for the wearer, usually with the aim of making speech more intelligible, and to correct impaired hearing as measured by audiometry. This type of assistive technology helps people with hearing loss participate more fully in their hearing communities by allowing them to hear more clearly. They amplify any and all sound waves through use of a microphone, amplifier, and speaker. There is a wide variety of hearing aids available, including digital, in-the-ear, in-the-canal, behind-the-ear, and on-the-body aids. Assistive listening devices Assistive listening devices include FM, infrared, and loop assistive listening devices. This type of technology allows people with hearing difficulties to focus on a speaker or subject by getting rid of extra background noises and distractions, making places like auditoriums, classrooms, and meetings much easier to participate in. The assistive listening device usually uses a microphone to capture an audio source near to its origin and broadcast it wirelessly over an FM (Frequency Modulation) transmission, IR (Infra Red) transmission, IL (Induction Loop) transmission, or other transmission methods. The person who is listening may use an FM/IR/IL Receiver to tune into the signal and listen at his/her preferred volume. Amplified telephone equipment This type of assistive technology allows users to amplify the volume and clarity of their phone calls so that they can easily partake in this medium of communication. There are also options to adjust the frequency and tone of a call to suit their individual hearing needs. Additionally, there is a wide variety of amplified telephones to choose from, with different degrees of amplification. For example, a phone with 26 to 40 decibel is generally sufficient for mild hearing loss, while a phone with 71 to 90 decibel is better for more severe hearing loss. Augmentative and alternative communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) is an umbrella term that encompasses methods of communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language. AAC systems are extremely diverse and depend on the capabilities of the user. They may be as basic as pictures on a board that are used to request food, drink, or other care; or they can be advanced speech generating devices, based on speech synthesis, that are capable of storing hundreds of phrases and words.Cognitive impairments Assistive Technology for Cognition (ATC) is the use of technology (usually high tech) to augment and assist cognitive processes such as attention, memory, self-regulation, navigation, emotion recognition and management, planning, and sequencing activity. Systematic reviews of the field have found that the number of ATC are growing rapidly, but have focused on memory and planning, that there is emerging evidence for efficacy, that a lot of scope exists to develop new ATC. Examples of ATC include: NeuroPage which prompts users about meetings, Wakamaru, which provides companionship and reminds users to take medicine and calls for help if something is wrong, and telephone Reassurance systems. Memory aids Memory aids are any type of assistive technology that helps a user learn and remember certain information. Many memory aids are used for cognitive impairments such as reading, writing, or organizational difficulties. For example, a Smartpen records handwritten notes by creating both a digital copy and an audio recording of the text. Users simply tap certain parts of their notes, the pen saves it, and reads it back to them. From there, the user can also download their notes onto a computer for increased accessibility. Digital voice recorders are also used to record "in the moment" information for fast and easy recall at a later time. A 2017 Cochrane Review highlighted the current lack of high-quality evidence to determine whether assistive technology effectively supports people with dementia to manage memory issues. Thus, it is not presently sure whether or not assistive technology is beneficial for memory problems. Educational software Educational software is software that assists people with reading, learning, comprehension, and organizational difficulties. Any accommodation software such as text readers, notetakers, text enlargers, organization tools, word predictions, and talking word processors falls under the category of educational software. Eating impairments Adaptive eating devices include items commonly used by the general population like spoons and forks and plates. However they become assistive technology when they are modified to accommodate the needs of people who have difficulty using standard cutlery due to a disabling condition. Common modifications include increasing the size of the utensil handle to make it easier to grasp. Plates and bowls may have a guard on the edge that stops food being pushed off of the dish when it is being scooped. More sophisticated equipment for eating includes manual and powered feeding devices. These devices support those who have little or no hand and arm function and enable them to eat independently. In sports competitor uses a racing wheelchair.]] Assistive technology in sports is an area of technology design that is growing. Assistive technology is the array of new devices created to enable sports enthusiasts who have disabilities to play. Assistive technology may be used in adaptive sports, where an existing sport is modified to enable players with a disability to participate; or, assistive technology may be used to invent completely new sports with athletes with disabilities exclusively in mind. An increasing number of people with disabilities are participating in sports, leading to the development of new assistive technology. Assistive technology devices can be simple, or "low-technology", or they may use highly advanced technology. "Low-tech" devices can include velcro gloves and adaptive bands and tubes. "High-tech" devices can include all-terrain wheelchairs and adaptive bicycles. Accordingly, assistive technology can be found in sports ranging from local community recreation to the elite Paralympic Games. More complex assistive technology devices have been developed over time, and as a result, sports for people with disabilities "have changed from being a clinical therapeutic tool to an increasingly competition-oriented activity". In education In the United States there are two major pieces of legislation that govern the use of assistive technology within the school system. The first is Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the second being the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) which was first enacted in 1975 under the name The Education for All Handicapped Children Act. In 2004, during the reauthorization period for IDEA, the National Instructional Material Access Center (NIMAC) was created which provided a repository of accessible text including publisher's textbooks to students with a qualifying disability. Files provided are in XML format and used as a starting platform for braille readers, screen readers, and other digital text software. IDEA defines assistive technology as follows: "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of a child with a disability. (B) Exception.--The term does not include a medical device that is surgically implanted, or the replacement of such device." Assistive technology listed is a student's IEP is not only recommended, it is required (Koch, 2017). These devices help students both with and without disabilities access the curriculum in a way they were previously unable to (Koch, 2017). An experiment performed in Massachusetts used 20 people with various sensors attached to their arms. Assistive technology devices have been created to enable disabled people to use modern touch screen mobile computers such as the iPad, iPhone and iPod Touch. The Pererro is a plug and play adapter for iOS devices which uses the built in Apple VoiceOver feature in combination with a basic switch. This brings touch screen technology to those who were previously unable to use it. Apple, with the release of iOS 7 had introduced the ability to navigate apps using switch control. Switch access could be activated either through an external bluetooth connected switch, single touch of the screen, or use of right and left head turns using the device's camera. Additional accessibility features include the use of Assistive Touch which allows a user to access multi-touch gestures through pre-programmed onscreen buttons. For users with physical disabilities a large variety of switches are available and customizable to the user's needs varying in size, shape, or amount of pressure required for activation. Switch access may be placed near any area of the body which has consistent and reliable mobility and less subject to fatigue. Common sites include the hands, head, and feet. Eye gaze and head mouse systems can also be used as an alternative mouse navigation. A user may use single or multiple switch sites and the process often involves a scanning through items on a screen and activating the switch once the desired object is highlighted. Home automation The form of home automation called assistive domotics focuses on making it possible for elderly and disabled people to live independently. Home automation is becoming a viable option for the elderly and disabled who would prefer to stay in their own homes rather than move to a healthcare facility. This field uses much of the same technology and equipment as home automation for security, entertainment, and energy conservation but tailors it towards elderly and disabled users. For example, automated prompts and reminders use motion sensors and pre-recorded audio messages; an automated prompt in the kitchen may remind the resident to turn off the oven, and one by the front door may remind the resident to lock the door. Assistive technology and innovation assistive technology.]] assistive technology.]] Innovation is happening in assistive technology either through improvements to existing devices or the creation of new products. In the WIPO published 2021 report on Technology Trends, assistive products are grouped into either conventional or emerging technologies. Conventional assisting technology tracks innovation within well-established assistive products, whereas emerging assistive technology refers to more advanced products. These identified advanced assistive products are distinguished from the conventional ones by the use of one or more enabling technologies (for instance, artificial intelligence, Internet of things, advanced sensors, new material, Additive Manufacturing, advanced robotics, augmented and virtual reality) or by the inclusion of implantable products/components. Such emerging assistive products are either more sophisticated or more functional versions of conventional assistive products, or completely novel assistive devices. For instance, in conventional self-care assistive technology, technologies involved typically include adaptive clothing, adaptive eating devices, incontinence products, assistive products for manicure, pedicure, hair and facial care, dental care, or assistive products for sexual activities. In comparison, emerging self-care assistive technologies include health and emotion monitoring, smart diapers, smart medication dispensing and management or feeding assistant robot. Although the distinction between conventional and emerging technologies is not always clear-cut, emerging assistive technology tends to be "smarter", using AI and being more connected and interactive, and including body-integrated solutions or components. To a great extent this « conventional » versus « emerging » classification is based on the WHO's Priority Assistive Products List and the ISO 9999 standard for assistive products for persons with disabilities, the APL delineating the absolute minimum that countries should be offering to their citizens and ISO 9999 defining those products which are already well established in the market. This "well-established status" is reflected in the patent filings between 2013 and 2017. Patent registrations for assistive technologies identified as conventional are nearly eight times larger than the ones for emerging assistive technologies. However, patent filings related to more recent emerging assistive technologies are growing almost three times as fast as those pertaining to conventional ones. Patent filings in both conventional and emerging assistive technology are highly concentrated on mobility, hearing and vision. Investment in emerging assistive technology also focuses on environment. In the conventional sector, mobility represent 54% of all patents fillings, and is an indication of increased interest in advanced mobility assistive product categories, such as advanced prosthetics, walking aids, wheelchairs, and exoskeletons. In the past, the top patent offices for filing, and therefore perceived target markets, in assistive technology have been the U.S. and Japan. Patenting activity has, however, been declining in these two jurisdictions. At the same time, there has been a surge in patent filings in China and an increase in filings in the Republic of Korea. This pattern is observed for both conventional and emerging assistive technology, with China's annual filings surpassing those of the U.S. in 2008 for conventional and 2014 for emerging assistive technology. Patent filings related to conventional assistive technology have also declined in Europe, especially in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Norway. Patenting activity indicates the amount of interest and the investment made in respect to an invention's applicability and its commercialization potential. There is typically a lag between filing a patent application and commercialization, with a product being classified in various stages of readiness levels, research concept, proof of concept, minimum viable product and finally commercial product. According to the 2021 WIPO report, It creates greater independence and control for disabled individuals. For example, in one study of 1,342 infants, toddlers and preschoolers, all with some kind of developmental, physical, sensory, or cognitive disability, the use of assistive technology created improvements in child development. These included improvements in "cognitive, social, communication, literacy, motor, adaptive, and increases in engagement in learning activities". Additionally, it has been found to lighten caregiver load. Both family and professional caregivers benefit from assistive technology. Through its use, the time that a family member or friend would need to care for a patient significantly decreases. However, studies show that care time for a professional caregiver increases when assistive technology is used. Nonetheless, their work load is significantly easier as the assistive technology frees them of having to perform certain tasks. There are several platforms that use machine learning to identify the appropriate assistive device to suggest to patients, making assistive devices more accessible. History In 1988 the National institute on disability and rehabilitation research, NIDRR, awarded Gaulladet University a grant for the project "Robotic finger spelling hand for communication and access to text by deaf-blind persons". Researchers at the university developed and tested a robotic hand. Although it was never commercialized the concept is relevant for current and future research. Since this grant, many others have been written. NIDRR funded research appears to be moving from the fabrication of robotic arms that can be used by disabled persons to perform daily activities, to developing robotics that assist with therapy in the hopes of achieving long-term performance gains. If there is success in development of robotics, these mass-marketed products could assist tomorrow's longer-living elderly individuals enough to postpone nursing home stays. "Jim Osborn, executive director of the Quality of Life Technology Center, told a 2007 gathering of long-term care providers that if such advances could delay all nursing home admissions by a month, societal savings could be $1 billion monthly".See also <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description WP:SEEALSO --> * Accessibility * Assisted living * Augmentative and alternative communication * Braille technology * Design for All (in ICT) * Disability Flag * Durable medical equipment * OATS: Open Source Assistive Technology Software * Occupational therapy * Powered exoskeleton * Rehabilitation robotics * Soft robotics * Transgenerational design * Universal access to education <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> References Bibliography * }} * * * * * * * * * * [https://www.readspeaker.com/blog/assistive-technology-in-education/ Assistive Technology in Education: A Teacher's Guide], Amy Foxwell, 15 February 2022. External links * [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/assistive-technology WHO fact sheet on assistive technology] Category:Educational technology Category:Web accessibility	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistive_technology	2025-04-05T18:25:18.832694
655	Abacus	Abacı\|the medieval book\|Liber Abaci\|other uses\|Abacus (disambiguation)}} -like abacus representing ]] An abacus ( abaci or abacuses), also called a counting frame, is a hand-operated calculating tool which was used from ancient times in the ancient Near East, Europe, China, and Russia, until the adoption of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. An abacus consists of a two-dimensional array of slidable beads (or similar objects). In their earliest designs, the beads could be loose on a flat surface or sliding in grooves. Later the beads were made to slide on rods and built into a frame, allowing faster manipulation. Each rod typically represents one digit of a multi-digit number laid out using a positional numeral system such as base ten (though some cultures used different numerical bases). Roman and East Asian abacuses use a system resembling bi-quinary coded decimal, with a top deck (containing one or two beads) representing fives and a bottom deck (containing four or five beads) representing ones. Natural numbers are normally used, but some allow simple fractional components (e.g. , , and in Roman abacus), and a decimal point can be imagined for fixed-point arithmetic. Any particular abacus design supports multiple methods to perform calculations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and square and cube roots. The beads are first arranged to represent a number, then are manipulated to perform a mathematical operation with another number, and their final position can be read as the result (or can be used as the starting number for subsequent operations). In the ancient world, abacuses were a practical calculating tool. It was widely used in Europe as late as the 17th century, but fell out of use with the rise of decimal notation and algorismic methods. Although calculators and computers are commonly used today instead of abacuses, abacuses remain in everyday use in some countries. The abacus has an advantage of not requiring a writing implement and paper (needed for algorism) or an electric power source. Merchants, traders, and clerks in some parts of Eastern Europe, Russia, China, and Africa use abacuses. The abacus remains in common use as a scoring system in non-electronic table games. Others may use an abacus due to visual impairment that prevents the use of a calculator. and China. Etymology The word abacus dates to at least 1387 AD when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin that described a sandboard abacus. The Latin word is derived from ancient Greek () which means something without a base, and colloquially, any piece of rectangular material. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has been suggested that it means "a square tablet strewn with dust", or "drawing-board covered with dust (for the use of mathematics)" (the exact shape of the Latin perhaps reflects the genitive form of the Greek word, ()). While the table strewn with dust definition is popular, some argue evidence is insufficient for that conclusion. ) (the number represented in the picture is 6,302,715,408)]] \|j=syun<sup>3</sup>-pun<sup>4</sup> \|y=syun-pùhn \|ci= \|poj=sǹg-pôaⁿ \|tl=sǹg-puânn }} The earliest known written documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC. The Chinese abacus, also known as the suanpan (算盤/算盘, lit. "calculating tray"), comes in various lengths and widths, depending on the operator. It usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom one, to represent numbers in a bi-quinary coded decimal-like system. The beads are usually rounded and made of hardwood. The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam; beads moved toward the beam are counted, while those moved away from it are not. One of the top beads is 5, while one of the bottom beads is 1. Each rod has a number under it, showing the place value. The suanpan can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick movement along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. The prototype of the Chinese abacus appeared during the Han dynasty, and the beads are oval. The Song dynasty and earlier used the 1:4 type or four-beads abacus similar to the modern abacus including the shape of the beads commonly known as Japanese-style abacus. In the early Ming dynasty, the abacus began to appear in a 1:5 ratio. The upper deck had one bead and the bottom had five beads. In the late Ming dynasty, the abacus styles appeared in a 2:5 ratio. Hindu texts used the term śūnya (zero) to indicate the empty column on the abacus. Japan ]] In Japan, the abacus is called soroban (, lit. "counting tray"). It was imported from China in the 14th century. It was probably in use by the working class a century or more before the ruling class adopted it, as the class structure obstructed such changes. The 1:4 abacus, which removes the seldom-used second and fifth bead, became popular in the 1940s. Today's Japanese abacus is a 1:4 type, four-bead abacus, introduced from China in the Muromachi era. It adopts the form of the upper deck one bead and the bottom four beads. The top bead on the upper deck was equal to five and the bottom one is similar to the Chinese or Korean abacus, and the decimal number can be expressed, so the abacus is designed as a 1:4 device. The beads are always in the shape of a diamond. The quotient division is generally used instead of the division method; at the same time, in order to make the multiplication and division digits consistently use the division multiplication. Later, Japan had a 3:5 abacus called 天三算盤, which is now in the Ize Rongji collection of Shansi Village in Yamagata City. Japan also used a 2:5 type abacus. The four-bead abacus spread, and became common around the world. Improvements to the Japanese abacus arose in various places. In China, an abacus with an aluminium frame and plastic beads has been used. The file is next to the four beads, and pressing the "clearing" button puts the upper bead in the upper position, and the lower bead in the lower position. The abacus is still manufactured in Japan, despite the proliferation, practicality, and affordability of pocket electronic calculators. The use of the soroban is still taught in Japanese primary schools as part of mathematics, primarily as an aid to faster mental calculation. Using visual imagery, one can complete a calculation as quickly as with a physical instrument. Korea The Chinese abacus migrated from China to Korea around 1400 AD. Koreans call it jupan (주판), supan (수판) or jusan (주산). The four-beads abacus (1:4) was introduced during the Goryeo Dynasty. The 5:1 abacus was introduced to Korea from China during the Ming Dynasty. Native America quipu]] as used by the Incas]] Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a nepohualtzintzin in ancient Aztec culture. This Mesoamerican abacus used a 5-digit base-20 system. The word Nepōhualtzintzin comes from Nahuatl, formed by the roots; Ne – personal -; pōhual or pōhualli – the account -; and tzintzin – small similar elements. Its complete meaning was taken as: counting with small similar elements. Its use was taught in the Calmecac to the temalpouhqueh , who were students dedicated to taking the accounts of skies, from childhood. The Nepōhualtzintzin was divided into two main parts separated by a bar or intermediate cord. In the left part were four beads. Beads in the first row have unitary values (1, 2, 3, and 4), and on the right side, three beads had values of 5, 10, and 15, respectively. In order to know the value of the respective beads of the upper rows, it is enough to multiply by 20 (by each row), the value of the corresponding count in the first row. The device featured 13 rows with 7 beads, 91 in total. This was a basic number for this culture. It had a close relation to natural phenomena, the underworld, and the cycles of the heavens. One Nepōhualtzintzin (91) represented the number of days that a season of the year lasts, two Nepōhualtzitzin (182) is the number of days of the corn's cycle, from its sowing to its harvest, three Nepōhualtzintzin (273) is the number of days of a baby's gestation, and four Nepōhualtzintzin (364) completed a cycle and approximated one year. When translated into modern computer arithmetic, the Nepōhualtzintzin amounted to the rank from 10 to 18 in floating point, which precisely calculated large and small amounts, although round off was not allowed. The rediscovery of the Nepōhualtzintzin was due to the Mexican engineer David Esparza Hidalgo, who in his travels throughout Mexico found diverse engravings and paintings of this instrument and reconstructed several of them in gold, jade, encrustations of shell, etc. Very old Nepōhualtzintzin are attributed to the Olmec culture, and some bracelets of Mayan origin, as well as a diversity of forms and materials in other cultures. Sanchez wrote in Arithmetic in Maya that another base 5, base 4 abacus had been found in the Yucatán Peninsula that also computed calendar data. This was a finger abacus, on one hand, 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used; and on the other hand 0, 1, 2, and 3 were used. Note the use of zero at the beginning and end of the two cycles. The quipu of the Incas was a system of colored knotted cords used to record numerical data, like advanced tally sticks – but not used to perform calculations. Calculations were carried out using a yupana (Quechua for "counting tool"; see figure) which was still in use after the conquest of Peru. The working principle of a yupana is unknown, but in 2001 Italian mathematician De Pasquale proposed an explanation. By comparing the form of several yupanas, researchers found that calculations were based using the Fibonacci sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5 and powers of 10, 20, and 40 as place values for the different fields in the instrument. Using the Fibonacci sequence would keep the number of grains within any one field at a minimum.RussiaThe Russian abacus, the schoty (, plural from , counting), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire with four beads for quarter-ruble fractions). 4-bead wire was introduced for quarter-kopeks, which were minted until 1916. The Russian abacus is used vertically, with each wire running horizontally. The wires are usually bowed upward in the center, to keep the beads pinned to either side. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually are of a different color from the other eight. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color. The Russian abacus was in use in shops and markets throughout the former Soviet Union, and its usage was taught in most schools until the 1990s. Even the 1874 invention of mechanical calculator, Odhner arithmometer, had not replaced them in Russia. According to Yakov Perelman, some businessmen attempting to import calculators into the Russian Empire were known to leave in despair after watching a skilled abacus operator. Likewise, the mass production of Felix arithmometers since 1924 did not significantly reduce abacus use in the Soviet Union. The Russian abacus began to lose popularity only after the mass production of domestic microcalculators in 1974. The Russian abacus was brought to France around 1820 by mathematician Jean-Victor Poncelet, who had served in Napoleon's army and had been a prisoner of war in Russia. To Poncelet's French contemporaries, it was something new. Poncelet used it, not for any applied purpose, but as a teaching and demonstration aid. The Turks and the Armenian people used abacuses similar to the Russian schoty. It was named a coulba by the Turks and a choreb by the Armenians.School abacus Around the world, abacuses have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching the numeral system and arithmetic. In Western countries, a bead frame similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires and a vertical frame is common (see image). Each bead represents one unit (e.g. 74 can be represented by shifting all beads on 7 wires and 4 beads on the 8th wire, so numbers up to 100 may be represented). In the bead frame shown, the gap between the 5th and 6th wire, corresponding to the color change between the 5th and the 6th bead on each wire, suggests the latter use. Teaching multiplication, e.g. 6 times 7, may be represented by shifting 7 beads on 6 wires. The red-and-white abacus is used in contemporary primary schools for a wide range of number-related lessons. The twenty bead version, referred to by its Dutch name rekenrek ("calculating frame"), is often used, either on a string of beads or on a rigid framework.Feynman vs the abacusPhysicist Richard Feynman was noted for facility in mathematical calculations. He wrote about an encounter in Brazil with a Japanese abacus expert, who challenged him to speed contests between Feynman's pen and paper, and the abacus. The abacus was much faster for addition, somewhat faster for multiplication, but a tie for division. When his opponent proposed a cube root, the most complex operation an abacus can handle, Feynman won easily, but this was because the number chosen by his opponent happened to be close to a number Feynman knew was an exact cube, allowing him to use successive approximations. Neurological analysis Learning how to calculate with the abacus may improve capacity for mental calculation. Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC), which was derived from the abacus, is the act of performing calculations, including addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, in the mind by manipulating an imagined abacus. It is a high-level cognitive skill that runs calculations with an effective algorithm. People doing long-term AMC training show higher numerical memory capacity and experience more effectively connected neural pathways. They are able to retrieve memory to deal with complex processes. AMC involves both visuospatial and visuomotor processing that generate the visual abacus and move the imaginary beads. Since it only requires that the final position of beads be remembered, it takes less memory and less computation time. The abacus shows how numbers, letters, and signs can be stored in a binary system on a computer, or via ASCII. The device consists of beads on parallel wires arranged in three rows; each bead represents a switch which can be either "on" or "off".Visually impaired usersAn adapted abacus, invented by Tim Cranmer, and called a Cranmer abacus is commonly used by visually impaired users. A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads, keeping them in place while the users manipulate them. The device is then used to perform the mathematical functions of multiplication, division, addition, subtraction, square root, and cube root. Although blind students have benefited from talking calculators, the abacus is often taught to these students in early grades. Blind students can also complete mathematical assignments using a braille-writer and Nemeth code (a type of braille code for mathematics) but large multiplication and long division problems are tedious. The abacus gives these students a tool to compute mathematical problems that equals the speed and mathematical knowledge required by their sighted peers using pencil and paper. Many blind people find this number machine a useful tool throughout life.<ref name"aph" />See also * Chinese Zhusuan * Chisanbop * Logical abacus * Napier's bones * Sand table * Slide rule Notes FootnotesReferences * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * External links * Tutorials <!-- in alphabetical order by author --> * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110728141638/http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia] * History* * Curiosities * * [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at cut-the-knot * [https://web.archive.org/web/20041009110126/http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci] * [http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus] * [http://tinas-sliderules.me.uk/Slide%20Rules/Abaci.html Examples of Abaci] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080907180002/http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/java/AbacusAppMA.html Aztex Abacus] * [https://www.indianabacus.com/ Indian Abacus] * [https://www.mathcruise.com/course/abacus/ Abacus Course] Category:Mathematical tools Category:Chinese mathematics Category:Egyptian mathematics Category:Greek mathematics Category:Indian mathematics Category:Japanese mathematics Category:Korean mathematics Category:Ancient Roman mathematics	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus	2025-04-05T18:25:18.885931
656	Acid	Acidity (novelette)\|the band\|Acidic (band)}} , a typical metal, reacting with hydrochloric acid, a typical acid]] An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. hydrogen ion, H<sup>+</sup>), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis acid. The first category of acids are the proton donors, or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In the special case of aqueous solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H<sub>3</sub>O<sup>+</sup> and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents. A Brønsted–Lowry or Arrhenius acid usually contains a hydrogen atom bonded to a chemical structure that is still energetically favorable after loss of H<sup>+</sup>. Aqueous Arrhenius acids have characteristic properties that provide a practical description of an acid. Acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals (like calcium) to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin , meaning 'sour'. An aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as "acid" (as in "dissolved in acid"), while the strict definition refers only to the solute. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted–Lowry acids. In modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as such. Acid–base conjugate pairs differ by one proton, and can be interconverted by the addition or removal of a proton (protonation and deprotonation, respectively). The acid can be the charged species and the conjugate base can be neutral in which case the generalized reaction scheme could be written as . In solution there exists an equilibrium between the acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant K is an expression of the equilibrium concentrations of the molecules or the ions in solution. Brackets indicate concentration, such that [H<sub>2</sub>O] means the concentration of H<sub>2</sub>O. The acid dissociation constant K<sub>a</sub> is generally used in the context of acid–base reactions. The numerical value of K<sub>a</sub> is equal to the product (multiplication) of the concentrations of the products divided by the concentration of the reactants, where the reactant is the acid (HA) and the products are the conjugate base and H<sup>+</sup>. :<math chem>K_a = \frac\ce{[H+] [A^{-}]}\ce{[HA]}</math> The stronger of two acids will have a higher K<sub>a</sub> than the weaker acid; the ratio of hydrogen ions to acid will be higher for the stronger acid as the stronger acid has a greater tendency to lose its proton. Because the range of possible values for K<sub>a</sub> spans many orders of magnitude, a more manageable constant, pK<sub>a</sub> is more frequently used, where pK<sub>a</sub> −log<sub>10</sub> K<sub>a</sub>. Stronger acids have a smaller pK<sub>a</sub> than weaker acids. Experimentally determined pK<sub>a</sub> at 25 °C in aqueous solution are often quoted in textbooks and reference material.Nomenclature Arrhenius acids are named according to their anions. In the classical naming system, the ionic suffix is dropped and replaced with a new suffix, according to the table following. The prefix "hydro-" is used when the acid is made up of just hydrogen and one other element. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the hydro- prefix is used, and the -ide suffix makes the name take the form hydrochloric acid. Classical naming system: {\| class="wikitable" !Anion prefix !Anion suffix !Acid prefix !Acid suffix !Example \|- \|per \| rowspan="2" \|ate \|per \| rowspan="2" \|ic acid \|perchloric acid (HClO<sub>4</sub>) \|- \| \| \|chloric acid (HClO<sub>3</sub>) \|- \| \|ite \| \|ous acid \|chlorous acid (HClO<sub>2</sub>) \|- \|hypo \|ite \|hypo \|ous acid \|hypochlorous acid (HClO) \|- \| \|ide \|hydro \|ic acid \|hydrochloric acid (HCl) \|} In the IUPAC naming system, "aqueous" is simply added to the name of the ionic compound. Thus, for hydrogen chloride, as an acid solution, the IUPAC name is aqueous hydrogen chloride. Acid strength The strength of an acid refers to its ability or tendency to lose a proton. A strong acid is one that completely dissociates in water; in other words, one mole of a strong acid HA dissolves in water yielding one mole of H<sup>+</sup> and one mole of the conjugate base, A<sup>−</sup>, and none of the protonated acid HA. In contrast, a weak acid only partially dissociates and at equilibrium both the acid and the conjugate base are in solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydroiodic acid (HI), hydrobromic acid (HBr), perchloric acid (HClO<sub>4</sub>), nitric acid (HNO<sub>3</sub>) and sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). In water each of these essentially ionizes 100%. The stronger an acid is, the more easily it loses a proton, H<sup>+</sup>. Two key factors that contribute to the ease of deprotonation are the polarity of the H—A bond and the size of atom A, which determines the strength of the H—A bond. Acid strengths are also often discussed in terms of the stability of the conjugate base. Stronger acids have a larger acid dissociation constant, K<sub>a</sub> and a lower pK<sub>a</sub> than weaker acids. Sulfonic acids, which are organic oxyacids, are a class of strong acids. A common example is toluenesulfonic acid (tosylic acid). Unlike sulfuric acid itself, sulfonic acids can be solids. In fact, polystyrene functionalized into polystyrene sulfonate is a solid strongly acidic plastic that is filterable. Superacids are acids stronger than 100% sulfuric acid. Examples of superacids are fluoroantimonic acid, magic acid and perchloric acid. The strongest known acid is helium hydride ion, with a proton affinity of 177.8kJ/mol. Superacids can permanently protonate water to give ionic, crystalline hydronium "salts". They can also quantitatively stabilize carbocations. While K<sub>a</sub> measures the strength of an acid compound, the strength of an aqueous acid solution is measured by pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydronium in the solution. The pH of a simple solution of an acid compound in water is determined by the dilution of the compound and the compound's K<sub>a</sub>. Lewis acid strength in non-aqueous solutions Lewis acids have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of acid strengths. The relative acceptor strength of Lewis acids toward a series of bases, versus other Lewis acids, can be illustrated by C-B plots. It has been shown that to define the order of Lewis acid strength at least two properties must be considered. For Pearson's qualitative HSAB theory the two properties are hardness and strength while for Drago's quantitative ECW model the two properties are electrostatic and covalent. Chemical characteristics Monoprotic acids Monoprotic acids, also known as monobasic acids, are those acids that are able to donate one proton per molecule during the process of dissociation (sometimes called ionization) as shown below (symbolized by HA): : K<sub>a</sub> Common examples of monoprotic acids in mineral acids include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO<sub>3</sub>). On the other hand, for organic acids the term mainly indicates the presence of one carboxylic acid group and sometimes these acids are known as monocarboxylic acid. Examples in organic acids include formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH<sub>3</sub>COOH) and benzoic acid (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>COOH). Polyprotic acids Polyprotic acids, also known as polybasic acids, are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as diprotic (or dibasic) acid (two potential protons to donate), and triprotic (or tribasic) acid (three potential protons to donate). Some macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids can have a very large number of acidic protons. A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H<sub>2</sub>A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH. Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K<sub>a1</sub> and K<sub>a2</sub>. : K<sub>a1</sub> : K<sub>a2</sub> The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second (i.e., K<sub>a1</sub> > K<sub>a2</sub>). For example, sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) can donate one proton to form the bisulfate anion (HSO), for which K<sub>a1</sub> is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the sulfate anion (SO), wherein the K<sub>a2</sub> is intermediate strength. The large K<sub>a1</sub> for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid. In a similar manner, the weak unstable carbonic acid can lose one proton to form bicarbonate anion )}} and lose a second to form carbonate anion (CO). Both K<sub>a</sub> values are small, but K<sub>a1</sub> > K<sub>a2</sub> . A triprotic acid (H<sub>3</sub>A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where K<sub>a1</sub> > K<sub>a2</sub> > K<sub>a3</sub>. : K<sub>a1</sub> : K<sub>a2</sub> : K<sub>a3</sub> An inorganic example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>), usually just called phosphoric acid. All three protons can be successively lost to yield H<sub>2</sub>PO, then HPO, and finally PO, the orthophosphate ion, usually just called phosphate. Even though the positions of the three protons on the original phosphoric acid molecule are equivalent, the successive K<sub>a</sub> values differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged. An organic example of a triprotic acid is citric acid, which can successively lose three protons to finally form the citrate ion. Although the subsequent loss of each hydrogen ion is less favorable, all of the conjugate bases are present in solution. The fractional concentration, α (alpha), for each species can be calculated. For example, a generic diprotic acid will generate 3 species in solution: H<sub>2</sub>A, HA<sup>−</sup>, and A<sup>2−</sup>. The fractional concentrations can be calculated as below when given either the pH (which can be converted to the [H<sup>+</sup>]) or the concentrations of the acid with all its conjugate bases: :<math chem>\begin{align} \alpha_\ce{H2A} &\frac{\ce{[H+]^2}}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} \frac{\ce{[H2A]}}{\ce + [HA^-] + [A^{2-}]}\\ \alpha_\ce{HA^-} &\frac{[\ce{H+}]K_1}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} \frac{\ce{[HA^-]}}{\ce{[H2A]}+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}}\\ \alpha_\ce{A^{2-}}&\frac{K_1 K_2}{\ce{[H+]^2} + [\ce{H+}]K_1 + K_1 K_2} \frac{\ce{[A^{2-}]}}{\ce+{[HA^-]}+{[A^{2-}]}} \end{align}</math> A plot of these fractional concentrations against pH, for given K<sub>1</sub> and K<sub>2</sub>, is known as a Bjerrum plot. A pattern is observed in the above equations and can be expanded to the general n -protic acid that has been deprotonated i -times: :<math chem> \alpha_{\ce H_{n-i} A^{i-} }{ {[\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j0}^{i}K_j} \over { \displaystyle \sum_{i0}^n \Big[ [\ce{H+}]^{n-i} \displaystyle \prod_{j0}^{i}K_j} \Big] } </math> where K<sub>0</sub> 1 and the other K-terms are the dissociation constants for the acid.Neutralization (in beaker) reacting with ammonia fumes to produce ammonium chloride (white smoke)]] Neutralization is the reaction between an acid and a base, producing a salt and neutralized base; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water: :HCl<sub>(aq)</sub> + NaOH<sub>(aq)</sub> → H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> + NaCl<sub>(aq)</sub> Neutralization is the basis of titration, where a pH indicator shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid. It is often wrongly assumed that neutralization should result in a solution with pH 7.0, which is only the case with similar acid and base strengths during a reaction. Neutralization with a base weaker than the acid results in a weakly acidic salt. An example is the weakly acidic ammonium chloride, which is produced from the strong acid hydrogen chloride and the weak base ammonia. Conversely, neutralizing a weak acid with a strong base gives a weakly basic salt (e.g., sodium fluoride from hydrogen fluoride and sodium hydroxide). Weak acid–weak base equilibrium In order for a protonated acid to lose a proton, the pH of the system must rise above the pK<sub>a</sub> of the acid. The decreased concentration of H<sup>+</sup> in that basic solution shifts the equilibrium towards the conjugate base form (the deprotonated form of the acid). In lower-pH (more acidic) solutions, there is a high enough H<sup>+</sup> concentration in the solution to cause the acid to remain in its protonated form. Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form buffer solutions. Titration To determine the concentration of an acid in an aqueous solution, an acid–base titration is commonly performed. A strong base solution with a known concentration, usually NaOH or KOH, is added to neutralize the acid solution according to the color change of the indicator with the amount of base added. The titration curve of an acid titrated by a base has two axes, with the base volume on the x-axis and the solution's pH value on the y-axis. The pH of the solution always goes up as the base is added to the solution. Example: Diprotic acid , a diprotic amino acid. Point 2 is the first equivalent point where the amount of NaOH added equals the amount of alanine in the original solution.]] For each diprotic acid titration curve, from left to right, there are two midpoints, two equivalence points, and two buffer regions. Equivalence points Due to the successive dissociation processes, there are two equivalence points in the titration curve of a diprotic acid. The first equivalence point occurs when all first hydrogen ions from the first ionization are titrated. In other words, the amount of OH<sup>−</sup> added equals the original amount of H<sub>2</sub>A at the first equivalence point. The second equivalence point occurs when all hydrogen ions are titrated. Therefore, the amount of OH<sup>−</sup> added equals twice the amount of H<sub>2</sub>A at this time. For a weak diprotic acid titrated by a strong base, the second equivalence point must occur at pH above 7 due to the hydrolysis of the resulted salts in the solution. Each segment of the curve that contains a midpoint at its center is called the buffer region. Because the buffer regions consist of the acid and its conjugate base, it can resist pH changes when base is added until the next equivalent points. Applications of acids In industry Acids are fundamental reagents in treating almost all processes in modern industry. Sulfuric acid, a diprotic acid, is the most widely used acid in industry, and is also the most-produced industrial chemical in the world. It is mainly used in producing fertilizer, detergent, batteries and dyes, as well as used in processing many products such like removing impurities. According to the statistics data in 2011, the annual production of sulfuric acid was around 200 million tonnes in the world. For example, phosphate minerals react with sulfuric acid to produce phosphoric acid for the production of phosphate fertilizers, and zinc is produced by dissolving zinc oxide into sulfuric acid, purifying the solution and electrowinning. In the chemical industry, acids react in neutralization reactions to produce salts. For example, nitric acid reacts with ammonia to produce ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer. Additionally, carboxylic acids can be esterified with alcohols, to produce esters. Acids are often used to remove rust and other corrosion from metals in a process known as pickling. They may be used as an electrolyte in a wet cell battery, such as sulfuric acid in a car battery. In food Tartaric acid is an important component of some commonly used foods like unripened mangoes and tamarind. Natural fruits and vegetables also contain acids. Citric acid is present in oranges, lemon and other citrus fruits. Oxalic acid is present in tomatoes, spinach, and especially in carambola and rhubarb; rhubarb leaves and unripe carambolas are toxic because of high concentrations of oxalic acid. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is an essential vitamin for the human body and is present in such foods as amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, citrus fruits, and guava. Many acids can be found in various kinds of food as additives, as they alter their taste and serve as preservatives. Phosphoric acid, for example, is a component of cola drinks. Acetic acid is used in day-to-day life as vinegar. Citric acid is used as a preservative in sauces and pickles. Carbonic acid is one of the most common acid additives that are widely added in soft drinks. During the manufacturing process, CO<sub>2</sub> is usually pressurized to dissolve in these drinks to generate carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is very unstable and tends to decompose into water and CO<sub>2</sub> at room temperature and pressure. Therefore, when bottles or cans of these kinds of soft drinks are opened, the soft drinks fizz and effervesce as CO<sub>2</sub> bubbles come out. Certain acids are used as drugs. Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) is used as a pain killer and for bringing down fevers. In human bodies Acids play important roles in the human body. The hydrochloric acid present in the stomach aids digestion by breaking down large and complex food molecules. Amino acids are required for synthesis of proteins required for growth and repair of body tissues. Fatty acids are also required for growth and repair of body tissues. Nucleic acids are important for the manufacturing of DNA and RNA and transmitting of traits to offspring through genes. Carbonic acid is important for maintenance of pH equilibrium in the body. Human bodies contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds, among those dicarboxylic acids play an essential role in many biological behaviors. Many of those acids are amino acids, which mainly serve as materials for the synthesis of proteins. Other weak acids serve as buffers with their conjugate bases to keep the body's pH from undergoing large scale changes that would be harmful to cells. The rest of the dicarboxylic acids also participate in the synthesis of various biologically important compounds in human bodies.Acid catalysis Acids are used as catalysts in industrial and organic chemistry; for example, sulfuric acid is used in very large quantities in the alkylation process to produce gasoline. Some acids, such as sulfuric, phosphoric, and hydrochloric acids, also effect dehydration and condensation reactions. In biochemistry, many enzymes employ acid catalysis.Biological occurrence ]]Many biologically important molecules are acids. Nucleic acids, which contain acidic phosphate groups, include DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids contain the genetic code that determines many of an organism's characteristics, and is passed from parents to offspring. DNA contains the chemical blueprint for the synthesis of proteins, which are made up of amino acid subunits. Cell membranes contain fatty acid esters such as phospholipids. An α-amino acid has a central carbon (the α or alpha carbon) that is covalently bonded to a carboxyl group (thus they are carboxylic acids), an amino group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group. The variable group, also called the R group or side chain, determines the identity and many of the properties of a specific amino acid. In glycine, the simplest amino acid, the R group is a hydrogen atom, but in all other amino acids it is contains one or more carbon atoms bonded to hydrogens, and may contain other elements such as sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen. With the exception of glycine, naturally occurring amino acids are chiral and almost invariably occur in the <small>L</small>-configuration. Peptidoglycan, found in some bacterial cell walls contains some <small>D</small>-amino acids. At physiological pH, typically around 7, free amino acids exist in a charged form, where the acidic carboxyl group (-COOH) loses a proton (-COO<sup>−</sup>) and the basic amine group (-NH<sub>2</sub>) gains a proton (-NH). The entire molecule has a net neutral charge and is a zwitterion, with the exception of amino acids with basic or acidic side chains. Aspartic acid, for example, possesses one protonated amine and two deprotonated carboxyl groups, for a net charge of −1 at physiological pH. Fatty acids and fatty acid derivatives are another group of carboxylic acids that play a significant role in biology. These contain long hydrocarbon chains and a carboxylic acid group on one end. The cell membrane of nearly all organisms is primarily made up of a phospholipid bilayer, a micelle of hydrophobic fatty acid esters with polar, hydrophilic phosphate "head" groups. Membranes contain additional components, some of which can participate in acid–base reactions. In humans and many other animals, hydrochloric acid is a part of the gastric acid secreted within the stomach to help hydrolyze proteins and polysaccharides, as well as converting the inactive pro-enzyme, pepsinogen into the enzyme, pepsin. Some organisms produce acids for defense; for example, ants produce formic acid. Acid–base equilibrium plays a critical role in regulating mammalian breathing. Oxygen gas (O<sub>2</sub>) drives cellular respiration, the process by which animals release the chemical potential energy stored in food, producing carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) as a byproduct. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged in the lungs, and the body responds to changing energy demands by adjusting the rate of ventilation. For example, during periods of exertion the body rapidly breaks down stored carbohydrates and fat, releasing CO<sub>2</sub> into the blood stream. In aqueous solutions such as blood CO<sub>2</sub> exists in equilibrium with carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion. : It is the decrease in pH that signals the brain to breathe faster and deeper, expelling the excess CO<sub>2</sub> and resupplying the cells with O<sub>2</sub>. (acetylsalicylic acid) is a carboxylic acid.]] Cell membranes are generally impermeable to charged or large, polar molecules because of the lipophilic fatty acyl chains comprising their interior. Many biologically important molecules, including a number of pharmaceutical agents, are organic weak acids that can cross the membrane in their protonated, uncharged form but not in their charged form (i.e., as the conjugate base). For this reason the activity of many drugs can be enhanced or inhibited by the use of antacids or acidic foods. The charged form, however, is often more soluble in blood and cytosol, both aqueous environments. When the extracellular environment is more acidic than the neutral pH within the cell, certain acids will exist in their neutral form and will be membrane soluble, allowing them to cross the phospholipid bilayer. Acids that lose a proton at the intracellular pH will exist in their soluble, charged form and are thus able to diffuse through the cytosol to their target. Ibuprofen, aspirin and penicillin are examples of drugs that are weak acids. Common acids Mineral acids (inorganic acids) * Hydrogen halides and their solutions: hydrofluoric acid (HF), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr), hydroiodic acid (HI) * Halogen oxoacids: hypochlorous acid (HClO), chlorous acid (HClO<sub>2</sub>), chloric acid (HClO<sub>3</sub>), perchloric acid (HClO<sub>4</sub>), and corresponding analogs for bromine and iodine ** Hypofluorous acid (HFO), the only known oxoacid for fluorine. * Sulfuric acid (H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>) * Fluorosulfuric acid (HSO<sub>3</sub>F) * Nitric acid (HNO<sub>3</sub>) * Phosphoric acid (H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4</sub>) * Fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF<sub>6</sub>) * Fluoroboric acid (HBF<sub>4</sub>) * Hexafluorophosphoric acid (HPF<sub>6</sub>) * Chromic acid (H<sub>2</sub>CrO<sub>4</sub>) * Boric acid (H<sub>3</sub>BO<sub>3</sub>) Sulfonic acids A sulfonic acid has the general formula RS(=O)<sub>2</sub>–OH, where R is an organic radical. * Methanesulfonic acid (or mesylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * Ethanesulfonic acid (or esylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * Benzenesulfonic acid (or besylic acid, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * p-Toluenesulfonic acid (or tosylic acid, CH<sub>3</sub>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * Trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (or triflic acid, CF<sub>3</sub>SO<sub>3</sub>H) * Polystyrene sulfonic acid (sulfonated polystyrene, [CH<sub>2</sub>CH(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>)SO<sub>3</sub>H]<sub>n</sub>) Carboxylic acids A carboxylic acid has the general formula R-C(O)OH, where R is an organic radical. The carboxyl group -C(O)OH contains a carbonyl group, C=O, and a hydroxyl group, O-H. * Acetic acid (CH<sub>3</sub>COOH) * Citric acid (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>8</sub>O<sub>7</sub>) * Formic acid (HCOOH) * Gluconic acid HOCH<sub>2</sub>-(CHOH)<sub>4</sub>-COOH * Lactic acid (CH<sub>3</sub>-CHOH-COOH) * Oxalic acid (HOOC-COOH) * Tartaric acid (HOOC-CHOH-CHOH-COOH) Halogenated carboxylic acids Halogenation at alpha position increases acid strength, so that the following acids are all stronger than acetic acid. * Fluoroacetic acid * Trifluoroacetic acid * Chloroacetic acid * Dichloroacetic acid * Trichloroacetic acid Vinylogous carboxylic acids Normal carboxylic acids are the direct union of a carbonyl group and a hydroxyl group. In vinylogous carboxylic acids, a carbon-carbon double bond separates the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups. * Ascorbic acid Nucleic acids * Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) * Ribonucleic acid (RNA) References * [https://web.archive.org/web/20011218075412/http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases] * * External links * [http://www2.iq.usp.br/docente/gutz/Curtipot_.html Curtipot]: Acid–Base equilibria diagrams, pH calculation and titration curves simulation and analysis – freeware Category:Acid–base chemistry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid	2025-04-05T18:25:18.911372
657	Bitumen	]] , demonstrating the viscosity of bitumen]] Bitumen ( , ) is an immensely viscous constituent of petroleum. Depending on its exact composition it can be a sticky, black liquid or an apparently solid mass that behaves as a liquid over very large time scales. In American English, the material is commonly referred to as asphalt. Whether found in natural deposits or refined from petroleum, the substance is classed as a pitch. Prior to the 20th century, the term asphaltum was in general use. The word derives from the Ancient Greek word (), which referred to natural bitumen or pitch. The largest natural deposit of bitumen in the world is the Pitch Lake of southwest Trinidad, which is estimated to contain 10 million tons. About 70% of annual bitumen production is destined for road construction, its primary use. In this application, bitumen is used to bind aggregate particles like gravel and forms a substance referred to as asphalt concrete, which is colloquially termed asphalt. Its other main uses lie in bituminous waterproofing products, such as roofing felt and roof sealant. In material sciences and engineering, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably and refer both to natural and manufactured forms of the substance, although there is regional variation as to which term is most common. Worldwide, geologists tend to favor the term bitumen for the naturally occurring material. For the manufactured material, which is a refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils, bitumen is the prevalent term in much of the world; however, in American English, asphalt is more commonly used. To help avoid confusion, the terms "liquid asphalt", "asphalt binder", or "asphalt cement" are used in the U.S. to distinguish it from asphalt concrete. Colloquially, various forms of bitumen are sometimes referred to as "tar", as in the name of the La Brea Tar Pits. Naturally occurring bitumen is sometimes specified by the term crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil boiling at is sometimes referred to as "refined bitumen". The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves of natural bitumen in the Athabasca oil sands, which cover , an area larger than England. Terminology Etymology The Latin word traces to the Proto-Indo-European root gʷet- "pitch". The expression "bitumen" originated in the Sanskrit, where we find the words "jatu", meaning "pitch", and "jatu-krit", meaning "pitch creating", "pitch producing" (referring to coniferous or resinous trees). The Latin equivalent is claimed by some to be originally "gwitu-men" (pertaining to pitch), and by others, "pixtumens" (exuding or bubbling pitch), which was subsequently shortened to "bitumen", thence passing via French into English. From the same root is derived the Anglo Saxon word "cwidu" (Mastix), the German word "Kitt" (cement or mastic) and the old Norse word "kvada". The word "asphalt" is derived from the late Middle English, in turn from French asphalte, based on Late Latin asphalton, asphaltum, which is the latinisation of the Greek (ásphaltos, ásphalton), a word meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch", which perhaps derives from , "not, without", i.e. the alpha privative, and (sphallein), "to cause to fall, baffle, (in passive) err, (in passive) be balked of". The first use of asphalt by the ancients was as a cement to secure or join various objects, and it thus seems likely that the name itself was expressive of this application. Specifically, Herodotus mentioned that bitumen was brought to Babylon to build its gigantic fortification wall. From the Greek, the word passed into late Latin, and thence into French (asphalte) and English ("asphaltum" and "asphalt"). In French, the term asphalte is used for naturally occurring asphalt-soaked limestone deposits, and for specialised manufactured products with fewer voids or greater bitumen content than the "asphaltic concrete" used to pave roads. Modern terminology Bitumen mixed with clay was usually called "asphaltum", but the term is less commonly used today. In American English, "asphalt" is equivalent to the British "bitumen". However, "asphalt" is also commonly used as a shortened form of "asphalt concrete" (therefore equivalent to the British "asphalt" or "tarmac"). In Canadian English, the word "bitumen" is used to refer to the vast Canadian deposits of extremely heavy crude oil, while "asphalt" is used for the oil refinery product. Diluted bitumen (diluted with naphtha to make it flow in pipelines) is known as "dilbit" in the Canadian petroleum industry, while bitumen "upgraded" to synthetic crude oil is known as "syncrude", and syncrude blended with bitumen is called "synbit". "Bitumen" is still the preferred geological term for naturally occurring deposits of the solid or semi-solid form of petroleum. "Bituminous rock" is a form of sandstone impregnated with bitumen. The oil sands of Alberta, Canada are a similar material. Neither of the terms "asphalt" or "bitumen" should be confused with tar or coal tars. Tar is the thick liquid product of the dry distillation and pyrolysis of organic hydrocarbons primarily sourced from vegetation masses, whether fossilized as with coal, or freshly harvested. The majority of bitumen, on the other hand, was formed naturally when vast quantities of organic animal materials were deposited by water and buried hundreds of metres deep at the diagenetic point, where the disorganized fatty hydrocarbon molecules joined in long chains in the absence of oxygen. Bitumen occurs as a solid or highly viscous liquid. It may even be mixed in with coal deposits. Bitumen, and coal using the Bergius process, can be refined into petrols such as gasoline, and bitumen may be distilled into tar, not the other way around. Composition Normal composition The components of bitumen include four main classes of compounds: Naphthene aromatics (naphthalene), consisting of partially hydrogenated polycyclic aromatic compounds * Polar aromatics, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and carboxylic acids produced by partial oxidation of the material * Saturated hydrocarbons; the percentage of saturated compounds in asphalt correlates with its softening point * Asphaltenes, consisting of high molecular weight phenols and heterocyclic compounds Bitumen typically contains, elementally 80% by weight of carbon; 10% hydrogen; up to 6% sulfur; and molecularly, between 5 and 25% by weight of asphaltenes dispersed in 90% to 65% maltenes. Most natural bitumens also contain organosulfur compounds, nickel and vanadium are found at <10 parts per million, as is typical of some petroleum. "It is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of bitumen, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large". Asphalt may be confused with coal tar, which is a visually similar black, thermoplastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early and mid-20th century, when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of coal tar to macadam roads led to the word "tarmac", which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, bitumen has completely overtaken the use of coal tar in these applications. Other examples of this confusion include La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian tar sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. "Pitch" is another term sometimes informally used at times to refer to asphalt, as in Pitch Lake. Additives, mixtures and contaminants For economic and other reasons, bitumen is sometimes sold combined with other materials, often without being labeled as anything other than simply "bitumen". Of particular note is the use of re-refined engine oil bottoms – "REOB" or "REOBs"the residue of recycled automotive engine oil collected from the bottoms of re-refining vacuum distillation towers, in the manufacture of asphalt. REOB contains various elements and compounds found in recycled engine oil: additives to the original oil and materials accumulating from its circulation in the engine (typically iron and copper). Some research has indicated a correlation between this adulteration of bitumen and poorer-performing pavement. Nonetheless, large amounts of bitumen occur in concentrated form in nature. Naturally occurring deposits of bitumen are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic algae (diatoms) and other once-living things. These natural deposits of bitumen have been formed during the Carboniferous period, when giant swamp forests dominated many parts of the Earth. They were deposited in the mud on the bottom of the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat (above 50°C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the remains were transformed into materials such as bitumen, kerogen, or petroleum. Natural deposits of bitumen include lakes such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Lake Bermudez in Venezuela. Natural seeps occur in the La Brea Tar Pits and the McKittrick Tar Pits in California, as well as in the Dead Sea. Bitumen also occurs in unconsolidated sandstones known as "oil sands" in Alberta, Canada, and the similar "tar sands" in Utah, US. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the world's reserves, in three huge deposits covering , an area larger than England or New York state. These bituminous sands contain of commercially established oil reserves, giving Canada the third largest oil reserves in the world. Although historically it was used without refining to pave roads, nearly all of the output is now used as raw material for oil refineries in Canada and the United States. Isotopic studies show the oil deposits to be about 110 million years old. Two smaller but still very large formations occur in the Peace River oil sands and the Cold Lake oil sands, to the west and southeast of the Athabasca oil sands, respectively. Of the Alberta deposits, only parts of the Athabasca oil sands are shallow enough to be suitable for surface mining. The other 80% has to be produced by oil wells using enhanced oil recovery techniques like steam-assisted gravity drainage. Much smaller heavy oil or bitumen deposits also occur in the Uinta Basin in Utah, US. The Tar Sand Triangle deposit, for example, is roughly 6% bitumen. Bitumen is similar to the organic matter in carbonaceous meteorites. However, detailed studies have shown these materials to be distinct. The vast Alberta bitumen resources are considered to have started out as living material from marine plants and animals, mainly algae, that died millions of years ago when an ancient ocean covered Alberta. They were covered by mud, buried deeply over time, and gently cooked into oil by geothermal heat at a temperature of . Due to pressure from the rising of the Rocky Mountains in southwestern Alberta, 80 to 55 million years ago, the oil was driven northeast hundreds of kilometres and trapped into underground sand deposits left behind by ancient river beds and ocean beaches, thus forming the oil sands. Microscopic analyses found bituminous residue on two-thirds of the stone artefacts, suggesting that bitumen was an important and frequently-used component of tool making for people in that region at that time. Geochemical analyses of the asphaltic residues places its source to localized natural bitumen outcroppings in the Bichri Massif, about 40 km northeast of the Umm el Tlel archeological site. A re-examination of artifacts uncovered in 1908 at Le Moustier rock shelters in France has identified Mousterian stone tools that were attached to grips made of ochre and bitumen. The grips were formulated with 55% ground goethite ochre and 45% cooked liquid bitumen to create a moldable putty that hardened into handles. Earlier, less-careful excavations at Le Moustier prevent conclusive identification of the archaeological culture and age, but the European Mousterian style of these tools suggests they are associated with Neanderthals during the late Middle Paleolithic into the early Upper Paleolithic between 60,000 and 35,000 years before present. It is the earliest evidence of multicomponent adhesive in Europe. Ancient times The use of natural bitumen for waterproofing and as an adhesive dates at least to the fifth millennium BC, with a crop storage basket discovered in Mehrgarh, of the Indus Valley civilization, lined with it. By the 3rd millennium BC refined rock asphalt was in use in the region, and was used to waterproof the Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro. In the ancient Near East, the Sumerians used natural bitumen deposits for mortar between bricks and stones, to cement parts of carvings, such as eyes, into place, for ship caulking, and for waterproofing. The long Euphrates Tunnel beneath the river Euphrates at Babylon in the time of Queen Semiramis () was reportedly constructed of burnt bricks covered with bitumen as a waterproofing agent. The Persian word for asphalt is moom, which is related to the English word mummy. The Egyptians' primary source of bitumen was the Dead Sea, which the Romans knew as Palus Asphaltites (Asphalt Lake). In approximately 40 AD, Dioscorides described the Dead Sea material as Judaicum bitumen, and noted other places in the region where it could be found. The Sidon bitumen is thought to refer to material found at Hasbeya in Lebanon. Pliny also refers to bitumen being found in Epirus. Bitumen was a valuable strategic resource. It was the object of the first known battle for a hydrocarbon deposit – between the Seleucids and the Nabateans in 312 BC. In the ancient Far East, natural bitumen was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a thermoplastic material of higher molecular weight that, when layered on objects, became hard upon cooling. This was used to cover objects that needed waterproofing, In Canada, aboriginal people used bitumen seeping out of the banks of the Athabasca and other rivers to waterproof birch bark canoes, and also heated it in smudge pots to ward off mosquitoes in the summer. Continental Europe In 1553, Pierre Belon described in his work Observations that pissasphalto, a mixture of pitch and bitumen, was used in the Republic of Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia) for tarring of ships. An 1838 edition of Mechanics Magazine cites an early use of asphalt in France. A pamphlet dated 1621, by "a certain Monsieur d'Eyrinys, states that he had discovered the existence (of asphaltum) in large quantities in the vicinity of Neufchatel", and that he proposed to use it in a variety of ways – "principally in the construction of air-proof granaries, and in protecting, by means of the arches, the water-courses in the city of Paris from the intrusion of dirt and filth", which at that time made the water unusable. "He expatiates also on the excellence of this material for forming level and durable terraces" in palaces, "the notion of forming such terraces in the streets not one likely to cross the brain of a Parisian of that generation". But the substance was generally neglected in France until the revolution of 1830. In the 1830s there was a surge of interest, and asphalt became widely used "for pavements, flat roofs, and the lining of cisterns, and in England, some use of it had been made of it for similar purposes". Its rise in Europe was "a sudden phenomenon", after natural deposits were found "in France at Osbann (Bas-Rhin), the Parc (Ain) and the Puy-de-la-Poix (Puy-de-Dôme)", although it could also be made artificially. One of the earliest uses in France was the laying of about 24,000 square yards of Seyssel asphalt at the Place de la Concorde in 1835. United Kingdom Among the earlier uses of bitumen in the United Kingdom was for etching. William Salmon's Polygraphice (1673) provides a recipe for varnish used in etching, consisting of three ounces of virgin wax, two ounces of mastic, and one ounce of asphaltum. By the fifth edition in 1685, he had included more asphaltum recipes from other sources. The first British patent for the use of asphalt was "Cassell's patent asphalte or bitumen" in 1834. having seen it employed in France and Belgium when visiting with Frederick Walter Simms, who worked with him on the introduction of asphalt to Britain. Dr T. Lamb Phipson writes that his father, Samuel Ryland Phipson, a friend of Claridge, was also "instrumental in introducing the asphalte pavement (in 1836)". Claridge obtained a patent in Scotland on 27 March 1838, and obtained a patent in Ireland on 23 April 1838. In 1851, extensions for the 1837 patent and for both 1838 patents were sought by the trustees of a company previously formed by Claridge. ''Claridge's Patent Asphalte Company''formed in 1838 for the purpose of introducing to Britain "Asphalte in its natural state from the mine at Pyrimont Seysell in France","laid one of the first asphalt pavements in Whitehall". Trials were made of the pavement in 1838 on the footway in Whitehall, the stable at Knightsbridge Barracks, "and subsequently on the space at the bottom of the steps leading from Waterloo Place to St. James Park". with asphalt being laid as paving at Brighton, Herne Bay, Canterbury, Kensington, the Strand, and a large floor area in Bunhill-row, while meantime Claridge's Whitehall paving "continue(d) in good order". The Bonnington Chemical Works manufactured asphalt using coal tar and by 1839 had installed it in Bonnington. In 1838, there was a flurry of entrepreneurial activity involving bitumen, which had uses beyond paving. For example, bitumen could also be used for flooring, damp proofing in buildings, and for waterproofing of various types of pools and baths, both of which were also proliferating in the 19th century. One of the earliest surviving examples of its use can be seen at Highgate Cemetery where it was used in 1839 to seal the roof of the terrace catacombs. On the London stockmarket, there were various claims as to the exclusivity of bitumen quality from France, Germany and England. And numerous patents were granted in France, with similar numbers of patent applications being denied in England due to their similarity to each other. In England, "Claridge's was the type most used in the 1840s and 50s". with materials manufactured through a subsidiary company called Clarmac Roads Ltd. Two products resulted, namely Clarmac, and Clarphalte, with the former being manufactured by Clarmac Roads and the latter by Claridge's Patent Asphalte Co., although Clarmac was more widely used.: Scott's Lane, Beckenham; Dorset Street, Marylebone; Lordswood Road, Birmingham; Hearsall Lane, Coventry; Valkyrie Avenue, Westcliff-on-Sea; and Lennard Road, Penge.\|group"note"}} However, the First World War ruined the Clarmac Company, which entered into liquidation in 1915. The failure of Clarmac Roads Ltd had a flow-on effect to Claridge's Company, which was itself compulsorily wound up, ceasing operations in 1917, having invested a substantial amount of funds into the new venture, both at the outset United States The first use of bitumen in the New World was by aboriginal peoples. On the west coast, as early as the 13th century, the Tongva, Luiseño and Chumash peoples collected the naturally occurring bitumen that seeped to the surface above underlying petroleum deposits. All three groups used the substance as an adhesive. It is found on many different artifacts of tools and ceremonial items. For example, it was used on rattles to adhere gourds or turtle shells to rattle handles. It was also used in decorations. Small round shell beads were often set in asphaltum to provide decorations. It was used as a sealant on baskets to make them watertight for carrying water, possibly poisoning those who drank the water. Asphalt was used also to seal the planks on ocean-going canoes. Asphalt was first used to pave streets in the 1870s. At first naturally occurring "bituminous rock" was used, such as at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia from 1852 to 1873. In 1876, asphalt-based paving was used to pave Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington DC, in time for the celebration of the national centennial. In the horse-drawn era, US streets were mostly unpaved and covered with dirt or gravel. Especially where mud or trenching often made streets difficult to pass, pavements were sometimes made of diverse materials including wooden planks, cobble stones or other stone blocks, or bricks. Unpaved roads produced uneven wear and hazards for pedestrians. In the late 19th century with the rise of the popular bicycle, bicycle clubs were important in pushing for more general pavement of streets. Advocacy for pavement increased in the early 20th century with the rise of the automobile. Asphalt gradually became an ever more common method of paving. St. Charles Avenue in New Orleans was paved its whole length with asphalt by 1889. In 1900, Manhattan alone had 130,000 horses, pulling streetcars, wagons, and carriages, and leaving their waste behind. They were not fast, and pedestrians could dodge and scramble their way across the crowded streets. Small towns continued to rely on dirt and gravel, but larger cities wanted much better streets. They looked to wood or granite blocks by the 1850s. In 1890, a third of Chicago's 2000 miles of streets were paved, chiefly with wooden blocks, which gave better traction than mud. Brick surfacing was a good compromise, but even better was asphalt paving, which was easy to install and to cut through to get at sewers. With London and Paris serving as models, Washington laid 400,000 square yards of asphalt paving by 1882; it became the model for Buffalo, Philadelphia and elsewhere. By the end of the century, American cities boasted 30 million square yards of asphalt paving, well ahead of brick. The streets became faster and more dangerous so electric traffic lights were installed. Electric trolleys (at 12 miles per hour) became the main transportation service for middle class shoppers and office workers until they bought automobiles after 1945 and commuted from more distant suburbs in privacy and comfort on asphalt highways. Canada Canada has the world's largest deposit of natural bitumen in the Athabasca oil sands, and Canadian First Nations along the Athabasca River had long used it to waterproof their canoes. In 1719, a Cree named Wa-Pa-Su brought a sample for trade to Henry Kelsey of the Hudson's Bay Company, who was the first recorded European to see it. However, it wasn't until 1787 that fur trader and explorer Alexander MacKenzie saw the Athabasca oil sands and said, "At about 24 miles from the fork (of the Athabasca and Clearwater Rivers) are some bituminous fountains into which a pole of 20 feet long may be inserted without the least resistance." built the Bitumount oil separation plant, which between 1925 and 1958 produced up to per day of bitumen using Dr. Clark's method. Most of the bitumen was used for waterproofing roofs, but other uses included fuels, lubrication oils, printers ink, medicines, rust- and acid-proof paints, fireproof roofing, street paving, patent leather, and fence post preservatives. Photography and art Bitumen was used in early photographic technology. In 1826, or 1827, it was used by French scientist Joseph Nicéphore Niépce to make the oldest surviving photograph from nature. The bitumen was thinly coated onto a pewter plate which was then exposed in a camera. Exposure to light hardened the bitumen and made it insoluble, so that when it was subsequently rinsed with a solvent only the sufficiently light-struck areas remained. Many hours of exposure in the camera were required, making bitumen impractical for ordinary photography, but from the 1850s to the 1920s it was in common use as a photoresist in the production of printing plates for various photomechanical printing processes. Bitumen was the nemesis of many artists during the 19th century. Although widely used for a time, it ultimately proved unstable for use in oil painting, especially when mixed with the most common diluents, such as linseed oil, varnish and turpentine. Unless thoroughly diluted, bitumen never fully solidifies and will in time corrupt the other pigments with which it comes into contact. The use of bitumen as a glaze to set in shadow or mixed with other colors to render a darker tone resulted in the eventual deterioration of many paintings, for instance those of Delacroix. Perhaps the most famous example of the destructiveness of bitumen is Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (1818–1819), where his use of bitumen caused the brilliant colors to degenerate into dark greens and blacks and the paint and canvas to buckle. Modern use Global use The vast majority of refined bitumen is used in construction: primarily as a constituent of products used in paving and roofing applications. According to the requirements of the end use, bitumen is produced to specification. This is achieved either by refining or blending. It is estimated that the current world use of bitumen is approximately 102 million tonnes per year. Approximately 85% of all the bitumen produced is used as the binder in asphalt concrete for roads. It is also used in other paved areas such as airport runways, car parks and footways. Typically, the production of asphalt concrete involves mixing fine and coarse aggregates such as sand, gravel and crushed rock with asphalt, which acts as the binding agent. Other materials, such as recycled polymers (e.g., rubber tyres), may be added to the bitumen to modify its properties according to the application for which the bitumen is ultimately intended. A further 10% of global bitumen production is used in roofing applications, where its waterproofing qualities are invaluable. The remaining 5% of bitumen is used mainly for sealing and insulating purposes in a variety of building materials, such as pipe coatings, carpet tile backing and paint. Bitumen is applied in the construction and maintenance of many structures, systems, and components, such as: * Highways * Airport runways * Footways and pedestrian ways * Car parks * Racetracks * Tennis courts * Roofing * Damp proofing * Dams * Reservoir and pool linings * Soundproofing * Pipe coatings * Cable coatings * Paints * Building water proofing * Tile underlying waterproofing * Newspaper ink production Rolled asphalt concrete The largest use of bitumen is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces; this accounts for approximately 85% of the bitumen consumed in the United States. There are about 4,000 asphalt concrete mixing plants in the US, and a similar number in Europe. is usually placed on top in a road.]] Asphalt concrete pavement mixes are typically composed of 5% bitumen (known as asphalt cement in the US) and 95% aggregates (stone, sand, and gravel). Due to its highly viscous nature, bitumen must be heated so it can be mixed with the aggregates at the asphalt mixing facility. The temperature required varies depending upon characteristics of the bitumen and the aggregates, but warm-mix asphalt technologies allow producers to reduce the temperature required. With some 95% of paved roads being constructed of or surfaced with asphalt, a substantial amount of asphalt pavement material is reclaimed each year. According to industry surveys conducted annually by the Federal Highway Administration and the National Asphalt Pavement Association, more than 99% of the bitumen removed each year from road surfaces during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new pavements, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments or stockpiled for future use. Asphalt concrete paving is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness and ability to be repaired quickly, it is widely used for runways. Mastic asphalt Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt that differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt concrete) in that it has a higher bitumen (binder) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to rolled asphalt concrete, which has only around 5% asphalt. This thermoplastic substance is widely used in the building industry for waterproofing flat roofs and tanking underground. Mastic asphalt is heated to a temperature of and is spread in layers to form an impervious barrier about thick. Bitumen emulsion Bitumen emulsions are colloidal mixtures of bitumen and water. Due to the different surface tensions of the two liquids, stable emulsions cannot be created simply by mixing. Therefore, various emulsifiers and stabilizers are added. Emulsifiers are amphiphilic molecules that differ in the charge of their polar head group. They reduce the surface tension of the emulsion and thus prevent bitumen particles from fusing. The emulsifier charge defines the type of emulsion: anionic (negatively charged) and cationic (positively charged). The concentration of an emulsifier is a critical parameter affecting the size of the bitumen particles—higher concentrations lead to smaller bitumen particles. Cationic emulsifiers primarily include long-chain amines such as imidazolines, amido-amines, and diamines, which acquire a positive charge when an acid is added. Synthetic crude oil Synthetic crude oil, also known as syncrude, is the output from a bitumen upgrader facility used in connection with oil sand production in Canada. Bituminous sands are mined using enormous (100-ton capacity) power shovels and loaded into even larger (400-ton capacity) dump trucks for movement to an upgrading facility. The process used to extract the bitumen from the sand is a hot water process originally developed by Dr. Karl Clark of the University of Alberta during the 1920s. After extraction from the sand, the bitumen is fed into a bitumen upgrader which converts it into a light crude oil equivalent. This synthetic substance is fluid enough to be transferred through conventional oil pipelines and can be fed into conventional oil refineries without any further treatment. By 2015 Canadian bitumen upgraders were producing over per day of synthetic crude oil, of which 75% was exported to oil refineries in the United States. In Alberta, five bitumen upgraders produce synthetic crude oil and a variety of other products: The Suncor Energy upgrader near Fort McMurray, Alberta produces synthetic crude oil plus diesel fuel; the Syncrude Canada, Canadian Natural Resources, and Nexen upgraders near Fort McMurray produce synthetic crude oil; and the Shell Scotford Upgrader near Edmonton produces synthetic crude oil plus an intermediate feedstock for the nearby Shell Oil Refinery. A sixth upgrader, under construction in 2015 near Redwater, Alberta, will upgrade half of its crude bitumen directly to diesel fuel, with the remainder of the output being sold as feedstock to nearby oil refineries and petrochemical plants. Non-upgraded crude bitumen Canadian bitumen does not differ substantially from oils such as Venezuelan extra-heavy and Mexican heavy oil in chemical composition, and the real difficulty is moving the extremely viscous bitumen through oil pipelines to the refinery. Many modern oil refineries are extremely sophisticated and can process non-upgraded bitumen directly into products such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and refined asphalt without any preprocessing. This is particularly common in areas such as the US Gulf coast, where refineries were designed to process Venezuelan and Mexican oil, and in areas such as the US Midwest where refineries were rebuilt to process heavy oil as domestic light oil production declined. Given the choice, such heavy oil refineries usually prefer to buy bitumen rather than synthetic oil because the cost is lower, and in some cases because they prefer to produce more diesel fuel and less gasoline. Bituminised radioactive waste containing highly radiotoxic alpha-emitting transuranic elements from nuclear reprocessing plants have been produced at industrial scale in France, Belgium and Japan, but this type of waste conditioning has been abandoned because operational safety issues (risks of fire, as occurred in a bituminisation plant at Tokai Works in Japan) and long-term stability problems related to their geological disposal in deep rock formations. One of the main problems is the swelling of bitumen exposed to radiation and to water. Bitumen swelling is first induced by radiation because of the presence of hydrogen gas bubbles generated by alpha and gamma radiolysis. A second mechanism is the matrix swelling when the encapsulated hygroscopic salts exposed to water or moisture start to rehydrate and to dissolve. The high concentration of salt in the pore solution inside the bituminised matrix is then responsible for osmotic effects inside the bituminised matrix. The water moves in the direction of the concentrated salts, the bitumen acting as a semi-permeable membrane. This also causes the matrix to swell. The swelling pressure due to osmotic effect under constant volume can be as high as 200 bar. If not properly managed, this high pressure can cause fractures in the near field of a disposal gallery of bituminised medium-level waste. When the bituminised matrix has been altered by swelling, encapsulated radionuclides are easily leached by the contact of ground water and released in the geosphere. The high ionic strength of the concentrated saline solution also favours the migration of radionuclides in clay host rocks. The presence of chemically reactive nitrate can also affect the redox conditions prevailing in the host rock by establishing oxidizing conditions, preventing the reduction of redox-sensitive radionuclides. Under their higher valences, radionuclides of elements such as selenium, technetium, uranium, neptunium and plutonium have a higher solubility and are also often present in water as non-retarded anions. This makes the disposal of medium-level bituminised waste very challenging. Different types of bitumen have been used: blown bitumen (partly oxidized with air oxygen at high temperature after distillation, and harder) and direct distillation bitumen (softer). Blown bitumens like Mexphalte, with a high content of saturated hydrocarbons, are more easily biodegraded by microorganisms than direct distillation bitumen, with a low content of saturated hydrocarbons and a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons. Concrete encapsulation of radwaste is presently considered a safer alternative by the nuclear industry and the waste management organisations. Other uses Roofing shingles and roll roofing account for most of the remaining bitumen consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence-post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. Bitumen is used to make Japan black, a lacquer known especially for its use on iron and steel, and it is also used in paint and marker inks by some exterior paint supply companies to increase the weather resistance and permanence of the paint or ink, and to make the color darker. Bitumen is also used to seal some alkaline batteries during the manufacturing process. Bitumen is also commonly used as a ground in the etching process of intaglio printmaking. Production About 164,000,000 tons were produced in 2019. It is obtained as the "heavy" (i.e., difficult to distill) fraction. Material with a boiling point greater than around 500°C is considered asphalt. Vacuum distillation separates it from the other components in crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and diesel). The resulting material is typically further treated to extract small but valuable amounts of lubricants and to adjust the properties of the material to suit applications. In a de-asphalting unit, the crude bitumen is treated with either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to extract the lighter molecules, which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This step makes the product harder and more viscous. Nonpetroleum-based asphalt binders can be made light-colored. Lighter-colored roads absorb less heat from solar radiation, reducing their contribution to the urban heat island effect. Parking lots that use bitumen alternatives are called green parking lots. Albanian deposits Selenizza is a naturally occurring solid hydrocarbon bitumen found in native deposits in Selenice, in Albania, the only European asphalt mine still in use. The bitumen is found in the form of veins, filling cracks in a more or less horizontal direction. The bitumen content varies from 83% to 92% (soluble in carbon disulphide), with a penetration value near to zero and a softening point (ring and ball) around 120°C. The insoluble matter, consisting mainly of silica ore, ranges from 8% to 17%. Albanian bitumen extraction has a long history and was practiced in an organized way by the Romans. After centuries of silence, the first mentions of Albanian bitumen appeared only in 1868, when the Frenchman Coquand published the first geological description of the deposits of Albanian bitumen. In 1875, the exploitation rights were granted to the Ottoman government and in 1912, they were transferred to the Italian company Simsa. Since 1945, the mine was exploited by the Albanian government and from 2001 to date, the management passed to a French company, which organized the mining process for the manufacture of the natural bitumen on an industrial scale. Today the mine is predominantly exploited in an open pit quarry but several of the many underground mines (deep and extending over several km) still remain viable. Selenizza is produced primarily in granular form, after melting the bitumen pieces selected in the mine. Selenizza is mainly used as an additive in the road construction sector. It is mixed with traditional bitumen to improve both the viscoelastic properties and the resistance to ageing. It may be blended with the hot bitumen in tanks, but its granular form allows it to be fed in the mixer or in the recycling ring of normal asphalt plants. Other typical applications include the production of mastic asphalts for sidewalks, bridges, car-parks and urban roads as well as drilling fluid additives for the oil and gas industry. Selenizza is available in powder or in granular material of various particle sizes and is packaged in sacks or in thermal fusible polyethylene bags. A life-cycle assessment study of the natural selenizza compared with petroleum bitumen has shown that the environmental impact of the selenizza is about half the impact of the road asphalt produced in oil refineries in terms of carbon dioxide emission. Recycling Bitumen is a commonly recycled material in the construction industry. The two most common recycled materials that contain bitumen are reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and reclaimed asphalt shingles (RAS). RAP is recycled at a greater rate than any other material in the United States, and typically contains approximately 5–6% bitumen binder. Asphalt shingles typically contain 20–40% bitumen binder. Bitumen naturally becomes stiffer over time due to oxidation, evaporation, exudation, and physical hardening. For this reason, recycled asphalt is typically combined with virgin asphalt, softening agents, and/or rejuvenating additives to restore its physical and chemical properties. Economics Although bitumen typically makes up only 4 to 5 percent (by weight) of the pavement mixture, as the pavement's binder, it is also the most expensive part of the cost of the road-paving material. Health and safety People can be exposed to bitumen in the workplace by breathing in fumes or skin absorption. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit of 5mg/m<sup>3</sup> over a 15-minute period. Bitumen is a largely inert material that must be heated or diluted to a point where it becomes workable for the production of materials for paving, roofing, and other applications. In examining the potential health hazards associated with bitumen, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) determined that it is the application parameters, predominantly temperature, that affect occupational exposure and the potential bioavailable carcinogenic hazard/risk of the bitumen emissions. In particular, temperatures greater than 199°C (390°F), were shown to produce a greater exposure risk than when bitumen was heated to lower temperatures, such as those typically used in asphalt pavement mix production and placement. IARC has classified paving asphalt fumes as a Class 2B possible carcinogen, indicating inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. A bitumen-like substance found in the Himalayas and known as shilajit is sometimes used as an Ayurveda medicine, but is not in fact a tar, resin or bitumen. See also * Asphalt plant * Asphaltene * Bioasphalt * Bitumen-based fuel * Bituminous coal * Bituminous rocks * Blacktop * Cariphalte * Duxit * Macadam * Oil sands * Pitch drop experiment * Pitch (resin) * Road surface * Tar * Tarmac * Sealcoat * Stamped asphalt Notes References Sources * . * * External links <!-- BEFORE REMOVING LINKS PLEASE READ THE ARTICLES AND CHECK THAT THEY DO NOT DESCRIBE ASPHALT OR BITUMEN / PLEASE REMOVE LINKS TO ASPHALT CONCRETE SOME ARTICLES ARE POOR, UNCLEAR OR DESCRIBE BOTH, THEY MAY BECOME INVALID LINKS LATER AS THEY ARE IMPROVED --> * * * * [http://pavementinteractive.org/index.php?title=Asphalt Pavement Interactive – Asphalt] * [http://ecs.csus.edu/~gordonvs/asphalt/asphalt.html CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum!] * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/asphalt/ National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Asphalt Fumes] * Scientific American, "[https://books.google.com/books?idYIE9AQAAIAAJ&qcarbonic+oxide Asphalt]", 20 August 1881, pp.121 Category:Amorphous solids Category:Building materials Category:Chemical mixtures Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens Category:Pavements Category:Petroleum products Category:Road construction materials	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumen	2025-04-05T18:25:18.979674
659	American National Standards Institute	ASA film speed\|other uses\|ANSI (disambiguation)}} \| type = Nonprofit organization \| status = 501(c)(3) private \| purpose = National standards \| headquarters = Washington, D.C., U.S.<br /> \| location \| region_served \| membership 125,000 companies and 3.5 million professionals The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI's operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs. Many ANSI regulations are incorporated by reference into United States federal statutes (i.e. by OSHA regulations referring to individual ANSI specifications). ANSI does not make these standards publicly available, and charges money for access to these documents; it further claims that it is copyright infringement for them to be provided to the public by others free of charge. These assertions have been the subject of criticism and litigation. History ANSI was most likely formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies: * American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, now IEEE) * American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) * American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) * American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers) * American Society for Testing and Materials (now ASTM International) had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy (combined in 1947 to become the Department of Defense or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization. According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies. In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.Members ANSI's members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide. ANSI's market-driven, decentralized approach has been criticized in comparison with more planned and organized international approaches to standardization. An underlying issue is the difficulty of balancing "the interests of both the nation's industrial and commercial sectors and the nation as a whole."Process Although ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process. ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders. Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation. The American National Standards process involves: * consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties * broad-based public review and comment on draft standards * consideration of and response to comments * incorporation of submitted changes that meet the same consensus requirements into a draft standard * availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process. International activities In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate. The institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), as a founding member, and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards. Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012. Standards panels The Institute administers nine standards panels: * ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC) * ANSI Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP) * ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP) * ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC) * Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC) * Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP) * ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation * ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel * Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP) Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas. In 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry. American national standards * The ASA (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934), became the basis for the ISO system (since 1974), currently used worldwide (ISO 6, ISO 2240, ISO 5800, ISO 12232). * A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created ASCII seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code or EBCDIC). In Microsoft Windows, the phrase "ANSI" refers to the Windows ANSI code pages (even though they are not ANSI standards). Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for ideographic languages are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the ISO-8859 series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical. * The first computer programming language standard was "American Standard Fortran" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966. * The programming language COBOL had ANSI standards in 1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by ISO. * The original standard implementation of the C programming language was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known ANSI C. * The X3J13 committee was created in 1986 to formalize the ongoing consolidation of Common Lisp, culminating in 1994 with the publication of ANSI's first object-oriented programming standard. * A popular Unified Thread Standard for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003. * The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc. * The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance. * The ANSI/HI (Hydraulic Institute) standards used for pumps. * The ANSI for eye protection is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear. While compliance to this standard is required by United States federal law, it is not made freely available by ANSI, who charges $65 to read a PDF of it. * The ANSI paper sizes (ANSI/ASME Y14.1). See also * Accredited Crane Operator Certification * ANSI ASC X9 * ANSI ASC X12 * ANSI C * Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) * Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM) * ISO (to which ANSI is the official US representative) * National Information Standards Organization (NISO) * National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) * Open standards References External links <!-- Per WP:ELMINOFFICIAL, choose one official website only --> * Category:1918 establishments in the United States Category:501(c)(3) organizations Category:Charities based in Washington, D.C. Category:ISO member bodies Category:Organizations established in 1918 Category:Technical specifications Category:Standards organizations in the United States Category:Occupational safety and health organizations	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute	2025-04-05T18:25:18.988891
661	Argument (disambiguation)	In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion. Argument may also refer to: Mathematics and computer science Argument (complex analysis), a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number Command-line argument, an item of information provided to a program when it is started Parameter (computer programming), a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine Argument principle, a theorem in complex analysis An argument of a function, also known as an independent variable Language and rhetoric Argument (literature), a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work Argument (linguistics), a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause Oral argument in the United States, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail Closing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case Other uses Musical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form Argument (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809 Das Argument, a German academic journal Argument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch A disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement Argument (horse) See also The Argument (disambiguation) argumentation	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:25:18.991472
662	Apollo 11	\|LM: }} \| SATCAT = \| mission_duration = 8 days, 3 hours, 18 minutes, 35 seconds \| spacecraft = \| manufacturer = \| launch_date UTC (9:32 am EDT) \| orbit_reference = Selenocentric \| orbit_periapsis }} \|sample_mass \|surface_EVAs = 1 \|surface_EVA_time = 2 hours, 31 minutes, 40 seconds }} \| docking = \| undocking_date July 20, 1969, 17:44:00 UTC \| time_docked = }} \| undocking_date July 21, 1969, 23:41:31 UTC \| time_docked = }} \| crew_size = 3 \| crew_members = \| crew_callsign = \| crew_photo = apollo 11.jpg \| crew_photo_caption = Left to right: Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, Buzz Aldrin \| crew_photo_alt = Apollo 11 crew \| previous_mission = Apollo 10 \| next_mission = Apollo 12 \| programme = Apollo program }} Apollo 11 was a spaceflight conducted from July 16 to 24, 1969, by the United States and launched by NASA. It marked the first time that humans landed on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes, before lifting off to rejoin Columbia. Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC. It was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagles ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth. They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space. Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Background In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This surprise success fired fears and imaginations around the world. It demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority. This precipitated the Sputnik crisis, and triggered the Space Race to prove which superpower would achieve superior spaceflight capability. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), and initiating Project Mercury, which aimed to launch a man into Earth orbit. But on April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person in space, and the first to orbit the Earth. Nearly a month later, on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space, completing a 15-minute suborbital journey. Since the Soviet Union had higher lift capacity launch vehicles, Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy chose, from among options presented by NASA, a challenge beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, so that the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality. A crewed mission to the Moon would serve this purpose. On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress on "Urgent National Needs" and declared: On September 12, 1962, Kennedy delivered another speech before a crowd of about 40,000 people in the Rice University football stadium in Houston, Texas. A widely quoted refrain from the middle portion of the speech reads as follows: speaking at Rice University on September 12, 1962]] In spite of that, the proposed program faced the opposition of many Americans and was dubbed a "moondoggle" by Norbert Wiener, a mathematician at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The effort to land a man on the Moon already had a name: Project Apollo. When Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev, the Premier of the Soviet Union in June 1961, he proposed making the Moon landing a joint project, but Khrushchev did not take up the offer. Kennedy again proposed a joint expedition to the Moon in a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on September 20, 1963. The idea of a joint Moon mission was abandoned after Kennedy's death. An early and crucial decision was choosing lunar orbit rendezvous over both direct ascent and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon, and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit. This design meant the spacecraft could be launched by a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development. Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. The Apollo project was enabled by NASA's adoption of new advances in semiconductor device, including metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) in the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP) and silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips in the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC). Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent investigation. In October 1968, Apollo 7 evaluated the command module in Earth orbit, and in December Apollo 8 tested it in lunar orbit. In March 1969, Apollo 9 put the lunar module through its paces in Earth orbit, and in May Apollo 10 conducted a "dress rehearsal" in lunar orbit. By July 1969, all was in readiness for Apollo 11 to take the final step onto the Moon. The Soviet Union appeared to be winning the Space Race by beating the US to firsts, but its early lead was overtaken by the US Gemini program and Soviet failure to develop the N1 launcher, which would have been comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, the Soviet Union launched Luna 15, which reached lunar orbit before Apollo 11. During descent, a malfunction caused Luna 15 to crash in Mare Crisium about two hours before Armstrong and Aldrin took off from the Moon's surface to begin their voyage home. The Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories radio telescope in England recorded transmissions from Luna 15 during its descent, and these were released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11. Personnel Prime crew The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lovell and Aldrin had previously flown together as the crew of Gemini 12. Due to design and manufacturing delays in the LM, Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 swapped prime and backup crews, and Armstrong's crew became the backup for Apollo 8. Based on the normal crew rotation scheme, Armstrong was then expected to command Apollo 11. There would be one change. Michael Collins, the CMP on the Apollo 8 crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP, and Aldrin as backup CMP for Apollo 8. Apollo 11 was the second American mission where all the crew members had prior spaceflight experience, the first being Apollo 10. The next was STS-26 in 1988. Deke Slayton gave Armstrong the option to replace Aldrin with Lovell, since some thought Aldrin was difficult to work with. Armstrong had no issues working with Aldrin but thought it over for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13). The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead, they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof, but Collins, who considered himself a loner, confessed to rebuffing Aldrin's attempts to create a more personal relationship. Aldrin and Collins described the crew as "amiable strangers". Armstrong did not agree with the assessment, and said "all the crews I was on worked very well together." Backup crew The backup crew consisted of Lovell as Commander, William Anders as CMP, and Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8. In early 1969, Anders accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup CMP in case Apollo 11 was delayed past its intended July launch date, at which point Anders would be unavailable. By the normal crew rotation in place during Apollo, Lovell, Mattingly, and Haise were scheduled to fly on Apollo 14, but the three of them were bumped to Apollo 13: there was a crew issue for Apollo 13 as none of them except Edgar Mitchell flew in space again. George Mueller rejected the crew and this was the first time an Apollo crew was rejected. To give Alan Shepard more training time, Lovell's crew were bumped to Apollo 13. Mattingly would later be replaced by Jack Swigert as CMP on Apollo 13. Support crew During Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on practicing and mastering them. For Apollo 11, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Ronald Evans and Bill Pogue. Capsule communicators (left), with backup crewmen Jim Lovell and Fred Haise listening in during Apollo 11's descent]] The capsule communicator (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo 11, the CAPCOMs were: Charles Duke, Ronald Evans, Bruce McCandless II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind, Owen K. Garriott and Harrison Schmitt. Flight directors The flight directors for this mission were:<!-- Sources are inconsistent. Resolved at Talk:Apollo 11#Semi-protected edit request on 8 June 2019 --> {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" \|+ Apollo 11 flight directors \|- ! scope="col" \| Name ! scope="col" \| Shift ! scope="col" \| Team ! scope="col" \| Activities \|- ! scope="row" \| Clifford E. Charlesworth \| style="text-align:center;" \| 1 \|\| Green \|\| Launch and extravehicular activity (EVA) \|- ! scope="row" \| Gerald D. Griffin \| style="text-align:center;" \| 1 \|\| Gold \|\| Backup for shift 1 \|- ! scope="row" \| Gene Kranz \| style="text-align:center;" \| 2 \|\| White \|\| Lunar landing \|- ! scope="row" \| Glynn Lunney \| style="text-align:center;" \| 3 \|\| Black \|\| Lunar ascent \|- ! scope="row" \| Milton Windler \| style="text-align:center;" \| 4 \|\| Maroon \|\| Planning \|} Other key personnel Other key personnel who played important roles in the Apollo 11 mission include the following. {\| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" \|+ Other personnel \|- ! scope="col" \| Name ! scope="col" \| Activities \|- ! scope="row" \| Farouk El-Baz \| Geologist, studied geology of the Moon, identified landing locations, trained pilots \|- ! scope="row" \| Kurt Debus \| Rocket scientist, supervised construction of launch pads and infrastructure \|- ! scope="row" \| Jamye Flowers \| Secretary for astronauts \|- ! scope="row" \| Eleanor Foraker \| Tailor who designed space suits \|- ! scope="row" \| Jack Garman \| Computer engineer and technician \|- ! scope="row" \| Millicent Goldschmidt \| Microbiologist who designed aseptic lunar material collection techniques and trained astronauts \|- ! scope="row" \| Eldon C. Hall \| Apollo Guidance Computer hardware designer \|- ! scope="row" \| Margaret Hamilton \| Onboard flight computer software engineer \|- ! scope="row" \| John Houbolt \| Route planner \|- ! scope="row" \| Gene Shoemaker \| Geologist who trained astronauts in field geology \|- ! scope="row" \| Bill Tindall \| Coordinated mission techniques \|} Preparations Insignia The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar landing by the United States". At Lovell's suggestion, he chose the bald eagle, the national bird of the United States, as the symbol. Tom Wilson, a simulator instructor, suggested an olive branch in its beak to represent their peaceful mission. Collins added a lunar background with the Earth in the distance. The sunlight in the image was coming from the wrong direction; the shadow should have been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11", and they decided not to put their names on the patch, so it would "be representative of everyone who had worked toward a lunar landing". An illustrator at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) did the artwork, which was then sent off to NASA officials for approval. The design was rejected. Bob Gilruth, the director of the MSC felt the talons of the eagle looked "too warlike". After some discussion, the olive branch was moved to the talons. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979. Call signs , the very high resolution image was produced in 2007 by the Smithsonian Institution.]] After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft Charlie Brown and Snoopy, assistant manager for public affairs Julian Scheer wrote to George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the MSC, to suggest the Apollo 11 crew be less flippant in naming their craft. The name Snowcone was used for the CM and Haystack was used for the LM in both internal and external communications during early mission planning. The LM was named Eagle after the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named Columbia after Columbiad, the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. It also referred to Columbia, a historical name of the United States. In Collins' 1976 book, he said Columbia was in reference to Christopher Columbus. Mementos ]] The astronauts had personal preference kits (PPKs), small bags containing personal items of significance they wanted to take with them on the mission. Five PPKs were carried on Apollo 11: three (one for each astronaut) were stowed on Columbia before launch, and two on Eagle. Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the Wright brothers' 1903 Wright Flyers left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intended to be flown on that mission and given to Slayton afterwards, but following the disastrous launch pad fire and subsequent funerals, the widows gave the pin to Slayton. Armstrong took it with him on Apollo 11. Site selection <!-- x y positions relative to the image at 1000px width --> }} NASA's Apollo Site Selection Board announced five potential landing sites on February 8, 1968. These were the result of two years' worth of studies based on high-resolution photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program. The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the lunar equator to minimize the amount of propellant required, clear of obstacles to minimize maneuvering, and flat to simplify the task of the landing radar. Scientific value was not a consideration. Areas that appeared promising on photographs taken on Earth were often found to be totally unacceptable. The original requirement that the site be free of craters had to be relaxed, as no such site was found. Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility (Mare Tranquillitatis); Site 3 was in the Central Bay (); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms (Oceanus Procellarum). First-step decision During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?" Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong added that it was "not based on individual desire". One of the first versions of the egress checklist had the lunar module pilot exit the spacecraft before the commander, which matched what had been done on Gemini missions, where the commander had never performed the spacewalk. Reporters wrote in early 1969 that Aldrin would be the first man to walk on the Moon, and Associate Administrator George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying campaign. Attempting to stem interdepartmental conflict, Slayton told Aldrin that Armstrong would be first since he was the commander. The decision was announced in a press conference on April 14, 1969. For decades, Aldrin believed the final decision was largely driven by the lunar module's hatch location. Because the astronauts had their spacesuits on and the spacecraft was so small, maneuvering to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring. Slayton told Armstrong the plan was to have him leave the spacecraft first, if he agreed. Armstrong said, "Yes, that's the way to do it." The media accused Armstrong of exercising his commander's prerogative to exit the spacecraft first. Chris Kraft revealed in his 2001 autobiography that a meeting occurred between Gilruth, Slayton, Low, and himself to make sure Aldrin would not be the first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft. Pre-launch towards Launch Complex 39.]] The ascent stage of LM-5 Eagle arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on January 8, 1969, followed by the descent stage four days later, and CSM-107 Columbia on January 23. There were several differences between Eagle and Apollo 10's LM-4 Snoopy; Eagle had a VHF radio antenna to facilitate communication with the astronauts during their EVA on the lunar surface; a lighter ascent engine; more thermal protection on the landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The CSM was mated on January 29, and moved from the Operations and Checkout Building to the Vehicle Assembly Building on April 14. The closeout crew sealed the hatch, and the cabin was purged and pressurized. The closeout crew then left the launch complex about an hour before launch time. The countdown became automated at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the firing room. Mission Launch and flight to lunar orbit An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitaries included the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General William Westmoreland, four cabinet members, 19 state governors, 40 mayors, 60 ambassadors and 200 congressmen. Vice President Spiro Agnew viewed the launch with former president Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife Lady Bird Johnson. Around 3,500 media representatives were present. About two-thirds were from the United States; the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White House with his NASA liaison officer, Apollo astronaut Frank Borman. Lodging near Cape Canaveral was reported as being booked months ahead in advance for the launch by a Florida newspaper. Saturn V AS-506 launched Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969, at 13:32:00 UTC (9:32:00 EDT). In the thirty orbits that followed, the crew saw passing views of their landing site in the southern Sea of Tranquility about southwest of the crater Sabine D. The site was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft, and because it was unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and southwest of Ranger 8's crash site. Lunar descent in lunar orbit, photographed from Eagle\|alt=The top of the silvery command module is seen over a grey, cratered lunar surface]] At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered Eagle, and began the final preparations for lunar descent. At 17:44:00 Eagle separated from Columbia. Collins, alone aboard Columbia, inspected Eagle as it pirouetted before him to ensure the craft was not damaged, and that the landing gear was correctly deployed. Armstrong exclaimed: "The Eagle has wings!" As the descent began, Armstrong and Aldrin found themselves passing landmarks on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. Eagle was traveling too fast. The problem could have been mascons—concentrations of high mass in a region or regions of the Moon's crust that contains a gravitational anomaly, potentially altering Eagle trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it could have resulted from extra air pressure in the docking tunnel, or a result of Eagles pirouette maneuver. Five minutes into the descent burn, and above the surface of the Moon, the LM guidance computer (LGC) distracted the crew with the first of several unexpected 1201 and 1202 program alarms. Inside Mission Control Center, computer engineer Jack Garman told Guidance Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real-time and had to postpone some of them. Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer Programming at the MIT Charles Stark Draper Laboratory later recalled: in lunar orbit photographed from Columbia]] During the mission, the cause was diagnosed as the rendezvous radar switch being in the wrong position, causing the computer to process data from both the rendezvous and landing radars at the same time. Software engineer Don Eyles concluded in a 2005 Guidance and Control Conference paper that the problem was due to a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in Apollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system could cause the stationary antenna to appear to the computer as dithering back and forth between two positions, depending upon how the hardware randomly powered up. The extra spurious cycle stealing, as the rendezvous radar updated an involuntary counter, caused the computer alarms. Landing When Armstrong again looked outside, he saw that the computer's landing target was in a boulder-strewn area just north and east of a crater (later determined to be West crater), so he took semi-automatic control. Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin called out navigation data to Armstrong, who was busy piloting Eagle. Now above the surface, Armstrong knew their propellant supply was dwindling and was determined to land at the first possible landing site. Armstrong found a clear patch of ground and maneuvered the spacecraft towards it. As he got closer, now above the surface, he discovered his new landing site had a crater in it. He cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focused on them during his descent so he could determine the spacecraft's speed. A light informed Aldrin that at least one of the probes hanging from Eagle footpads had touched the surface a few moments before the landing and he said: "Contact light!" Armstrong was supposed to immediately shut the engine down, as the engineers suspected the pressure caused by the engine's own exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later, Eagle landed and Armstrong shut the engine down. Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA—out of detent." Armstrong acknowledged: "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin continued: "Mode control—both auto. Descent engine command override off. Engine arm—off. 413 is in." ]] ACA was the Attitude Control Assembly—the LM's control stick. Output went to the LGC to command the reaction control system (RCS) jets to fire. "Out of Detent" meant the stick had moved away from its centered position; it was spring-centered like the turn indicator in a car. Address 413 of the Abort Guidance System (AGS) contained the variable that indicated the LM had landed. Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than most subsequent missions, and the astronauts encountered a premature low fuel warning. This was later found to be the result of the propellant sloshing more than expected, uncovering a fuel sensor. On subsequent missions, extra anti-slosh baffles were added to the tanks to prevent this. Duke expressed the relief at Mission Control: "Roger, Twan—Tranquility, we copy you on the ground. You got a bunch of guys about to turn blue. We're breathing again. Thanks a lot." view from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) of Apollo 11 landing site]] Two and a half hours after landing, before preparations began for the EVA, Aldrin radioed to Earth: He then took communion privately. At this time NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair (who had objected to the Apollo 8 crew reading from the Book of Genesis) demanding that their astronauts refrain from broadcasting religious activities while in space. For this reason, Aldrin chose to refrain from directly mentioning taking communion on the Moon. Aldrin was an elder at the Webster Presbyterian Church, and his communion kit was prepared by the pastor of the church, Dean Woodruff. Webster Presbyterian possesses the chalice used on the Moon and commemorates the event each year on the Sunday closest to July 20. The schedule for the mission called for the astronauts to follow the landing with a five-hour sleep period, but they chose to begin preparations for the EVA early, thinking they would be unable to sleep. Lunar surface operations Preparations for Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to walk on the Moon began at 23:43 UTC. These took longer than expected; three and a half hours instead of two. Some of the highest heart rates recorded from Apollo astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress. At 02:51 Armstrong began his descent to the lunar surface. The remote control unit on his chest kept him from seeing his feet. Climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the modular equipment stowage assembly (MESA) folded against Eagle side and activate the TV camera. Apollo 11 used slow-scan television (TV) incompatible with broadcast TV, so it was displayed on a special monitor and a conventional TV camera viewed this monitor (thus, a broadcast of a broadcast), significantly reducing the quality of the picture. The signal was received at Goldstone in the United States, but with better fidelity by Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station near Canberra in Australia. Minutes later the feed was switched to the more sensitive Parkes radio telescope in Australia. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. Copies of this video in broadcast format were saved and are widely available, but recordings of the original slow scan source transmission from the lunar surface were likely destroyed during routine magnetic tape re-use at NASA. six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong stepped off Eagle landing pad and declared: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Armstrong intended to say "That's one small step for a man", but the word "a" is not audible in the transmission, and thus was not initially reported by most observers of the live broadcast. When later asked about his quote, Armstrong said he believed he said "for a man", and subsequent printed versions of the quote included the "a" in square brackets. One explanation for the absence may be that his accent caused him to slur the words "for a" together; another is the intermittent nature of the audio and video links to Earth, partly because of storms near Parkes Observatory. A more recent digital analysis of the tape claims to reveal the "a" may have been spoken but obscured by static. Other analysis points to the claims of static and slurring as "face-saving fabrication", and that Armstrong himself later admitted to misspeaking the line. About seven minutes after stepping onto the Moon's surface, Armstrong collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He then folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. This was to guarantee there would be some lunar soil brought back in case an emergency required the astronauts to abandon the EVA and return to the LM. Twelve minutes after the sample was collected, he removed the TV camera from the MESA and made a panoramic sweep, then mounted it on a tripod. But the astronauts struggled with the telescoping rod and could only insert the pole about into the hard lunar surface. Aldrin was afraid it might topple in front of TV viewers, but gave "a crisp West Point salute". Nixon originally had a long speech prepared to read during the phone call, but Frank Borman, who was at the White House as a NASA liaison during Apollo 11, convinced Nixon to keep his words brief. Armstrong: Thank you, Mr. President. It's a great honor and privilege for us to be here, representing not only the United States, but men of peace of all nations, and with interest and a<!-- sometimes transcribed as "the" --> curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It's an honor for us to be able to participate here today. Nixon: Thank you very much, and I look forward, all of us look forward, to seeing you on the Hornet on Thursday.}} ]] They deployed the EASEP, which included a Passive Seismic Experiment Package used to measure moonquakes and a retroreflector array used for the lunar laser ranging experiment. Three new minerals were discovered in the rock samples collected by the astronauts: armalcolite, tranquillityite, and pyroxferroite. Armalcolite was named after Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins. All have subsequently been found on Earth. left on the ladder of Eagle]] While on the surface, Armstrong uncovered a plaque mounted on the LM ladder, bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and President Nixon. The inscription read: of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor (LEC). This proved to be an inefficient tool, and later missions preferred to carry equipment and samples up to the LM by hand. Eagle in the background]] Presidential speech writer William Safire had prepared an In Event of Moon Disaster announcement for Nixon to read in the event the Apollo 11 astronauts were stranded on the Moon. The remarks were in a memo from Safire to Nixon's White House Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman, in which Safire suggested a protocol the administration might follow in reaction to such a disaster. According to the plan, Mission Control would "close down communications" with the LM, and a clergyman would "commend their souls to the deepest of the deep" in a public ritual likened to burial at sea. The last line of the prepared text contained an allusion to Rupert Brooke's World War I poem "The Soldier". While moving inside the cabin, Aldrin accidentally damaged the circuit breaker that would arm the main engine for liftoff from the Moon. There was a concern this would prevent firing the engine, stranding them on the Moon. The nonconductive tip of a Duro felt-tip pen was sufficient to activate the switch. The disk also carries a listing of the leadership of the US Congress, a listing of members of the four committees of the House and Senate responsible for the NASA legislation, and the names of NASA's past and then-current top management. After about seven hours of rest, the crew was awakened by Houston to prepare for the return flight. At that time, unknown to them, some hundred kilometers away from them the Soviet probe Luna 15 was about to descend and impact. Despite having been known to be orbiting the Moon at the same time, through a ground-breaking precautious goodwill exchange of data, the mission control of Luna 15 unexpectedly hastened its robotic sample-return mission, initiating descent, in an attempt to return before Apollo 11. Just two hours before Apollo 11's launch Luna 15 crashed at 15:50 UTC, with British astronomers monitoring Luna 15 and recording the situation one commented: "I say, this has really been drama of the highest order", bringing the Space Race to a culmination. Roughly two hours later, at 17:54:00 UTC, the Apollo 11 crew on the surface safely lifted off in Eagle ascent stage to rejoin Collins aboard Columbia in lunar orbit. Film taken from the LM ascent stage upon liftoff from the Moon reveals the American flag, planted some from the descent stage, whipping violently in the exhaust of the ascent stage engine. Aldrin looked up in time to witness the flag topple: "The ascent stage of the LM separated ... I was concentrating on the computers, and Neil was studying the attitude indicator, but I looked up long enough to see the flag fall over." Subsequent Apollo missions planted their flags farther from the LM. Columbia in lunar orbit During his day flying solo around the Moon, Collins never felt lonely. Although it has been said "not since Adam has any human known such solitude", Collins felt very much a part of the mission. In his autobiography he wrote: "this venture has been structured for three men, and I consider my third to be as necessary as either of the other two". In the 48 minutes of each orbit when he was out of radio contact with the Earth while Columbia passed round the far side of the Moon, the feeling he reported was not fear or loneliness, but rather "awareness, anticipation, satisfaction, confidence, almost exultation". One of Collins' first tasks was to identify the lunar module on the ground. To give Collins an idea where to look, Mission Control radioed that they believed the lunar module landed about off target. Each time he passed over the suspected lunar landing site, he tried in vain to find the module. On his first orbits on the back side of the Moon, Collins performed maintenance activities such as dumping excess water produced by the fuel cells and preparing the cabin for Armstrong and Aldrin to return. Just before he reached the dark side on the third orbit, Mission Control informed Collins there was a problem with the temperature of the coolant. If it became too cold, parts of Columbia might freeze. Mission Control advised him to assume manual control and implement Environmental Control System Malfunction Procedure 17. Instead, Collins flicked the switch on the system from automatic to manual and back to automatic again, and carried on with normal housekeeping chores, while keeping an eye on the temperature. When Columbia came back around to the near side of the Moon again, he was able to report that the problem had been resolved. For the next couple of orbits, he described his time on the back side of the Moon as "relaxing". After Aldrin and Armstrong completed their EVA, Collins slept so he could be rested for the rendezvous. While the flight plan called for Eagle to meet up with Columbia, Collins was prepared for a contingency in which he would fly Columbia down to meet Eagle. Return ascent stage approaching Columbia]] Eagle rendezvoused with Columbia at 21:24 UTC on July 21, and the two docked at 21:35. Eagles ascent stage was jettisoned into lunar orbit at 23:41. Just before the Apollo 12 flight, it was noted that Eagle was still likely to be orbiting the Moon. Later NASA reports mentioned that Eagle orbit had decayed, resulting in it impacting in an "uncertain location" on the lunar surface. In 2021, however, some calculations show that the lander may still be in orbit. On July 23, the last night before splashdown, the three astronauts made a television broadcast in which Collins commented: "All this is possible only through the blood, sweat, and tears of a number of people ... All you see is the three of us, but beneath the surface are thousands and thousands of others, and to all of those, I would like to say, 'Thank you very much'." Aldrin added: "This has been far more than three men on a mission to the Moon; more, still, than the efforts of a government and industry team; more, even, than the efforts of one nation. We feel that this stands as a symbol of the insatiable curiosity of all mankind to explore the unknown ..." Armstrong concluded: }} On the return to Earth, a bearing at the Guam tracking station failed, potentially preventing communication on the last segment of the Earth return. A regular repair was not possible in the available time but the station director, Charles Force, had his ten-year-old son Greg use his small hands to reach into the housing and pack it with grease. Greg was later thanked by Armstrong. Splashdown and quarantine The aircraft carrier , under the command of Captain Carl J. Seiberlich, was selected as the primary recovery ship (PRS) for Apollo 11 on June 5, replacing its sister ship, the LPH , which had recovered Apollo 10 on May 26. Hornet was then at her home port of Long Beach, California. On reaching Pearl Harbor on July 5, Hornet embarked the Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King helicopters of HS-4, a unit which specialized in recovery of Apollo spacecraft, specialized divers of UDT Detachment Apollo, a 35-man NASA recovery team, and about 120 media representatives. To make room, most of Hornets air wing was left behind in Long Beach. Special recovery equipment was also loaded, including a boilerplate command module used for training. On July 12, with Apollo 11 still on the launch pad, Hornet departed Pearl Harbor for the recovery area in the central Pacific, in the vicinity of . A presidential party consisting of Nixon, Borman, Secretary of State William P. Rogers and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger flew to Johnston Atoll on Air Force One, then to the command ship USS Arlington in Marine One. After a night on board, they would fly to Hornet in Marine One for a few hours of ceremonies. On arrival aboard Hornet, the party was greeted by the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Command (CINCPAC), Admiral John S. McCain Jr., and NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine, who flew to Hornet from Pago Pago in one of Hornets carrier onboard delivery aircraft. Weather satellites were not yet common, but US Air Force Captain Hank Brandli had access to top-secret spy satellite images. He realized that a storm front was headed for the Apollo recovery area. Poor visibility which could make locating the capsule difficult, and strong upper-level winds which "would have ripped their parachutes to shreds" according to Brandli, posed a serious threat to the safety of the mission. Brandli alerted Navy Captain Willard S. Houston Jr., the commander of the Fleet Weather Center at Pearl Harbor, who had the required security clearance. On their recommendation, Rear Admiral Donald C. Davis, commander of Manned Spaceflight Recovery Forces, Pacific, advised NASA to change the recovery area, each man risking his career. A new location was selected northeast. The first program's acceleration subjected the astronauts to ; the second, to . Before dawn on July 24, Hornet launched four Sea King helicopters and three Grumman E-1 Tracers. Two of the E-1s were designated as "air boss" while the third acted as a communications relay aircraft. Two of the Sea Kings carried divers and recovery equipment. The third carried photographic equipment, and the fourth carried the decontamination swimmer and the flight surgeon. At 16:44 UTC (05:44 local time) Columbias drogue parachutes were deployed. This was observed by the helicopters. Seven minutes later Columbia struck the water forcefully east of Wake Island, south of Johnston Atoll, and from Hornet, Reconnaissance aircraft flying to the original splashdown location reported the conditions Brandli and Houston had predicted. During splashdown, Columbia landed upside down but was righted within ten minutes by flotation bags activated by the astronauts. A diver from the Navy helicopter hovering above attached a sea anchor to prevent it from drifting. More divers attached flotation collars to stabilize the module and positioned rafts for astronaut extraction. The divers then passed biological isolation garments (BIGs) to the astronauts, and assisted them into the life raft. The possibility of bringing back pathogens from the lunar surface was considered remote, but NASA took precautions at the recovery site. The astronauts were rubbed down with a sodium hypochlorite solution and Columbia wiped with Povidone-iodine to remove any lunar dust that might be present. The astronauts were winched on board the recovery helicopter. BIGs were worn until they reached isolation facilities on board Hornet. The raft containing decontamination materials was intentionally sunk. After touchdown on Hornet at 17:53 UTC, the helicopter was lowered by the elevator into the hangar bay, where the astronauts walked the to the mobile quarantine facility (MQF), where they would begin the Earth-based portion of their 21 days of quarantine. This practice would continue for two more Apollo missions, Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, before the Moon was proven to be barren of life, and the quarantine process dropped. Nixon welcomed the astronauts back to Earth. He told them: "[A]<!-- lowercase in source -->s a result of what you've done, the world has never been closer together before." After Nixon departed, Hornet was brought alongside the Columbia, which was lifted aboard by the ship's crane, placed on a dolly and moved next to the MQF. It was then attached to the MQF with a flexible tunnel, allowing the lunar samples, film, data tapes and other items to be removed. Hornet returned to Pearl Harbor, where the MQF was loaded onto a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter and airlifted to the Manned Spacecraft Center. The astronauts arrived at the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at 10:00 UTC on July 28. Columbia was taken to Ford Island for deactivation, and its pyrotechnics made safe. It was then taken to Hickham Air Force Base, from whence it was flown to Houston in a Douglas C-133 Cargomaster, reaching the Lunar Receiving Laboratory on July 30. In accordance with the Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law, a set of regulations promulgated by NASA on July 16 to codify its quarantine protocol, the astronauts continued in quarantine. After three weeks in confinement (first in the Apollo spacecraft, then in their trailer on Hornet, and finally in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory), the astronauts were given a clean bill of health. On August 10, 1969, the Interagency Committee on Back Contamination met in Atlanta and lifted the quarantine on the astronauts, on those who had joined them in quarantine (NASA physician William Carpentier and MQF project engineer John Hirasaki), and on Columbia itself. Loose equipment from the spacecraft remained in isolation until the lunar samples were released for study. Celebrations On August 13, the three astronauts rode in ticker-tape parades in their honor in New York and Chicago, with an estimated six million attendees. On the same evening in Los Angeles there was an official state dinner to celebrate the flight, attended by members of Congress, 44 governors, Chief Justice of the United States Warren E. Burger and his predecessor, Earl Warren, and ambassadors from 83 nations at the Century Plaza Hotel. Nixon and Agnew honored each astronaut with a presentation of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. The three astronauts spoke before a joint session of Congress on September 16, 1969. They presented two US flags, one to the House of Representatives and the other to the Senate, that they had carried with them to the surface of the Moon. The flag of American Samoa on Apollo 11 is on display at the Jean P. Haydon Museum in Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa. This celebration began a 38-day world tour that brought the astronauts to 22 countries and included visits with many world leaders. The crew toured from September 29 to November 5. The world tour started in Mexico City and ended in Tokyo. Stops on the tour in order were: Mexico City, Bogota, Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Las Palmas in the Canary Islands, Madrid, Paris, Amsterdam, Brussels, Oslo, Cologne, Berlin, London, Rome, Belgrade, Ankara, Kinshasa, Tehran, Mumbai, Dhaka, Bangkok, Darwin, Sydney, Guam, Seoul, Tokyo and Honolulu. Many nations honored the first human Moon landing with special features in magazines or by issuing Apollo 11 commemorative postage stamps or coins. Legacy Cultural significance '' newspaper stating "'The Eagle Has Landed' – Two Men Walk on the Moon"]] Humans walking on the Moon and returning safely to Earth accomplished Kennedy's goal set eight years earlier. In Mission Control during the Apollo 11 landing, Kennedy's speech flashed on the screen, followed by the words "TASK ACCOMPLISHED, July 1969". and with the success of Apollo 11, America had won the Space Race. New phrases permeated into the English language. "If they can send a man to the Moon, why can't they ...?" became a common saying following Apollo 11. Armstrong's words on the lunar surface also spun off various parodies. While most people celebrated the accomplishment, disenfranchised Americans saw it as a symbol of the divide in America, evidenced by protesters led by Ralph Abernathy outside of Kennedy Space Center the day before Apollo 11 launched. NASA Administrator Thomas Paine met with Abernathy at the occasion, both hoping that the space program can spur progress also in other regards, such as poverty in the US. Racial and financial inequalities frustrated citizens who wondered why money spent on the Apollo program was not spent taking care of humans on Earth. A poem by Gil Scott-Heron called "Whitey on the Moon" (1970) illustrated the racial inequality in the United States that was highlighted by the Space Race. The poem starts with: After the Apollo 11 mission, officials from the Soviet Union said landing humans on the Moon was dangerous and unnecessary. At the time the Soviet Union was attempting to retrieve lunar samples robotically. The Soviets publicly denied there was a race to the Moon, and indicated they were not making an attempt. Mstislav Keldysh said in July 1969, "We are concentrating wholly on the creation of large satellite systems." It was revealed in 1989 that the Soviets had tried to send people to the Moon, but were unable due to technological difficulties. The public's reaction in the Soviet Union was mixed. The Soviet government limited the release of information about the lunar landing, which affected the reaction. A portion of the populace did not give it any attention, and another portion was angered by it. The Apollo 11 landing is referenced in the songs "Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins" by the Byrds on the 1969 album Ballad of Easy Rider, "Coon on the Moon" by Howlin' Wolf on the 1973 album The Back Door Wolf, and "One Small Step" by Ayreon on the 2000 album Universal Migrator Part 1: The Dream Sequencer. Spacecraft on display in the Milestones of Flight exhibition hall at the National Air and Space Museum]] The command module Columbia went on a tour of the United States, visiting 49 state capitals, the District of Columbia, and Anchorage, Alaska. In 1971, it was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution, and was displayed at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, DC. Columbia was moved in 2017 to the NASM Mary Baker Engen Restoration Hangar at the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia, to be readied for a four-city tour titled Destination Moon: The Apollo 11 Mission. This included Space Center Houston from October 14, 2017, to March 18, 2018, the Saint Louis Science Center from April 14 to September 3, 2018, the Senator John Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh from September 29, 2018, to February 18, 2019, and its last location at Museum of Flight in Seattle from March 16 to September 2, 2019. Continued renovations at the Smithsonian allowed time for an additional stop for the capsule, and it was moved to the Cincinnati Museum Center. The ribbon cutting ceremony was on September 29, 2019. For 40 years Armstrong's and Aldrin's space suits were displayed in the museum's Apollo to the Moon exhibit, until it permanently closed on December 3, 2018, to be replaced by a new gallery which was scheduled to open in 2022. A special display of Armstrong's suit was unveiled for the 50th anniversary of Apollo 11 in July 2019. The quarantine trailer, the flotation collar and the flotation bags are in the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center annex near Washington Dulles International Airport in Chantilly, Virginia, where they are on display along with a test lunar module. in its new exhibit]] The descent stage of the LM Eagle remains on the Moon. In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) imaged the various Apollo landing sites on the surface of the Moon, for the first time with sufficient resolution to see the descent stages of the lunar modules, scientific instruments, and foot trails made by the astronauts. The remains of the ascent stage are assumed to lie at an unknown location on the lunar surface. The ascent stage, Eagle, was not tracked after it was jettisoned. The lunar gravity field is sufficiently non-uniform to make low Moon orbits unstable after a short time, leading the orbiting object to impact the surface. However, using a program developed by NASA, and high-resolution lunar gravity data, a paper was published, in 2021, indicating that Eagle might still be in orbit as late as 2020. Using the orbital elements published by NASA, a Monte Carlo method was used to generate parameter sets that bracket the uncertainties in these elements. All simulations, of the orbit, predicted that Eagle would never impact the lunar surface. In March 2012 a team of specialists financed by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos located the F-1 engines from the S-IC stage that launched Apollo 11 into space. They were found on the Atlantic seabed using advanced sonar scanning. His team brought parts of two of the five engines to the surface. In July 2013, a conservator discovered a serial number under the rust on one of the engines raised from the Atlantic, which NASA confirmed was from Apollo 11. The S-IVB third stage which performed Apollo 11's trans-lunar injection remains in a solar orbit near to that of Earth. '', traveled to the Moon in Apollo 11's Lunar Module Eagle and are displayed at the Wright Brothers National Memorial.]] Moon rocks The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. For safekeeping, there is also a smaller collection stored at White Sands Test Facility near Las Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep them free of moisture. They are handled only indirectly, using special tools. Over 100 research laboratories worldwide conduct studies of the samples; approximately 500 samples are prepared and sent to investigators every year. In November 1969, Nixon asked NASA to make up about 250 presentation Apollo 11 lunar sample displays for 135 nations, the fifty states of the United States and its possessions, and the United Nations. Each display included Moon dust from Apollo 11 and flags, including one of the Soviet Union, taken along by Apollo 11. The rice-sized particles were four small pieces of Moon soil weighing about 50 mg and were enveloped in a clear acrylic button about as big as a United States half-dollar coin. This acrylic button magnified the grains of lunar dust. Nixon gave the Apollo 11 lunar sample displays as goodwill gifts in 1970. Experiment results The Passive Seismic Experiment ran until the command uplink failed on August 25, 1969. The downlink failed on December 14, 1969.<!-- Hyphens, not ndashes --> , the Lunar Laser Ranging experiment remains operational. Moonwalk camera The Hasselblad camera used during the moonwalk was thought to be lost or left on the Moon surface. Lunar Module Eagle memorabilia In 2015, after Armstrong died in 2012, his widow contacted the National Air and Space Museum to inform them she had found a white cloth bag in one of Armstrong's closets. The bag contained various items, which should have been left behind in the Lunar Module Eagle, including the 16mm Data Acquisition Camera that had been used to capture images of the first Moon landing. The camera is currently on display at the National Air and Space Museum. Anniversary events <span id"40th anniversary events"></span>40th anniversary On July 15, 2009, Life.com released a photo gallery of previously unpublished photos of the astronauts taken by Life photographer Ralph Morse prior to the Apollo 11 launch. From July 16 to 24, 2009, NASA streamed the original mission audio on its website in real time 40 years to the minute after the events occurred. It is in the process of restoring the video footage and has released a preview of key moments. In July 2010, air-to-ground voice recordings and film footage shot in Mission Control during the Apollo 11 powered descent and landing was re-synchronized and released for the first time. The John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum set up an Adobe Flash website that rebroadcasts the transmissions of Apollo 11 from launch to landing on the Moon. On July 20, 2009, Armstrong, Aldrin, and Collins met with President Barack Obama at the White House. "We expect that there is, as we speak, another generation of kids out there who are looking up at the sky and are going to be the next Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin", Obama said. "We want to make sure that NASA is going to be there for them when they want to take their journey." On August 7, 2009, an act of Congress awarded the three astronauts a Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award in the United States. The bill was sponsored by Florida Senator Bill Nelson and Florida Representative Alan Grayson. A group of British scientists interviewed as part of the anniversary events reflected on the significance of the Moon landing: 50th anniversary On June 10, 2015, Congressman Bill Posey introduced resolution H.R. 2726 to the 114th session of the United States House of Representatives directing the United States Mint to design and sell commemorative coins in gold, silver and clad for the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 mission. On January 24, 2019, the Mint released the Apollo 11 Fiftieth Anniversary commemorative coins to the public on its website. A documentary film, Apollo 11, with restored footage of the 1969 event, premiered in IMAX on March 1, 2019, and broadly in theaters on March 8. The Smithsonian Institute's National Air and Space Museum and NASA sponsored the "Apollo 50 Festival" on the National Mall in Washington DC. The three-day (July 18 to 20, 2019) outdoor festival featured hands-on exhibits and activities, live performances, and speakers such as Adam Savage and NASA scientists. during the Apollo 11 50th anniversary show]] As part of the festival, a projection of the tall Saturn V rocket was displayed on the east face of the tall Washington Monument from July 16 through the 20th from 9:30 pm until 11:30 pm (EDT). The program also included a 17-minute show that combined full-motion video projected on the Washington Monument to recreate the assembly and launch of the Saturn V rocket. The projection was joined by a wide recreation of the Kennedy Space Center countdown clock and two large video screens showing archival footage to recreate the time leading up to the moon landing. There were three shows per night on July 19–20, with the last show on Saturday, delayed slightly so the portion where Armstrong first set foot on the Moon would happen exactly 50 years to the second after the actual event. On July 19, 2019, the Google Doodle paid tribute to the Apollo 11 Moon landing, complete with a link to an animated YouTube video with voiceover by astronaut Michael Collins. Aldrin, Collins, and Armstrong's sons were hosted by President Donald Trump in the Oval Office. Films and documentaries * Footprints on the Moon, a 1969 documentary film by Bill Gibson and Barry Coe * Moonwalk One, a 1971 documentary film by Theo Kamecke * Apollo 11: As It Happened, a 1994 six-hour documentary on ABC News' coverage of the event * First Man, 2018 film by Damien Chazelle based on the 2005 James R. Hansen book First Man: The Life of Neil A. Armstrong. * Apollo 11, a 2019 documentary film by Todd Douglas Miller with restored footage of the 1969 event * Chasing the Moon, a July 2019 PBS three-night six-hour documentary, directed by Robert Stone, examined the events leading up to the mission. An accompanying book of the same name was also released. * 8 Days: To the Moon and Back, a PBS and BBC Studios 2019 documentary film by Anthony Philipson re-enacting major portions of the mission using mission audio recordings, new studio footage, NASA and news archives, and computer-generated imagery. See also * * * * List of species that have landed on the Moon * List of photographs considered the most important References Notes Citations :In some of the following sources, times are shown in the format hours:minutes:seconds (e.g. 109:24:15), referring to the mission's Ground Elapsed Time (GET), based on the official launch time of July 16, 1969, 13:32:00 UTC (000:00:00 GET).<ref name"AP11FJ" /><ref name="Mission Overview" /> Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://apollo11.spacelog.org/ "Apollo 11 transcripts"] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20101201070617/http://spacelog.org/ Spacelog] * [https://apolloinrealtime.org/11/ Apollo 11 in real time] * [https://texasarchive.org/2018_02104 Apollo 11 Press Conference filmed by KPRC-TV] at Texas Archive of the Moving Image * [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/collections/show/790 Apollo 11 and 13 Checklists] at The Museum of Flight Digital Collections. * [https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/mapcatalog/LPST/ap_11_12_14/ Apollo 11, 12, and 14 Traverses], at the Lunar and Planetary Institute Multimedia * Remastered videos of the original landing. * [http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/featured_sites/view_site/59?linkId=65507096 Dynamic timeline of lunar excursion]. Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera * * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iYElQpV_Uwg The Eagle Has Landed: The Flight of Apollo 11 (1969)] ([http://www.archives.gov/social-media/transcripts/transcript-eagle-has-landed-1969-45017.pdf transcript]) from US National Archives (via YouTube) * [https://vimeo.com/14275570 Apollo 11 Restored EVA Part 1] (1hour of restored footage) * [https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/18/science/apollo-11-moon-landing-photos-ul.html Apollo 11: As They Photographed It (Augmented Reality)]—The New York Times, Interactive, July 18, 2019 * [http://www.radiotapes.com/specialpostings.html#Apollo11 "Coverage of the Flight of Apollo 11"] provided by Todd Kosovich for RadioTapes.com. Radio station recordings (airchecks) covering the flight of Apollo 11. Category:1969 on the Moon Category:Buzz Aldrin Category:Apollo program missions Category:Neil Armstrong Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Michael Collins (astronaut) Category:Crewed missions to the Moon Category:Soft landings on the Moon Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets Category:Successful space missions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_11	2025-04-05T18:25:19.127860
663	Apollo 8	8 by William Anders \| spacecraft = \| manufacturer = North American Rockwell \| launch_mass = \|CM: \|SM: \|SC/LM Adapter (jettisoned; connects LTA to CSM; not part of the CSM craft): \|LTA (not part of CSM; fixed to rocket): }} \| landing_mass \| launch_date UTC \| launch_rocket Saturn V SA-503 \| launch_site = Kennedy LC-39A \| landing_date UTC \| landing_site North Pacific Ocean () \|departure_date December 25, 1968, 6:10:17 UTC The three astronauts—Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders—were the first humans to see and photograph the far side of the Moon and an Earthrise. Apollo 8 launched on December 21, 1968, and was the second crewed spaceflight mission flown in the United States Apollo space program (the first, Apollo7, stayed in Earth orbit). Apollo8 was the third flight and the first crewed launch of the Saturn V rocket. It was the first human spaceflight from the Kennedy Space Center, adjacent to Cape Kennedy Air Force Station in Florida. Originally planned as the second crewed Apollo Lunar Module and command module test, to be flown in an elliptical medium Earth orbit in early 1969, the mission profile was changed in August 1968 to a more ambitious command-module-only lunar orbital flight to be flown in December, as the lunar module was not yet ready to make its first flight. Astronaut Jim McDivitt's crew, who were training to fly the first lunar module flight in low Earth orbit, became the crew for the Apollo9 mission, and Borman's crew were moved to the Apollo8 mission. This left Borman's crew with two to three months' less training and preparation time than originally planned, and replaced the planned lunar module training with translunar navigation training. Apollo 8 took 68 hours to travel to the Moon. The crew orbited the Moon ten times over the course of twenty hours, during which they made a Christmas Eve television broadcast where they read the first ten verses from the Book of Genesis. At the time, the broadcast was the most watched TV program ever. Apollo8's successful mission paved the way for Apollo 10 and, with Apollo11 in July 1969, the fulfillment of U.S. president John F. Kennedy's goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the decade. The Apollo8 astronauts returned to Earth on December 27, 1968, when their spacecraft splashed down in the northern Pacific Ocean. The crew members were named Time magazine's "Men of the Year" for 1968 upon their return. Background In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the United States was engaged in the Cold War, a geopolitical rivalry with the Soviet Union. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. This unexpected success stoked fears and imaginations around the world. It not only demonstrated that the Soviet Union had the capability to deliver nuclear weapons over intercontinental distances, it challenged American claims of military, economic, and technological superiority. The launch precipitated the Sputnik crisis and triggered the Space Race. President John F. Kennedy believed that not only was it in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, but that the perception of American power was at least as important as the actuality. It was therefore intolerable to him for the Soviet Union to be more advanced in the field of space exploration. He was determined that the United States should compete, and sought a challenge that maximized its chances of winning. The Soviet Union had heavier-lifting carrier rockets, which meant Kennedy needed to choose a goal that was beyond the capacity of the existing generation of rocketry, one where the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality—something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic, or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project: to land a man on the Moon and return him to the Earth. This project already had a name: Project Apollo. An early and crucial decision was the adoption of lunar orbit rendezvous, under which a specialized spacecraft would land on the lunar surface. The Apollo spacecraft therefore had three primary components: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, and the only part that would return to Earth; a service module (SM) to provide the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a two-stage lunar module (LM), which comprised a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to return the astronauts to lunar orbit. This configuration could be launched by the Saturn V rocket that was then under development. Framework Prime crew \|crew3_up = William A. Anders \|flights3_up = Only \|notes = }} The initial crew assignment of Frank Borman as Commander, Michael Collins as Command Module Pilot (CMP) and William Anders as Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Collins was replaced by Jim Lovell in July 1968, after suffering a cervical disc herniation that required surgery to repair. This crew was unique among pre-Space Shuttle era missions in that the commander was not the most experienced member of the crew: Lovell had flown twice before, on Gemini VII and Gemini XII. This would also be the first case of a commander of a previous mission (Lovell, Gemini XII) flying as a non-commander. This was also the first mission to reunite crewmates from a previous mission (Lovell and Borman, Gemini VII). As of June 2024, James Lovell is the last surviving Apollo 8 astronaut. Frank Borman and William Anders died on November 7, 2023, and on June 7, 2024, respectively.Backup crew The backup crew assignment of Neil Armstrong as Commander, Lovell as CMP, and Buzz Aldrin as LMP for the third crewed Apollo flight was officially announced at the same time as the prime crew. When Lovell was reassigned to the prime crew, Aldrin was moved to CMP, and Fred Haise was brought in as backup LMP. Armstrong would later command Apollo11, with Aldrin as LMP and Collins as CMP. Haise served on the backup crew of Apollo11 as LMP and flew on Apollo13 as LMP.Support personnelDuring Projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. The support crew maintained the flight plan, checklists, and mission ground rules, and ensured that the prime and backup crews were apprised of any changes. The support crew developed procedures in the simulators, especially those for emergency situations, so that the prime and backup crews could practice and master them in their simulator training. For Apollo8, the support crew consisted of Ken Mattingly, Vance Brand, and Gerald Carr. The capsule communicator (CAPCOM) was an astronaut at the Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, who was the only person who communicated directly with the flight crew. For Apollo8, the CAPCOMs were Michael Collins, Gerald Carr, Ken Mattingly, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Vance Brand, and Fred Haise. The mission control teams rotated in three shifts, each led by a flight director. The directors for Apollo8 were Clifford E. Charlesworth (Green team), Glynn Lunney (Black team), and Milton Windler (Maroon team).Mission insignia and callsign ]] The triangular shape of the insignia refers to the shape of the Apollo CM. It shows a red figure8 looping around the Earth and Moon to reflect both the mission number and the circumlunar nature of the mission. On the bottom of the8 are the names of the three astronauts. The initial design of the insignia was developed by Jim Lovell, who reportedly sketched it while riding in the back seat of a T-38 flight from California to Houston shortly after learning of Apollo8's re-designation as a lunar-orbital mission. The crew wanted to name their spacecraft, but NASA did not allow it. The crew would have likely chosen Columbiad, the name of the giant cannon that launches a space vehicle in Jules Verne's 1865 novel From the Earth to the Moon. The Apollo11 CM was named Columbia in part for that reason. Preparations Mission schedule On September 20, 1967, NASA adopted a seven-step plan for Apollo missions, with the final step being a Moon landing. Apollo4 and Apollo6 were "A" missions, tests of the SaturnV launch vehicle using an uncrewed Block I production model of the command and service module (CSM) in Earth orbit. Apollo5 was a "B" mission, a test of the LM in Earth orbit. Apollo7, scheduled for October 1968, would be a "C" mission, a crewed Earth-orbit flight of the CSM. Further missions depended on the readiness of the LM. It had been decided as early as May 1967 that there would be at least four additional missions. Apollo8 was planned as the "D" mission, a test of the LM in a low Earth orbit in December 1968 by James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweickart, while Borman's crew would fly the "E" mission, a more rigorous LM test in an elliptical medium Earth orbit as Apollo9, in early 1969. The "F" Mission would test the CSM and LM in lunar orbit, and the "G" mission would be the finale, the Moon landing. (VAB) on February 1, 1968]] Production of the LM fell behind schedule, and when Apollo8's LM-3 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in June 1968, more than a hundred significant defects were discovered, leading Bob Gilruth, the director of the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC), and others to conclude that there was no prospect of LM-3 being ready to fly in 1968. Indeed, it was possible that delivery would slip to February or March 1969. Following the original seven-step plan would have meant delaying the "D" and subsequent missions, and endangering the program's goal of a lunar landing before the end of 1969. George Low, the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August 1968 to keep the program on track despite the LM delay. Since the next CSM (designated as "CSM-103") would be ready three months before LM-3, a CSM-only mission could be flown in December 1968. Instead of repeating the "C" mission flight of Apollo7, this CSM could be sent all the way to the Moon, with the possibility of entering a lunar orbit and returning to Earth. The new mission would also allow NASA to test lunar landing procedures that would otherwise have had to wait until Apollo10, the scheduled "F" mission. This also meant that the medium Earth orbit "E" mission could be dispensed with. The net result was that only the "D" mission had to be delayed, and the plan for lunar landing in mid-1969 could remain on timeline. On August 9, 1968, Low discussed the idea with Gilruth, Flight Director Chris Kraft, and the Director of Flight Crew Operations, Donald Slayton. They then flew to the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) in Huntsville, Alabama, where they met with KSC Director Kurt Debus, Apollo Program Director Samuel C. Phillips, Rocco Petrone, and Wernher von Braun. Jerry Wittenstein, deputy chief of flight mechanics, presented trajectories for the new mission. Kraft considered the proposal feasible from a flight control standpoint; Debus and Petrone agreed that the next Saturn V, AS-503, could be made ready by December 1; and von Braun was confident the pogo oscillation problems that had afflicted Apollo6 had been fixed. Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission, citing confidence in both the hardware and the personnel, along with the potential for a circumlunar flight providing a significant morale boost. The only person who needed some convincing was James E. Webb, the NASA administrator. Backed by the full support of his agency, Webb authorized the mission. Apollo8 was officially changed from a "D" mission to a "C-Prime" lunar-orbit mission. With the change in mission for Apollo 8, Slayton asked McDivitt if he still wanted to fly it. McDivitt turned it down; his crew had spent a great deal of time preparing to test the LM, and that was what he still wanted to do. Slayton then decided to swap the prime and backup crews of the Dand Emissions. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft, requiring Borman's crew to use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104, since CM-104 could not be made ready by December. David Scott was not happy about giving up CM-103, the testing of which he had closely supervised, for CM-104, although the two were almost identical, and Anders was less than enthusiastic about being an LMP on a flight with no LM. Instead, Apollo8 would carry the<!--LM is pronounced "LEM"--> LM test article, a boilerplate model that would simulate the correct weight and balance of LM-3. Added pressure on the Apollo program to make its 1969 landing goal was provided by the Soviet Union's Zond5 mission, which flew some living creatures, including Russian tortoises, in a cislunar loop around the Moon and returned them to Earth on September 21. There was speculation within NASA and the press that they might be preparing to launch cosmonauts on a similar circumlunar mission before the end of 1968. Compounding these concerns, American reconnaissance satellites observed a mockup N1 being rolled to the pad at Baikonur on November 25, 1967. The Apollo 8 crew, now living in the crew quarters at Kennedy Space Center, received a visit from Charles Lindbergh and his wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh, the night before the launch. They talked about how, before his 1927 flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from New York City to Paris on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total he had carried was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second. The next day, the Lindberghs watched the launch of Apollo8 from a nearby dune.Saturn V redesignThe Saturn V rocket used by Apollo8 was designated AS-503, or the "03rd" model of the SaturnV ("5") rocket to be used in the Apollo-Saturn ("AS") program. When it was erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building on December 20, 1967, it was thought that the rocket would be used for an uncrewed Earth-orbit test flight carrying a boilerplate command and service module. Apollo6 had suffered several major problems during its April 1968 flight, including severe pogo oscillation during its first stage, two second-stage engine failures, and a third stage that failed to reignite in orbit. Without assurances that these problems had been rectified, NASA administrators could not justify risking a crewed mission until additional uncrewed test flights proved the Saturn V was ready. Teams from the MSFC went to work on the problems. Of primary concern was the pogo oscillation, which would not only hamper engine performance, but could exert significant g-forces on a crew. A task force of contractors, NASA agency representatives, and MSFC researchers concluded that the engines vibrated at a frequency similar to the frequency at which the spacecraft itself vibrated, causing a resonance effect that induced oscillations in the rocket. A system that used helium gas to absorb some of these vibrations was installed. atop the crawler-transporter]] Of equal importance was the failure of three engines during flight. Researchers quickly determined that a leaking hydrogen fuel line ruptured when exposed to vacuum, causing a loss of fuel pressure in engine two. When an automatic shutoff attempted to close the liquid hydrogen valve and shut down engine two, it had accidentally shut down engine three's liquid oxygen due to a miswired connection. As a result, engine three failed within one second of engine two's shutdown. Further investigation revealed the same problem for the third-stage engine—a faulty igniter line. The team modified the igniter lines and fuel conduits, hoping to avoid similar problems on future launches. The teams tested their solutions in August 1968 at the MSFC. A Saturn stage IC was equipped with shock-absorbing devices to demonstrate the team's solution to the problem of pogo oscillation, while a Saturn Stage II was retrofitted with modified fuel lines to demonstrate their resistance to leaks and ruptures in vacuum conditions. Once NASA administrators were convinced that the problems had been solved, they gave their approval for a crewed mission using AS-503. The Apollo 8 spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on September 21, and the rocket made the slow journey to the launch pad atop one of NASA's two massive crawler-transporters on October9. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch, including various levels of readiness testing from December5 through 11. Final testing of modifications to address the problems of pogo oscillation, ruptured fuel lines, and bad igniter lines took place on December 18, three days before the scheduled launch.MissionParameter summaryAs the first crewed spacecraft to orbit more than one celestial body, Apollo8's profile had two different sets of orbital parameters, separated by a translunar injection maneuver. Apollo lunar missions would begin with a nominal circular Earth parking orbit. Apollo8 was launched into an initial orbit with an apogee of and a perigee of , with an inclination of 32.51° to the Equator, and an orbital period of 88.19 minutes. Propellant venting increased the apogee by over the 2hours, 44 minutes, and 30 seconds spent in the parking orbit. This was followed by a trans-lunar injection (TLI) burn of the S-IVB third stage for 318 seconds, accelerating the command and service module and LM test article from an orbital velocity of to the injection velocity of The Apollo 8 crew were the first humans to pass through the Van Allen radiation belts, which extend up to from Earth. Scientists predicted that passing through the belts quickly at the spacecraft's high speed would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest X-ray, or 1milligray (mGy; during a year, the average human receives a dose of 2to 3mGy from background radiation). To record the actual radiation dosages, each crew member wore a Personal Radiation Dosimeter that transmitted data to Earth, as well as three passive film dosimeters that showed the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the crew members experienced an average radiation dose of 1.6 mGy. Lunar trajectory Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was as navigator. Although Mission Control normally performed all the navigation calculations, it was necessary to have a crew member adept at navigation so that the crew could return to Earth in case communication with Mission Control was lost. Lovell navigated by star sightings using a sextant built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) horizon. This task was made difficult by a large cloud of debris around the spacecraft, which made it hard to distinguish the stars. By seven hours into the mission, the crew was about 1hour and 40 minutes behind flight plan because of the problems in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's obscured star sightings. The crew placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), also called "barbecue roll", in which the spacecraft rotated about once per hour around its long axis to ensure even heat distribution across the surface of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, parts of the spacecraft's outer surface could be heated to over , while the parts in shadow would be . These temperatures could cause the heat shield to crack and propellant lines to burst. Because it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft swept out a cone as it rotated. The crew had to make minor adjustments every half hour as the cone pattern got larger and larger. , probably photographed by William Anders. The Apollo 8 crew and Mission Control medical personnel held a conference using an unoccupied second-floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston, on the second and third floors, only one of which was used during a mission). The conference participants concluded that there was little to worry about and that Borman's illness was either a 24-hour flu, as Borman thought, or a reaction to the sleeping pill. Researchers now believe that he was suffering from space adaptation syndrome, which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their vestibular system adapts to weightlessness. Space adaptation syndrome had not occurred on previous spacecraft (Mercury and Gemini), because those astronauts could not move freely in the small cabins of those spacecraft. The increased cabin space in the Apollo command module afforded astronauts greater freedom of movement, contributing to symptoms of space sickness for Borman and, later, astronaut Rusty Schweickart during Apollo9. The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, except for the crew's checking that the spacecraft was in working order and that they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast at 31 hours after launch. The Apollo8 crew used a camera that broadcast in black-and-white only, using a Vidicon tube. The camera had two lenses, a very wide-angle (160°) lens, and a telephoto (9°) lens. During this first broadcast, the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared from space. However, difficulties aiming the narrow-angle lens without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at made showing the Earth impossible. Additionally, without proper filters, the Earth image became saturated by any bright source. In the end, all the crew could show the people watching back on Earth was a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes, the rotation of the spacecraft took the high-gain antenna out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother a happy birthday. Lovell replied, "We'll see you on the other side", and for the first time in history, humans travelled behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth. With ten minutes remaining before LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in its correct position. At that time, they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight obliquely illuminating the lunar surface. The LOI burn was only two minutes away, so the crew had little time to appreciate the view.Lunar orbitThe SPS was ignited at 69 hours, 8minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4minutes and 7seconds, placing the Apollo8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even been flung off into space. If it had lasted too long, they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours. On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine, or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time, the crew would have appeared early from behind the Moon. Exactly at the calculated moment the signal was received from the spacecraft, indicating it was in a orbit around the Moon.}} as seen from Apollo8]] Lovell continued to describe the terrain they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was reconnaissance of planned future landing sites on the Moon, especially one in Mare Tranquillitatis that was planned as the Apollo11 landing site. The launch time of Apollo8 had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for examining the site. A film camera had been set up in one of the spacecraft windows to record one frame per second of the Moon below. Bill Anders spent much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as possible of targets of interest. By the end of the mission, the crew had taken over eight hundred 70 mm still photographs and of 16 mm movie film. Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a "go/no go" decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit. Anders saw the Earth emerging from behind the lunar horizon and called in excitement to the others, taking a black-and-white photograph as he did so. Anders asked Lovell for color film and then took Earthrise, a now famous color photo, later picked by Life magazine as one of its hundred photos of the century. Due to the synchronous rotation of the Moon about the Earth, Earthrise is not generally visible from the lunar surface. This is because, as seen from any one place on the Moon's surface, Earth remains in approximately the same position in the lunar sky, either above or below the horizon. Earthrise is generally visible only while orbiting the Moon, and at selected surface locations near the Moon's limb, where libration carries the Earth slightly above and below the lunar horizon. Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell assumed control of the spacecraft so that Borman could rest. Despite the difficulty resting in the cramped and noisy spacecraft, Borman was able to sleep for two orbits, awakening periodically to ask questions about their status. Borman awoke fully when he started to hear his fellow crew members make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and had to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired from not having a good night's sleep in over three days. He ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. Anders initially protested, saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. Anders finally agreed under the condition that Borman would set up the camera to continue to take automatic pictures of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching, he wanted the crew to be alert. For the next two orbits, Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm. The only task left for the crew at this point was to perform the trans-Earth injection (TEI), which was scheduled for hours after the end of the television transmission. The TEI was the most critical burn of the flight, as any failure of the SPS to ignite would strand the crew in lunar orbit, with little hope of escape. As with the previous burn, the crew had to perform the maneuver above the far side of the Moon, out of contact with Earth. The burn occurred exactly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time calculated. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, "Please be informed, there is a Santa Claus", to which Ken Mattingly, the current CAPCOM, replied, "That's affirmative, you are the best ones to know." The spacecraft began its journey back to Earth on December 25, Christmas Day. Unplanned manual realignment Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. He accidentally erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measurement unit (IMU) to contain data indicating that the module was in the same relative orientation it had been in before lift-off; the IMU then fired the thrusters to "correct" the module's attitude. Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized that they would have to reenter data to tell the computer the module's actual orientation. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars Rigel and Sirius aligned, and another 15 minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer. Sixteen months later, during the Apollo13 mission, Lovell would have to perform a similar manual realignment under more critical conditions after the module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy.Cruise back to Earth and reentryat 40,000 feet\|altWhite streaks of light, with bright spots on the right side of them, fill the bottom of the frame. A larger yellow-tinted sphere with a streak is in the center of the frame. The background is black space.]] The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would reenter Earth's atmosphere two-and-a-half days after TEI and splash down in the Pacific. On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth television broadcast. This time, they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they finished broadcasting, they found a small present from Slayton in the food locker: a real turkey dinner with stuffing, in the same kind of pack given to the troops in Vietnam. Another Slayton surprise was a gift of three miniature bottles of brandy, which Borman ordered the crew to leave alone until after they landed. They remained unopened, even years after the flight. There were also small presents to the crew from their wives. The next day, at about 124 hours into the mission, the sixth and final TV transmission showed the mission's best video images of the Earth, during a four-minute broadcast. After two uneventful days, the crew prepared for reentry. The computer would control the reentry, and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, with the blunt end forward. In the event of computer failure, Borman was ready to take over. Separation from the service module prepared the command module for reentry by exposing the heat shield and shedding unneeded mass. The service module would burn up in the atmosphere as planned. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been calculated by the trajectory specialists. As the module hit the thin outer atmosphere, the crew noticed that it was becoming hazy outside as glowing plasma formed around the spacecraft. The spacecraft started slowing down, and the deceleration peaked at . With the computer controlling the descent by changing the attitude of the spacecraft, Apollo8 rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At , the drogue parachute deployed, stabilizing the spacecraft, followed at by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was officially reported as in the North Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii at 15:51:42 UTC on December 27, 1968. Even though the year saw political assassinations, political unrest in the streets of Europe and America, and the Prague Spring, Time magazine chose the crew of Apollo8 as its Men of the Year for 1968, recognizing them as the people who most influenced events in the preceding year. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as having only a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of Apollo8 was summed up in a telegram from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that stated simply, "Thank you Apollo8. You saved 1968." One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that the crew took as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. This was the first time that humans had taken such a picture while actually behind the camera, and it has been credited as one of the inspirations of the first Earth Day in 1970. It was selected as the first of Life magazine's 100 Photographs That Changed the World. Apollo 11 astronaut Michael Collins said, "Eight's momentous historic significance was foremost"; while space historian Robert K. Poole saw Apollo8 as the most historically significant of all the Apollo missions. The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, Mercury-Atlas 6 by John Glenn, in 1962. There were 1,200 journalists covering the mission, with the BBC's coverage broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper Pravda featured a quote from , Chairman of the Soviet Interkosmos program, who described the flight as an "outstanding achievement of American space sciences and technology". It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw—either live or delayed—the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon. The Apollo8 broadcasts won an Emmy Award, the highest honor given by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences. Madalyn Murray O'Hair, an atheist, later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from Genesis. O'Hair wanted the courts to ban American astronauts—who were all government employees—from public prayer in space. Though the case was rejected by the Supreme Court of the United States, apparently for lack of jurisdiction in outer space, it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. Buzz Aldrin, on Apollo11, self-communicated Presbyterian Communion on the surface of the Moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years and referred to it only obliquely at the time. In 1969, the United States Post Office Department issued a postage stamp (Scott catalogue #1371) commemorating the Apollo8 flight around the Moon. The stamp featured a detail of the famous photograph of the Earthrise over the Moon taken by Anders on Christmas Eve, and the words, "In the beginning God...", the first words of the book of Genesis. In January 1969, just 18 days after the crew's return to Earth, they appeared in the Super Bowl III pre-game show, reciting the Pledge of Allegiance, before the national anthem was performed by trumpeter Lloyd Geisler of the Washington National Symphony Orchestra. Spacecraft location In January 1970, the spacecraft was delivered to Osaka, Japan, for display in the U.S. pavilion at Expo '70. It is now displayed at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry, along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and the space suit worn by Frank Borman. Jim Lovell's Apollo8 space suit is on public display in the Visitor Center at NASA's Glenn Research Center. Bill Anders's space suit is on display at the Science Museum in London, United Kingdom.In popular cultureApollo 8's historic mission has been depicted and referred to in several forms, both documentary and fiction. The various television transmissions and 16 mm footage shot by the crew of Apollo8 were compiled and released by NASA in the 1969 documentary Debrief: Apollo8, hosted by Burgess Meredith. In addition, Spacecraft Films released, in 2003, a three-disc DVD set containing all of NASA's TV and 16 mm film footage related to the mission, including all TV transmissions from space, training and launch footage, and motion pictures taken in flight. Other documentaries include "Race to the Moon" (2005) as part of season 18 of American Experience and In the Shadow of the Moon (2007). Apollo's Daring Mission aired on PBS' Nova in December 2018, marking the flight's 50th anniversary. The 1994 album The Songs of Distant Earth by Mike Oldfield uses the Anders' reading for the cut "In The Beginning". Parts of the mission are dramatized in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon episode "1968". The S-IVB stage of Apollo8 was also portrayed as the location of an alien device in the 1970 UFO episode "Conflict". Apollo8's lunar orbit insertion was chronicled with actual recordings in the song "The Other Side", on the 2015 album The Race for Space, by the band Public Service Broadcasting. A documentary film, First to the Moon: The Journey of Apollo 8 was released in 2018. See also * Apollo 8 (book) * List of missions to the Moon Notes References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130531210211/http://astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm "Apollo 8"] at Encyclopedia Astronautica * Article about the 40th anniversary of Apollo8 ;Multimedia * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo8GoForTli Apollo 8: Go for TLI] 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive * [https://archive.org/details/debrief_apollo_8 Debrief: Apollo 8] 1969 NASA film at the Internet Archive * [https://archive.org/details/Apollo07And0816mmOnboardFilm "Apollo 07 and 08 16mm Onboard Film (1968)"] raw footage taken from Apollos 7and8 at the Internet Archive * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1HV9EgQlIhE Apollo 8 Around the Moon and Back] 2018 YouTube video Apollo 08 Category:Crewed missions to the Moon Category:Spacecraft launched in 1968 Category:1968 in the United States Category:Spacecraft which reentered in 1968 Category:December 1968 Category:Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets Category:Jim Lovell Category:William Anders Category:Frank Borman Category:Successful space missions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_8	2025-04-05T18:25:19.182760
664	Astronaut	astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside on shuttle mission STS-41-B in 1984]] An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek (), meaning 'star', and (), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member aboard a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and tourists. "Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek ). Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (, meaning "heaven navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff"). Since 1961 and as of 2021, 600 astronauts have flown in space. Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut. Definition aboard Freedom 7 (1961)]] The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line, at an altitude of . In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of are awarded astronaut wings. , 552 people from 36 countries have reached or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond. Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon. Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice. , under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded in altitude, only one, Joseph A. Walker, exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62.1 miles) and he did it two times, becoming the first person in space twice. , the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Oleg Kononenko, who has spent over 1100 days in space. Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, at 675 days. Terminology In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader cosmos, while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars. Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term. When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut". The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In ''Les Navigateurs de l'infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique'' (astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.Cosmonaut , Titov, Bykovsky, Yegorov, Popovich; front row: Komarov, Gagarin, Tereshkova, Nikolayev, Feoktistov, Belyayev.]] By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its predecessor, the Soviet space program) is called a cosmonaut in English texts. Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the (although Poles also used , and the two words are considered synonyms). Coinage of the term has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974). The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Soviet citizens, with German Titov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, and Grigoriy Nelyubov, who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961. Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963. On 14 March 1995, Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut". Taikonaut In Chinese, the term (, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general, while (, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, (, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase (, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China. The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese ''People's Daily'' since the advent of the Chinese space program. The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih () from Malaysia used it in newsgroups. Other terms With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies. astronaut Timothy Kopra]] While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led Interkosmos program. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut () is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word for "space"; the Malay term (deriving from angkasa meaning 'space') was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program (note its similarity with the Indonesian term antariksawan). Plans of the Indian Space Research Organisation to launch its crewed Gaganyaan spacecraft have spurred at times public discussion if another term than astronaut should be used for the crew members, suggesting vyomanaut (from the Sanskrit word meaning 'sky' or 'space') or gagannaut (from the Sanskrit word for 'sky'). In Finland, the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, a Finnish American, has sometimes been referred to as , from the Finnish word . Across Germanic languages, the word for "astronaut" typically translates to "space traveler", as it does with German's Raumfahrer, Dutch's ruimtevaarder, Swedish's rymdfarare, and Norwegian's romfarer. For its 2022 Astronaut Group, the European Space Agency envisioned recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight. The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than ). On 23 November 2022, John McFall was selected to be the first ESA parastronaut; he has rejected the use of the term. As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency: * one who flies in a vehicle above for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier) * one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant * one who flies above in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration * one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) * a generally-accepted but unofficial term for a paying non-crew passenger who flies a private non-NASA or military vehicles above is a space tourist (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson. Space travel milestones <!--First Man, First Woman, First on the Moon, in chronological order.--> , first human in space (1961)]] , first woman in space (1963)]] , first human to walk on the Moon (1969)]] , a Czechoslovak who became the first non-American and non-Soviet cosmonaut in space (1978)]] , first person sent into space by China (2003)]] The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days. Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard Freedom 7. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on 18 June 1983. In 1992, Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47. Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission. The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from other "socialist" (i.e. Warsaw Pact and other Soviet-allied) countries to fly on its missions, with the notable exceptions of France and Austria participating in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13, respectively. An example is Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek, the first cosmonaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States, who flew to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket. Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian citizen to travel to space. He was launched aboard Soyuz T-11, on 2 April 1984. On 23 July 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of Hispanic and black African descent to fly in space, and in 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space. The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry (France), in 1985. In 1985, Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud became the first Arab Muslim astronaut in space. In 1988, Abdul Ahad Mohmand became the first Afghan to reach space, spending nine days aboard the Mir space station. With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of eight Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010). In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space. In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space. In 2002, Mark Shuttleworth became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space, as a paying spaceflight participant. In 2003, Ilan Ramon became the first Israeli to fly in space, although he died during a re-entry accident. On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. On 30 May 2020, Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken became the first astronauts to launch to orbit on a private crewed spacecraft, Crew Dragon. Age milestones The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen, who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-16. Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard, broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit; he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space, twice. The oldest person to reach space is William Shatner, who was 90 years old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-18. The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn, one of the Mercury 7, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. Duration and distance milestones The longest time spent in space was by Russian Valeri Polyakov, who spent 438 days there. aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1. The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity. Jared Isaacman was the first person to self-fund a mission to orbit, commanding Inspiration4 in 2021. Nine others have paid Space Adventures to fly to the International Space Station: # Dennis Tito (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001 # Mark Shuttleworth (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002 # Gregory Olsen (American): 1–11 October 2005 # Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006 # Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007, 26 March – 8 April 2009 # Richard Garriott (British / American): 12–24 October 2008 # Guy Laliberté (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009 # Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano (both Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021 Training during water egress training with NASA (1965)]] The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959. Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots. The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots. Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory. NASA candidacy requirements * The candidate must be a citizen of the United States. * The candidate must complete a master's degree in a STEM field, including engineering, biological science, physical science, computer science or mathematics. * The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft. * The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical. * The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications. The master's degree requirement can also be met by: * Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field. * A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree. * Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program. Mission Specialist Educator * Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired. Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004; as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger. Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist. The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s. Health risks of space travel performing ultrasound on Michael Fincke during ISS Expedition 9]] Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space. On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease. In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars. Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS). On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes. Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts. In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely. Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts. A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities. A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions, including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills (dexterity), but also slightly weaker vision, both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.Food and drink An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about packaging mass per meal). Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about per day. Insignia In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union. At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed in altitude. Deaths , eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli. , eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service. The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant. See also Explanatory notes References External links * * [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/outreach/jobsinfo/astronaut101.html NASA: How to become an astronaut 101] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/InternationalSpaceAgencies.htm List of International partnership organizations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160820191601/http://www.astronautix.com/p/phantomcosmonaut.html Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts] * [http://www.collectspace.com/sightings/ collectSPACE: Astronaut appearances calendar] * [http://www.spacefacts.de/ spacefacts Spacefacts.de] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070208224003/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/other/stat_kk.sht Manned astronautics: facts and figures] * [http://astronauts.nasa.gov/content/broch00.htm Astronaut Candidate Brochure online] Category:Science occupations Category:1959 introductions	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut	2025-04-05T18:25:19.342959
665	A Modest Proposal	A Modest Proposal for Preventing the Children of Poor People from Being a Burthen<!-- NOTE: This is the original spelling. Please do not modify it. Thank you. --> to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick<!-- NOTE: This is the original spelling. Please do not modify it. Thank you. -->, commonly referred to as A Modest Proposal, is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published by Anglo-Irish writer and clergyman Jonathan Swift in 1729. The essay suggests that poor people in Ireland could ease their economic troubles by selling their children as food to the elite. Swift's use of satirical hyperbole was intended to mock hostile attitudes towards the poor and anti-Catholicism among the Protestant Ascendancy as well as the Dublin Castle administration's policies in general. In English writing, the phrase "a modest proposal" is now conventionally an allusion to this style of straight-faced satire. Synopsis ]] Swift's essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of English literature. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states: "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout." Swift was especially attacking projects that tried to fix population and labour issues with a simple cure-all solution. A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company". that were in vogue during the early 18th century. Ian McBride argues that the point of A Modest Proposal was to "find a suitably decisive means of dehumanizing the settlers who had failed so comprehensively to meet their social responsibilities." A Modest Proposal also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities". In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician" to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift's intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defence of crime (arrogated to Marx) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population". Rhetoric Author Charles K. Smith argues that Swift's rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift's specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap" to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class. Swift's use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator's cool approach towards them create "two opposing points of view" that "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way." to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commodified, Swift's rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound". The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan". Johnson notes Swift's obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works A Modest Proposal and Apology. In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme, that of cannibalism and the eating of babies as well as the same final argument, that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human".Defoe's The Generous ProjectorIt has also been argued that A Modest Proposal was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children by Swift's rival Daniel Defoe. Mandeville's Modest Defence of Publick Stews Bernard Mandeville's Modest Defence of Publick Stews asked to introduce public and state-controlled bordellos. The 1726 paper acknowledges women's interests and—while not being a completely satirical text—has also been discussed as an inspiration for Jonathan Swift's title. Mandeville had by 1705 already become famous for The Fable of the Bees and deliberations on private vices and public benefits. John Locke's First Treatise of Government John Locke commented: "Be it then as Sir Robert says, that Anciently, it was usual for Men to sell and Castrate their Children. Let it be, that they exposed them; Add to it, if you please, for this is still greater Power, that they begat them for their Tables to fat and eat them: If this proves a right to do so, we may, by the same Argument, justifie Adultery, Incest and Sodomy, for there are examples of these too, both Ancient and Modern; Sins, which I suppose, have the Principle Aggravation from this, that they cross the main intention of Nature, which willeth the increase of Mankind, and the continuation of the Species in the highest perfection, and the distinction of Families, with the Security of the Marriage Bed, as necessary thereunto". (First Treatise, sec. 59). Economic themes Robert Phiddian's article "Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal" focuses on two aspects of A Modest Proposal: the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satirical voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that "there is a gap between the narrator's meaning and the text's, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody". While Swift's proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of "Swift's Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet", argues that to understand the piece fully it is important to understand the economics of Swift's time. Wittowsky argued that an insufficient number of critics have taken the time to focus directly on mercantilism and theories of labour in Georgian era Britain. "If one regards the Modest Proposal simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact"."People are the riches of a nation"At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy that paid its workers low wages because high wages meant workers would work less. Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity". Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that mere population itself, in Ireland's case, did not always mean greater wealth and economy. The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer.}} Modern usage A Modest Video Game Proposal is the title of an open letter sent by activist/former attorney Jack Thompson on 10 October 2005. The 2012 horror film Butcher Boys, written by the original The Texas Chain Saw Massacre scribe Kim Henkel, is said to be an updating of Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal. Henkel imagined the descendants of folks who actually took Swift up on his proposal. The film opens with a quote from J. Swift. The 2023 song "Eat Your Young" written by Irish musician Hozier might be a reference to "A Modest Proposal". It combines themes regarding the anti-war and anti-income-inequality movement, and uses Swift's essay as a framework to compare those modern problems to those same problems during Swift's time. The July 2023 Channel 4 mockumentary Gregg Wallace: The British Miracle Meat, written by British comedy writer Matt Edmonds, updates A Modest Proposal and presents it in a similar format to Wallace's Inside the Factory, with human meat given as a potential solution to the UK's cost of living crisis. The words "a modest proposal" are used in Wallace's summing up at the end of the programme, and Swift is credited. See also * Cannibalism in literature * Child cannibalism Notes References * * (subscription needed) * * * * External links * [https://celt.ucc.ie/published/E700001-022/ A Modest Proposal (CELT)] * A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg) * [https://www.owleyes.org/text/modest-proposal A Modest Proposal] – Annotated text aligned to Common Core Standards * * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00h3650 A Modest Proposal] BBC Radio 4 In Our Time with Melvyn Bragg * '[https://books.google.com/books?id=t1MJAAAAQAAJ A modest proposal For preventing the children of poor people From being a Burthen to their Parents or the Country, And for making them Beneficial to the publick]. The Third Edition, Dublin, Printed: And Reprinted at London, for Weaver Bickerton, in Devereux-Court near the Middle-Temple, 1730. Category:1729 essays Category:1729 in Great Britain Category:1729 books Category:Essays by Jonathan Swift Category:Satirical essays Category:Pamphlets Category:British satire Category:Fiction about cannibalism Category:Works about Ireland	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Modest_Proposal	2025-04-05T18:25:19.356294
666	Alkali metal	{\| class="floatright" ! colspan2 style"text-align:left;" \| ↓ <small>Period</small> \|- ! 2 \| \|- ! 3 \| \|- ! 4 \| \|- ! 5 \| \|- ! 6 \| \|- ! 7 \| \|- \| colspan="2"\|Legend {\| style="text-align:center; border:0; margin: 0 auto" \|- \| style="border:; background:;" \| primordial \|- \| style="border:; background:;padding:0 2px;" \| element by radioactive decay \|} \|} The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). Together with hydrogen they constitute group 1, which lies in the s-block of the periodic table. All alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well-characterised homologous behaviour. This family of elements is also known as the lithium family after its leading element. The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen (and in the case of lithium, nitrogen). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals.<!--YES, NOT FRANCIUM. SEE BELOW.--> All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones. All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of abundance, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity; francium occurs only in minute traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of element 119, which is likely to be the next member of the group; none were successful. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues. Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best-known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks form the basis of the second. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium-vapour lamp, which emits light very efficiently. Table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Lithium finds use as a psychiatric medication and as an anode in lithium batteries. Sodium, potassium and possibly lithium are essential elements, having major biological roles as electrolytes, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful. __TOC__ History , the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated]] Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt (sodium chloride) has been an important commodity in human activities. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri-Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789. Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium's extreme reactivity. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance caustic soda (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different. was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.]] Petalite () was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist José Bonifácio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore. This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name lithion/lithina, from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material lithium. The next year, they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra: a bright red line for rubidium (from the Latin word rubidus, meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky-blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word caesius, meaning sky-blue). Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the +1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the boron group. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of group IB, and once as part of a "group VIII" encompassing today's groups 8 to 11. After the introduction of the 18-column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the d-block, while alkali metals were left in group IA. Later the group's name was changed to group 1 in 1988. before Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium-227, which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium-227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium-227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium-227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6%, a figure that she later revised to 1%. : The next element below francium (eka-francium) in the periodic table would be ununennium (Uue), element 119. : + → * → no atoms It is highly unlikely to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table, it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan. Currently, none of the period 8 elements has been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to drip instabilities, that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make.]] The Oddo–Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple-alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements. The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica, forming relatively low-density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii. Sodium and potassium are very abundant on Earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6% of the Earth's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5% of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm, comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is spodumene, which occurs in large deposits worldwide. although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 10<sup>18</sup> uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there are at most 30 grams of francium in the earth's crust at any time, due to its extremely short half-life of 22 minutes. Properties Physical and chemical The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns<sup>1</sup> valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities,\|groupnote}} \| 6.94(1){{refn\|The value listed is the conventional value suitable for trade and commerce; the actual value may range from 6.938 to 6.997 depending on the isotopic composition of the sample. \|- \| style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"\|Electron affinity (kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) \| 59.62 \|\| 52.87 \|\| 48.38 \|\| 46.89 \|\| 45.51 \|\|? \|- \| style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"\|Enthalpy of dissociation of M<sub>2</sub> (kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>) \| 106.5 \|\| 73.6 \|\| 57.3 \|\| 45.6 \|\| 44.77 \|\|? \|- \| style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"\|Pauling electronegativity \| 0.98 \|\| 0.93 \|\| 0.82 \|\| 0.82 \|\| 0.79 \|\|?{{refn\|Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0.7 on the Pauling scale, the same as caesium; the value for caesium has since been refined to 0.79, although there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium. Francium has a slightly higher ionisation energy than caesium, \| −3.04 \|\| −2.71 \|\| −2.93 \|\| −2.98 \|\| −3.03 \|\|? \|- \| style="background:lightgrey; text-align:left;"\|Flame test colour<br />Principal emission/absorption wavelength (nm) \| Crimson<br />670.8 \|\| Yellow<br />589.2 \|\| Violet<br />766.5 \|\| Red-violet<br />780.0 \|\| Blue<br />455.5 \|\|? \|} The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. increasing reactivity, it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). They react aggressively with the halogens to form the alkali metal halides, which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all soluble in water except lithium fluoride (LiF). because of their low effective nuclear charge and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and low ionisation potentials. Alkalides are chemically similar to the electrides, which are salts with trapped electrons acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse sodium hydride", H<sup>+</sup>Na<sup>−</sup> (both ions being complexed), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na<sup>+</sup>H<sup>−</sup>: it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be metastable or stable. In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula [M(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>n</sub>]<sup>+</sup>, where n is the solvation number. Their coordination numbers and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the first coordination sphere, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a dative covalent bond, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by hydrogen bonds to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well-defined as the +1 charge on the cation is not high enough to polarise the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the [K(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>8</sub>]<sup>+</sup> and [Rb(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>8</sub>]<sup>+</sup> ions, which have the square antiprismatic structure, and that caesium forms the 12-coordinate [Cs(H<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>12</sub>]<sup>+</sup> ion. Lithium The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li<sup>+</sup> cation polarises anions and gives its compounds a more covalent character. Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr<sub>2</sub> molecule (42.1 kJ/mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs<sup>+</sup>Fr<sup>−</sup>, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Due to the great rarity of odd–odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd–even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium-6 and the long-lived radioisotope potassium-40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single beta-stable nuclide, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even–odd and odd–even comparable to that between even–even and odd–odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number (isobars) free to beta decay toward the lowest-mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd-numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even-numbered elements. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. Beryllium is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number. potassium-40 and rubidium-87 have very long half-lives and thus occur naturally, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long-lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium-40, makes up about 0.012% of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83% being the long-lived radioisotope rubidium-87. Caesium-137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of tritium. Small amounts of caesium-134 and caesium-137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents, most notably the Goiânia accident and the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2005, caesium-137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of the most problematic of the short-to-medium-lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium. Periodic trends The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. In the alkali metals, the outermost electron only feels a net charge of +1, as some of the nuclear charge (which is equal to the atomic number) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group. Electronegativity of the periodic table from the second to the sixth period.]] Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent, the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is +7 in chlorine but is only +1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an ionic bond). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception. and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and CsAu are semiconductors. An alloy of 41% caesium, 47% sodium, and 12% potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, −78 °C. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (—Tl<sup>−</sup>—)<sub>n</sub> with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na<sup>+</sup> ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals cannot fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters. Boron is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal borides tend to be boron-rich, involving appreciable boron–boron bonding involving deltahedral structures, Under high pressure the boron–boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following Wade's rules to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13. Compounds with the group 14 elements Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides, Li<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub> and Na<sub>2</sub>C<sub>2</sub>, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with graphite; their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC<sub>60</sub> (dark grey, almost black), MC<sub>48</sub> (dark grey, almost black), MC<sub>36</sub> (blue), MC<sub>24</sub> (steel blue), and MC<sub>8</sub> (bronze) (M K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. ). While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC<sub>8</sub>, the smaller ones initially form MC<sub>6</sub>, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 °C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce buckminsterfullerene to produce solid fullerides M<sub>n</sub>C<sub>60</sub>; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where n 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve n 1. The monatomic plumbide ion (Pb<sup>4−</sup>) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as . These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia. On the basis of size a tetrahedral structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure. Sodium nitride (Na<sub>3</sub>N) and potassium nitride (K<sub>3</sub>N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and cannot be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions. Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na<sub>3</sub>As is complex with unusually short Na–Na distances of 328–330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding cannot be straightforwardly ionic. Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds. Oxides and chalcogenides cluster, composed of two regular octahedra connected to each other by one face \| image2 = Cs11O3 cluster.png \| width2 = 150 \| alt2 = The ball-and-stick diagram shows three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common. All eleven vertices of the structure are violet spheres representing caesium, and at the centre of each octahedron is a small red sphere representing oxygen. \| caption2 = cluster, composed of three regular octahedra where each octahedron is connected to both of the others by one face each. All three octahedra have one edge in common. \| footer = }} All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple oxides (containing the O<sup>2−</sup> ion), peroxides (containing the ion, where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms), superoxides (containing the ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide, but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide. Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide, while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric (spontaneously catch fire in air). All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO<sub>3</sub>) through low-temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. and several brightly coloured suboxides, such as Cs<sub>7</sub>O (bronze), Cs<sub>4</sub>O (red-violet), Cs<sub>11</sub>O<sub>3</sub> (violet), Cs<sub>3</sub>O (dark green), CsO, Cs<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, as well as Cs<sub>7</sub>O<sub>2</sub>. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs<sub>2</sub>O. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water-soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. Halides, hydrides, and pseudohalides The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table, the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine), forming salts known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the cyanides. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for lithium cyanide, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. \| footer = }} Alkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just +1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li<sup>+</sup> ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M<sup>+</sup>), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), diatomic alkali metal molecules (M<sub>2</sub>) and alkali metal anions (M<sup>−</sup>). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain. There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.]] Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds, which are bonded covalently. Organolithium compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form oligomers with the structure (RLi)<sub>x</sub> where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a carbanion, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. For use as bases, butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ((CH<sub>3</sub>Li)<sub>x</sub>), which exists in tetrameric (x 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (x 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially n-butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the Grignard reaction. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents. shows the types of compounds formed in reaction with oxygen. The compound in brackets represents the minor product of combustion. {\| class="wikitable" \|- \|Alkali metal\|\|Oxide\|\|Peroxide\|\|Superoxide \|- \|Li\|\|Li<sub>2</sub>O\|\|(Li<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)\|\| \|- \|Na\|\|(Na<sub>2</sub>O)\|\|Na<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>\|\| \|- \|K\|\| \|\| \|\|KO<sub>2</sub> \|- \|Rb\|\| \|\| \|\|RbO<sub>2</sub> \|- \|Cs\|\| \|\| \|\|CsO<sub>2</sub> \|} The alkali metal peroxides are ionic compounds that are unstable in water. The peroxide anion is weakly bound to the cation, and it is hydrolysed, forming stronger covalent bonds. :Na<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O → 2NaOH + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> The other oxygen compounds are also unstable in water. :2KO<sub>2</sub> + 2H<sub>2</sub>O → 2KOH + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> :Li<sub>2</sub>O + H<sub>2</sub>O → 2LiOH Reaction with sulfur With sulfur, they form sulfides and polysulfides. :2Na + 1/8S<sub>8</sub> → Na<sub>2</sub>S + 1/8S<sub>8</sub> → Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>2</sub>...Na<sub>2</sub>S<sub>7</sub> Because alkali metal sulfides are essentially salts of a weak acid and a strong base, they form basic solutions. :S<sup>2-</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O → HS<sup>−</sup> + HO<sup>−</sup> :HS<sup>−</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O → H<sub>2</sub>S + HO<sup>−</sup> Reaction with nitrogen Lithium is the only metal that combines directly with nitrogen at room temperature. :3Li + 1/2N<sub>2</sub> → Li<sub>3</sub>N Li<sub>3</sub>N can react with water to liberate ammonia. :Li<sub>3</sub>N + 3H<sub>2</sub>O → 3LiOH + NH<sub>3</sub> Reaction with hydrogen With hydrogen, alkali metals form saline hydrides that hydrolyse in water. :<chem>2 Na \ + H2 \ ->[\ce{\Delta}] \ 2 NaH</chem> :<chem>2 NaH \ + \ 2 H2O \ \longrightarrow \ 2 NaOH \ + \ H2 \uparrow</chem> Reaction with carbon Lithium is the only metal that reacts directly with carbon to give dilithium acetylide. Na and K can react with acetylene to give acetylides. :<chem>2 Li \ + \ 2 C \ \longrightarrow \ Li2C2</chem> :<p style="line-height: 1.6;vertical-align: text-bottom; " ><chem>2 Na \ + \ 2 C2H2 \ ->[\ce{150 \ ^{o}C}] \ 2 NaC2H \ + \ H2</chem></p> :<p style"line-height: 1.6;vertical-align: text-bottom; " ><chem>2 Na \ + \ 2 NaC2H \ ->[\ce{220 \ ^{o}C}] \ 2 Na2C2 \ + \ H2</chem></p>Reaction with waterOn reaction with water, they generate hydroxide ions and hydrogen gas. This reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic and the hydrogen resulted may ignite in air or even explode in the case of Rb and Cs. The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium's electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium. which are not seen in any other alkali metal, Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table (by the Aufbau principle) would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac-Fock calculations predict that the next element after ununennium with alkali-metal-like properties may be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration [Og] 5g<sup>18</sup> 6f<sup>14</sup> 7d<sup>10</sup> 8s<sup>2</sup> 8p<sub>1/2</sub><sup>2</sup> 9s<sup>1</sup>. This element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s-block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh). The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unsepttrium have not been explored yet as of 2019, and they may or may not be able to exist. Pseudo-alkali metals Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals". These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H<sub>2</sub>);<!--It is uncertain if this reference (from diatomic molecule) refers to astatine usually not being considered with the other halogens or the list of elements that form diatomic molecules.--> however, the alkali metals form diatomic molecules (such as dilithium, Li<sub>2</sub>) only at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state. Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron It is sometimes placed above fluorine due to their similar chemical properties, though the resemblance is likewise not absolute. The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 kJ/mol) is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as alkalides, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal-to-metal transition. The 1s<sup>1</sup> electron configuration of hydrogen, while analogous to that of the alkali metals (ns<sup>1</sup>), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H<sup>+</sup>, or gain one to form the hydride ion H<sup>−</sup>. Ammonium and derivatives reacts with hydrochloric acid to form the salt ammonium chloride.]] The ammonium ion () has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal ( ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 GPa), and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Other "pseudo-alkali metals" include the alkylammonium cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the quaternary ammonium cations () are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs<sup>+</sup> to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as . Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene (involving iridium) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well-studied due to its instability. Thallium , stored under argon gas]] Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert-pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer's 1868 periodic table. Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table and Meyer's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group and left the space below caesium blank. While Tl<sup>+</sup> is stabilised by the inert-pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except TlF) are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium. Copper, silver, and gold The group 11 metals (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d-shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled d subshell and free s electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between s electrons and the partially filled d subshell that lower electron mobility." Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main-group metals in their +1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB", paralleling the alkali metals' "group IA". They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. In Mendeleev's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the iron triad and platinum group metals), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper(II) and gold(III) compounds being known at that time. Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. Rubidium is the 16th most abundant element in the earth's crust; however, it is quite rare. Some minerals found in North America, South Africa, Russia, and Canada contain rubidium. Some potassium minerals (lepidolites, biotites, feldspar, carnallite) contain it, together with caesium. Pollucite, carnallite, leucite, and lepidolite are all minerals that contain rubidium. As a by-product of lithium extraction, it is commercially obtained from lepidolite. Rubidium is also found in potassium rocks and brines, which is a commercial supply. The majority of rubidium is now obtained as a byproduct of refining lithium. Rubidium is used in vacuum tubes as a getter, a material that combines with and removes trace gases from vacuum tubes. contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3 g) of francium-223 at any given time. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by-product from pollucite. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by-products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction <sup>197</sup>Au + <sup>18</sup>O → <sup>210</sup>Fr + 5 n, yielding francium-209, francium-210, and francium-211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. Applications Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many useful applications, while rubidium and caesium are very notable in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. In medicine, some lithium salts are used as mood-stabilising pharmaceuticals. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in sodium-vapour lamps, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as titanium and zirconium, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat-exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point, viscosity, and cross-section towards neutron absorption. Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base, and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks, and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry. Francium has no commercial applications, but because of francium's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser-trapped francium-210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory. Biological role and precautions Metals Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen-containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months. Ions ]] The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed. Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes. Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified. Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide. Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential—a "spike" of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions. and, similarly to caesium, Rats can survive up to 50% substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrhythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment. Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium-137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best-known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly-disposed-of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium-134, iodine-131, and strontium-90, caesium-137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health.<ref name"IAEA" /> Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half-life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.<ref nameandyscouse /> Notes References A Category:Groups (periodic table) Category:Periodic table Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal	2025-04-05T18:25:19.505538
670	Alphabet	An alphabet is a standard set of letters written to represent particular sounds in a spoken language. Specifically, letters largely correspond to phonemes as the smallest sound segments that can distinguish one word from another in a given language. Not all writing systems represent language in this way: a syllabary assigns symbols to spoken syllables, while logographies assign symbols to words, morphemes, or other semantic units. The first letters were invented in Ancient Egypt to serve as an aid in writing Egyptian hieroglyphs; these are referred to as Egyptian uniliteral signs by lexicographers. This system was used until the 5th century CE, Peter T. Daniels distinguishes true alphabets—which use letters to represent both consonants and vowels—from both abugidas and abjads, which only need letters for consonants. Abjads generally lack vowel indicators altogether, while abugidas represent them with diacritics added to letters. In this narrower sense, the Greek alphabet was the first true alphabet;}} it was originally derived from the Phoenician alphabet, which was an abjad. Alphabets usually have a standard ordering for their letters. This makes alphabets a useful tool in collation, as words can be listed in a well-defined order—commonly known as alphabetical order. This also means that letters may be used as a method of "numbering" ordered items. Some systems demonstrate acrophony, a phenomenon where letters have been given names distinct from their pronunciations. Systems with acrophony include Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac; systems without include the Latin alphabet. More recently however, four cylinder seals dating to 2400 BC and found at the site of Umm el-Marra, in present-day Syria, are incised with what is potentially the earliest known alphabetic writings in the world. The discovery suggests that the alphabet emerged 500 years earlier than previously thought, and undermines leading ideas about how it was invented. According to Christopher Rollston, a scholar of the ancient Near East, the morphology of the letters on the cylinder seals parallels quite nicely that of the existing corpus of early alphabetic writing. This theory however has yet to be universally accepted. Etymology The English word alphabet came into Middle English from the Late Latin word , which in turn originated in the Greek ; it was made from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, alpha (α) and beta (β). The names for the Greek letters, in turn, came from the first two letters of the Phoenician alphabet: aleph, the word for ox, and bet, the word for house. History Alphabets related to Phoenician Ancient Near Eastern alphabets The Ancient Egyptian writing system had a set of some 24 hieroglyphs that are called uniliterals, which are glyphs that provide one sound. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names. The script was used a fair amount in the 4th century CE. However, after pagan temples were closed down, it was forgotten in the 5th century until the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. There was also cuneiform, primarily used to write several ancient languages, including Sumerian. The last known use of cuneiform was in 75 CE, after which the script fell out of use. In the Middle Bronze Age, an apparently alphabetic system known as the Proto-Sinaitic script appeared in Egyptian turquoise mines in the Sinai Peninsula , apparently left by Canaanite workers. Orly Goldwasser has connected the illiterate turquoise miner graffiti theory to the origin of the alphabet. In 1999, American Egyptologists John and Deborah Darnell discovered an earlier version of this first alphabet at the Wadi el-Hol valley. The script dated to and shows evidence of having been adapted from specific forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs that could be dated to , strongly suggesting that the first alphabet had developed about that time. The script was based on letter appearances and names, believed to be based on Egyptian hieroglyphs. This script had no characters representing vowels. Originally, it probably was a syllabary—a script where syllables are represented with characters—with symbols that were not needed being removed. The best-attested Bronze Age alphabet is Ugaritic, invented in Ugarit before the 15th century BCE. This was an alphabetic cuneiform script with 30 signs, including three that indicate the following vowel. This script was not used after the destruction of Ugarit in 1178 BCE. , one of the earliest phonemic scripts]] The Proto-Sinaitic script eventually developed into the Phoenician alphabet, conventionally called Proto-Canaanite, before . The South Arabian alphabet, a sister script to the Phoenician alphabet, is the script from which the Ge'ez abugida was descended. Abugidas are writing systems with characters comprising consonant–vowel sequences. Alphabets without obligatory vowels are called abjads, with examples being Arabic, Hebrew, and Syriac. The omission of vowels was not always a satisfactory solution due to the need of preserving sacred texts. "Weak" consonants are used to indicate vowels. These letters have a dual function since they can also be used as pure consonants. The Proto-Sinaitic script and the Ugaritic script were the first scripts with a limited number of signs instead of using many different signs for words, in contrast to cuneiform, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Linear B. The Phoenician script was probably the first phonemic script, European alphabets The Greek alphabet, in Euboean form, was carried over by Greek colonists to the Italian peninsula giving rise to many different alphabets used to write the Italic languages, like the Etruscan alphabet. One of these became the Latin alphabet, which spread across Europe as the Romans expanded their republic. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the alphabet survived in intellectual and religious works. It came to be used for the Romance languages that descended from Latin and most of the other languages of western and central Europe. Today, it is the most widely used script in the world. The Etruscan alphabet remained nearly unchanged for several hundred years. Only evolving once the Etruscan language changed itself. The letters used for non-existent phonemes were dropped. Afterwards, however, the alphabet went through many different changes. The final classical form of Etruscan contained 20 letters. Four of them are vowels——six fewer letters than the earlier forms. The script in its classical form was used until the 1st century CE. The Etruscan language itself was not used during the Roman Empire, but the script was used for religious texts. Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet have ligatures, a combination of two letters make one, such as æ in Danish and Icelandic and in Algonquian; borrowings from other alphabets, such as the thorn in Old English and Icelandic, which came from the Futhark runes; and modified existing letters, such as the eth of Old English and Icelandic, which is a modified d. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian and Italian, which uses the letters j, k, x, y, and w only in foreign words. Another notable script is Elder Futhark, believed to have evolved out of one of the Old Italic alphabets. Elder Futhark gave rise to other alphabets known collectively as the Runic alphabets. The Runic alphabets were used for Germanic languages from 100 CE to the late Middle Ages, being engraved on stone and jewelry, although inscriptions found on bone and wood occasionally appear. These alphabets have since been replaced with the Latin alphabet. The exception was for decorative use, where the runes remained in use until the 20th century. ]] The Old Hungarian script was the writing system of the Hungarians. It was in use during the entire history of Hungary, albeit not as an official writing system. From the 19th century, it once again became more and more popular. The Glagolitic alphabet was the initial script of the liturgical language Old Church Slavonic and became, together with the Greek uncial script, the basis of the Cyrillic script. Cyrillic is one of the most widely used modern alphabetic scripts and is notable for its use in Slavic languages and also for other languages within the former Soviet Union. Cyrillic alphabets include Serbian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian. The Glagolitic alphabet is believed to have been created by Saints Cyril and Methodius, while the Cyrillic alphabet was created by a circle of their disciples in the Preslav Literary School including Naum of Preslav, Constantine of Preslav, Chernorizets Hrabar among others. They feature many letters that appear to have been borrowed from or influenced by Greek and Hebrew. Asian alphabets Many phonetic scripts exist in Asia. The Arabic alphabet, Hebrew alphabet, Syriac alphabet, and other abjads of the Middle East are developments of the Aramaic alphabet. Most alphabetic scripts of India and Eastern Asia descend from the Brahmi script, believed to be a descendant of Aramaic. European alphabets, especially Latin and Cyrillic, have been adapted for many languages of Asia. Arabic is also widely used, sometimes as an abjad, as with Urdu and Persian, and sometimes as a complete alphabet, as with Kurdish and Uyghur.}} Other alphabets Hangul In Korea, Sejong the Great created the Hangul alphabet in 1443 CE. Hangul is a unique alphabet: it is a featural alphabet, where the design of many of the letters comes from a sound's place of articulation, like P looking like the widened mouth and L looking like the tongue pulled in. The creation of Hangul was planned by the government of the day, and it places individual letters in syllable clusters with equal dimensions, in the same way as Chinese characters. This change allows for mixed-script writing, where one syllable always takes up one type space no matter how many letters get stacked into building that one sound-block. Bopomofo Bopomofo, also referred to as zhuyin, is a semi-syllabary used primarily in Taiwan to transcribe the sounds of Standard Chinese. Following the proclamation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and its adoption of Hanyu Pinyin in 1956, the use of bopomofo on the mainland is limited. Bopomofo developed from a form of Chinese shorthand based on Chinese characters in the early 1900s and has elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary. Like an alphabet, the phonemes of syllable initials are represented by individual symbols, but like a syllabary, the phonemes of the syllable finals are not; each possible final (excluding the medial glide) has its own character, an example being luan written as ㄌㄨㄢ (l-u-an). The last symbol ㄢ takes place as the entire final -an. While bopomofo is not a mainstream writing system, it is still often used in ways similar to a romanization system, for aiding pronunciation and as an input method for Chinese characters on computers and cellphones. Types The term "alphabet" is used by linguists and paleographers in both a wide and a narrow sense. In a broader sense, an alphabet is a segmental script at the phoneme level—that is, it has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish "true" alphabets from two other types of segmental script, abjads, and abugidas. These three differ in how they treat vowels. Abjads have letters for consonants and leave most vowels unexpressed. Abugidas are also consonant-based but indicate vowels with diacritics, a systematic graphic modification of the consonants. The earliest known alphabet using this sense is the Wadi el-Hol script, believed to be an abjad. Its successor, Phoenician, is the ancestor of modern alphabets, including Arabic, Greek, Latin (via the Old Italic alphabet), Cyrillic (via the Greek alphabet), and Hebrew (via Aramaic). showing the Greek (left), Cyrillic (bottom) and Latin (right) alphabets, which share many of the same letters, although they have different pronunciations]] Examples of present-day abjads are the Arabic and Hebrew scripts; true alphabets include Latin, Cyrillic, and Korean hangul; and abugidas, used to write Tigrinya, Amharic, Hindi, and Thai. The Canadian Aboriginal syllabics are also an abugida, rather than a syllabary, as their name would imply, because each glyph stands for a consonant and is modified by rotation to represent the following vowel. In a true syllabary, each consonant-vowel combination gets represented by a separate glyph. All three types may be augmented with syllabic glyphs. Ugaritic, for example, is essentially an abjad but has syllabic letters for These are the only times that vowels are indicated. Coptic has a letter for . Devanagari is typically an abugida augmented with dedicated letters for initial vowels, though some traditions use अ as a zero consonant as the graphic base for such vowels. The boundaries between the three types of segmental scripts are not always clear-cut. For example, Sorani Kurdish is written in the Arabic script, which, when used for other languages, is an abjad. In Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and whole letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with forced vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the ʼPhags-pa script of the Mongol Empire was based closely on the Tibetan abugida, but vowel marks are written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short a is not written, as in the Indic abugidas, The source of the term "abugida", namely the Ge'ez abugida now used for Amharic and Tigrinya, has assimilated into their consonant modifications. It is no longer systematic and must be learned as a syllabary rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad eventually became logographic. of Ethiopia and Eritrea]] Thus the primary categorisation of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For tonal languages, further classification can be based on their treatment of tone. Though names do not yet exist to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in Somali and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Most commonly, tones are indicated by diacritics, which is how vowels are treated in abugidas, which is the case for Vietnamese (a true alphabet) and Thai (an abugida). In Thai, the tone is determined primarily by a consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the Pollard script, an abugida, vowels are indicated by diacritics. The placing of the diacritic relative to the consonant is modified to indicate the tone.}} More rarely, a script may have separate letters for tones, as is the case for Hmong and Zhuang. For many, regardless of whether letters or diacritics get used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas. In Zhuyin, not only is one of the tones unmarked; but there is a diacritic to indicate a lack of tone, like the virama of Indic. Alphabetical order Alphabets often come to be associated with a standard ordering of their letters; this is for collation—namely, for listing words and other items in alphabetical order. Latin alphabets The ordering of the Latin alphabet (A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z), which derives from the Northwest Semitic "Abgad" order, is already well established. Although, languages using this alphabet have different conventions for their treatment of modified letters (such as the French é, à, and ô) and certain combinations of letters (multigraphs). In French, these are not considered to be additional letters for collation. However, in Icelandic, the accented letters such as á, í, and ö are considered distinct letters representing different vowel sounds from sounds represented by their unaccented counterparts. In Spanish, ñ is considered a separate letter, but accented vowels such as á and é are not. The ll and ch were also formerly considered single letters and sorted separately after l and c, but in 1994, the tenth congress of the Association of Spanish Language Academies changed the collating order so that ll came to be sorted between lk and lm in the dictionary and ch came to be sorted between cg and ci; those digraphs were still formally designated as letters, but in 2010 the changed it, so they are no longer considered letters at all. In German, words starting with sch- (which spells the German phoneme ) are inserted between words with initial sca- and sci- (all incidentally loanwords) instead of appearing after the initial sz, as though it were a single letter, which contrasts several languages such as Albanian, in which dh-, ë-, gj-, ll-, rr-, th-, xh-, and zh-, which all represent phonemes and considered separate single letters, would follow the letters respectively, as well as Hungarian and Welsh. Further, German words with an umlaut get collated ignoring the umlaut as—contrary to Turkish, which adopted the graphemes ö and ü, and where a word like tüfek would come after tuz, in the dictionary. An exception is the German telephone directory, where umlauts are sorted like äae since names such as Jäger also appear with the spelling Jaeger and are not distinguished in the spoken language. The Danish and Norwegian alphabets end with , whereas the Swedish conventionally put at the end. However, æ phonetically corresponds with , as does and . Early alphabets It is unknown whether the earliest alphabets had a defined sequence. Some alphabets today, such as the Hanuno'o script, are learned one letter at a time, in no particular order, and are not used for collation where a definite order is required. However, a dozen Ugaritic tablets from the fourteenth century BCE preserve the alphabet in two sequences. One, the ABCDE order later used in Phoenician, has continued with minor changes in Hebrew, Greek, Armenian, Gothic, Cyrillic, and Latin; the other, HMĦLQ, was used in southern Arabia and is preserved today in Geʻez. Both orders have therefore been stable for at least 3000 years. Runic used an unrelated Futhark sequence, which got simplified later on. Arabic usually uses its sequence, although Arabic retains the traditional abjadi order, which is used for numbers. The Brahmic family of alphabets used in India uses a unique order based on phonology: The letters are arranged according to how and where the sounds get produced in the mouth. This organization is present in Southeast Asia, Tibet, Korean hangul, and even Japanese kana, which is not an alphabet. Acrophony In Phoenician, each letter got associated with a word that begins with that sound. This is called acrophony and is continuously used to varying degrees in Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, Greek, and Arabic. Acrophony was abandoned in Latin. It referred to the letters by adding a vowel—usually , sometimes or —before or after the consonant. Two exceptions were Y and Z, which were borrowed from the Greek alphabet rather than Etruscan. They were known as Y Graeca "Greek Y" and zeta (from Greek)—this discrepancy was inherited by many European languages, as in the term zed for Z in all forms of English, other than American English. Over time names sometimes shifted or were added, as in double U for W, or "double V" in French, the English name for Y, and the American zee for Z. Comparing them in English and French gives a clear reflection of the Great Vowel Shift: A, B, C, and D are pronounced in today's English, but in contemporary French they are . The French names (from which the English names got derived) preserve the qualities of the English vowels before the Great Vowel Shift. By contrast, the names of F, L, M, N, and S () remain the same in both languages because "short" vowels were largely unaffected by the Shift. In Cyrillic, originally, acrophony was present using Slavic words. The first three words going, azŭ, buky, vědě, with the Cyrillic collation order being, А, Б, В. However, this was later abandoned in favor of a system similar to Latin. Orthography and pronunciation When an alphabet is adopted or developed to represent a given language, an orthography generally comes into being, providing rules for spelling words, following the principle on which alphabets get based. These rules will map letters of the alphabet to the phonemes of the spoken language. In a perfectly phonemic orthography, there would be a consistent one-to-one correspondence between the letters and the phonemes so that a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker would always know the pronunciation of a word given its spelling, and vice versa. However, this ideal is usually never achieved in practice. Languages can come close to it, such as Spanish and Finnish. Others, such as English, deviate from it to a much larger degree. The pronunciation of a language often evolves independently of its writing system. Writing systems have been borrowed for languages the orthography was not initially made to use. The degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies. Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways: * A language may represent a given phoneme by combinations of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called digraphs, and three-letter groups are called trigraphs. German uses the tetragraphs (four letters) "tsch" for the phoneme and (in a few borrowed words) "dsch" for . Kabardian also uses a tetragraph for one of its phonemes, namely "кхъу." Two letters representing one sound occur in several instances in Hungarian as well (where, for instance, cs stands for [tʃ], sz for [s], zs for [ʒ], dzs for [dʒ]). * A language may represent the same phoneme with two or more different letters or combinations of letters. An example is modern Greek which may write the phoneme in six different ways: , , , , , and . * A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons. For example, the spelling of the Thai word for 'beer' retains a letter for the final consonant /r/ present in the English word it borrows, but silences it. * Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence, for example, in sandhi. * Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word. * A language may use different sets of symbols or rules for distinct vocabulary items, typically for foreign words, such as in the Japanese katakana syllabary is used for foreign words, and there are rules in English for using loanwords from other languages. National languages sometimes elect to address the problem of dialects by associating the alphabet with the national standard. Some national languages like Finnish, Armenian, Turkish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian (Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian), and Bulgarian have a very regular spelling system with nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes. Similarly, the Italian verb corresponding to 'spell (out),' compitare, is unknown to many Italians because spelling is usually trivial, as Italian spelling is highly phonemic. In standard Spanish, one can tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa, as phonemes sometimes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. French using silent letters, nasal vowels, and elision, may seem to lack much correspondence between the spelling and pronunciation. However, its rules on pronunciation, though complex, are consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy. At the other extreme are languages such as English, where pronunciations mostly have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling consistently. For English, this is because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography got established and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. However, even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling. Rules like this are usually successful. However, rules to predict spelling from pronunciation have a higher failure rate. Sometimes, countries have the written language undergo a spelling reform to realign the writing with the contemporary spoken language. These can range from simple spelling changes and word forms to switching the entire writing system. For example, Turkey switched from the Arabic alphabet to a Latin-based Turkish alphabet, and Kazakh changed from an Arabic script to a Cyrillic script due to the Soviet Union's influence. In 2021, it made a transition to the Latin alphabet, similar to Turkish. The Cyrillic script used to be official in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan before they switched to the Latin alphabet. Uzbekistan is reforming the alphabet to use diacritics on the letters that are marked by apostrophes and the letters that are digraphs. The standard system of symbols used by linguists to represent sounds in any language, independently of orthography, is called the International Phonetic Alphabet. See also * Abecedarium * Akshara * Alphabet book * Alphabet effect * Alphabet song * Butterfly Alphabet * Character encoding * Constructed writing system * Fingerspelling * NATO phonetic alphabet * Lipogram * Pangram * Thoth * Unicode * Letter symbolism References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum3_eng2007.pdf "Language, Writing and Alphabet: An Interview with Christophe Rico"], Damqātum 3 (2007) * Michael Everson's [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100429051634/http://www.bib-arch.org/bar/article.asp?PubIDBSBA&Volume36&Issue2&ArticleID6 How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs]—Biblical Archaeology Review * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171001194931/https://onedrive.live.com/view.aspx?cidE39B50D7D9EA3235&residE39B50D7D9EA3235!126&app=WordPdf An Early Hellenic Alphabet] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160128234751/http://www.jaars.org/museum/alphabet/index.htm Museum of the Alphabet] * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054950 The Alphabet], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Eleanor Robson, Alan Millard and Rosalind Thomas (In Our Time, 18 December 2003) Category:Orthography	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet	2025-04-05T18:25:19.549985
673	Atomic number	The atomic number or nuclear charge number (symbol Z) of a chemical element is the charge number of its atomic nucleus. For ordinary nuclei composed of protons and neutrons, this is equal to the proton number ('''n<sub>p</sub>') or the number of protons found in the nucleus of every atom of that element. The atomic number can be used to uniquely identify ordinary chemical elements. In an ordinary uncharged atom, the atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons. For an ordinary atom which contains protons, neutrons and electrons, the sum of the atomic number Z and the neutron number N'' gives the atom's atomic mass number A. Since protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass (and the mass of the electrons is negligible for many purposes) and the mass defect of the nucleon binding is always small compared to the nucleon mass, the atomic mass of any atom, when expressed in daltons (making a quantity called the "relative isotopic mass"), is within 1% of the whole number A. Atoms with the same atomic number but different neutron numbers, and hence different mass numbers, are known as isotopes. A little more than three-quarters of naturally occurring elements exist as a mixture of isotopes (see monoisotopic elements), and the average isotopic mass of an isotopic mixture for an element (called the relative atomic mass) in a defined environment on Earth determines the element's standard atomic weight. Historically, it was these atomic weights of elements (in comparison to hydrogen) that were the quantities measurable by chemists in the 19th century. The conventional symbol Z comes from the German word 'number', which, before the modern synthesis of ideas from chemistry and physics, merely denoted an element's numerical place in the periodic table, whose order was then approximately, but not completely, consistent with the order of the elements by atomic weights. Only after 1915, with the suggestion and evidence that this Z number was also the nuclear charge and a physical characteristic of atoms, did the word (and its English equivalent atomic number) come into common use in this context. The rules above do not always apply to exotic atoms which contain short-lived elementary particles other than protons, neutrons and electrons. History In the 19th century, the term "atomic number" typically meant the number of atoms in a given volume. Modern chemists prefer to use the concept of molar concentration. In 1913, Antonius van den Broek proposed that the electric charge of an atomic nucleus, expressed as a multiplier of the elementary charge, was equal to the element's sequential position on the periodic table. Ernest Rutherford, in various articles in which he discussed van den Broek's idea, used the term "atomic number" to refer to an element's position on the periodic table. No writer before Rutherford is known to have used the term "atomic number" in this way, so it was probably he who established this definition. After Rutherford deduced the existence of the proton in 1920, "atomic number" customarily referred to the proton number of an atom. In 1921, the German Atomic Weight Commission based its new periodic table on the nuclear charge number and in 1923 the International Committee on Chemical Elements followed suit. The periodic table and a natural number for each element , creator of the periodic table.]] The periodic table of elements creates an ordering of the elements, and so they can be numbered in order. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged his first periodic tables (first published on March 6, 1869) in order of atomic weight ("Atomgewicht"). However, in consideration of the elements' observed chemical properties, he changed the order slightly and placed tellurium (atomic weight 127.6) ahead of iodine (atomic weight 126.9). This placement is consistent with the modern practice of ordering the elements by proton number, Z, but that number was not known or suspected at the time. A simple numbering based on atomic weight position was never entirely satisfactory. In addition to the case of iodine and tellurium, several other pairs of elements (such as argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel) were later shown to have nearly identical or reversed atomic weights, thus requiring their placement in the periodic table to be determined by their chemical properties. Moseley, after discussions with Bohr who was at the same lab (and who had used Van den Broek's hypothesis in his Bohr model of the atom), decided to test Van den Broek's and Bohr's hypothesis directly, by seeing if spectral lines emitted from excited atoms fitted the Bohr theory's postulation that the frequency of the spectral lines be proportional to the square of Z. To do this, Moseley measured the wavelengths of the innermost photon transitions (K and L lines) produced by the elements from aluminium (Z 13) to gold (Z 79) used as a series of movable anodic targets inside an x-ray tube. The square root of the frequency of these photons increased from one target to the next in an arithmetic progression. This led to the conclusion (Moseley's law) that the atomic number does closely correspond (with an offset of one unit for K-lines, in Moseley's work) to the calculated electric charge of the nucleus, i.e. the element number Z. Among other things, Moseley demonstrated that the lanthanide series (from lanthanum to lutetium inclusive) must have 15 members—no fewer and no more—which was far from obvious from known chemistry at that time. Missing elements After Moseley's death in 1915, the atomic numbers of all known elements from hydrogen to uranium (Z 92) were examined by his method. There were seven elements (with Z < 92) which were not found and therefore identified as still undiscovered, corresponding to atomic numbers 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87 and 91. From 1918 to 1947, all seven of these missing elements were discovered. By this time, the first four transuranium elements had also been discovered, so that the periodic table was complete with no gaps as far as curium (Z 96). The proton and the idea of nuclear electrons In 1915, the reason for nuclear charge being quantized in units of Z, which were now recognized to be the same as the element number, was not understood. An old idea called Prout's hypothesis had postulated that the elements were all made of residues (or "protyles") of the lightest element hydrogen, which in the Bohr-Rutherford model had a single electron and a nuclear charge of one. However, as early as 1907, Rutherford and Thomas Royds had shown that alpha particles, which had a charge of +2, were the nuclei of helium atoms, which had a mass four times that of hydrogen, not two times. If Prout's hypothesis were true, something had to be neutralizing some of the charge of the hydrogen nuclei present in the nuclei of heavier atoms. In 1917, Rutherford succeeded in generating hydrogen nuclei from a nuclear reaction between alpha particles and nitrogen gas, and believed he had proven Prout's law. He called the new heavy nuclear particles protons in 1920 (alternate names being proutons and protyles). It had been immediately apparent from the work of Moseley that the nuclei of heavy atoms have more than twice as much mass as would be expected from their being made of hydrogen nuclei, and thus there was required a hypothesis for the neutralization of the extra protons presumed present in all heavy nuclei. A helium nucleus was presumed to have four protons plus two "nuclear electrons" (electrons bound inside the nucleus) to cancel two charges. At the other end of the periodic table, a nucleus of gold with a mass 197 times that of hydrogen was thought to contain 118 nuclear electrons in the nucleus to give it a residual charge of +79, consistent with its atomic number. Discovery of the neutron makes Z the proton number All consideration of nuclear electrons ended with James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932. An atom of gold now was seen as containing 118 neutrons rather than 118 nuclear electrons, and its positive nuclear charge now was realized to come entirely from a content of 79 protons. Since Moseley had previously shown that the atomic number Z of an element equals this positive charge, it was now clear that Z is identical to the number of protons of its nuclei. Chemical properties Each element has a specific set of chemical properties as a consequence of the number of electrons present in the neutral atom, which is Z (the atomic number). The configuration of these electrons follows from the principles of quantum mechanics. The number of electrons in each element's electron shells, particularly the outermost valence shell, is the primary factor in determining its chemical bonding behavior. Hence, it is the atomic number alone that determines the chemical properties of an element; and it is for this reason that an element can be defined as consisting of any mixture of atoms with a given atomic number. New elements The quest for new elements is usually described using atomic numbers. As of , all elements with atomic numbers 1 to 118 have been observed. The most recent element discovered was number 117 (tennessine) in 2009. Synthesis of new elements is accomplished by bombarding target atoms of heavy elements with ions, such that the sum of the atomic numbers of the target and ion elements equals the atomic number of the element being created. In general, the half-life of a nuclide becomes shorter as atomic number increases, though undiscovered nuclides with certain "magic" numbers of protons and neutrons may have relatively longer half-lives and comprise an island of stability. A hypothetical element composed only of neutrons, neutronium, has also been proposed and would have atomic number 0, but has never been observed. See also * * * * * * * * * * * References <!--Categories--> Category:Chemical properties Category:Nuclear physics Category:Atoms Category:Dimensionless numbers of chemistry Category:Numbers	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_number	2025-04-05T18:25:19.560912
674	Anatomy	Volume 5: Anatomic}} 's De humani corporis fabrica 16th century, marking the rebirth of anatomy]] Anatomy ( ()\|dissection}}) is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its beginnings in prehistoric times. Anatomy is inherently tied to developmental biology, embryology, comparative anatomy, evolutionary biology, and phylogeny, as these are the processes by which anatomy is generated, both over immediate and long-term timescales. Anatomy and physiology, which study the structure and function of organisms and their parts respectively, make a natural pair of related disciplines, and are often studied together. Human anatomy is one of the essential basic sciences that are applied in medicine, and is often studied alongside physiology. Anatomy is a complex and dynamic field that is constantly evolving as discoveries are made. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans, which allow for more detailed and accurate visualizations of the body's structures. The discipline of anatomy is divided into macroscopic and microscopic parts. Macroscopic anatomy, or gross anatomy, is the examination of an animal's body parts using unaided eyesight. Gross anatomy also includes the branch of superficial anatomy. Microscopic anatomy involves the use of optical instruments in the study of the tissues of various structures, known as histology, and also in the study of cells. The history of anatomy is characterized by a progressive understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from the examination of animals by dissection of carcasses and cadavers (corpses) to 20th-century medical imaging techniques, including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging. anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and position of the various parts, the materials from which they are composed, and their relationships with other parts. Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions. The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches, including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, along with histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an organism in its immature condition). Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and organization of organs and systems. The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy. However, substantially similar structures and tissues are found throughout the rest of the animal kingdom, and the term also includes the anatomy of other animals. The term zootomy is also sometimes used to specifically refer to non-human animals. The structure and tissues of plants are of a dissimilar nature and they are studied in plant anatomy. Unlike plant cells, animal cells have neither a cell wall nor chloroplasts. Vacuoles, when present, are more in number and much smaller than those in the plant cell. The body tissues are composed of numerous types of cells, including those found in muscles, nerves and skin. Each typically has a cell membrane formed of phospholipids, cytoplasm and a nucleus. All of the different cells of an animal are derived from the embryonic germ layers. Those simpler invertebrates which are formed from two germ layers of ectoderm and endoderm are called diploblastic and the more developed animals whose structures and organs are formed from three germ layers are called triploblastic. All of a triploblastic animal's tissues and organs are derived from the three germ layers of the embryo, the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Animal tissues can be grouped into four basic types: connective, epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue. )]] Connective tissue Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Often called fascia (from the Latin "fascia," meaning "band" or "bandage"), connective tissues give shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the chief and most abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in crustaceans or by the cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less developed. the lower layer is the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular matrix secreted by the epithelial cells. There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining; in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin. The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may just be a coat of glycoproteins. Muscle tissue and a small nerve at high magnification (H&E stain)]] Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea cucumbers. Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, oesophagus, respiratory airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body. Nervous tissue Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a stimulus. In more complex animals, specialized receptor cells such as chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism. Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals, specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle, certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach. Vertebrate anatomy skull. The neck and most of the forelimbs are also seen.]] All vertebrates have a similar basic body plan and at some point in their lives, mostly in the embryonic stage, share the major chordate characteristics: a stiffening rod, the notochord; a dorsal hollow tube of nervous material, the neural tube; pharyngeal arches; and a tail posterior to the anus. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column and is above the notochord, and the gastrointestinal tract is below it. Nervous tissue is derived from the ectoderm, connective tissues are derived from mesoderm, and gut is derived from the endoderm. At the posterior end is a tail which continues the spinal cord and vertebrae but not the gut. The mouth is found at the anterior end of the animal, and the anus at the base of the tail. The defining characteristic of a vertebrate is the vertebral column, formed in the development of the segmented series of vertebrae. In most vertebrates the notochord becomes the nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral discs. However, a few vertebrates, such as the sturgeon and the coelacanth, retain the notochord into adulthood. Jawed vertebrates are typified by paired appendages, fins or legs, which may be secondarily lost. The limbs of vertebrates are considered to be homologous because the same underlying skeletal structure was inherited from their last common ancestor. This is one of the arguments put forward by Charles Darwin to support his theory of evolution. Fish anatomy The body of a fish is divided into a head, trunk and tail, although the divisions between the three are not always externally visible. The skeleton, which forms the support structure inside the fish, is either made of cartilage, in cartilaginous fish, or bone in bony fish. The main skeletal element is the vertebral column, composed of articulating vertebrae which are lightweight yet strong. The ribs attach to the spine and there are no limbs or limb girdles. The main external features of the fish, the fins, are composed of either bony or soft spines called rays, which with the exception of the caudal fins, have no direct connection with the spine. They are supported by the muscles which compose the main part of the trunk. The eyes are adapted for seeing underwater and have only local vision. There is an inner ear but no external or middle ear. Low frequency vibrations are detected by the lateral line system of sense organs that run along the length of the sides of fish, and these respond to nearby movements and to changes in water pressure. Sharks and rays are basal fish with numerous primitive anatomical features similar to those of ancient fish, including skeletons composed of cartilage. Their bodies tend to be dorso-ventrally flattened, they usually have five pairs of gill slits and a large mouth set on the underside of the head. The dermis is covered with separate dermal placoid scales. They have a cloaca into which the urinary and genital passages open, but not a swim bladder. Cartilaginous fish produce a small number of large, yolky eggs. Some species are ovoviviparous and the young develop internally but others are oviparous and the larvae develop externally in egg cases. The bony fish lineage shows more derived anatomical traits, often with major evolutionary changes from the features of ancient fish. They have a bony skeleton, are generally laterally flattened, have five pairs of gills protected by an operculum, and a mouth at or near the tip of the snout. The dermis is covered with overlapping scales. Bony fish have a swim bladder which helps them maintain a constant depth in the water column, but not a cloaca. They mostly spawn a large number of small eggs with little yolk which they broadcast into the water column. They supplement this with gas exchange through the skin which needs to be kept moist. In frogs the pelvic girdle is robust and the hind legs are much longer and stronger than the forelimbs. The feet have four or five digits and the toes are often webbed for swimming or have suction pads for climbing. Frogs have large eyes and no tail. Salamanders resemble lizards in appearance; their short legs project sideways, the belly is close to or in contact with the ground and they have a long tail. Caecilians superficially resemble earthworms and are limbless. They burrow by means of zones of muscle contractions which move along the body and they swim by undulating their body from side to side. Reptile anatomy ]] Reptiles are a class of animals comprising turtles, tuataras, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. They are tetrapods, but the snakes and a few species of lizard either have no limbs or their limbs are much reduced in size. Their bones are better ossified and their skeletons stronger than those of amphibians. The teeth are conical and mostly uniform in size. The surface cells of the epidermis are modified into horny scales which create a waterproof layer. Reptiles are unable to use their skin for respiration as do amphibians and have a more efficient respiratory system drawing air into their lungs by expanding their chest walls. The heart resembles that of the amphibian but there is a septum which more completely separates the oxygenated and deoxygenated bloodstreams. The reproductive system has evolved for internal fertilization, with a copulatory organ present in most species. The eggs are surrounded by amniotic membranes which prevents them from drying out and are laid on land, or develop internally in some species. The bladder is small as nitrogenous waste is excreted as uric acid. Turtles are notable for their protective shells. They have an inflexible trunk encased in a horny carapace above and a plastron below. These are formed from bony plates embedded in the dermis which are overlain by horny ones and are partially fused with the ribs and spine. The neck is long and flexible and the head and the legs can be drawn back inside the shell. Turtles are vegetarians and the typical reptile teeth have been replaced by sharp, horny plates. In aquatic species, the front legs are modified into flippers. Tuataras superficially resemble lizards but the lineages diverged in the Triassic period. There is one living species, Sphenodon punctatus. The skull has two openings (fenestrae) on either side and the jaw is rigidly attached to the skull. There is one row of teeth in the lower jaw and this fits between the two rows in the upper jaw when the animal chews. The teeth are merely projections of bony material from the jaw and eventually wear down. The brain and heart are more primitive than those of other reptiles, and the lungs have a single chamber and lack bronchi. The tuatara has a well-developed parietal eye on its forehead. Crocodilians are large, low-slung aquatic reptiles with long snouts and large numbers of teeth. The head and trunk are dorso-ventrally flattened and the tail is laterally compressed. It undulates from side to side to force the animal through the water when swimming. The tough keratinized scales provide body armour and some are fused to the skull. The nostrils, eyes and ears are elevated above the top of the flat head enabling them to remain above the surface of the water when the animal is floating. Valves seal the nostrils and ears when it is submerged. Unlike other reptiles, crocodilians have hearts with four chambers allowing complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Bird anatomy , ]] Birds are tetrapods but though their hind limbs are used for walking or hopping, their front limbs are wings covered with feathers and adapted for flight. Birds are endothermic, have a high metabolic rate, a light skeletal system and powerful muscles. The long bones are thin, hollow and very light. Air sac extensions from the lungs occupy the centre of some bones. The sternum is wide and usually has a keel and the caudal vertebrae are fused. There are no teeth and the narrow jaws are adapted into a horn-covered beak. The eyes are relatively large, particularly in nocturnal species such as owls. They face forwards in predators and sideways in ducks. The feathers are outgrowths of the epidermis and are found in localized bands from where they fan out over the skin. Large flight feathers are found on the wings and tail, contour feathers cover the bird's surface and fine down occurs on young birds and under the contour feathers of water birds. The only cutaneous gland is the single uropygial gland near the base of the tail. This produces an oily secretion that waterproofs the feathers when the bird preens. There are scales on the legs, feet and claws on the tips of the toes. Mammals are amniotes, and most are viviparous, giving birth to live young. Exceptions to this are the egg-laying monotremes, the platypus and the echidnas of Australia. Most other mammals have a placenta through which the developing foetus obtains nourishment, but in marsupials, the foetal stage is very short and the immature young is born and finds its way to its mother's pouch where it latches on to a teat and completes its development. Human anatomy, physiology and biochemistry are complementary basic medical sciences, which are generally taught to medical students in their first year at medical school. Human anatomy can be taught regionally or systemically; that is, respectively, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systems. A thorough working knowledge of anatomy is required by physicians, especially surgeons and doctors working in some diagnostic specialties, such as histopathology and radiology. Academic anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools or teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching anatomy, and research into certain systems, organs, tissues or cells. Metazoans are a multicellular organism, with different groups of cells serving different functions. The most basic types of metazoan tissues are epithelium and connective tissue, both of which are present in nearly all invertebrates. The outer surface of the epidermis is normally formed of epithelial cells and secretes an extracellular matrix which provides support to the organism. An endoskeleton derived from the mesoderm is present in echinoderms, sponges and some cephalopods. Exoskeletons are derived from the epidermis and is composed of chitin in arthropods (insects, spiders, ticks, shrimps, crabs, lobsters). Calcium carbonate constitutes the shells of molluscs, brachiopods and some tube-building polychaete worms and silica forms the exoskeleton of the microscopic diatoms and radiolaria. Other invertebrates may have no rigid structures but the epidermis may secrete a variety of surface coatings such as the pinacoderm of sponges, the gelatinous cuticle of cnidarians (polyps, sea anemones, jellyfish) and the collagenous cuticle of annelids. The outer epithelial layer may include cells of several types including sensory cells, gland cells and stinging cells. There may also be protrusions such as microvilli, cilia, bristles, spines and tubercles. Marcello Malpighi, the father of microscopical anatomy, discovered that plants had tubules similar to those he saw in insects like the silk worm. He observed that when a ring-like portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling occurred in the tissues above the ring, and he unmistakably interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and being captured above the ring. Arthropod anatomy Arthropods comprise the largest phylum of invertebrates in the animal kingdom with over a million known species. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by a hard-jointed outer covering, the exoskeleton, made mostly of chitin. The segments of the body are organized into three distinct parts, a head, a thorax and an abdomen. The head typically bears a pair of sensory antennae, a pair of compound eyes, one to three simple eyes (ocelli) and three sets of modified appendages that form the mouthparts. The thorax has three pairs of segmented legs, one pair each for the three segments that compose the thorax and one or two pairs of wings. The abdomen is composed of eleven segments, some of which may be fused and houses the digestive, respiratory, excretory and reproductive systems. There is considerable variation between species and many adaptations to the body parts, especially wings, legs, antennae and mouthparts. Spiders a class of arachnids have four pairs of legs; a body of two segments—a cephalothorax and an abdomen. Spiders have no wings and no antennae. They have mouthparts called chelicerae which are often connected to venom glands as most spiders are venomous. They have a second pair of appendages called pedipalps attached to the cephalothorax. These have similar segmentation to the legs and function as taste and smell organs. At the end of each male pedipalp is a spoon-shaped cymbium that acts to support the copulatory organ. Other branches of anatomy * Surface anatomy is important as the study of anatomical landmarks that can be readily seen from the exterior contours of the body. * Comparative anatomy relates to the comparison of anatomical structures (both gross and microscopic) in different animals. The Ebers Papyrus () features a "treatise on the heart", with vessels carrying all the body's fluids to or from every member of the body. Ancient Greek anatomy and physiology underwent great changes and advances throughout the early medieval world. Over time, this medical practice expanded due to a continually developing understanding of the functions of organs and structures in the body. Phenomenal anatomical observations of the human body were made, which contributed to the understanding of the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system. The Hellenistic Egyptian city of Alexandria was the stepping-stone for Greek anatomy and physiology. Alexandria not only housed the biggest library for medical records and books of the liberal arts in the world during the time of the Greeks but was also home to many medical practitioners and philosophers. Great patronage of the arts and sciences from the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt helped raise Alexandria up, further rivalling other Greek states' cultural and scientific achievements. , part of Desi Sangye Gyatso's The Blue Beryl, 17th century]] Some of the most striking advances in early anatomy and physiology took place in Hellenistic Alexandria. Herophilus became known for his anatomical works, making impressive contributions to many branches of anatomy and many other aspects of medicine. Some of the works included classifying the system of the pulse, the discovery that human arteries had thicker walls than veins, and that the atria were parts of the heart. Herophilus's knowledge of the human body has provided vital input towards understanding the brain, eye, liver, reproductive organs, and nervous system and characterizing the course of the disease. During his study in Alexandria, Erasistratus was particularly concerned with studies of the circulatory and nervous systems. He could distinguish the human body's sensory and motor nerves and believed air entered the lungs and heart, which was then carried throughout the body. His distinction between the arteries and veins—the arteries carrying the air through the body, while the veins carry the blood from the heart was a great anatomical discovery. Erasistratus was also responsible for naming and describing the function of the epiglottis and the heart's valves, including the tricuspid. During the third century, Greek physicians were able to differentiate nerves from blood vessels and tendons and to realize that the nerves convey neural impulses. Herophilus is also credited with describing the optic, oculomotor, motor division of the trigeminal, facial, vestibulocochlear and hypoglossal nerves. in the 11th century]] in the 9th century]] Incredible feats were made during the third century BCE in both the digestive and reproductive systems. Herophilus discovered and described not only the salivary glands but also the small intestine and liver. Aristotle described vertebrate anatomy based on animal dissection. Praxagoras identified the difference between arteries and veins. Also in the 4th century BCE, Herophilos and Erasistratus produced more accurate anatomical descriptions based on vivisection of criminals in Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period. In the 2nd century, Galen of Pergamum, an anatomist, clinician, writer, and philosopher, He compiled existing knowledge and studied anatomy through the dissection of animals. He was one of the first experimental physiologists through his vivisection experiments on animals. Galen's drawings, based mostly on dog anatomy, became effectively the only anatomical textbook for the next thousand years. Between 1275 and 1326, the anatomists Mondino de Luzzi, Alessandro Achillini and Antonio Benivieni at Bologna carried out the first systematic human dissections since ancient times. Mondino's Anatomy of 1316 was the first textbook in the medieval rediscovery of human anatomy. It describes the body in the order followed in Mondino's dissections, starting with the abdomen, thorax, head, and limbs. It was the standard anatomy textbook for the next century. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua, is considered the founder of modern human anatomy. Originally from Brabant, Vesalius published the influential book De humani corporis fabrica ("the structure of the human body"), a large format book in seven volumes, in 1543. The accurate and intricately detailed illustrations, often in allegorical poses against Italianate landscapes, are thought to have been made by the artist Jan van Calcar, a pupil of Titian. In England, anatomy was the subject of the first public lectures given in any science; these were provided by the Company of Barbers and Surgeons in the 16th century, joined in 1583 by the Lumleian lectures in surgery at the Royal College of Physicians. Late modern Medical schools began to be set up in the United States towards the end of the 18th century. Classes in anatomy needed a continual stream of cadavers for dissection, and these were difficult to obtain. Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York were all renowned for body snatching activity as criminals raided graveyards at night, removing newly buried corpses from their coffins. A similar problem existed in Britain where demand for bodies became so great that grave-raiding and even anatomy murder were practised to obtain cadavers. Some graveyards were, in consequence, protected with watchtowers. The practice was halted in Britain by the Anatomy Act of 1832, while in the United States, similar legislation was enacted after the physician William S. Forbes of Jefferson Medical College was found guilty in 1882 of "complicity with resurrectionists in the despoliation of graves in Lebanon Cemetery". The teaching of anatomy in Britain was transformed by Sir John Struthers, Regius Professor of Anatomy at the University of Aberdeen from 1863 to 1889. He was responsible for setting up the system of three years of "pre-clinical" academic teaching in the sciences underlying medicine, including especially anatomy. This system lasted until the reform of medical training in 1993 and 2003. As well as teaching, he collected many vertebrate skeletons for his museum of comparative anatomy, published over 70 research papers, and became famous for his public dissection of the Tay Whale. From 1822 the Royal College of Surgeons regulated the teaching of anatomy in medical schools. Medical museums provided examples in comparative anatomy, and were often used in teaching. Ignaz Semmelweis investigated puerperal fever and he discovered how it was caused. He noticed that the frequently fatal fever occurred more often in mothers examined by medical students than by midwives. The students went from the dissecting room to the hospital ward and examined women in childbirth. Semmelweis showed that when the trainees washed their hands in chlorinated lime before each clinical examination, the incidence of puerperal fever among the mothers could be reduced dramatically. Before the modern medical era, the primary means for studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and inspection, palpation, and auscultation of the living. The advent of microscopy opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope, and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. The study of small structures involved passing light through them, and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different tissue types. Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens. The invention of the electron microscope brought a significant advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy. See also * Anatomical model * * Outline of human anatomy * Plastination * Evelyn tables * References External links * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/iots/all#playepisode115 Anatomy], In Our Time. BBC Radio 4. Melvyn Bragg with guests Ruth Richardson, Andrew Cunningham and Harold Ellis. * [https://www.bartleby.com/107/ "Anatomy of the Human Body". 20th edition. 1918. Henry Gray] * * [https://anatomia.library.utoronto.ca Anatomia Collection: anatomical plates 1522 to 1867] (digitized books and images) Lyman, Henry Munson. [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/works/bg257g476 The Book of Health] (1898). [https://digital.sciencehistory.org/ Science History Institute Digital Collections] . Gunther von Hagens [https://vonhagens-plastination.com/pages/medical-teaching-specimens/von-hagens-plastination.php/silicone-plastinates True Anatomy for New Ways of Teaching]. Sources Category:Anatomical terminology Category:Branches of biology Category:Morphology (biology)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomy	2025-04-05T18:25:19.623454
675	Affirming the consequent	In propositional logic, affirming the consequent (also known as converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency) is a formal fallacy (or an invalid form of argument) that is committed when, in the context of an indicative conditional statement, it is stated that because the consequent is true, therefore the antecedent is true. It takes on the following form: If P, then Q. Q. Therefore, P. which may also be phrased as P \rightarrow Q (P implies Q) \therefore Q \rightarrow P (therefore, Q implies P) For example, it may be true that a broken lamp would cause a room to become dark. It is not true, however, that a dark room implies the presence of a broken lamp. There may be no lamp (or any light source). The lamp may also be off. In other words, the consequent (a dark room) can have other antecedents (no lamp, off-lamp), and so can still be true even if the stated antecedent is not. Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes. A related fallacy is denying the antecedent. Two related valid forms of logical argument include modus tollens (denying the consequent) and modus ponens (affirming the antecedent). Formal description Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement P \to Q and invalidly concluding its converse Q \to P. The name affirming the consequent derives from using the consequent, Q, of P \to Q, to conclude the antecedent P. This fallacy can be summarized formally as (P \to Q, Q)\to P or, alternatively, \frac{P \to Q, Q}{\therefore P}. The root cause of such a logical error is sometimes failure to realize that just because P is a possible condition for Q, P may not be the only condition for Q, i.e. Q may follow from another condition as well. Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements having true converses. If P and Q are "equivalent" statements, i.e. P \leftrightarrow Q, it is possible to infer P under the condition Q. For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday" P \to Q and "It is my birthday, so it is August 13" Q \to P are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement "August 13 is my birthday" (an abbreviated form of P \leftrightarrow Q). Of the possible forms of "mixed hypothetical syllogisms," two are valid and two are invalid. Affirming the antecedent (modus ponens) and denying the consequent (modus tollens) are valid. Affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent are invalid. Additional examples Example 1 One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: If someone lives in San Diego, then they live in California. Joe lives in California. Therefore, Joe lives in San Diego. There are many places to live in California other than San Diego. On the other hand, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone does not live in California" (non-Q), then "this person does not live in San Diego" (non-P). This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true. Example 2 If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs. My cat has four legs. Therefore, my cat is a dog. Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", etc.) can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs must imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else. This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong (intuitively, a cat cannot be a dog), and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious. This argument was featured in Euguene Ionesco's Rhinoceros in a conversation between a Logician and an Old Gentleman. Example 3 In Catch-22, the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington", who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the chaplain's name signed. "You can read, though, can't you?" the colonel persevered sarcastically. "The author signed his name." "That's my name there." "Then you wrote it. Q.E.D." P in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and Q 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes. See also Abductive reasoning Appeal to consequences Confusion of the inverse Denying the antecedent Fallacies of illicit transference Fallacy of the single cause Fallacy of the undistributed middle Modus ponens Modus tollens Necessity and sufficiency Post hoc ergo propter hoc'' References Category:Formal fallacies	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirming_the_consequent	2025-04-05T18:25:19.631819
676	Andrei Tarkovsky	\| native_name_lang = ru \| birth_name = Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky \| birth_date \| birth_place = Zavrazhye, Ivanovo Oblast<!--now Kostroma Oblast, but the village apparently belonged to Ivanovo at the time-->, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union \| death_date \| death_place = Paris, France \| resting_place = Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery, Paris, France \| nationality \| alma_mater All-Union State Institute of Cinematography \| occupation = \| years_active = 1958–1986 \| notable_works = Full list \| spouse = * }} \| father = Arseny Tarkovsky \| awards = List }} Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky (, ; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Soviet) family of Russian nobility, and with mixed Polish, Romanian and Russian ancestry on his paternal side; his nationality remained Soviet throughout his life, even during his last years in exile.}} film director and screenwriter of Russian origin.<!--Do NOT change without new consensus, see Talk:Andrei Tarkovsky#Tarkovsky a Russian film director and screenwriter?.--> He is widely considered one of the greatest directors in cinema history. His films explore spiritual and metaphysical themes and are known for their slow pacing and long takes, dreamlike visual imagery and preoccupation with nature and memory. Tarkovsky studied film at the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography under filmmaker Mikhail Romm and subsequently directed his first five features in the Soviet Union: ''Ivan's Childhood (1962), Andrei Rublev (1966), Solaris (1972), Mirror (1975), and Stalker (1979). After years of creative conflict with state film authorities, he left the country in 1979 and made his final two films—Nostalghia (1983) and The Sacrifice (1986)—abroad. In 1986, he published Sculpting in Time, a book about cinema and art. He died later that year of cancer, a condition possibly caused by the toxic locations used in the filming of Stalker. Tarkovsky was the recipient of numerous accolades throughout his career, including the FIPRESCI prize, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury and the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury at the Cannes Film Festival in addition to the Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for his debut film, Ivan's Childhood as well as the BAFTA Film Award for The Sacrifice''. In 1990, he was posthumously awarded the Soviet Union's prestigious Lenin Prize. Three of his films—Andrei Rublev, Mirror, and Stalker—featured in Sight & Sound 2012 poll of the 100 greatest films of all time. Life and career Childhood and early life Andrei Tarkovsky was born in the village of Zavrazhye in the Yuryevetsky District of the Ivanovo Industrial Oblast (modern-day Kadyysky District of the Kostroma Oblast, Russia) to the poet and translator Arseny Aleksandrovich Tarkovsky, a native of Yelysavethrad (now Kropyvnytskyi, Ukraine), and Maria Ivanova Vishnyakova, a graduate of the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute who later worked as a proofreader; she was born in Moscow in the Dubasov family estate. Andrei's paternal grandfather Aleksandr Karlovich Tarkovsky (in ) was a Polish nobleman who worked as a bank clerk. His wife Maria Danilovna Rachkovskaya was a Romanian language teacher who arrived from Iași. Andrei's maternal grandmother Vera Nikolayevna Vishnyakova (née Dubasova) belonged to an old Dubasov family of Russian nobility that traces its history back to the 17th century; among her relatives was Admiral Fyodor Dubasov, a fact she had to conceal during the Soviet days. She was married to Ivan Ivanovich Vishnyakov, a native of the Kaluga Governorate who studied law at the Moscow State University and served as a judge in Kozelsk. According to the family legend, Tarkovsky's ancestors on his father's side were princes from the Shamkhalate of Tarki, Dagestan, although his sister, Marina Tarkovskaya, who conducted detailed research on their genealogy, called it "a myth, even a prank of sorts," stressing that no document confirms this narrative. He was described by childhood friends as active and popular, having many friends and being typically in the center of action. His father left the family in 1937, subsequently volunteering for the army in 1941. He returned home in 1943, having been awarded a Red Star after being shot in one of his legs (which he would eventually need to have amputated due to gangrene). Tarkovsky stayed with his mother, moving with her and his sister Marina to Moscow, where she worked as a proofreader at a printing press. In 1939, Tarkovsky enrolled at the Moscow School No. 554. During the war, the three evacuated to Yuryevets, living with his maternal grandmother. In 1943, the family returned to Moscow. Tarkovsky continued his studies at his old school, where the poet Andrei Voznesensky was one of his classmates. He studied piano at a music school and attended classes at an art school. The family lived on Shchipok Street in the Zamoskvorechye District in Moscow. From November 1947 to spring 1948 he was in the hospital with tuberculosis. Many themes of his childhood—the evacuation, his mother and her two children, the withdrawn father, the time in the hospital—feature prominently in his film Mirror. In his school years, Tarkovsky was a troublemaker and a poor student. He still managed to graduate, and from 1951 to 1952 studied Arabic at the Oriental Institute in Moscow, a branch of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. Although he already spoke some Arabic and was a successful student in his first semesters, he did not finish his studies and dropped out to work as a prospector for the Academy of Science Institute for Non-Ferrous Metals and Gold. He participated in a year-long research expedition to the river Kureyka near Turukhansk in the Krasnoyarsk Province. During this time in the taiga, Tarkovsky decided to study film. Film school student Upon returning from the research expedition in 1954, Tarkovsky applied at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) and was admitted to the film-directing program. He was in the same class as Irma Raush (Irina) whom he married in April 1957. The early Khrushchev era offered good opportunities for young film directors. Before 1953, annual film production was low and most films were directed by veteran directors. After 1953, more films were produced, many of them by young directors. The Khrushchev Thaw relaxed Soviet social restrictions a bit and permitted a limited influx of European and North American literature, films and music. This allowed Tarkovsky to see films of the Italian neorealists, French New Wave, and of directors such as Kurosawa, Buñuel, Bergman, Bresson, Wajda (whose film Ashes and Diamonds influenced Tarkovsky) and Mizoguchi. Tarkovsky's teacher and mentor was Mikhail Romm, who taught many film students who would later become influential film directors. In 1956, Tarkovsky directed his first student short film, The Killers, from a short story of Ernest Hemingway. The longer television film There Will Be No Leave Today followed in 1959. Both films were a collaboration between the VGIK students. Classmate Aleksandr Gordon, who married Tarkovsky's sister, in particular directed, wrote, edited, and acted in the two films with Tarkovsky. An important influence on Tarkovsky was the film director Grigory Chukhray, who was teaching at the VGIK. Impressed by the talent of his student, Chukhray offered Tarkovsky a position as assistant director for his film Clear Skies. Tarkovsky initially showed interest but then decided to concentrate on his studies and his own projects. A version of the film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 and won the FIPRESCI prize. He divorced his wife, Irina, in June 1970. In the same year, he married Larisa Kizilova (née Egorkina), who had been a production assistant for the film Andrei Rublev (they had been living together since 1965). Their son, Andrei Andreyevich Tarkovsky, (nicknamed Andriosha, meaning "little Andre" or "Andre Junior") was born in the same year on 7 August. In 1972, he completed Solaris, an adaptation of the novel Solaris by Stanisław Lem. He had worked on this together with screenwriter Friedrich Gorenstein as early as 1968. The film was presented at the Cannes Film Festival, won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, and was nominated for the Palme d'Or. From 1973 to 1974, he shot the film Mirror, a highly autobiographical and unconventionally structured film drawing on his childhood and incorporating some of his father's poems. In this film Tarkovsky portrayed the plight of childhood affected by war. Tarkovsky had worked on the screenplay for this film since 1967, under the consecutive titles Confession, White day and A white, white day. From the beginning the film was not well received by Soviet authorities due to its content and its perceived elitist nature. Soviet authorities placed the film in the "third category", a severely limited distribution, and only allowed it to be shown in third-class cinemas and workers' clubs. Few prints were made and the film-makers received no returns. Third category films also placed the film-makers in danger of being accused of wasting public funds, which could have serious effects on their future productivity. These difficulties are presumed to have made Tarkovsky play with the idea of going abroad and producing a film outside the Soviet film industry. During 1975, Tarkovsky also worked on the screenplay Hoffmanniana, about the German writer and poet E. T. A. Hoffmann. In December 1976, he directed Hamlet, his only stage play, at the Lenkom Theatre in Moscow. The main role was played by Anatoly Solonitsyn, who also acted in several of Tarkovsky's films. At the end of 1978, he also wrote the screenplay Sardor together with the writer Aleksandr Misharin. The last film Tarkovsky completed in the Soviet Union was Stalker, inspired by the novel Roadside Picnic by the brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. Tarkovsky had met the brothers first in 1971 and was in contact with them until his death in 1986. Initially he wanted to shoot a film based on their novel ''Dead Mountaineer's Hotel and he developed a raw script. Influenced by a discussion with Arkady Strugatsky he changed his plan and began to work on the script based on Roadside Picnic''. Work on this film began in 1976. The production was mired in troubles; improper development of the negatives had ruined all the exterior shots. Tarkovsky's relationship with cinematographer Georgy Rerberg deteriorated to the point where he hired Alexander Knyazhinsky as a new first cinematographer. Furthermore, Tarkovsky had a heart attack in April 1978, resulting in further delay. The film was completed in 1979 and won the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the Cannes Film Festival. In a question and answer session at the Edinburgh Filmhouse on 11 February 1981, Tarkovsky trenchantly rejected suggestions that the film was either impenetrably mysterious or a political allegory. In 1979, Tarkovsky began production of the film The First Day (Russian: Первый День Pervyj Dyen), based on a script by his friend and long-term collaborator Andrei Konchalovsky. The film was set in 18th-century Russia during the reign of Peter the Great and starred Natalya Bondarchuk and Anatoli Papanov. To get the project approved by Goskino, Tarkovsky submitted a script that was different from the original script, omitting several scenes that were critical of the official atheism in the Soviet Union. After shooting roughly half of the film the project was stopped by Goskino after it became apparent that the film differed from the script submitted to the censors. Tarkovsky was reportedly infuriated by this interruption and destroyed most of the film. Film career outside the Soviet Union During the summer of 1979, Tarkovsky traveled to Italy, where he shot the documentary Voyage in Time together with his long-time friend Tonino Guerra. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1980 for an extended trip, during which he and Guerra completed the script for the film Nostalghia. During this period, he took Polaroid photographs depicting his personal life. Tarkovsky returned to Italy in 1982 to start shooting Nostalghia, but Mosfilm then withdrew from the project, so he sought and received financial backing from the Italian RAI. Tarkovsky completed the film in 1983, and it was presented at the Cannes Film Festival where it won the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. Tarkovsky also shared a special prize called Grand Prix du cinéma de création with Robert Bresson. Soviet authorities lobbied to prevent the film from winning the Palme d'Or, a fact that hardened Tarkovsky's resolve to never work in the Soviet Union again. After Cannes he went to London to stage and choreograph the opera Boris Godunov at the Royal Opera House under the musical direction of Claudio Abbado. (Italy) in 1985]] At a press conference in Milan on 10 July 1984, he announced that he would never return to the Soviet Union and would remain in Western Europe. He stated, "I am not a Soviet dissident, I have no conflict with the Soviet Government," but if he returned home, he added, "I would be unemployed." At that time, his son Andriosha was still in the Soviet Union and not allowed to leave the country. On 28 August 1985, Tarkovsky was processed as a Soviet Defector at a refugee camp in Latina, Italy, registered with the serial number 13225/379, and officially welcomed to the West. Tarkovsky spent most of 1984 preparing the film The Sacrifice. It was finally shot in 1985 in Sweden, with many of the crew being alumni from Ingmar Bergman's films, including cinematographer Sven Nykvist. Tarkovsky's vision of his film was greatly influenced by Bergman's style. While The Sacrifice is about an apocalypse and impending death, faith, and possible redemption, in the making-of documentary Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky, in a particularly poignant scene, writer/director Michal Leszczylowski follows Tarkovsky on a walk as he expresses his sentiments on death—he claims himself to be immortal and has no fear of dying. Ironically, at the end of the year Tarkovsky was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer. In January 1986, he began treatment in Paris and was joined there by his son, Andre Jr, who was finally allowed to leave the Soviet Union. What would be Tarkovsky's final film was dedicated to him. The Sacrifice was presented at the Cannes Film Festival and received the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury, the FIPRESCI prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. As Tarkovsky was unable to attend due to his illness, the prizes were collected by his son. Death in France]] In Tarkovsky's last diary entry (15 December 1986), he wrote: "But now I have no strength left—that is the problem". The diaries are sometimes also known as Martyrology and were published posthumously in 1989 and in English in 1991. Tarkovsky died in Paris on 29 December 1986. His funeral ceremony was held at the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral. He was buried on 3 January 1987 in the Russian Cemetery in Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois in France. The inscription on his gravestone, which was erected in 1994, was conceived by Tarkovsky's wife, Larisa, reads: To the man who saw the Angel. Larisa died in 1998 and is buried beside her husband. Beginning in the early 1990s, some in Russia have alleged that Tarkovsky did not die of natural causes, but was assassinated by the KGB. Evidence for this hypothesis includes testimonies by former KGB agents who claim that Viktor Chebrikov gave the order to eradicate Tarkovsky to curtail what the Soviet government and the KGB saw as anti-Soviet propaganda by Tarkovsky. Other evidence includes several memoranda that surfaced after the 1991 coup and the claim by one of Tarkovsky's doctors that his cancer could not have developed from a natural cause. Tarkovsky, his wife Larisa, and actor Anatoly Solonitsyn all died from the same type of cancer. Vladimir Sharun, a sound designer for Stalker, was convinced that all three died due to exposure to chemicals released from a chemical plant upstream from where the film was shot. Tarkovsky has also expressed interest in the art of Haiku and its ability to create "images in such a way that they mean nothing beyond themselves". Tarkovsky was also a deeply religious Orthodox Christian, who believed great art should have a higher spiritual purpose. He was a perfectionist not given to humor or humility: his signature style was ponderous and literary, having many characters that pondered over religious themes and issues regarding faith. Tarkovsky perceived that the art of cinema has only been truly mastered by very few filmmakers, stating in a 1970 interview with Naum Abramov that "they can be counted on the fingers of one hand". In 1972, Tarkovsky told film historian Leonid Kozlov his ten favorite films. The list is as follows: Diary of a Country Priest and Mouchette by Robert Bresson; Winter Light, Wild Strawberries, and Persona by Ingmar Bergman; Nazarín by Luis Buñuel; City Lights by Charlie Chaplin; Ugetsu by Kenji Mizoguchi; Seven Samurai by Akira Kurosawa, and Woman in the Dunes by Hiroshi Teshigahara. He also liked Pier Paolo Pasolini's film The Gospel According to St. Matthew. Among his favorite directors were Buñuel, Mizoguchi, Bergman, Bresson, Kurosawa, Michelangelo Antonioni, Jean Vigo, and Carl Theodor Dreyer. With the exception of City Lights, the list does not contain any films of the early silent era. The reason is that Tarkovsky saw film as an art as only a relatively recent phenomenon, with the early film-making forming only a prelude. The list has also no films or directors from Tarkovsky's native Soviet Union, although he rated Soviet directors such as Boris Barnet, Sergei Parajanov and Alexander Dovzhenko highly. He said of Dovzhenko's Earth: "I have lived a lot among very simple farmers and met extraordinary people. They spread calmness, had such tact, they conveyed a feeling of dignity and displayed wisdom that I have seldom come across on such a scale. Dovzhenko had obviously understood wherein the sense of life resides. [...] This trespassing of the border between nature and mankind is an ideal place for the existence of man. Dovzhenko understood this." He was also not a fan of blockbusters or science fiction, largely dismissing the latter for its "comic book" trappings and vulgar commercialism. However, in notable exceptions Tarkovsky praised the James Cameron blockbuster film The Terminator, saying that its "vision of the future and the relation between man and its destiny is pushing the frontier of cinema as an art". He was critical of the "brutality and low acting skills", but was nevertheless impressed by the film. He equally liked George Lucas's Star Wars according to his son, Andrei A. Tarkovsky. Cinematic style In a 1962 interview, Tarkovsky argued: "All art, of course, is intellectual, but for me, all the arts, and cinema even more so, must above all be emotional and act upon the heart." His films are characterized by metaphysical themes, extremely long takes, and images often considered by critics to be of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, levitation, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera. He once said: "Juxtaposing a person with an environment that is boundless, collating him with a countless number of people passing by close to him and far away, relating a person to the whole world, that is the meaning of cinema." Tarkovsky incorporated levitation scenes into several of his films, most notably Solaris. To him these scenes possess great power and are used for their photogenic value and magical inexplicability. Water, clouds, and reflections were used by him for their surreal beauty and photogenic value, as well as their symbolism, such as waves or the forms of brooks or running water. Bells and candles are also frequent symbols. These are symbols of film, sight and sound, and Tarkovsky's film frequently has themes of self-reflection. Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called "sculpting in time". By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another. Up to, and including, his film Mirror, Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by Aristotle: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. Several of Tarkovsky's films have color or black-and-white sequences. This first occurs in the otherwise monochrome Andrei Rublev, which features a color epilogue of Rublev's authentic religious icon paintings. All of his films afterwards contain monochrome, and in ''Stalker's case sepia sequences, while otherwise being in color. In 1966, in an interview conducted shortly after finishing Andrei Rublev, Tarkovsky dismissed color film as a "commercial gimmick" and cast doubt on the idea that contemporary films meaningfully use color. He claimed that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors most of the time, and that color should therefore be used in film mainly to emphasize certain moments, but not all the time, as this distracts the viewer. To him, films in color were like moving paintings or photographs, which are too beautiful to be a realistic depiction of life. Director Ingmar Bergman commented on Tarkovsky: Contrarily, however, Bergman conceded the truth in the claim made by a critic who wrote that "with Autumn Sonata'' Bergman does Bergman", adding: "Tarkovsky began to make Tarkovsky films, and that Fellini began to make Fellini films [...] Buñuel nearly always made Buñuel films." This pastiche of one's own work has been derogatorily termed as "self-karaoke". Vadim Yusov Tarkovsky worked in close collaboration with cinematographer Vadim Yusov from 1958 to 1972, and much of the visual style of Tarkovsky's films can be attributed to this collaboration. Tarkovsky would spend two days preparing for Yusov to film a single long take, and due to the preparation, usually only a single take was needed.Sven NykvistIn his last film, The Sacrifice, Tarkovsky worked with cinematographer Sven Nykvist, who had worked on many films with director Ingmar Bergman. (Nykvist was not alone: several people involved in the production had previously collaborated with Bergman, notably lead actor Erland Josephson, who had also acted for Tarkovsky in Nostalghia.) Nykvist complained that Tarkovsky would frequently look through the camera and even direct actors through it, but ultimately stated that choosing to work with Tarkovsky was one of the best choices he had ever made. Publications * Sculpting in Time. University of Texas Press, 1986. . * Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970–1986. Seagull, 1989. . Translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair. * Collected Screenplays. London: Faber & Faber, 2003. . * Instant Light, Tarkovsky Polaroids. London: Thames and Hudson, 2006. . A book of 60 photographs taken by Tarkovsky in Russia and Italy between 1979 and 1984. Edited by Italian photographer Giovanni Chiaramonte and Tarkovsky's son Andrey A. Tarkovsky. * Bright, bright day. Tarkovsky Foundation and White Space Gallery, 2008. A book of Polaroids edited by Stephen Gill. . Edition of 3000 copies. * Tarkovsky: Films, Stills, Polaroids & Writings. London: Thames and Hudson, 2019. . Unproduced screenplays Concentrate Concentrate (, Kontsentrat) is a never-filmed 1958 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on Tarkovsky's year in the taiga as a member of a research expedition, prior to his enrollment in film school. It's about the leader of a geological expedition, who waits for the boat that brings back the concentrates collected by the expedition. The expedition is surrounded by mystery, and its purpose is a state secret. Although some authors claim that the screenplay was filmed, according to Marina Tarkovskaya, Tarkovsky's sister (and wife of Aleksandr Gordon, a fellow student of Tarkovsky during his film school years) the screenplay was never filmed. Tarkovsky wrote the screenplay during his entrance examination at the State Institute of Cinematography (VGIK) in a single sitting. He earned the highest possible grade, "excellent" () for this work. In 1994, fragments of Concentrate were filmed and used in the documentary ''Andrei Tarkovsky's Taiga Summer by Marina Tarkovskaya and Aleksandr Gordon. Hoffmanniana Hoffmanniana'' () is a never-filmed 1974 screenplay by Tarkovsky. The screenplay is based on the life and work of German author E. T. A. Hoffmann. In 1974, an acquaintance from Tallinnfilm approached Tarkovsky to write a screenplay on a German theme. Tarkovsky considered Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann, and also thought about Ibsen's Peer Gynt. In the end Tarkovsky signed a contract for a script based on the life and work of Hoffmann. He planned to write the script during the summer of 1974 at his dacha. Writing was not without difficulty, less than a month before the deadline he had not written a single page. He finally finished the project in late 1974 and submitted the final script to Tallinnfilm in October. Although the script was well received by the officials at Tallinnfilm, it was the consensus that no one but Tarkovsky would be able to direct it. The script was sent to Goskino in February 1976, and although approval was granted for proceeding with making the film, the screenplay was never realized. In 1984, during the time of his exile in the West, Tarkovsky revisited the screenplay and made a few changes. He also considered to finally direct a film based on the screenplay but ultimately dropped this idea. * Auf der Suche nach der verlorenen Zeit (1988): Andrej Tarkowskijs Exil und Tod. Documentary directed by Ebbo Demant. Germany. * One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich (1999): French documentary film directed by Chris Marker. * Andrey (2006): a film by Nariné Mktchyan and Arsen Azatyan about Tarkovsky visiting Armenia. * Tarkovsky: Time Within Time (2015): documentary by P. J. Letofsky. * Andrei Tarkovsky: A Cinema Prayer (2019): a poetic documentary by Tarkovsky's son Andrei A. Tarkovsky.Awards and commemoration Numerous awards were bestowed on Tarkovsky throughout his lifetime. * At the Venice Film Festival, the Golden Lion of the for ''Ivan's Childhood'' * At the Cannes Film Festival, the FIPRESCI prize three times, the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury three times (more than any other director), the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury twice, and the Best Director award once. He was also nominated for the Palme d'Or three times. * In 1987, the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Language Film of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts for The Sacrifice. Under the influence of Glasnost and Perestroika, Tarkovsky was finally recognized in the Soviet Union in the Autumn of 1986, shortly before his death, by a retrospective of his films in Moscow. After his death, an entire issue of the film magazine Iskusstvo Kino was devoted to Tarkovsky. In their obituaries, the film committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union and the Union of Soviet Film Makers expressed their sorrow that Tarkovsky had to spend the last years of his life in exile. Posthumously, he was awarded the Lenin Prize in 1990, one of the highest state honors in the Soviet Union. In 1989, the Andrei Tarkovsky Memorial Prize was established, with its first recipient being the Russian animator Yuri Norstein. In three consecutive events, the Moscow International Film Festival awarded the Andrei Tarkovsky Award in 1993, 1995, and 1997. In 1996, the Andrei Tarkovsky Museum opened in Yuryevets, his childhood town. A minor planet, 3345 Tarkovskij, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1982, has been named after him. Tarkovsky has been the subject of several documentaries. Most notable is the 1988 documentary Moscow Elegy, by Russian film director Alexander Sokurov. Sokurov's own work has been heavily influenced by Tarkovsky. The film consists mostly of narration over stock footage from Tarkovsky's films. Directed by Andrei Tarkovsky is a 1988 documentary film by Michal Leszczylowski, an editor of the film The Sacrifice. Film director Chris Marker produced the television documentary One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich as an homage to Andrei Tarkovsky in 2000. At the entrance to the Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, there is a monument that includes statues of Tarkovsky, Gennady Shpalikov and Vasily Shukshin. Reception and legacy Andrei Tarkovsky and his works have received praise from many filmmakers, critics and thinkers. The Swedish filmmaker Ingmar Bergman was quoted as saying: "Tarkovsky for me is the greatest [of us all], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as a reflection, life as a dream". The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa remarked on Tarkovsky's films as saying: "His unusual sensitivity is both overwhelming and astounding. It almost reaches a pathological intensity. Probably there is no equal among film directors alive now." Kurosawa also commented: "I love all of Tarkovsky's films. I love his personality and all his works. Every cut from his films is a marvelous image in itself. But the finished image is nothing more than the imperfect accomplishment of his idea. His ideas are only realized in part. And he had to make do with it." The Iranian filmmaker Abbas Kiarostami remarked that: "Tarkovsky's works separate me completely from physical life, and are the most spiritual films I have seen". The Turkish filmmaker Nuri Bilge Ceylan said that when he first discovered the films of Andrei Tarkovsky as a college student, unsure of what he wanted to do with his life, he was utterly baffled by the lauded Soviet master. He walked out of a screening of Solaris at the halfway point, and stopped a VHS tape of Mirror at a similar juncture. Today, he considers the latter to be the greatest film ever made. "I've seen it maybe 20 times," he says. The Armenian filmmaker Sergei Parajanov remarked that watching Tarkovsky's film, ''Ivan's Childhood was his main inspiration to become a filmmaker by saying: "I did not know how to do anything and I would not have done anything if there had not been Ivan's Childhood". and later said that he has seen the picture at least 25 times. The American filmmaker Stan Brakhage said that: "I personally think that the three greatest tasks for film in the 20th century are (1) To make the epic, that is to tell the tales of the tribes of the world. (2) To keep it personal, because only in the eccentricities of our personal lives do we have any chances at the truth. (3) To do the dream work, that is, to illuminate the borders of the unconscious. The only filmmaker I know that does all these three things equally in every film he makes is Andrei Tarkovsky, and that's why I think he's the greatest living narrative filmmaker." The German filmmaker Wim Wenders dedicated his film Wings of Desire to Tarkovsky (along with François Truffaut and Yasujirō Ozu). The French filmmaker Chris Marker directed a documentary film as a homage to Tarkovsky called One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich and used Tarkovsky's concept of "The Zone" (from the film, Stalker) for his 1983 film essay, Sans Soleil. The Greek filmmaker Theo Angelopoulos regarded Tarkovsky's film Stalker as one of the films that influenced him. The Polish filmmaker Andrzej Żuławski remarked that: "If anybody influenced anybody, it's me being influenced by Tarkovsky, not the reverse", and called Tarkovsky's film Andrei Rublev a "masterpiece". The Greek-Australian filmmaker Alex Proyas was "extremely influenced" by Tarkovsky's work and cited Stalker as one of his favorite films. The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre highly praised Tarkovsky's film ''Ivan's Childhood'', saying that it was one of the most beautiful films he had ever seen. The Japanese anime filmmaker Mamoru Oshii, known for his works such as Ghost in the Shell, was influenced by Tarkovsky. The Indian-born British American novelist Salman Rushdie praised Tarkovsky and his work Solaris by calling it "a sci-fi masterpiece". Film historian Steven Dillon says that much of subsequent film was deeply influenced by the films of Tarkovsky. Mexican filmmaker Alejandro González Iñarritu is a huge fan of Tarkovsky. He once said in an interview: "Andrei Rublev is maybe my favorite film ever", and in another interview, he added: "I remember, the first time I saw a Tarkovsky film, I was shocked by it. I did not know what to do. I was shocked by it. I was fascinated, because suddenly I realized that film could have so many more layers to it than what I had imagined before". There are many direct references and hidden tributes to Tarkovsky's movies in Iñarritu's 2015 Oscar-winning drama The Revenant. Danish film director Lars von Trier is a fervent admirer of Tarkovsky. He dedicated his 2009 film Antichrist to him, and, while discussing it with critic David Jenkins, asked: "Have you seen Mirror? I was hypnotised! I've seen it 20 times. It's the closest thing I've got to a religion – to me he is a god". The Japanese composer Ryuichi Sakamoto was an admirer of Tarkovsky's work, describing his penultimate solo album, async as "a soundtrack for an imaginary Tarkovsky film." On Tarkovsky's overall influence on his own work, Sakamoto stated, "As I've been making music and trying to go deeper and deeper, I was finally able to understand what the Tarkovsky movies are about — how symphonic they are — it's almost music. Not just the sounds — it's a symphony of moving images and sounds. They are more complex than music." Film festival <!---redirects for Zerkalo target this section for now---> Two film festivals have been named in his honor: * International Human Rights Film Festival "Stalker", named after the film held annually in Moscow and regional centres since 1995 * International Film Festival "Zerkalo" named after Andrei Tarkovsky (meaning "mirror"), "for fans of intellectual cinema"; also known as Tarkovsky Film festival – Zerkalo, Zerkalo International Film Festival, Andrei Tarkovsky Zerkalo International Film Festival, or simply Zerkalo, The festival is organized by a committee headed by Mikhail Men, governor of Ivanovo Oblast. Sister of Andrei Tarkovsky, Marina Tarkovsky was one of the co-founders and organizers. From 2010 the festival was directed by Pavel Lungin. The festival awards a number of prizes, including the Special Award for Contribution to Andrei Tarkovsky's Cinema. Held in Ivanovo since 2007, the festival is held in July each year, with the 16th edition scheduled for 22–27 July, to be held in various cities in the Ivanovo region, with special screenings in Moscow. Films from France, India, Greece, Serbia, Colombia, Kazakhstan and other countries were entered into the competition, and a gala night was dedicated to Tarkovsky's 90th birthday, on the main square of his hometown of Yuryevets on 22 July. See also * European art cinema * Slow cinema * Moscow International Film Festival References Bibliography * * * * * * * * * Schmidt, Stefan W. (2016). "Somatography and Film: Nostalgia as Haunting Memory Shown in Tarkovsky's Nostalghia." Journal of Aesthetics and Phenomenology, 3 (1): 27–41. [https://doi.org/10.1080/20539320.2016.1187856 Somatography and Film: Nostalgia as Haunting Memory Shown in Tarkovsky's Nostalghia] * * * * * Notes Further reading * External links * * * [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/2002/great-directors/tarkovsky/ Andrei Tarkovsky] at Senses of Cinema * [http://www.andrei-tarkovsky.com/ Website about Andrei Tarkovsky, Films, Articles, Interviews] * [http://rbth.com/literature/2014/11/26/andrei_tarkovsky_biography_wrestles_with_the_filmmakers_remarkable_41717.html Andrei Tarkovsky: Biography wrestles with the filmmaker's remarkable life] * [http://www.nostalghia.com/index.html Nostalghia.com - An Andrei Tarkovsky Information Site], at Film Studies Program in the Department of Communication and Culture, University of Calgary * ''[https://en.168.am/2016/02/27/2786.html A.Tarkovsky's Days in Armenia]'' Category:1932 births Category:1986 deaths Category:Academic staff of High Courses for Scriptwriters and Film Directors Category:Burials at Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois Russian Cemetery Category:Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners Category:Deaths from lung cancer in France Category:Directors of Golden Lion winners Category:Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award Category:Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography alumni Category:Pacifists Category:People from Kostroma Oblast Category:People's Artists of the RSFSR Category:Recipients of the Lenin Prize Category:Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic people Category:Russian science fiction film directors Category:Soviet diarists Category:Soviet documentary film directors Category:Soviet emigrants to France Category:Soviet emigrants to Italy Category:Soviet film directors Category:Soviet male screenwriters Category:Soviet non-fiction writers Category:Soviet opera directors Category:Soviet people of Polish descent Category:Soviet people of Romanian descent Category:Soviet screenwriters Category:Writers from Kostroma Oblast	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky	2025-04-05T18:25:19.669723
677	Ambiguity	thumb\|250px\|alt=Drawing of the back an anthropomorphic caterpillar, seated on a toadstool amid grass and flowers, blowing smoke from a hookah; a blonde girl in an old-fashioned frock is standing on tiptoe to peer at the caterpillar over the toadstool's edge\|Sir John Tenniel's illustration of the Caterpillar for Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is noted for its ambiguous central figure, whose head can be viewed as either a man's face with a pointed nose and chin smoking a pipe, or as the end of an actual caterpillar, with the first two right "true" legs visible (1865). Ambiguity is the type of meaning in which a phrase, statement, or resolution is not explicitly defined, making for several interpretations; others describe it as a concept or statement that has no real reference. A common aspect of ambiguity is uncertainty. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved, according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The prefix ambi- reflects the idea of "two", as in "two meanings"). The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately obvious), whereas with vague information it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity. Linguistic forms Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness. Ambiguity in human language is argued to reflect principles of efficient communication. Languages that communicate efficiently will avoid sending information that is redundant with information provided in the context. This can be shown mathematically to result in a system that is ambiguous when context is neglected. In this way, ambiguity is viewed as a generally useful feature of a linguistic system. Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem in law, because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance.thumb\|Structural analysis of an ambiguous Spanish sentence: Pepe vio a Pablo enfurecido.Interpretation 1: When Pepe was angry, then he saw Pablo.Interpretation 2: Pepe saw that Pablo was angry.Here, the syntactic tree in figure represents interpretation 2. Lexical ambiguity The lexical ambiguity of a word or phrase applies to it having more than one meaning in the language to which the word belongs. "Meaning" here refers to whatever should be represented by a good dictionary. For instance, the word "bank" has several distinct lexical definitions, including "financial institution" and "edge of a river". Or consider "apothecary". One could say "I bought herbs from the apothecary". This could mean one actually spoke to the apothecary (pharmacist) or went to the apothecary (pharmacy). The context in which an ambiguous word is used often makes it clearer which of the meanings is intended. If, for instance, someone says "I put $100 in the bank", most people would not think someone used a shovel to dig in the mud. However, some linguistic contexts do not provide sufficient information to make a used word clearer. Lexical ambiguity can be addressed by algorithmic methods that automatically associate the appropriate meaning with a word in context, a task referred to as word-sense disambiguation. The use of multi-defined words requires the author or speaker to clarify their context, and sometimes elaborate on their specific intended meaning (in which case, a less ambiguous term should have been used). The goal of clear concise communication is that the receiver(s) have no misunderstanding about what was meant to be conveyed. An exception to this could include a politician whose "weasel words" and obfuscation are necessary to gain support from multiple constituents with mutually exclusive conflicting desires from his or her candidate of choice. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science. More problematic are words whose multiple meanings express closely related concepts. "Good", for example, can mean "useful" or "functional" (That's a good hammer), "exemplary" (She's a good student), "pleasing" (This is good soup), "moral" (a good person versus the lesson to be learned from a story), "righteous", etc. "I have a good daughter" is not clear about which sense is intended. The various ways to apply prefixes and suffixes can also create ambiguity ("unlockable" can mean "capable of being opened" or "impossible to lock"). Semantic and syntactic ambiguity thumb\|Which is wet: the food, or the cat? Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word, phrase or sentence, taken out of context, has more than one interpretation. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the words "her duck" can refer either to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw"). For the notion of, and theoretic results about, syntactic ambiguity in artificial, formal languages (such as computer programming languages), see Ambiguous grammar. Usually, semantic and syntactic ambiguity go hand in hand. The sentence "We saw her duck" is also syntactically ambiguous. Conversely, a sentence like "He ate the cookies on the couch" is also semantically ambiguous. Rarely, but occasionally, the different parsings of a syntactically ambiguous phrase result in the same meaning. For example, the command "Cook, cook!" can be parsed as "Cook (noun used as vocative), cook (imperative verb form)!", but also as "Cook (imperative verb form), cook (noun used as vocative)!". It is more common that a syntactically unambiguous phrase has a semantic ambiguity; for example, the lexical ambiguity in "Your boss is a funny man" is purely semantic, leading to the response "Funny ha-ha or funny peculiar?" Spoken language can contain many more types of ambiguities that are called phonological ambiguities, where there is more than one way to compose a set of sounds into words. For example, "ice cream" and "I scream". Such ambiguity is generally resolved according to the context. A mishearing of such, based on incorrectly resolved ambiguity, is called a mondegreen. Philosophy Philosophers (and other users of logic) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing (or intentionally adding) ambiguity in arguments because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments. For example, a politician might say, "I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth", an example of a glittering generality. Some will think they oppose taxes in general because they hinder economic growth. Others may think they oppose only those taxes that they believe will hinder economic growth. In writing, the sentence can be rewritten to reduce possible misinterpretation, either by adding a comma after "taxes" (to convey the first sense) or by changing "which" to "that" (to convey the second sense) or by rewriting it in other ways. The devious politician hopes that each constituent will interpret the statement in the most desirable way, and think the politician supports everyone's opinion. However, the opposite can also be true—an opponent can turn a positive statement into a bad one if the speaker uses ambiguity (intentionally or not). The logical fallacies of amphiboly and equivocation rely heavily on the use of ambiguous words and phrases. In continental philosophy (particularly phenomenology and existentialism), there is much greater tolerance of ambiguity, as it is generally seen as an integral part of the human condition. Martin Heidegger argued that the relation between the subject and object is ambiguous, as is the relation of mind and body, and part and whole. In Heidegger's phenomenology, Dasein is always in a meaningful world, but there is always an underlying background for every instance of signification. Thus, although some things may be certain, they have little to do with Dasein's sense of care and existential anxiety, e.g., in the face of death. In calling his work Being and Nothingness an "essay in phenomenological ontology" Jean-Paul Sartre follows Heidegger in defining the human essence as ambiguous, or relating fundamentally to such ambiguity. Simone de Beauvoir tries to base an ethics on Heidegger's and Sartre's writings (The Ethics of Ambiguity), where she highlights the need to grapple with ambiguity: "as long as there have been philosophers and they have thought, most of them have tried to mask it ... And the ethics which they have proposed to their disciples has always pursued the same goal. It has been a matter of eliminating the ambiguity by making oneself pure inwardness or pure externality, by escaping from the sensible world or being engulfed by it, by yielding to eternity or enclosing oneself in the pure moment." Ethics cannot be based on the authoritative certainty given by mathematics and logic, or prescribed directly from the empirical findings of science. She states: "Since we do not succeed in fleeing it, let us, therefore, try to look the truth in the face. Let us try to assume our fundamental ambiguity. It is in the knowledge of the genuine conditions of our life that we must draw our strength to live and our reason for acting". Other continental philosophers suggest that concepts such as life, nature, and sex are ambiguous. Corey Anton has argued that we cannot be certain what is separate from or unified with something else: language, he asserts, divides what is not, in fact, separate. Following Ernest Becker, he argues that the desire to 'authoritatively disambiguate' the world and existence has led to numerous ideologies and historical events such as genocide. On this basis, he argues that ethics must focus on 'dialectically integrating opposites' and balancing tension, rather than seeking a priori validation or certainty. Like the existentialists and phenomenologists, he sees the ambiguity of life as the basis of creativity. Literature and rhetoric In literature and rhetoric, ambiguity can be a useful tool. Groucho Marx's classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its humor, for example: "Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I'll never know". Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title "Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue" (where "blue" can refer to the color, or to sadness). In the narrative, ambiguity can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel The Great Gatsby. Mathematical notation Mathematical notation is a helpful tool that eliminates a lot of misunderstandings associated with natural language in physics and other sciences. Nonetheless, there are still some inherent ambiguities due to lexical, syntactic, and semantic reasons that persist in mathematical notation. Names of functions The ambiguity in the style of writing a function should not be confused with a multivalued function, which can (and should) be defined in a deterministic and unambiguous way. Several special functions still do not have established notations. Usually, the conversion to another notation requires to scale the argument or the resulting value; sometimes, the same name of the function is used, causing confusions. Examples of such underestablished functions: Sinc function Elliptic integral of the third kind; translating elliptic integral form MAPLE to Mathematica, one should replace the second argument to its square; dealing with complex values, this may cause problems. Exponential integral Hermite polynomial A highly confusing term is gain. For example, the sentence "the gain of a system should be doubled", without context, means close to nothing. It may mean that the ratio of the output voltage of an electric circuit to the input voltage should be doubled. It may mean that the ratio of the output power of an electric or optical circuit to the input power should be doubled. It may mean that the gain of the laser medium should be doubled, for example, doubling the population of the upper laser level in a quasi-two level system (assuming negligible absorption of the ground-state). The term intensity is ambiguous when applied to light. The term can refer to any of irradiance, luminous intensity, radiant intensity, or radiance, depending on the background of the person using the term. Also, confusions may be related with the use of atomic percent as measure of concentration of a dopant, or resolution of an imaging system, as measure of the size of the smallest detail that still can be resolved at the background of statistical noise. See also Accuracy and precision. The Berry paradox arises as a result of systematic ambiguity in the meaning of terms such as "definable" or "nameable". Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. Mathematical interpretation of ambiguity The Necker cube and impossible cube, an underdetermined and overdetermined object, respectively.\|thumb In mathematics and logic, ambiguity can be considered to be an instance of the logical concept of underdetermination—for example, XY leaves open what the value of X is—while overdetermination, except when like X1, X1, X1, is a self-contradiction, also called inconsistency, paradoxicalness, or oxymoron, or in mathematics an inconsistent system—such as which has no solution. Logical ambiguity and self-contradiction is analogous to visual ambiguity and impossible objects, such as the Necker cube and impossible cube, or many of the drawings of M. C. Escher. Constructed language Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially lexical ambiguity. Lojban and Loglan are two related languages that have been created for this, focusing chiefly on syntactic ambiguity as well. The languages can be both spoken and written. These languages are intended to provide a greater technical precision over big natural languages, although historically, such attempts at language improvement have been criticized. Languages composed from many diverse sources contain much ambiguity and inconsistency. The many exceptions to syntax and semantic rules are time-consuming and difficult to learn. Biology In structural biology, ambiguity has been recognized as a problem for studying protein conformations. The analysis of a protein three-dimensional structure consists in dividing the macromolecule into subunits called domains. The difficulty of this task arises from the fact that different definitions of what a domain is can be used (e.g. folding autonomy, function, thermodynamic stability, or domain motions), which sometimes results in a single protein having different—yet equally valid—domain assignments. Christianity and Judaism Christianity and Judaism employ the concept of paradox synonymously with "ambiguity". Many Christians and Jews endorse Rudolf Otto's description of the sacred as 'mysterium tremendum et fascinans', the awe-inspiring mystery that fascinates humans. The apocryphal Book of Judith is noted for the "ingenious ambiguity" expressed by its heroine; for example, she says to the villain of the story, Holofernes, "my lord will not fail to achieve his purposes", without specifying whether my lord refers to the villain or to God. The orthodox Catholic writer G. K. Chesterton regularly employed paradox to tease out the meanings in common concepts that he found ambiguous or to reveal meaning often overlooked or forgotten in common phrases: the title of one of his most famous books, Orthodoxy (1908), itself employed such a paradox. Music In music, pieces or sections that confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some polytonality, polymeter, other ambiguous meters or rhythms, and ambiguous phrasing, or (Stein 2005, p. 79) any aspect of music. The music of Africa is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir Donald Francis Tovey (1935, p. 195), "Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value." Visual art thumb\|This image can be interpreted three ways: as the letters "K B", as the mathematical inequality "1 2 and 10243) contrary to the metric system in which these units unambiguously mean one thousand, one million, and one billion. This usage is particularly prevalent with electronic memory devices (e.g. DRAM) addressed directly by a binary machine register where a decimal interpretation makes no practical sense. Subsequently, the Ki, Mi, and Gi prefixes were introduced so that binary prefixes could be written explicitly, also rendering k, M, and G unambiguous in texts conforming to the new standard—this led to a new ambiguity in engineering documents lacking outward trace of the binary prefixes (necessarily indicating the new style) as to whether the usage of k, M, and G remains ambiguous (old style) or not (new style). 1 M (where M is ambiguously or ) is less uncertain than the engineering value (defined to designate the interval ). As non-volatile storage devices begin to exceed 1 GB in capacity (where the ambiguity begins to routinely impact the second significant digit), GB and TB almost always mean 109 and 1012 bytes. See also References External links Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements Leaving out ambiguities when writing Category:Semantics Category:Mathematical notation Category:Concepts in epistemology Category:Formal semantics (natural language)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity	2025-04-05T18:25:19.704699
678	Abel	Abel; Héḇel, in pausa Hā́ḇel; Hábel; }} ( Hébel, in pausa Hā́ḇel; Hábel; , Hābēl) is a biblical figure in the Book of Genesis within the Abrahamic religions. Born as the second son of Adam and Eve, the first two humans created by God, he was a shepherd who offered his firstborn flock to God as a religious offering. God accepted Abel's offering but not the offering of his older brother Cain, leading Cain to stone Abel to death out of jealousy. This act marked the first death in biblical history, making Abel the first murder victim.Life and deathInterpretationsJewish and Christian interpretations According to the narrative in Genesis, Abel is Eve's second son. His name in Hebrew is composed of the same three consonants as a root meaning "the air that remains after you exhale" also synonymous in Hebrew to "nothing", as stated in Ecclesiastes. Julius Wellhausen has proposed that the name is independent of the root. Eberhard Schrader had previously put forward the Akkadian (Old Assyrian dialect) ablu ("son") as a more likely etymology. (Adam and Eve mourn the death of Abel); oil on canvas 1888 painting by William-Adolphe Bouguereau ]] In Christianity, comparisons are sometimes made between the death of Abel and that of Jesus, the former thus seen as being the first martyr. In Matthew 23:35 Jesus speaks of Abel as "righteous", and the Epistle to the Hebrews states that "The blood of sprinkling ... [speaks] better things than that of Abel" (Hebrews 12:24). The blood of Jesus is interpreted as bringing mercy; but that of Abel as demanding vengeance (hence the curse and mark). Abel is invoked in the litany for the dying in the Roman Catholic Church, and his sacrifice is mentioned in the Canon of the Mass along with those of Abraham and Melchizedek. The Alexandrian Rite commemorates him with a feast day on December 28. According to the Coptic Book of Adam and Eve (at 2:1–15), and the Syriac Cave of Treasures, Abel's body, after many days of mourning, was placed in the Cave of Treasures, before which Adam and Eve, and descendants, offered their prayers. In addition, the Sethite line of the Generations of Adam swear by Abel's blood to segregate themselves from the unrighteous. In the Book of Enoch (22:7), regarded by most Christian and Jewish traditions as extra-biblical, the soul of Abel is described as having been appointed as the chief of martyrs, crying for vengeance, for the destruction of the seed of Cain. A similar view is later shown in the Testament of Abraham (A:13 / B:11), where Abel has been raised to the position as the judge of the souls. In Bereshit Rabbah (22:2), a discussion of Gen. 4:1 ff. has Rabbi Yehoshua ben Korcha mentioning that Cain was born with a twin sister, and Abel with two twin sisters. This is based on the principle that the otherwise superfluous accusative article "et" always conveys some additional teaching (Pesachim 22b). The "et"'s are parsed slightly differently in Yebamot 62a where the two "et"'s in Gen. 4:2 indicate Cain and his sister, and Abel and his (one) sister. Sethian Gnostic interpretation In the Apocryphon of John, a work belonging to Sethian Gnosticism, Abel is the offspring of Yaldaboath and Eve, who is placed over the elements of water and earth as Elohim, but was only given his name as a form of deception. Mandaean interpretation According to Mandaean beliefs and scriptures including the Qulasta, the Book of John and Genzā Rabbā, Abel is cognate with the angelic soteriological figure Hibil Ziwa, (, sometimes translated "Splendid Hibel"), who is spoken of as a son of Hayyi or of Manda d-Hayyi, and as a brother to Anush (Enosh) and to Sheetil (Seth), Elsewhere, Anush is spoken of as the son of Sheetil, and Sheetil as the son of Hibil, where Hibil came to Adam and Eve as a young boy when they were still virgins, but was called their son. Hibil is an important lightworld being (uthra) who conquered the World of Darkness. As Yawar Hibil, he is one of multiple figures known as Yawar (), being so named by and after his father. Islamic interpretation ]] of Abel in the Nabi Habeel Mosque]] According to Shi'a Muslim belief, Abel ("Habeel") is buried in the Nabi Habeel Mosque, located on the west mountains of Damascus, near the Zabadani Valley, overlooking the villages of the Barada river (Wadi Barada), in Syria. Shi'a are frequent visitors of this mosque for ziyarat. The mosque was built by Ottoman Wali Ahmad Pasha in 1599. In modern media * Abel is portrayed by Franco Nero in the film The Bible: In the Beginning... (1966). * Paul Rudd played the role of Abel in the 2009 film Year One. * In the SCP series, an anomaly named Able with the codename SCP-076 is based on Abel. * In Shin Megami Tensei: Devil Survivor, the main character Kazuya is the reincarnation of Abel. * Oasis frontman Liam Gallagher penned a song titled "Guess God Thinks I'm Abel", which appears on the band's 2005 album ''Don't Believe the Truth''. Notes References Category:Biblical murder victims Category:Book of Genesis people Category:Children of Adam and Eve Category:Shepherds Category:Uthras	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel	2025-04-05T18:25:19.713897
679	Animal (disambiguation)	An animal is a multicellular, eukaryotic organism of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Animal, Animals, or The Animal may also refer to: People The Animal (nickname), a list of people nicknamed "The Animal" or "Animal" Animal Hamaguchi, a ring name of Japanese retired professional wrestler Heigo Hamaguchi (born 1947) Road Warrior Animal or Animal, ring names of American professional wrestler Joseph Michael Laurinaitis (1960–2020) Books and publications Animal (book), full title Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to The World's WildLife Animal, 2012 novel by K'wan Foye Animal (journal), full title: Animal: An International Journal of Animal Bioscience Animals (novel), a 2014 novel by Emma Jane Unsworth Film and television Films Animal (1977 film), a French film (L'Animal) starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Raquel Welch Animals (1998 film), an American film starring Tim Roth and Rod Steiger Animal (2001 film), an Argentine comedy film by Sergio Bizzio with Carlos Roffé Animal (2005 film), an American direct-to-video action drama film starring Ving Rhames and Terrance Howard Animal (2014 film), an American horror film starring Keke Palmer Animal (2018 film), an Argentine film Animals (2003 film), a stand-up show written and performed by Ricky Gervais Animals (2012 film), a Spanish film Animals (2014 film), a British drama film written by and starring David Dastmalchian Animals (2017 film), a German film Animals (2019 film), an Australian film Animals (2021 film), a psychological thriller film The Animal, a 2001 American comedy film featuring Rob Schneider The Animals (film), a 2012 Filipino coming-of-age film by Gino M. Santos Animal (2023 Greek film), a 2023 Greek drama film directed by Sofia Exarchou Animal (2023 Indian film), a 2023 Indian Hindi language action drama film Television Animal (TV series), an American nature documentary series Animals (American TV series), a 2016–2018 animated series Animals (South Korean TV series), a 2015 reality-variety show "Animals" (Brass Eye), a 1997 episode "Animals" (The Goodies), a 1980 episode "Animals" (Men Behaving Badly), a 1992 episode "Animals" (Off the Air), a 2011 episode "Animals" (The Vicar of Dibley), a 1994 episode "The Animals" (Orange Is the New Black), a 2016 episode Animal (audio drama), a 2011 audio drama based on Doctor Who Characters Animal (Muppet), a character from the television series The Muppet Show Animal, a character in the television series Takeshi's Castle Animal, played by Ken Hudson Campbell, a character on the TV sitcom Herman's Head Dennis "Animal" Price, a character on the TV series Lou Grant Music The Animals, a British rock band A.N.I.M.A.L., an Argentine heavy metal band Animal (Nick Culmer) lead singer of the Anti-Nowhere League Albums Animal (Animosity album), 2007 Animal (Bar-Kays album), 1989 Animal (Big Scary album), 2016 Animal (Kesha album), 2010 Animal (Lump album), 2021 Animal (María Becerra album), 2021 Animal (Motor Ace album), 2005 Animal (Shining album), 2018 Animals (Pink Floyd album), 1977 Animals (This Town Needs Guns album), 2008 The Animals (American album), by the Animals, 1964 The Animals (British album), by the Animals, 1964 Animal, a 2009 album by AutoKratz Animal, a 2013 album by Berlin Animal, a 2008 album by Far East Movement Animal, a 1992 album by France D'Amour Animal!, a 2008 album by Margot & the Nuclear So and So's EPs Animals (EP) by Ryan Starx, 2013 Animal, a 2015 EP by Hidden in Plain View A.N.I.M.A.L, a 2019 EP by John Newman Songs "Animal" "Animal" (Álvaro Soler song), 2017 "Animal" (Conor Maynard song), 2013 "Animal" (Def Leppard song), 1987 "Animal" (Jebediah song), 1999 "Animal" (Juvenile song), 2006 "Animal" (María Becerra and Cazzu song), 2022 "Animal" (Miike Snow song), 2009 "Animal" (Neon Trees song), 2010 "Animal" (Pearl Jam song), 1994 "Animal" (R.E.M. song), 2004 "Animal" (R.I.O. song), 2011 "Animal" (Trey Songz song), 2017 "Animal" (Troye Sivan song), 2018 "Animal", by Against Me! from New Wave, 2007 "Animal", by Ani DiFranco from Educated Guess, 2004 "Animal", by Anti-Nowhere League from We Are...The League, 1982 "Animal", by Aurora from A Different Kind of Human (Step 2), 2019 "Animal", by Black Light Burns from Cruel Melody, 2007 "Animal", by Ellie Goulding from Lights, 2010 "Animal", by France D'Amour from Animal, 1992 "Animal", by Karen O and the Kids from Where the Wild Things Are, 2009 "Animal", by Kat DeLuna from 9 Lives, 2007 "Animal", by Kesha from Animal, 2010 "Animal", by Mabel from About Last Night..., 2022 "Animal", by the Men from Open Your Heart, 2012 "Animal", by Mindless Self Indulgence from If, 2008 "Animal", by Mudmen from Overrated "Animal", by Nada Surf from You Know Who You Are, 2016 "Animal", by Subhumans from Demolition War, 1981 "Animal", by Sunhouse from Crazy On The Weekend "Animal", by The Kinks from To the Bone, 1994 "Animal", by Toto from Past to Present 1977–1990, 1990 "Animal (F**k Like a Beast)", by W.A.S.P., 1984 "Animals" "Animals" (Architects song), 2020 "Animals" (Kevin Ayers song), 1980 "Animals" (Maroon 5 song), 2014 "Animals" (Martin Garrix song), 2013 "Animals" (Muse song), 2012 "Animals" (Nickelback song), 2005 "Animals", by CocoRosie from The Adventures of Ghosthorse and Stillborn, 2007 "Animals", by Coldplay as one of the B-sides for "Clocks", 2003 "Animals", by Dead Poetic from Vices, 2006 "Animals", by Talking Heads from Fear of Music, 1979 "Animals", by The End from Elementary, 2007 "Animals", by Todrick Hall featuring Matt Bloyd from Forbidden, 2018 "The Animal" "The Animal" (song), by Disturbed, 2010 "The Animal", by Steve Vai from Passion and Warfare, 1990 Other uses ANIMAL (computer worm), an early self-replicating computer program ANIMAL (image processing), an interactive software environment for image processing Operation Animals, a World War II Allied deception operation in Greece Animals (Israeli organization), an animal rights group based in Israel See also Animals, Animals, Animals, an American educational television series (1976–1981)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:25:19.724037
680	Aardvark	\| image = Orycteropus afer 175359469.jpg \| image_caption = Aardvark in the Bushveld, Limpopo \| image2 = Aardvark (Orycteropus afer).jpg \| image2_caption = At Royal Burgers' Zoo, Arnhem, Netherlands \| status = LC \| status_system = IUCN3.1 \| status_ref \| genus = Orycteropus \| species = afer \| authority = (Pallas, 1766) \| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies \| subdivision = See text \| range_map = Aardvark area.png \| range_map_caption = Aardvark range \| range_map_alt = Map of Africa showing a highlighted range (in green) covering most of the continent south of the Sahara desert }} Aardvarks ( ; Orycteropus afer) are medium-sized, burrowing, nocturnal mammals native to Africa. Aardvarks are the only living species of the family Orycteropodidae and the order Tubulidentata. "anteater" (not to be confused with the South American anteaters), or the "Cape anteater" The name Orycteropus means "burrowing foot", and the name afer refers to Africa. Taxonomy The aardvark is not closely related to the pig; rather, it is the sole extant representative of the obscure mammalian order Tubulidentata, in which it is usually considered to form one variable species of the genus Orycteropus, the sole surviving genus in the family Orycteropodidae. The aardvark is not closely related to the South American anteater, despite sharing some characteristics and a superficial resemblance. Along with sirenians, hyraxes, elephants, and their extinct relatives, these animals form the superorder Afrotheria. Studies of the brain have shown the similarities with Condylarthra. The ptolemaiidans, a mysterious clade of mammals with uncertain affinities, may actually be stem-aardvarks, either as a sister clade to Tubulidentata or as a grade leading to true tubulidentates. The first unambiguous tubulidentate was probably Myorycteropus africanus from Kenyan Miocene deposits.SubspeciesThe aardvark has seventeen poorly defined subspecies listed: Description a. afer) front and rear foot print }} The aardvark is vaguely pig-like in appearance. Its body is stout with a prominently arched back and is sparsely covered with coarse hairs. The limbs are of moderate length, with the rear legs being longer than the forelegs. Digging is also facilitated by its forearm's unusually stout ulna and radius.An aardvark's weight is typically between . It is the largest member of the proposed clade Afroinsectiphilia. The aardvark is pale yellowish-grey in colour and often stained reddish-brown by soil. The aardvark's coat is thin, and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin. Its hair is short on its head and tail; however its legs tend to have longer hair. The teeth consist of 14 upper and 12 lower jaw molars. Its nose is made up of more turbinate bones than any other mammal, with between nine and 11, compared to dogs with four to five. The snout resembles an elongated pig snout. The mouth is small and tubular, typical of species that feed on ants and termites. The aardvark has a long, thin, snakelike, protruding tongue (as much as long) The ears, which are very effective, Habitat and range Aardvarks are found in sub-Saharan Africa, where suitable habitat (savannas, grasslands, woodlands and bushland) and food (i.e., ants and termites) is available. They spend the daylight hours in dark burrows to avoid the heat of the day. The only major habitat that they are not present in is swamp forest, as the high water table precludes digging to a sufficient depth. They have been documented as high as in Ethiopia. They can be found throughout sub-Saharan Africa from Ethiopia all the way to Cape of Good Hope in South Africa with few exceptions including the coastal areas of Namibia, Ivory Coast, and Ghana. They are not found in Madagascar. studies in the Nama Karoo revealed that ants, especially Anoplolepis custodiens, were the predominant prey year-round, followed by termites like Trinervitermes trinervoides. In winter, when ant numbers declined, aardvarks relied more on termites, often feeding on epigeal mounds coinciding with the presence of alates, possibly to meet their nutritional needs. Termite mounds alone do not provide enough food for the aardvark, so they look for termites that are on the move. When these insects move, they can form columns long and these tend to provide easy pickings with little effort exerted by the aardvark. These columns are more common in areas of livestock or other hoofed animals.VocalisationThe aardvark is a rather quiet animal. However, it does make soft grunting sounds as it forages and loud grunts as it makes for its tunnel entrance. When it is threatened it will make for one of its burrows. If one is not close it will dig a new one rapidly. This new one will be short and require the aardvark to back out when the coast is clear.ReproductionIt is believed to exhibit polygamous breeding behavior. Nocturnal species faced with resource scarcity may increase their diurnal activity to spare the energy costs of staying warm at night, but this comes at the cost of withstanding high temperatures during the day. A study on aardvarks in the Kalahari Desert saw that five out of six aardvarks being studied perished following a drought. Aardvarks that survive droughts can take long periods of time to regain health and optimal thermoregulatory physiology, reducing the reproductive potential of the species. Aardvarks adapt well to captivity. The first recorded instance was at London Zoo in 1869, which housed an individual from South Africa. Also, some tribes, such as the Margbetu, Ayanda, and Logo, The Dagombas believe this animal can transfigure into and interact with humans. The ancient Egyptian god Set is usually depicted with the head of an unidentified animal, whose similarity to an aardvark has been noted in scholarship. The titular character and his families from Arthur, an animated television series for children based on a book series and produced by WGBH, shown in more than 180 countries, is an aardvark. In the first book of the series, ''Arthur's Nose'' (1976), he has a long, aardvark-like nose, but in later books, his face becomes more rounded. Otis the Aardvark was a puppet character used on Children's BBC programming. An aardvark features as the antagonist in the cartoon The Ant and the Aardvark as well as in the Canadian animated series The Raccoons. The supersonic fighter-bomber F-111/FB-111 was nicknamed the Aardvark because of its long nose resembling the animal. It also had similarities with its nocturnal missions flown at a very low level employing ordnance that could penetrate deep into the ground. In the US Navy, the squadron VF-114 was nicknamed the Aardvarks, flying F-4s and then F-14s. The squadron mascot was adapted from the animal in the comic strip B.C., which the F-4 was said to resemble. Cerebus the Aardvark is a 300-issue comic book series by Dave Sim. Footnotes References * * * * * * * * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.afrotheria.net/index.php IUCN/SSC Afrotheria Specialist Group] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Z5OoBqqYsk A YouTube video introducing the Bronx Zoo's aardvarks] * "The Biology of the Aardvark (Orycteropus afer)" a diploma thesis (without images) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080414134457/http://www.tierseiten.com/roehrenzaehner/aardvark.pdf "The Biology of the Aardvark" (Orycteropus afer)"] the thesis with images * ** }} Category:Orycteropus Category:Mammals of Africa Category:Xerophiles Category:Myrmecophagous mammals Category:Mammals described in 1766 Category:Extant Zanclean first appearances Category:Taxa named by Peter Simon Pallas Category:Afrikaans words and phrases	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardvark	2025-04-05T18:25:19.747529
681	Aardwolf	\| range_map_caption = Aardwolf range \| synonyms_ref \| synonyms \|Proteles cristata \|Proteles typicus \|Viverra cristata \|Viverra hyenoides }} }} The aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) is an insectivorous hyaenid species, native to East and Southern Africa. Its name means "earth-wolf" in Afrikaans and Dutch. It is also called the maanhaar-jackal (Afrikaans for "mane-jackal"), termite-eating hyena and civet hyena, based on its habit of secreting substances from its anal gland, a characteristic shared with the African civet. mainly termites; one aardwolf can lap up as many as 300,000 termites during a single night using its long, sticky tongue. The aardwolf's tongue has adapted to be tough enough to withstand the strong bite of termites.}} Early on, scientists felt that it was merely mimicking the striped hyena, which subsequently led to the creation of Protelidae. Recent studies have suggested that the aardwolf probably diverged from other hyaenids early on; how early is still unclear, as the fossil record and genetic studies disagree by 10 million years. \|\|East Africa. The mane is raised during confrontations to make the aardwolf appear larger. It is missing the throat spot that others in the family have. An adult aardwolf weighs approximately , sometimes reaching . The aardwolves in the south of the continent tend to be smaller (about ) than the eastern version (around ). This makes the aardwolf the smallest extant member of the Hyaenidae family. The skull is similar in shape to those of other hyenas, though much smaller,Behavior and ecology ]] Aardwolves are shy and nocturnal, sleeping in burrows by day. They are primarily solitary animals, though during mating season they form monogamous pairs which occupy a territory with their young. If their territory is infringed upon by another aardwolf, they will chase the intruder away for up to They often mark near termite mounds within their territory every 20 minutes or so. If they are patrolling their territorial boundaries, the marking frequency increases drastically, to once every . At this rate, an individual may mark 60 marks per hour, Their dens are usually abandoned aardvark, springhare, or porcupine dens, or on occasion they are crevices in rocks. They will also dig their own dens, or enlarge dens started by springhares. This genus of termites has different species throughout the aardwolf's range. In East Africa, they eat Trinervitermes bettonianus, in central Africa, they eat Trinervitermes rhodesiensis, and in southern Africa, they eat T. trinervoides. Their technique consists of licking them off the ground as opposed to the aardvark, which digs into the mound. Unlike other hyenas, aardwolves do not scavenge or kill larger animals. Gestation lasts between 89 and 92 days,<ref nameingo/><ref namemh108/> producing two to five cubs (most often two or three) during the rainy season (October–December),<ref nameColliers/> when termites are more active.<ref nameEB/> They are born with their eyes open, but initially are helpless,<ref namePKR/> and weigh around .<ref nameingo/> The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with their parents.<ref namebr31/> The male may spend up to six hours a night watching over the cubs while the mother is out looking for food.<ref namemh108/><ref namePKR/> After three months, they begin supervised foraging, and by four months are normally independent, though they often share a den with their mother until the next breeding season.<ref namebr31/> By the time the next set of cubs is born, the older cubs have moved on.<ref namemh108/> Aardwolves generally achieve sexual maturity at one and a half to two years of age.<ref nameingo/> Conservation The aardwolf has not seen decreasing numbers and is relatively widespread throughout eastern Africa. They are not common throughout their range, as they maintain a density of no more than 1 per square kilometer, if food is abundant. Because of these factors, the IUCN has rated the aardwolf as least concern.<ref nameiucn /> In some areas, they are persecuted because of the mistaken belief that they prey on livestock; however, they are actually beneficial to the farmers because they eat termites that are detrimental.<ref namePKR/> In other areas, the farmers have recognized this, but they are still killed, on occasion, for their fur. Dogs and insecticides<ref nameiucn /> are also common killers of the aardwolf.<ref namebr31/> In captivity Frankfurt Zoo in Germany was home to the oldest recorded aardwolf in captivity at 18 years and 11 months.<ref namew1/>Notes References Sources <!-- These sources are called by short-form references in the text. Removing them breaks things! --> * * * * * * * * * * * * <!-- This is harvnb\|Wozencraft\|2005 --> Further reading * * External links * [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100417192844/http://www.hyaenidae.org/the-hyaenidae/aardwolf-proteles-cristatus.html IUCN Hyaenidae Specialist Group Aardwolf pages on hyaenidae.org] * Cam footage from the Namib desert https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=lRevqS6Pxgg * ** }} Category:Mammals described in 1783 Category:Carnivorans of Africa Category:Hyenas Category:Mammals of Southern Africa Category:Fauna of East Africa Category:Myrmecophagous mammals Category:Taxa named by Anders Sparrman Category:Nocturnal animals Category:Mammals of Africa	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aardwolf	2025-04-05T18:25:19.784468
682	Adobe	thumb\|Adobe wall (detail) in Bahillo, Palencia, Spain thumb\|Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico thumb\|Adobe walls separate urban gardens in Shiraz, Iran Adobe ( ; ) is a building material made from earth and organic materials. is Spanish for mudbrick. In some English-speaking regions of Spanish heritage, such as the Southwestern United States, the term is used to refer to any kind of earthen construction, or various architectural styles like Pueblo Revival or Territorial Revival. Most adobe buildings are similar in appearance to cob and rammed earth buildings. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world. Adobe architecture has been dated to before 5,100 BP. Description Adobe bricks are rectangular prisms small enough that they can quickly air dry individually without cracking. They can be subsequently assembled, with the application of adobe mud to bond the individual bricks into a structure. There is no standard size, with substantial variations over the years and in different regions. In some areas a popular size measured weighing about ; in other contexts the size is weighing about . The maximum sizes can reach up to ; above this weight it becomes difficult to move the pieces, and it is preferred to ram the mud in situ, resulting in a different typology known as rammed earth. Strength In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, but they are known to be particularly susceptible to earthquake damage if they are not reinforced. Cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake, and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Distribution Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common throughout the world (Middle East, Western Asia, North Africa, West Africa, South America, Southwestern North America, Southwestern and Eastern Europe.). Adobe had been in use by indigenous peoples of the Americas in the Southwestern United States, Mesoamerica, and the Andes for several thousand years. Puebloan peoples built their adobe structures with handsful or basketsful of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to making bricks. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages (eighth century BCE onwards). Its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. Etymology thumb\|left\|Church at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile The word adobe has existed for around 4,000 years with relatively little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian () word ḏbt "mud brick" (with vowels unwritten). Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian and finally to Coptic (), where it appeared as ⲧⲱⲃⲉ tōbə. This was adopted into Arabic as aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached to the root tuba. This was assimilated into the Old Spanish language as adobe , probably via Mozarabic. English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century, still referring to mudbrick construction. In more modern English usage, the term adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America, especially in New Mexico, regardless of the construction method. Composition thumb\|Adobe style in Santa Fe, New Mexico An adobe brick is a composite material made of earth mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or dung. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. Dung offers the same advantage. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, and 55–75% fine sand. Another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles , with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight. No more than half the clay content should be expansive clays, with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the brick, resulting in cracking, while too much kaolinite will make a weak brick. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where such construction has been widely used, are an adequate composition. Material properties thumb\|The Great Mosque of Djenné, Mali, built in adobe. The struts projecting from the wall serve as decoration, as well as supports for scaffolding during maintenance. thumb\|Maintenance of historic architecture in Agadez, Niger, by adding a new layer of mud rendering Adobe walls are load bearing, i.e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure, hence the adobe must have sufficient compressive strength. In the United States, most building codes call for a minimum compressive strength of for the adobe block. Adobe construction should be designed so as to avoid lateral structural loads that would cause bending loads. The building codes require the building sustain a lateral acceleration earthquake load. Such an acceleration will cause lateral loads on the walls, resulting in shear and bending and inducing tensile stresses. To withstand such loads, the codes typically call for a tensile modulus of rupture strength of at least for the finished block. In addition to being an inexpensive material with a small resource cost, adobe can serve as a significant heat reservoir due to the thermal properties inherent in the massive walls typical in adobe construction. In climates typified by hot days and cool nights, the high thermal mass of adobe mediates the high and low temperatures of the day, moderating the temperature of the living space. The massive walls require a large and relatively long input of heat from the sun (radiation) and from the surrounding air (convection) before they warm through to the interior. After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time-lag effect. Thus, a well-planned adobe wall of the appropriate thickness is very effective at controlling inside temperature through the wide daily fluctuations typical of desert climates, a factor which has contributed to its longevity as a building material. Thermodynamic material properties have significant variation in the literature. Some experiments suggest that the standard consideration of conductivity is not adequate for this material, as its main thermodynamic property is inertia, and conclude that experimental tests should be performed over a longer period of time than usual – preferably with changing thermal jumps. There is an effective R-value for a north facing wall of R010 hr ft2 °F/Btu, which corresponds to thermal conductivity k10 in x 1 ft/12 in /R00.33 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.57 W/(m K) in agreement with the thermal conductivity reported from another source. To determine the total R-value of a wall, scale R0 by the thickness of the wall in inches. The thermal resistance of adobe is also stated as an R-value for a wall R04.1 hr ft2 °F/Btu. Another source provides the following properties: conductivity 0.30 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.52 W/(m K); specific heat capacity 0.24 Btu/(lb °F) or 1 kJ/(kg K) and density , giving heat capacity 25.4 Btu/(ft3 °F) or 1700 kJ/(m3 K). Using the average value of the thermal conductivity as k = 32 Btu/(hr ft °F) or 0.55 W/(m K), the thermal diffusivity is calculated to be . Uses Poured and puddled adobe walls thumb\|left\|Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at Cuarenta Casas in Mexico Poured and puddled adobe (puddled clay, piled earth), today called cob, is made by placing soft adobe in layers, rather than by making individual dried bricks or using a form. "Puddle" is a general term for a clay or clay and sand-based material worked into a dense, plastic state. These are the oldest methods of building with adobe in the Americas until holes in the ground were used as forms, and later wooden forms used to make individual bricks were introduced by the Spanish. Adobe bricks thumb\|Adobe bricks near a construction site in Milyanfan, Kyrgyzstan Bricks made from adobe are usually made by pressing the mud mixture into an open timber frame. In North America, the brick is typically about in size. The mixture is molded into the frame, which is removed after initial setting. After drying for a few hours, the bricks are turned on edge to finish drying. Slow drying in shade reduces cracking. The same mixture, without straw, is used to make mortar and often plaster on interior and exterior walls. Some cultures used lime-based cement for the plaster to protect against rain damage. Depending on the form into which the mixture is pressed, adobe can encompass nearly any shape or size, provided drying is even and the mixture includes reinforcement for larger bricks. Reinforcement can include manure, straw, cement, rebar, or wooden posts. Straw, cement, or manure added to a standard adobe mixture can produce a stronger, more crack-resistant brick. A test is done on the soil content first. To do so, a sample of the soil is mixed into a clear container with some water, creating an almost completely saturated liquid. The container is shaken vigorously for one minute. It is then allowed to settle for a day until the soil has settled into layers. Heavier particles settle out first, sand above, silt above that, and very fine clay and organic matter will stay in suspension for days. After the water has cleared, percentages of the various particles can be determined. Fifty to 60 percent sand and 35 to 40 percent clay will yield strong bricks. The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service at New Mexico State University recommends a mix of not more than clay, not less than sand, and never more than silt. During the Great Depression, designer and builder Hugh W. Comstock used cheaper materials and made a specialized adobe brick called "Bitudobe." His first adobe house was built in 1936. In 1948, he published the book Post-Adobe; Simplified Adobe Construction Combining A Rugged Timber Frame And Modern Stabilized Adobe, which described his method of construction, including how to make "Bitudobe." In 1938, he served as an adviser to the architects Franklin & Kump Associates, who built the Carmel High School, which used his Post-adobe system. Adobe wall construction thumb\|The earthen plaster removed, exposing the adobe bricks at Fort St. Sebastien in France The ground supporting an adobe structure should be compressed, as the weight of adobe wall is significant and foundation settling may cause cracking of the wall. Footing depth is to be below the ground frost level. The footing and stem wall are commonly thick, respectively. Modern construction codes call for the use of reinforcing steel in the footing and stem wall. Adobe bricks are laid by course. Adobe walls usually never rise above two stories as they are load bearing and adobe has low structural strength. When creating window and door openings, a lintel is placed on top of the opening to support the bricks above. Atop the last courses of brick, bond beams made of heavy wood beams or modern reinforced concrete are laid to provide a horizontal bearing plate for the roof beams and to redistribute lateral earthquake loads to shear walls more able to carry the forces. To protect the interior and exterior adobe walls, finishes such as mud plaster, whitewash or stucco can be applied. These protect the adobe wall from water damage, but need to be reapplied periodically. Alternatively, the walls can be finished with other nontraditional plasters that provide longer protection. Bricks made with stabilized adobe generally do not need protection of plasters. Adobe roof The traditional adobe roof has been constructed using a mixture of soil/clay, water, sand and organic materials. The mixture was then formed and pressed into wood forms, producing rows of dried earth bricks that would then be laid across a support structure of wood and plastered into place with more adobe. Depending on the materials available, a roof may be assembled using wood or metal beams to create a framework to begin layering adobe bricks. Depending on the thickness of the adobe bricks, the framework has been preformed using a steel framing and a layering of a metal fencing or wiring over the framework to allow an even load as masses of adobe are spread across the metal fencing like cob and allowed to air dry accordingly. This method was demonstrated with an adobe blend heavily impregnated with cement to allow even drying and prevent cracking. The more traditional flat adobe roofs are functional only in dry climates that are not exposed to snow loads. The heaviest wooden beams, called vigas, lie atop the wall. Across the vigas lie smaller members called latillas and upon those brush is then laid. Finally, the adobe layer is applied. To construct a flat adobe roof, beams of wood were laid to span the building, the ends of which were attached to the tops of the walls. Once the vigas, latillas and brush are laid, adobe bricks are placed. An adobe roof is often laid with bricks slightly larger in width to ensure a greater expanse is covered when placing the bricks onto the roof. Following each individual brick should be a layer of adobe mortar, recommended to be at least thick to make certain there is ample strength between the brick's edges and also to provide a relative moisture barrier during rain. Roof design evolved around 1850 in the American Southwest. of adobe mud was applied on top of the latillas, then of dry adobe dirt applied to the roof. The dirt was contoured into a low slope to a downspout aka a 'canal'. When moisture was applied to the roof the clay particles expanded to create a waterproof membrane. Once a year it was necessary to pull the weeds from the roof and re-slope the dirt as needed. Depending on the materials, adobe roofs can be inherently fire-proof. The construction of a chimney can greatly influence the construction of the roof supports, creating an extra need for care in choosing the materials. The builders can make an adobe chimney by stacking simple adobe bricks in a similar fashion as the surrounding walls. In 1927, the Uniform Building Code (UBC) was adopted in the United States. Local ordinances, referencing the UBC added requirements to building with adobe. These included: restriction of building height of adobe structures to 1-story, requirements for adobe mix (compressive and shear strength) and new requirements which stated that every building shall be designed to withstand seismic activity, specifically lateral forces. By the 1980s however, seismic related changes in the California Building Code effectively ended solid wall adobe construction in California; however Post-and-Beam adobe and veneers are still being used. Adobe around the world The largest structure ever made from adobe is the Arg-é Bam built by the Achaemenid Empire. Other large adobe structures are the Huaca del Sol in Peru, with 100 million signed bricks and the ciudellas of Chan Chan and Tambo Colorado, both in Peru. File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG\|Still in production today, Romania's Danube Delta File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG\|Mixing mud and straw in brick frames File:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG\|Community effort File:Milyanfan-adobe-brick-house-8039.jpg\|Adobe brick house under construction in Kyrgyzstan File:Sa'dah 02.jpg\|House in Sa'dah, Yemen File:AdobeHouseVrancea.JPG\|Adobe brick house under construction in Romania File:Мазанка у ІКК Запорозька Січ.jpg\|Ukrainian Cossack hut File:5640-Linxia-City-Dongguan-back-street.jpg\|An adobe wall in Linxia City, Gansu, China File:Poeh museum, night.jpg\|Poeh Museum tower, the tallest adobe structure in New Mexico, US File:16 21 2688 san miguel.jpg\|San Miguel Mission in Santa Fe, New Mexico File:Great Mosque of Djenné 3.jpg\|Great Mosque of Djenné, famous building made from banco, a type of adobe File:Taos NM.jpg\|Taos Pueblo showing adobe-ovens See also used adobe walls (waterproofing plaster) (also known as Ctesiphon Arch) in Iraq is the largest mud brick arch in the world, built beginning in 540 AD References External links Category:Soil-based building materials Category:Masonry Category:Adobe buildings and structures Category:Appropriate technology Category:Vernacular architecture Category:Sustainable building	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe	2025-04-05T18:25:19.812774
683	Adventure	thumb\|upright=1.5\|People on a coracle An adventure is an exciting experience or undertaking that is typically bold, sometimes risky. Adventures may be activities with danger such as traveling, exploring, skydiving, mountain climbing, scuba diving, river rafting, or other extreme sports. Adventures are often undertaken to create psychological arousal or in order to achieve a greater goal, such as the pursuit of knowledge that can only be obtained by such activities. Motivation Adventurous experiences create psychological arousal, which can be interpreted as negative (e.g. fear) or positive (e.g. flow). For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself. According to adventurer André Malraux, in his Man's Fate (1933), "If a man is not ready to risk his life, where is his dignity?" Similarly, Helen Keller stated that "Life is either a daring adventure or nothing." Outdoor adventurous activities are typically undertaken for the purposes of recreation or excitement: examples are adventure racing and adventure tourism. Adventurous activities can also lead to gains in knowledge, such as those undertaken by explorers and pioneersthe British adventurer Jason Lewis, for example, uses adventures to draw global sustainability lessons from living within finite environmental constraints on expeditions to share with schoolchildren. Adventure education intentionally uses challenging experiences for learning. Author Jon Levy suggests that an experience should meet several criteria to be considered an adventure: Be remarkable—that is, worth talking about Involve adversity or perceived risk Bring about personal growth. Mythology and fiction Some of the oldest and most widespread stories in the world are stories of adventure, such as Homer's Odyssey. The knight errant was the form the "adventure seeker" character took in the Late Middle Ages. Adventure fiction exhibits these "protagonist on adventurous journey" characteristics, as do many popular feature films, such as Star Wars and Raiders of the Lost Ark. thumb\|right\|Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is a well-known example of a fantasized adventure story. Marvel Comics, DC Comics, and other comic book publishers often use "adventurer"—or, in some cases, "costumed adventurer" or "superhuman adventurer"—as a synonym for "super-hero." Outdoors Adventure books may have the theme of the hero or main character going to face the wilderness or Mother Nature. Examples include books such as Hatchet or My Side of the Mountain. These books are less about "questing", such as in mythology or other adventure novels, but more about surviving on their own, living off the land, gaining new experiences, and becoming closer to the natural world. Questing Many adventures are based on the idea of a quest: the hero goes off in pursuit of a reward, whether it be a skill, prize, treasure, or perhaps the safety of a person. On the way, the hero must overcome various obstacles to obtain their reward. Video games In video game culture, an adventure game is a video game in which the player assumes the role of a protagonist in an interactive story driven by exploration and puzzle solving. The genre's focus on story allows it to draw heavily from other narrative-based media, literature and film, encompassing a wide variety of literary genres. Many adventure games (text and graphic) are designed for a single player, since this emphasis on story and character makes multi-player design difficult. Nonfiction works From ancient times, travelers and explorers have written about their adventures. Journals which became best-sellers in their day were written, such as Marco Polo's journal The Travels of Marco Polo or Mark Twain's Roughing It. Others were personal journals, only later published, such as the journals of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark or Captain James Cook's journals. There are also books written by those not directly a part of the adventure in question, such as The Right Stuff by Tom Wolfe or books written by those participating in the adventure but in a format other than that of a journal, such as Conquistadors of the Useless by Lionel Terray. Documentaries often use the theme of adventure as well. Adventure sports There are many sports classified as adventure sports, due to their inherent danger and excitement. Some of these include mountain climbing, skydiving, or other extreme sports. See also Adventure film Adventure playground Adventure travel Expedition Exploration Filibuster (military) List of genres Novelty seeking Overlanding Sports Tourism References External links Website of the Research Unit "Philology of Adventure": ongoing research project on the literary history of the adventure Wikivoyage	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure	2025-04-05T18:25:19.821856
689	Asia	(1st) \|population = (; 1st) \|density = 100/km<sup>2</sup> (260/sq mi) \|GDP_PPP $72.7 trillion (2022 est; 1st) \|GDP_nominal \|GDP_per_capita $8,890 (2022 est; 4th) \|religions = \| religions_ref \|demonym Asian \|countries = \|list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia \|dependencies = \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 }} \|unrecognized = \| 2 = \| 3 = \| 4 = \| 5 = }} \|languages = List of languages \|time = UTC+02:00 to UTC+12:00 \|internet = .asia \|cities = \|m49 = <code>142</code> – Asia<br /><code>001</code> – World \|footnotes = }} Asia ( , ) is the largest continent).}} in the world by both land area and population. was the site of many of the first civilisations. Its 4.7 billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world's population. Asia shares the landmass of Eurasia with Europe, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Europe and Africa. In general terms, it is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. The border of Asia with Europe is a historical and cultural construct, as there is no clear physical and geographical separation between them. A commonly accepted division places Asia to the east of the Suez Canal separating it from Africa; and to the east of the Turkish straits, the Ural Mountains and Ural River, and to the south of the Caucasus Mountains and the Caspian and Black seas, separating it from Europe. Since the concept of Asia derives from the term for the eastern region from a European perspective, Asia is the remaining vast area of Eurasia minus Europe. Therefore, Asia is a region where various independent cultures coexist rather than sharing a single culture, and the boundary between Europe is somewhat arbitrary and has moved since its first conception in classical antiquity. The division of Eurasia into two continents reflects East–West cultural differences, some of which vary on a spectrum. China and India traded places as the largest economies in the world from 1 to 1800 CE. China was a major economic power for much of recorded history, with the highest GDP per capita until 1500. The Silk Road became the main east–west trading route in the Asian hinterlands while the Straits of Malacca stood as a major sea route. Asia has exhibited economic dynamism as well as robust population growth during the 20th century, but overall population growth has since fallen. Asia was the birthplace of most of the world's mainstream religions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Sikhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, and many other religions. Asia varies greatly across and within its regions with regard to ethnic groups, cultures, environments, economics, historical ties, and government systems. It also has a mix of many different climates ranging from the equatorial south via the hot deserts in parts of West Asia, Central Asia and South Asia, temperate areas in the east and the continental centre to vast subarctic and polar areas in North Asia. Etymology The term "Asia" is believed to originate in the Bronze Age toponym () which originally referred only to a portion of northwestern Anatolia. The term appears in Hittite records recounting how a confederation of Assuwan states including Troy unsuccessfully rebelled against the Hittite king Tudhaliya I around 1400 BCE. Roughly contemporary Linear B documents contain the term (), seemingly in reference to captives from the same area. within the Roman Empire]] Herodotus used the term in reference to Anatolia and the territory of the Achaemenid Empire, in contrast to Greece and Egypt. He reports that Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of Prometheus, but that Lydians say it was named after Asies, son of Cotys, who passed the name on to a tribe at Sardis. In Greek mythology, "Asia" ( or ) was the name of a "Nymph or Titan goddess of Lydia". The Iliad (attributed by the ancient Greeks to Homer) mentions two Phrygians in the Trojan War named Asios (literally 'Asian'); and also a marsh or lowland containing a marsh in Lydia as . The term was later adopted by the Romans, who used it in reference to the province of Asia, located in western Anatolia. One of the first writers to use Asia as a name of the whole continent was Pliny. Definition Asia–Europe boundary s mostly fit with lines B and F given.]] The threefold division of the Old World into Africa, Asia, and Europe has been in use since the 6th century BCE, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (now the Rioni) in Georgia of Caucasus (from its mouth by Poti on the Black Sea coast, through the Surami Pass and along the Kura River to the Caspian Sea), a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE. During the Hellenistic period, this convention was revised, and the boundary between Europe and Asia was now considered to be the Tanais (the modern Don River). This is the convention used by Roman era authors such as Posidonius, Strabo and Ptolemy. The border between Asia and Europe was historically defined by European academics. In Sweden, five years after Peter's death, in 1730 Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published a new atlas proposing the Ural Mountains as the border of Asia. Tatishchev announced that he had proposed the idea to von Strahlenberg. The latter had suggested the Emba River as the lower boundary. Over the next century various proposals were made until the Ural River prevailed in the mid-19th century. The border had been moved perforce from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea into which the Ural River projects. The border between the Black Sea and the Caspian is usually placed along the crest of the Caucasus Mountains, although it is sometimes placed further north. This makes Egypt a transcontinental country, with the Sinai Peninsula in Asia and the remainder of the country in Africa. Asia–Oceania boundary The border between Asia and Oceania is usually placed somewhere in the Indonesian Archipelago, specifically in Eastern Indonesia. The Wallace Line separates the Asian and Wallacea biogeographical realms, a transition zone of deep water straits between the Asian and Australian continental shelves. Weber's Line split the region in two with regard to the balance of fauna between Asian origin or Australo-Papuan origin. The Maluku Islands (except the Aru Islands) are often considered to lie on the border of southeast Asia, with the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, to the east of the Lydekker's Line, being wholly part of Oceania, as both lie on the Australian continental plate. Culturally, the Wallacea region denoted the transition between Austronesian and Melanesian people, with varying degrees of intermixing between the two. In general, the further west and coastal a region is, the stronger the Austronesian influences, and the further east and inland a region is, the stronger the Melanesian influences. The terms Southeast Asia and Oceania, devised in the 19th century, have had several vastly different geographic meanings since their inception. The chief factor in determining which islands of the Indonesian Archipelago are Asian has been the location of the colonial possessions of the various empires there (not all European). Lewis and Wigen assert, "The narrowing of 'Southeast Asia' to its present boundaries was thus a gradual process." Asia–North America boundary ]] The Bering Strait and Bering Sea separate the landmasses of Asia and North America, as well as forming the international boundary between Russia and the United States. This national and continental boundary separates the Diomede Islands in the Bering Strait, with Big Diomede in Russia and Little Diomede in the United States. The Aleutian Islands are an island chain extending westward from the Alaskan Peninsula toward Russia's Komandorski Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula. Most of them are always associated with North America, except for the westernmost Near Islands group, which is on Asia's continental shelf beyond the North Aleutians Basin and on rare occasions could be associated with Asia, which could then allow the United States to be considered a transcontinental state. The Aleutian Islands are sometimes associated with Oceania, owing to their status as remote Pacific islands, and their proximity to the Pacific Plate. This is extremely rare however, due to their non-tropical biogeography, as well as their inhabitants, who have historically been related to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. St. Lawrence Island in the northern Bering Sea belongs to the US state of Alaska and may be associated with either continent but is almost always considered part of North America, as with the Rat Islands in the Aleutian chain. At their nearest points, Alaska and Russia are separated by only . Ongoing definition Geographical Asia is a cultural artifact of European conceptions of the world, beginning with the Ancient Greeks, being imposed onto other cultures, an imprecise concept causing endemic contention about what it means. Asia does not exactly correspond to the cultural borders of its various types of constituents. From the time of Herodotus, a minority of geographers have rejected the three-continent system (Europe, Africa, Asia) on the grounds that there is no substantial physical separation between them. For example, Sir Barry Cunliffe, the emeritus professor of European archeology at Oxford, argues that Europe has been geographically and culturally merely "the western excrescence of the continent of Asia". Geographically, Asia is the major eastern constituent of the continent of Eurasia with Europe being a northwestern peninsula of the landmass. Asia, Europe and Africa make up a single continuous landmass—Afro-Eurasia—and share a common continental shelf. Almost all of Europe and a major part of Asia sit atop the Eurasian Plate, adjoined on the south by the Arabian and Indian Plate and with the easternmost part of Siberia (east of the Chersky Range) on the North American Plate. History Ancient era connected civilisations across Asia]]The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and West Asia. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilisations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys. The civilisations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yellow River shared many similarities. These civilisations may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other innovations, such as writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads who could reach all areas of Asia from the steppes. The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into West Asia, South Asia, and the borders of China, where the Tocharians resided. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of Siberia, was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, climate and tundra. These areas remained very sparsely populated. The center and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum and Gobi deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty. While the urban city dwellers were more advanced technologically and socially, in many cases they could do little in a military aspect to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large equestrian force; for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies. Medieval era at its greatest extent. The gray area is the later Timurid Empire]]The Islamic Caliphate's defeats of the Byzantine and Persian empires led to West Asia and southern parts of Central Asia and western parts of South Asia under its control during its conquests of the 7th century; Islam also spread over centuries to the southern regions of India and Southeast Asia through trade along the Maritime Silk Road. The Mongol Empire conquered a large part of Asia in the 13th century, an area extending from China to Europe. Before the Mongol invasion, Song dynasty reportedly had approximately 120 million citizens; the 1300 census which followed the invasion reported roughly 60 million people. The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, is thought to have originated in the arid plains of central Asia, where it then travelled along the Silk Road. Modern era European involvement in Asia became more significant from the Age of Discovery onward, with Iberian-sponsored sailors such as Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama paving the way for new routes from Atlantic Europe to Pacific Asia and the Indian Ocean respectively in the late 15th century. The Russian Empire also began to expand into northwestern Asia from the 17th century, and would eventually take control of all of Siberia and most of Central Asia by the end of the 19th century. Among non-European empires, the Ottoman Empire controlled Anatolia, most of the Middle East, North Africa and the Balkans from the mid 16th century onward, while in the 17th century, the Manchu conquered China and established the Qing dynasty. The Islamic Mughal Empire (preceded by the Delhi Sultanate of the 13th to early 16th century) and the Hindu Maratha Empire controlled much of India in the 16th and 18th centuries respectively. Western imperialism in Asia from the 18th to 20th centuries coincided with the Industrial Revolution in the West and the dethroning of India and China as the world's foremost economies. The British Empire first became dominant in South Asia, with most of the region being conquered by British traders in the late 18th and early 19th centuries before falling under direct British rule after a failed 1857 revolt; the 1869 completion of the Suez Canal, which increased British access to India, went on to further European influence over Africa and Asia. Around this time, Western powers started to dominate China in what later became known as the century of humiliation, with the British-supported opium trade and later Opium Wars resulting in China being forced into an unprecedented situation of importing more than it exported. Foreign domination of China was furthered by the Japanese colonial empire, which controlled some of East Asia and briefly much of Southeast Asia (which had earlier been taken over by the British, Dutch and French in the late 19th century), New Guinea and the Pacific islands; Japan's domination was enabled by its rapid rise that had taken place during the Meiji era of the late 19th century, in which it applied industrial knowledge learned from the West and thus overtook the rest of Asia. One significant influence on Japan had been the United States, which had begun projecting influence across the Pacific after its early-to-mid-19th century westward expansion. The breakup of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century led to the Middle East also being contested and partitioned by the British and French. Contemporary era With the end of World War II in 1945 and the wartime ruination of Europe and imperial Japan, many countries in Asia were able to rapidly free themselves of colonial rule. The independence of India came along with the carving out of a separate nation for the majority of South Asian Muslims, which in 1971 further split into Pakistan and Bangladesh; The Cold War in Asia strained relations between India and Pakistan and affected Asia more generally. The end of the Cold War and the Soviet Union by 1991 saw the independence of the five modern Central Asian countries. Some Arab countries took economic advantage of massive oil deposits that were discovered in their territory, becoming globally influential, though stability in the Middle East has been affected since 1948 by the Arab–Israeli conflict and American-led interventions. East Asian nations (along with Singapore in Southeast Asia) became economically prosperous with high-growth "tiger economies"; China, having undergone market-driven reforms under Deng Xiaoping, regained its place among the top two economies of the world by the 21st century. India has also grown significantly because of economic liberalisation that started in the 1990s, with extreme poverty now below 20%; India and China's rise has coincided with growing tensions between the two, with the Indo-Pacific now an actively contested area between China and counterbalancing forces. <gallery> File:Anaximander world map (mul).svg\|The threefold division of the Old World into Europe, Asia and Africa has been in use since the 6th century BCE, due to Greek geographers such as Anaximander and Hecataeus File:A new universal atlas of the world.Asia.jpg\|1825 map of Asia by Sidney Edwards Morse File:A Map of the Countries between Constantinople and Calcutta- Including Turkey in Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Turkestan WDL11753.png\|Map of western, southern, and central Asia in 1885 File:Modern Asia (1796).tif\|The map of Asia in 1796, which also included the continent of Australia (then known as New Holland) File:Asien Bd1.jpg\|1890 map of Asia </gallery> Geography range is home to some of the planet's highest peaks]] Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It covers 9% of the Earth's total surface area (or 30% of its land area), and has the longest coastline, at . Asia is generally defined as comprising the eastern four-fifths of Eurasia. It is located to the east of the Suez Canal and the Ural Mountains, and south of the Caucasus Mountains (or the Kuma–Manych Depression) and the Caspian and Black Seas. It is bounded on the east by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Asia is subdivided into 49 countries, five of them (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Kazakhstan and Turkey) are transcontinental countries lying partly in Europe. Geographically, Russia is partly in Asia, but is considered a European nation, both culturally and politically. The Gobi Desert is in Mongolia and the Arabian Desert stretches across much of the Middle East. The Yangtze in China is the longest river in the continent. The Himalayas between Nepal and China is the tallest mountain range in the world. Tropical rainforests stretch across much of southern Asia and coniferous and deciduous forests lie farther north. <gallery> File:Tundra in Siberia.jpg\|Siberian tundra File:Gunung Palung Jungle.jpg\|Rainforest in Borneo File:Kerala Backwaters, India.JPG\|Kerala backwaters File:Naadam rider 2.jpg\|Mongolian steppe File:1 li jiang guilin yangshuo 2011.jpg\|South China Karst File:Taman Negara, Malaysia, Panoramic view.jpg\|Taman Negara, Peninsular Malaysia File:Akkem Valley 2011.jpg\|Altai Mountains File:Hunza Valley from Eagle Point.jpg\|Hunza Valley File:Baa atoll islands.JPG\|Atolls of the Maldives File:Red sand of the Wadi Rum desert.jpg\|Wadi Rum in Jordan </gallery> Main regions There are various approaches to the regional division of Asia. The following subdivision into regions is used, among others, by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). This division of Asia into regions by the United Nations is done solely for statistical reasons and does not imply any assumption about political or other affiliations of countries and territories. * North Asia (Siberia) * Central Asia * West Asia (The Middle East or Near East and part of the Caucasus) * South Asia (Indian subcontinent) * East Asia (Far East) * Southeast Asia (East Indies and Indochina) Climate map for Asia]] Asia has extremely diverse climate features. Climates range from Arctic and subarctic in Siberia to tropical in southern India and Southeast Asia. It is moist across southeast sections, and dry across much of the interior. Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia. The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections, due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer. Southwestern sections of the continent are hot. Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere, and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America. The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan. Climate change Politics for Asia \|upright=1.4]] The most democratic countries in Asia are Japan, Taiwan and Israel according to the V-Dem Democracy indices in 2024. List of states and territories {\| class="sortable wikitable" ! style"line-height:95%; width:2em" class"unsortable" scope="col" \| Symbol ! style"line-height:95%; width:2em" class"unsortable" scope="col" \| Flag ! Name ! Population<br />() ! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>) ! Capital \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Afghanistan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 652,864 \| Kabul \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Armenia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 29,743 \| Yerevan \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Azerbaijan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 86,600 \| Baku \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Bahrain \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 760 \| Manama \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Bangladesh \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 147,570 \| Dhaka \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Bhutan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 38,394 \| Thimphu \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Brunei \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5,765 \| Bandar Seri Begawan \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Cambodia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 181,035 \| Phnom Penh \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| China (PRC) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 9,596,961 \| Beijing \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Cyprus \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 9,251 \| Nicosia \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Egypt \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 1,001,449 \| Cairo \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Georgia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 69,700 \| Tbilisi \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| India \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,287,263 \| New Delhi \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Indonesia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 1,904,569 \| Jakarta \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Iran \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 1,648,195 \| Tehran \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Iraq \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 438,317 \| Baghdad \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Israel \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 20,770 \| Jerusalem (limited recognition) \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Japan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 377,915 \| Tokyo \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Jordan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 89,342 \| Amman \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Kazakhstan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,724,900 \| Astana \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Kuwait \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 17,818 \| Kuwait City \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Kyrgyzstan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 199,951 \| Bishkek \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Laos \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 236,800 \| Vientiane \|- \| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Lebanon \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 10,400 \| Beirut \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Malaysia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 329,847 \| Kuala Lumpur \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Maldives \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 298 \| Malé \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Mongolia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 1,564,116 \| Ulaanbaatar \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Myanmar \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 676,578 \| Naypyidaw \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Nepal \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 147,181 \| Kathmandu \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| North Korea \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 120,538 \| Pyongyang \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Oman \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 309,500 \| Muscat \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Pakistan \| style="text-align:right;"\| 211,103,000 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 881,913 \| Islamabad \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Philippines \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 343,448 \| Manila \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Qatar \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 11,586 \| Doha \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Russia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 17,098,242 \| Moscow \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Saudi Arabia \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 2,149,690 \| Riyadh \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Singapore \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 697 \| Singapore \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| South Korea \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 100,210 \| Seoul \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Sri Lanka \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 65,610 \| Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Syria \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 185,180 \| Damascus \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Tajikistan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 143,100 \| Dushanbe \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Thailand \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 513,120 \| Bangkok \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Timor-Leste \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 14,874 \| Dili \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms --> \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Turkey \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 783,562 \| Ankara \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Turkmenistan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 488,100 \| Ashgabat \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| United Arab Emirates \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 83,600 \| Abu Dhabi \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Uzbekistan \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 447,400 \| Tashkent \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Vietnam \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 331,212 \| Hanoi \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Yemen \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 527,968 \| ; control)\|Aden ( capital of )}} \|} Within the above-mentioned states are several partially recognized countries with limited to no international recognition. None of them are members of the UN, however Palestine has observer state status: {\| class="sortable wikitable" ! style"line-height:95%; width:2em" class"unsortable" \| Symbol ! style"line-height:95%; width:2em" class"unsortable" \| Flag ! Name ! Population<br /> ! Area<br />(km<sup>2</sup>) ! Capital \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Abkhazia \| style="text-align:right;"\| 242,862 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 8,660 \| Sukhumi \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Northern Cyprus \| style="text-align:right;"\| 326,000 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,355 \| North Nicosia \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Palestine \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6,025 \| Jerusalem (limited recognition) \|- \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| South Ossetia \| style="text-align:right;"\| 51,547 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3,900 \| Tskhinvali \|- \| style="text-align:center;"\| \| style"text-align:center;"\| \| Taiwan (ROC) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 36,193 \| Taipei \|} Economy and is the world's fourth-largest foreign exchange trading hub]] Asia has the largest continental economy in the world by both GDP nominal and PPP values, and is the fastest growing economic region. , China is by far the largest economy on the continent, making up nearly half of the continent's economy by GDP nominal. It is followed by Japan, India, South Korea, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, which are all ranked among the top 20 largest economies both by nominal and PPP values. Based on Global Office Locations 2011, Asia dominated the office locations with 4 of the top 5 being in Asia: Hong Kong, Singapore, Tokyo and Seoul. Around 68% of international firms have an office in Hong Kong. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the economy of China had an average annual growth rate of more than 8%. According to economic historian Angus Maddison, India had the world's largest economy for much of the past three millennia prior to the 19th century, accounting for 25% of the world's industrial output. China was the largest and most advanced economy on earth for much of recorded history and shared the mantle with India. For several decades in the late twentieth century Japan was the largest economy in Asia and second-largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in net material product) in 1990 and Germany in 1968. (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or APEC). This ended in 2010 when China overtook Japan to become the world's second largest economy. It is forecasted that India will overtake Japan in terms of nominal GDP by 2027. According to Citigroup in 2011, 9 of 11 Global Growth Generators countries came from Asia driven by population and income growth. They are Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Mongolia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam. Asia has three main financial centers: Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. Call centers and business process outsourcing (BPOs) are becoming major employers in India and the Philippines due to the availability of a large pool of highly skilled, English-speaking workers. The increased use of outsourcing has assisted the rise of India and the China as financial centers. Due to its large and extremely competitive information technology industry, India has become a major hub for outsourcing. Trade between Asian countries and countries on other continents is largely carried out on the sea routes that are important for Asia. Individual main routes have emerged from this. The main route leads from the Chinese coast south via Hanoi to Jakarta, Singapore and Kuala Lumpur through the Strait of Malacca via the Sri Lankan Colombo to the southern tip of India via Malé to East Africa Mombasa (see also: Indo-Pacific), from there to Djibouti, then through the Red Sea over the Suez Canal into Mediterranean (see also: Indo-Mediterranean), there via Haifa, Istanbul and Athens to the upper Adriatic to the northern Italian hub of Trieste with its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europe or further to Barcelona and around Spain and France to the European northern ports. A far smaller part of the goods traffic runs via South Africa to Europe. A particularly significant part of the Asian goods traffic is carried out on the Pacific Rim, toward Los Angeles and Long Beach. The melting of the Arctic is also paving the way for new shipping routes from Northeast Asia to Europe and North America. The land route to Europe are the subject of construction projects, comparatively smaller in scope. smaller in terms of scope. Intra-Asian trade, including sea trade, is growing rapidly. In 2010, Asia had 3.3 million millionaires (people with net worth over US$1 million excluding their homes), slightly below North America with 3.4 million millionaires. In 2011, Asia topped Europe in number of millionaires. Citigroup in The Wealth Report 2012 stated that the total wealth of people in Asia with over $100 million in assets exceeded that of their North American counterparts for the first time, as the world's "economic center of gravity" continued moving east. At the end of 2011, there were 18,000 Asian people mainly in Southeast Asia, China and Japan who have at least $100 million in disposable assets, while North America with 17,000 people and Western Europe with 14,000 people. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" \|- ! Rank ! Country ! GDP <small>(nominal, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of USD</small> ! Peak Year \|- \| 1 \|\|align=left\| \|\|18,273,357\|\|2024 \|- \| 2 \|\|alignleft\|\|\|6,272,363\|\|2012 \|- \| 3 \|\|align=left\|\|\|3,889,130\|\|2024 \|- \| 4 \|\|alignleft\|\|\|2,292,470\|\|2013 \|- \| 5 \|\|align=left\| \|\|1,942,314\|\|2021 \|- \| 6 \|\|align=left\| \|\|1,402,590\|\|2024 \|- \| 7 \|\|align=left\| \|\|1,344,318\|\|2024 \|- \| 8 \|\|align=left\|}} \|\|1,108,572\|\|2022 \|- \| 9 \|\|align=left\| \|\|775,017\|\|2024 \|- \| 10 \|\|alignleft\|\|\|644,036\|\|2012 \|} {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align: right; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px" \|- style="background:#dbdbdb;" ! Rank ! Country ! GDP <small>(PPP, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of USD</small> ! Peak Year \|- \| 1 \|\|align=left\| \|\|37,072,086\|\|2024 \|- \| 2 \|\|align=left\| \|\|16,019,970\|\|2024 \|- \| 3 \|\|align=left\|\|\|6,909,381\|\|2024 \|- \| 4 \|\|align=left\| \|\|6,572,198\|\|2024 \|- \| 5 \|\|align=left\| \|\|4,658,321\|\|2024 \|- \| 6 \|\|alignleft\|\|\|3,767,230\|\|2023 \|- \| 7 \|\|align=left\| \|\|3,258,366\|\|2024 \|- \| 8 \|\|align=left\| \|\|2,231,822\|\|2024 \|- \| 9 \|\|align=left\|}} \|\|2,112,880\|\|2024 \|- \| 10 \|\|align=left\| \|\|1,843,016\|\|2024 \|} Tourism in the Grand Palace is among Bangkok's major tourist attractions.]] With growing Regional Tourism with domination of Chinese visitors, MasterCard has released Global Destination Cities Index 2013 with 10 of 20 are dominated by Asia and Pacific Region Cities and also for the first time a city of a country from Asia (Bangkok) set in the top-ranked with 15.98 million international visitors. Demographics is provided by. \|1500\|243000000 \|1700\|436000000 \|1900\|947000000 \|1950\|1402000000 \|1999\|3634000000 \|2016\|4462676731\|graph-pos=bottom }} East Asia had by far the strongest overall Human Development Index (HDI) improvement of any region in the world, nearly doubling average HDI attainment over the past 40 years, according to the report's analysis of health, education and income data. China, the second highest achiever in the world in terms of HDI improvement since 1970, is the only country on the "Top 10 Movers" list due to income rather than health or education achievements. Its per capita income increased a stunning 21-fold over the last four decades, also lifting hundreds of millions out of income poverty. Yet it was not among the region's top performers in improving school enrollment and life expectancy.<br />Nepal, a South Asian country, emerges as one of the world's fastest movers since 1970 mainly due to health and education achievements. Its present life expectancy is 25 years longer than in the 1970s. More than four of every five children of school age in Nepal now attend primary school, compared to just one in five 40 years ago. and Baháʼí Faith originated in West Asia. Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, is practiced primarily in Israel, the indigenous homeland and historical birthplace of the Hebrew nation: which today consists both of those Jews who remained in the Middle East and those who returned from diaspora in Europe, North America, and other regions; though various diaspora communities persist worldwide. Jews are the predominant ethnic group in Israel (75.6%) numbering at about 6.1 million, although the levels of adherence to Jewish religion vary. Outside of Israel there are small ancient Jewish communities in Turkey (17,400), Azerbaijan (9,100), Iran (8,756), India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000), among many other places. As of 2016, there are am estimated 14.4–17.5 million (2016, est.) Jews alive in the world today, making them one of the smallest Asian minorities, at roughly 0.3–0.4& of the total population of the continent. Christianity is a widespread religion in Asia, with more than 286 million adherents in 2010 according to Pew Research Center, and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. Christians constitute around 12.6% of the total population of Asia. In the Philippines and Timor-Leste, Catholicism is the predominant religion; which are both Eastern Christian sects mainly adhered to Assyrian people or Syriac Christians. Vibrant indigenous minorities in West Asia are adhering to the Eastern Catholic Churches and Eastern Orthodoxy. Significant Christian communities also found in Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia. Islam, which originated in the Hejaz located in modern-day Saudi Arabia, is the second largest and most widely-spread religion in Asia with at least 1 billion Muslims constituting around 23.8% of the total population of Asia. With 12.7% of the world Muslim population, the country currently with the largest Muslim population in the world is Indonesia, followed by Pakistan (11.5%), India (10%), Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem are the three holiest cities for Islam in all the world. The Hajj and Umrah attract large numbers of Muslim devotees from all over the world to Mecca and Medina. Iran is the largest Shia country. The Druze originated in West Asia, is a monotheistic religion based on the teachings of figures like Hamza ibn Ali and al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The number of Druze people worldwide is around one million. Around 45–50% live in Syria, 35% to 40% live in Lebanon, and less than 10% live in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora. The Baháʼí Faith originated in Asia, in Iran (Persia), and spread from there to the Ottoman Empire, Central Asia, India, and Burma during the lifetime of Bahá'u'lláh. Since the middle of the 20th century, growth has particularly occurred in other Asian countries, because Baháʼí activities in many Muslim countries has been severely suppressed by authorities. Lotus Temple is a big Baháʼí temple in India. Indian and East Asian religions Akshardham Temple in Delhi, according to the Guinness World Records, is the ''World's Largest Comprehensive Hindu Temple''.]] Almost all Asian religions have philosophical character and Asian philosophical traditions cover a large spectrum of philosophical thoughts and writings. Indian philosophy includes Hindu philosophy and Buddhist philosophy. They include elements of nonmaterial pursuits, whereas another school of thought from India, Cārvāka, preached the enjoyment of the material world. The religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India, South Asia. In East Asia, particularly in China and Japan, Confucianism, Taoism and Zen Buddhism took shape. , Hinduism has around 1.1 billion adherents. The faith represents around 25% of Asia's population and is the largest religion in Asia. However, it is mostly concentrated in South Asia. Over 80% of the populations of both India and Nepal adhere to Hinduism, alongside significant communities in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Bali, Indonesia. Many overseas Indians in countries such as Burma, Singapore and Malaysia also adhere to Hinduism. Buddhism has a great following in mainland Southeast Asia and East Asia. Buddhism is the religion of the majority of the populations of Cambodia (96%), Thailand (95%), Burma (80–89%), Japan (36–96%), Bhutan (75–84%), Sri Lanka (70%), Laos (60–67%) and Mongolia (53–93%). Taiwan (35–93%), South Korea (23–50%), Malaysia (19–21%), Nepal (9–11%), Vietnam (10–75%), China (20–50%), North Korea (2–14%), and small communities in India and Bangladesh. The Communist-governed countries of China, Vietnam and North Korea are officially atheist, thus the number of Buddhists and other religious adherents may be under-reported. Jainism is found mainly in India and in overseas Indian communities such as the United States and Malaysia. Sikhism is found in Northern India and amongst overseas Indian communities in other parts of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. Confucianism is found predominantly in mainland China, South Korea, Taiwan and in overseas Chinese populations. Taoism is found mainly in mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore. In many Chinese communities, Taoism is easily syncretised with Mahayana Buddhism, thus exact religious statistics are difficult to obtain and may be understated or overstated. <gallery> File:Traditional wedding at Meji-jingu 72570539 f30636e2ef o.jpg\|Japanese wedding at the Meiji Shrine File:A day of devotion – Thaipusam in Singapore (4316108409).jpg\|Hindu festival celebrated by Singapore's Tamil community File:Bar Mitzvah Western Wall.jpg\|Bar mitzvah at the Western Wall in Jerusalem File:Feast of Black Nazarene, Quiapo, Manila.JPG\|Catholic procession of the Black Nazarene in Manila File:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - Nebi Shueib Festival.jpg\|Druze dignitaries celebrating the Ziyarat al-Nabi Shu'ayb festival at the tomb of the prophet in Hittin File:Echmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia (5047080550).jpg\|Christian Armenians praying at the Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Vagharshapat File:İstanbul 4258.jpg\|Muslim men praying at the Ortaköy Mosque in Istanbul File:Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand.jpg\|Buddhist Monks performing traditional Sand mandala made from coloured sand </gallery> Culture The culture of Asia is a diverse blend of customs and traditions that have been practiced by the various ethnic groups of the continent for centuries. The continent is divided into six geographic sub-regions: Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Asia. These regions are defined by their cultural similarities, including common religions, languages, and ethnicities. West Asia, also known as Southwest Asia or the Middle East, has cultural roots in the ancient civilisations of the Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia, which gave rise to the Persian, Arab, Ottoman empires, as well as the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. These civilisations, which are located in the Hilly flanks, are among the oldest in the world, with evidence of farming dating back to around 9000 BCE. Despite the challenges posed by the vast size of the continent and the presence of natural barriers such as deserts and mountain ranges, trade and commerce have helped to create a Pan-Asian culture that is shared across the region. Nobel laureates , winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and Asia's first Nobel laureate]] Rabindranath Tagore, a Bengali dramatist and author from Santiniketan (now in West Bengal, India), won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, becoming the first Asian Nobel laureate. The prize was awarded for Tagore's prose works and poetry, which had a significant additional impact on national literatures throughout the Western world. Tagore also authored both the Indian and Bangladeshi national anthems. Other Asian writers who won Nobel Prize for literature include Yasunari Kawabata (Japan, 1968), Kenzaburō Ōe (Japan, 1994), Gao Xingjian (China, 2000), Orhan Pamuk (Turkey, 2006), and Mo Yan (China, 2012). Some may consider the American writer, Pearl S. Buck, an honorary Asian Nobel laureate, having spent considerable time in China as the daughter of missionaries, and based many of her novels, namely The Good Earth (1931) and The Mother (1933), as well as the biographies of her parents for their time in China, The Exile and Fighting Angel, all of which earned her the Literature prize in 1938. Mother Teresa of India and Shirin Ebadi of Iran were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their significant and pioneering efforts for democracy and human rights, especially for the rights of women and children. Ebadi is the first Iranian and the first Muslim woman to receive the prize. Another Nobel Peace Prize winner is Aung San Suu Kyi from Burma for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a military dictatorship in Burma. She is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Burma (Myanmar) and a noted prisoner of conscience. She is a Buddhist and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. Chinese dissident Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his long and non-violent struggle for fundamental human rights in China" on 8 October 2010. He is the first Chinese citizen to be awarded a Nobel Prize of any kind while residing in China. In 2014, Kailash Satyarthi from India and Malala Yousafzai from Pakistan were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education". C.V. Raman is the first Asian to get a Nobel prize in Sciences. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his work on the scattering of light and for the discovery of the effect named after him". Japan has won the most Nobel Prizes of any Asian nation with 24 followed by India which has won 13. Amartya Sen () is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Other Asian Nobel Prize winners include Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Abdus Salam, Robert Aumann, Menachem Begin, Aaron Ciechanover, Avram Hershko, Daniel Kahneman, Shimon Peres, Yitzhak Rabin, Ada Yonath, Yasser Arafat, José Ramos-Horta and Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo of Timor Leste, Kim Dae-jung, and 13 Japanese scientists. Most of the said awardees are from Japan and Israel except for Chandrasekhar and Raman (India), Abdus Salam (Pakistan), Arafat (Palestinian Territories), Kim (South Korea), and Horta and Belo (Timor Leste). In 2006, the Bangladeshi Muhammad Yunus of was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the establishment of Grameen Bank, a community development bank that lends money to poor people, especially women. He is known for the concept of micro credit which, allows poor and destitute people to borrow money. The borrowers pay back money within the specified period and defaulting is very low. Yunus also became the leader of an interim government after the 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement. The Dalai Lama received the Nobel Peace Prize, in Oslo, Norway in 1989. See also <!-- --> * Asian Century * Asian Games * Asian Highway Network * Asian Monetary Unit * Asian Para Games * List of cities in Asia * Asian cuisine * Asian furniture * Eastern Mediterranean * Eastern world * Fauna of Asia * Flags of Asia * List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population * Trans-Asian Railway Notes References Bibliography * * Further reading * Embree, Ainslie T., ed. Encyclopedia of Asian history (1988) ** [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse/page/n5/mode/2up vol. 1 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0002unse/page/n5/mode/2up vol 2 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse_l9c1/page/n5/mode/2up vol 3 online]; [https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0000embr vol 4 online] * Higham, Charles. Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Facts on File library of world history. New York: Facts On File, 2004. * Kamal, Niraj. "Arise Asia: Respond to White Peril". New Delhi: Wordsmith, 2002, * Kapadia, Feroz, and Mandira Mukherjee. Encyclopaedia of Asian Culture and Society. New Delhi: Anmol Publications, 1999. * Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, eds. Encyclopedia of Modern Asia. (6 vol. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002). * External links * * * [https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/asia-human/ Asia: Human Geography] at the National Geographic Society * [https://www.loc.gov/research-centers/asian/about-this-research-center/ Asian Reading Room] from the United States Library of Congress * * * * * Category:Continents	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia	2025-04-05T18:25:19.912052
690	Aruba	}}<br />}} \| image_flag = Flag of Aruba.svg \| flag_size = 125 \| flag_link = Flag of Aruba \| image_seal = Aruba wapen.svg \| seal_size = 85px \| seal_type = Coat of arms \| seal_link = Coat of arms of Aruba \| anthem "Aruba Dushi Tera"<br />()<div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| song_type = Royal anthem \| song "Wilhelmus"<br />()<br /><div style"display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| image_map = Aruba in its region (zoom).svg \| map_alt = Location of Aruba \| map_caption = Location of Aruba (circled in red) \| mapsize = 290px \| subdivision_type = Sovereign state \| subdivision_name = \| established_title = Before separation \| established_date = Netherlands Antilles \| established_title2 = Country status \| established_date2 = 1 January 1986 \| official_languages \| languages_type = Other languages \| languages = Spanish, English, French \| demonym = Aruban \| capital = Oranjestad \| coordinates = \| largest_city = capital \| ethnic_groups <!--Do not change: no data available for ethnicity group, therefore data of population by nationality is used instead. --> \| ethnic_groups_year = 2020 \| government_type = Devolved parliamentary representative democracy within a constitutional monarchy \| leader_title1 = Monarch \| leader_name1 = Willem-Alexander \| leader_title2 = Governor \| leader_name2 = Alfonso Boekhoudt \| leader_title3 = Prime Minister \| leader_name3 = Evelyn Wever-Croes \| legislature = Parliament of Aruba \| area_km2 180 \| area_rank = 189th <!-- Should match List of countries and dependencies by area --> \| percent_water = negligible \| elevation_max_m = 188 \| elevation_max_ft \| population_estimate 108,027 \| population_estimate_rank = 180th \| population_estimate_year = 2024 \| population_density_km2 = 560.4 \| population_density_sq_mi \| population_density_rank \| GDP_PPP $5.502 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2023 \| GDP_PPP_rank \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $51,352 In 1986, Aruba became a constituent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands and acquired the formal name the Country of Aruba. Aruba has an area of . Aruba measures in length from its northwestern to its southeastern end and is across at its widest point. Alongside Bonaire and Curaçao, Aruba forms a group referred to as the ABC islands. The Dutch Caribbean encompasses the ABC islands along with the other three substantial islands, the SSS islands. In contrast to much of the Caribbean, which experiences humid tropical climates, Aruba has a dry climate with an arid xeric landscape. Aruba is home to about one-third of the total population of the Dutch Caribbean. As one of the four countries in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, alongside the Netherlands, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten, Aruba shares Dutch nationality with its citizens. Aruba lacks administrative subdivisions but is divided into eight regions for census purposes with Oranjestad as its capital. The Kalinago also had two names for the island Ora Oubao which means "Shell island" and Oirubae which means "Companion of Curaçao". A common misconception is that the name "Aruba" came from Oro hubo, (Spanish for "There was gold once"). However, the Spanish declared these islands islas inútiles, meaning "useless islands", due to their apparent lack of mineral wealth. It was not until 1824 that gold was discovered on Aruba by a 12-year-old herder named Willem Rasmijn, leading to the Aruban Gold Rush. History Pre-ceramic age In Aruba's prehistoric era, there were distinct periods: the Archaic or Pre-Ceramic and the Neo-Indian or Ceramic (Dabajuroïd)  period. The Archaic occupation of Aruba continued well into the first millennium AD, which is relatively late in compared to other parts of the insular Caribbean. The archaic lifestyle revolved around a food economy based on fishing, hunting, and gathering, with a strong emphasis on marine resources. Ceramics were absent, as was horticulture and agriculture. Weapons and tools were predominantly crafted from stone. One notable site, Sero Muskita, yielded a tool that is older than other archaic age sites on the island. The finishing techniques and shape of this tool resembles one found at Arikok, suggesting a date before approximately 2000 BC. The presence of these tools on the island may be from occasional visits from the mainland. In total, 33 archaic age sites have been identified on Aruba. Early human migration and cultural exchange During this period, the Leeward Islands maintained connections and engaged in trade with mainland South America, particularly with partners in the present-day Falcón-Zulia state in Venezuela and possibly the La Guajira Peninsula (Venezuela/Colombia). The specific language group to which they belonged remains uncertain. This theory is supported by the discovery of 60 to 70 Amerindian cemetery burial grounds in Malmok and Canashito. Burial sites at Canashito are dated between 100 BC to 100 AD. isotopic research revealed that one of the individuals buried there was not from Aruba and had a different diet compared to the other four individuals of Aruban origin. This finding suggests that early human migration and cultural exchange were already part of the cultural pattern of these archaic Indians at an early stage. it was deduced that they traveled in clans of 15 to 30 people. These groups were led by an adult man who was buried at the center of the cluster. His elevated status was emphasized by the presence of several stones marking his grave. The rest of the family group was buried around him. The name Caquetío refers to how this group referred to themselves during their first contact with Europeans. They had longer and narrower skulls than the archaic population, and their height was up to . The newcomers brought pottery and agriculture to the islands and are therefore classified as part of the neo-Indian period. The Spanish conquistadors interrupted this process of expansion at the time of the European contact (AD 1499–1535). Political units and governance The Caquetío territory consisted of several small political units that were under the authority of lower "second-tier chiefs" who were subordinate to the highest authority. ]] After the diao and the regional sub-units, such as the mentioned Guaranaos an Amuayes in Paraguaná, the village formed the third level of governance in the hierarchy of the chiefdom. Aruba had (not simultaneously) five villages: three larger ones Ceri Noca (Santa Cruz), Tanki Flip (Noord), and Savaneta, and two smaller ones near Tanki Leendert and Parkietenbos, which have not yet been systematically studied. The location of Aruban villages varied. They were situated in places where beneficial agriculture land was available and where the most favorable hydrological conditions prevailed, such as where several rooi (gullies) came together and where relatively much water was available. The yields from agriculture and fishing were supplemented by engaging in trade of raw materials and artifacts that were not locally available or producible. Sixteenth century sources indicate that the Caquetíos traded in, among other things, salt, canoes, tobacco, and beads. The Leeward Caquetíos certainly did not live in isolation but formed outlying regions of a dynamic chiefdom with regional trading networks. The Caquetío people were buried in clusters, both within and potentially outside village boundaries. At times, there was a secondary burial, possibly reserved for exceptional individuals. In the primary burial, the deceased were buried in a large pot, covered with a smaller pot placed on top. In a secondary burial, the body was initially buried without a pot, and after a few months or years, the bones were exhumed and reburied in smaller pots for a second time. Some pots contained grave offerings such as axes, shells, and pottery. The secondary burial method was practiced until recently in South America. The striking similarity between the Neo-Indian burial practices in Aruba and the post-Columbian variant in Guajira justifies the assumption that the similar beliefs about life after death existed in both societies. Pyclas' skull was gifted to the former Rijks Ethnographisch Museum, presently National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden, with the mediation of A.J. van Koolwijk. In 1500, Juan de la Cosa drew the first map of the New World, which depicted the two Leeward Antilles known at the time. This was followed by the more accurate Cantino map, created anonymously in 1502, which also showed an extensive landmass and mentioned the Isla do gigante (Island of Giants) and Isla do brasil (Island of Brasil). The location of the Isla do gigante southwest of the Isla do brasil suggest that it refers to Bonaire and Curaçao since Aruba is located more to the northwest. (1500)]] In 1493, the year in which the West Indian islands became known in Europe, the division between the secular (civil) and religious authorities in the New World had to be arranged. The newly appointed Spanish Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter Caetera bull, granting the Spanish Crown sovereignty over the newly discovered territories and the responsibility of the holy task: to send good, God-fearing men, who are earned and capable, to those islands and continents to teach the natives living there about the Catholic faith and instill in them good habits. In exchange for the papal approval of the treaty, Spain promised to vigorously carry out missionary work in the discovered territories. This gave Spain the right to evangelize the Americas and appoint and dismiss priests, blurring the separation between church and state in the region. In other words, the Spanish Crown was granted significant religious authority in the Americas, which was not strictly separate from the state and weakened the distinction between the religious and secular spheres—a key aspect of separation between church and state.}} as a form of taxation and to provide for the food supply of the colonists. The defeated were often kidnapped and forced to participate in expeditions elsewhere in the New World as slave laborers. }} The Caquetío population of the Leeward Antilles was incorporated into the Spanish colonial empire . On June 8 and 10, 1501, Alonso De Ojeda acquired the exclusive right to exploit the current Venezuelan coastal area, known as Coquivacoa, and the islands of the coast Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, and probably also the Mongues and Aves Islands. De Ojeda had to form an administration as far west as possible on the Tierra Firme to secure the Spanish presence. It is believed that de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci visited Bonaire and Curaçao, but neither Vespucci nor de Ojeda are thought to have set foot on Aruban soil. He was explicitly forbidden to enslave natives. However, de Ojeda lacked administrative skills and intentions, and he became a controversial figure. De Ojeda established a base named Santa Cruz at the tip of Guajira, from whence he conducted trade and, probably even more importantly, carried out his raids, including slave hunts. During his third voyage to the New World in 1502, de Ojeda visited Curaçao, but his attempt to exploit the region failed. Instead, Bartolomé de Las Casas documented de Ojeda's raids, slave hunts, and atrocities in the rural areas of present-day Cartagena in his book, . These raids were disastrous, even for the Spaniards, and marked the end of the first attempt to control the region. Between 1513 and 1515, the Leeward Antilles, including Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire, were depopulated. Captain Diego Salazar led this effort, which affected an estimated 2,000 indigenous inhabitants from these islands, and likely more from Tierra Firme. The appropriation of the Caribbean region turned out to be a failure for the Spaniards. The exploitation of the West Indian islands proved unprofitable, and gold mining on Hispaniola and Puerto Rico declined. Spanish settlers moved elsewhere, and In 1569, the Spanish Crown banned settlement on the Caribbean islands by royal decree. This measure that did not apply to the leased islands of Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. The colonization of the large Caribbean islands, such as Cuba, was encouraged while the small islands were abandoned. Most of the islands remained largely uncontrolled and undefended, making them a potential opportunity for northwestern European countries that wanted to break Spain's monopoly on colonizing the New World. England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark explored the possibilities of piracy and trade on the Caribbean islands.}} The Dutch were compelled to venture into forbidden waters of the Caribbean, known as Spain's mare clausum, because of their need for salt, in open defiance of Phillip II. Since the mid-15th century, the prosperous Dutch herring industry had been steadily expanding. The towns of Hoorn, Enkhuizen, and Medemblik were particularly active in the salt trade, thanks to their thriving fishing industries. Herring was a crucial commodity for Dutch commerce, requiring salt for preservation. Salt also played a vital role in the butter and cheese industry, as well as in preserving food during long voyages. The curing or pickling process for herring was well established during the Middle Ages. After catching the herring, the packers would remove the internal organs, mix them with salt to create a brine, and pack them in barrels along with additional salt. While Zeeland was not heavily involved in fishing, they were renowned for their salt whitening process, which was highly sought after throughout Europe. Around 1924, salt extraction at Rancho had limited benefits, primarily being used in the preservation of fish during shipping. Paardenbaai (Horses' Bay) contained salt pans up until 1949 when it was dredged and disappeared beneath the sand. But Stuyvesant did not anticipate the rivalry between the two colonies, which prevented them from working together effectively. The Dutch in Curaçao preferred to sell their goods to other Caribbean islands where they could get a better price, rather than trading with their fellow countrymen in New Netherland. Additionally, the islands were involved in illegal trade with the Spanish mainland and did not want to switch to legal trade with New Netherland. Stuyvesant needed slaves to strengthen New Amsterdam's defenses, but he mostly received old or sick slaves, called mancarrons, in response to his requests. The better slaves were sold elsewhere to the highest bidder. However, the people in New Netherland were not motivated by unselfish reasons or a strong sense of patriotism. They continued to trade with their French, English, and Swedish neighbors across the border. Only in extreme situations did their shared heritage become more important than making money. For example, when the islands faced famine due to a series of dry seasons, Stuyvesant came to the rescue by sending a ship with food just in time. Aruba was then integrated into the Colony of Curaçao and Dependencies, along with Bonaire. Throughout the 19th century, the island's economy evolved, centered around gold, phosphate (Aruba Phosphate Company), and the aloe vera industry (Royal Aruba Aloe), However, despite these economic activities, Aruba continued to be a relatively underdeveloped and economically disadvantaged region during this period. During World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. In 1940, the oil facilities in Aruba came under the administration of the Dutch government-in-exile in London, causing them to be attacked by the German navy in 1942. In August 1947, Aruba formulated its first staatsreglement (constitution) for Aruba's status aparte as an autonomous state within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, prompted by the efforts of Henny Eman, a noted Aruban politician. By 1954, the Charter of the Kingdom of the Netherlands was established, providing a framework for relations between Aruba and the rest of the kingdom. That created the Netherlands Antilles, which united all of the Dutch colonies in the Caribbean into one administrative structure. Many Arubans were unhappy with the arrangement, however, as the policy was perceived as being dominated by Curaçao. Tensions mounted as Croes stepped up the pressure on the Dutch government by organising a general strike in 1977. The significant blow to the economy led to a push for a dramatic increase in tourism, and that sector has expanded to become the island's largest industry. This region is marked by rolling hills, including Jamanota, and is home to Arikok National Park, and limestone terraces surround these two landscapes. The low-lying limestone terrace regions are defined by their white sandy beaches and the high plateaus on the north side of the island, in contrast, are constantly battered by the rough waters of the ocean, featuring caves and small natural bridge formations. The arid landscape in Aruba is not solely a product of its climate but is also a consequence of extensive deforestation and exploitation during the Spanish colonization of the island. Consequently, certain crops, such as aloe vera, thrive in this environment due to the high calcium-rich soil known as liming. The Aruba Conservation Foundation, established in 2003, oversees the management of the conservation of 16 established protected areas, which encompass a total of nearly 25% of the island's surface, as well as four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) The Arikok National Park, established as formal conservation land in 2000, covers 20% of the island. Forest cover is around 2% of the total land area, equivalent to 420 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. None of the forest was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity), and no forest area was found within protected areas. The geography includes naturally formed rooi or gullies that channel rainwater towards dams and ultimately the ocean. Other than Arikok National Park, the Bubali Bird Sanctuary is the only significant body of water on the island that holds the status of protected nature reserve and serves as a brackish water lagoon. Regions Aruba is divided into eight regions for census purposes, with no administrative function. Some correspond to parishes and include several community facilities. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin-bottom: 0;" \|- ! Name !! Area (km<sup>2</sup>) !! Population <br /> 1991 census !! Population <br /> 2000 census !! Population <br /> 2010 census !! Population <br /> 2020 census \|- \| Noord \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Oranjestad West \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Oranjestad Oost \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Paradera \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| San Nicolaas Noord \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| San Nicolaas Zuid \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Santa Cruz \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Savaneta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|- \| Total Aruba \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|} Flora and fauna The landscape is characterized by common xeric scrublands featuring various cacti, thorny shrubs, and evergreen plants. characterized by limited rainfall, totaling just annually. Notably, Aruba remains dry even during its supposed rainy season. Rainfall can be highly variable, ranging from as little as during strong El Niño years (e.g. 1911/1912, 1930/1931, 1982/1983, 1997/1998) to over in La Niña years, such as 1933/1934, 1970/1971 or 1988/1989. An exception to the general aridity is observed during the short rainy season from September to January. During this period, the southward retreat of the Intertropical Convergence Zone leads to more frequent moist northeasterly winds. Aruba is positioned south of the Main Development Region for tropical cyclones \| date=February 2011 }} Demographics The population experienced fluctuations between 1972 and 2022, primarily influenced by net migration. While there have been periods of growth, there have also been declines, especially during economic challenges. Notably, between 1988 and 2016, the population nearly doubled. However, in 2017, a decline occurred, breaking almost three decades of continuous growth. The first three years of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2022) also contributed to a population decrease, mainly due to reduced births and emigration. As of the 3rd quarter in 2024, the population stood at 108,027 people, marking a modest 0.4% growth compared to the previous year.Language }}Aruba is a multilingual society. The Official languages are Dutch and Papiamento. While Dutch is the sole language for all administration and legal matters, Papiamento is the predominant language used in Aruba. Papiamento is a Portuguese/Spanish based creole language, spoken on Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao that also incorporates words from the Caquetio language, Dutch, various West African languages and English. English and Spanish are also widely spoken on the island, their usage having grown due to tourism and immigration. Spanish became an important language in the 18th century due to the close economic ties with Spanish colonies in what are now Venezuela and Colombia. Venezuelan TV networks are received on the island, and there are significant communities of Venezuelans and Colombians on Aruba. Around 13% of the population today speaks Spanish natively. Use of English dates to the early 19th century, when the British ruled Curaçao, Aruba, and Bonaire. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, officials already noted wide use of the language. There is also a little studied native variety of English Creole spoken in San Nicolaas, known as San Nicolaas English. Aruba has newspapers published in Papiamento: Diario, Bon Dia, Solo di Pueblo, and Awe Mainta; English: Aruba Daily, Aruba Today, and The News; and Dutch: Amigoe. There are 18 radio stations (two AM and sixteen FM) and two local television stations (Telearuba and Channel 22).Religion statue of the Virgin Mary, easily visible from the main road. Each year, on February 11 (the feast of Lady Lourdes), a procession departs from St. Theresita Church in San Nicolas and heads to the grotto, where a Mass is held. Government ]] Along with the Netherlands, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten, Aruba is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with internal autonomy. The governor of Aruba is appointed for a six-year term by the monarch, and the prime minister and deputy prime minister are indirectly elected by the Staten for four-year terms. The Korps Politie Aruba (Aruba Police Force) is the law enforcement agency and operates district precincts in Oranjestad, Noord, San Nicolaas, and Santa Cruz, where it is headquartered. Divergent Legal Protections from the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands include not being part of the Law Enforcement Council (Raad van de Rechtshandhaving), which is a legal entity based on the Kingdom Act of the July 7, 2010 the Kingdom Act on the Law Enforcement Council. Aruba is the only country in the kingdom that does not have an ombudsman. Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well. By 2006, the government's debt had grown to 1.883 billion Aruban florins. In 2006, the government changed several tax laws to reduce the deficit. Direct taxes have been converted to indirect taxes as proposed by the International Monetary Fund.Foreign relationsAruba is one of the overseas countries and territories (OCT) of the European Union and maintains economic and cultural relations with the European Union and the United States. Aruba is also a member of several international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund and Interpol. Although not officially a part of the European Union, Aruba does receive support from the European Development Fund.Military Defence is the responsibility of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Education Historically, Dutch was not widely spoken on the island, except within colonial administration, and its usage increased in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Dutch serves as the primary language of instruction, with Papiamento taught as a subject in the lower grades of secondary education. The educational system mirrors the Dutch education structure, with public national education financed by the government of Aruba. The education landscape includes a mix of public and private institutions, such as the International School of Aruba, the Schakel College, and Colegio Arubano. The University of Aruba is the national university. Aruba hosts three medical schools, American University School of Medicine Aruba, Aureus University School of Medicine and Xavier University School of Medicine. Economy The economy is dominated by four main industries: tourism, aloe export, petroleum refining, and offshore banking. Its main trading partners are Colombia, the United States, Venezuela, and the Netherlands. The agriculture and manufacturing sectors are fairly minimal. Gold mining was important in the 19th century. of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Aruba used 6.5 global hectares of biocapacity per person—their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use almost 12 times the biocapacity that Aruba contains. This is the extent of Aruba's biocapacity deficit.<!--note that currency fluctuates slightly because of the necessity of forcing the florin to the dollar by buying or selling florins or dollars--> This fact, and the majority of tourists being US, means businesses of hotel and resort districts prefer to bank and trade with the consumer in US dollars. Aruba is a prosperous country. Unemployment is low (although the government has not published statistics since 2013) and per capita income is one of the highest in the Caribbean (approximately $24,087). At the end of 2018, the labor force participation rate was 56.6% for women. Until the mid-1980s, the main industry was oil refining; the refinery was shut down, and the economy shifted towards tourism. The refinery has been closed and restarted repeatedly during the last decades. In recent years a letter of intent was signed with CITGO (the US subsidiary of the Venezuelan state oil company PDVSA) to explore the possibility of reopening the refinery again. Until 2009, the Netherlands granted development aid to Aruba. This aid was mainly for law enforcement, education, administrative development, health care and sustainable economic development. This aid was discontinued at Aruba's request in 2009. Since 2015, however, a form of financial supervision has been reintroduced because debt has risen sharply to over 80% of GDP. Aruba has two free trade zones (Barcadera and Bushiri), where import and export and the movement of services are tax-free.TourismAruba has a large and well-developed tourism industry, receiving 1,082,000 tourists who stayed overnight in its territory in 2018. About 75% of the gross national product is earned through tourism and related activities. Most tourists are from North America, with a market-share of 73.3%, followed by Latin America with 15.2% and Europe with 8.3%. In 2018, there were 40,231 visitors from the Netherlands. For private aircraft passengers bound for the United States, the United States Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Customs and Border Protection has a full pre-clearance facility since 1 February 2001 when Queen Beatrix Airport expanded. Since 2008, Aruba has been the only island to have this service for private flights.Culture Aruba boasts a diverse culture. According to the Bureau Burgelijke Stand en Bevolkingsregister (BBSB, Civil Registry and Population Register), in 2005, the island was home to people from 92 different nationalities. Dutch influence is still evident in traditions like the celebration of Sinterklaas (Saint Nicholas) on December 5 and 6, as well as national holidays like April 27 when Aruba, along with the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, celebrates Koningsdag (King's day) or Dia di Rey (in Papiamento) is celebrated. On 18 March, Aruba celebrates its National Anthem and Flag Day. Christmas and New Year's Eve are celebrated with the typical music and songs of gaitas for Christmas and the for New Year. Traditional food and drinks like ayaca, ponche crema, ham, and more are also parts of the festive season. January 25 is dedicated to celebrating Betico Croes day, while June 24 is the day for Dia di San Juan. In addition to Christmas, religious holidays such as the Feast of the Ascension and Good Friday are observed. Aruba's Carnaval is a significant cultural event, akin to celebrations in other Caribbean and Latin American countries. It began in the 1950s, influenced by residents from Venezuela and nearby islands (Curaçao, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Barbados, St. Maarten, and Anguilla) who worked at the oil refinery. The Carnaval Celebrations now spans from early January until Fat Tuesday, featuring a grand parade on the final Sunday of the festivities. Aruba has seen an increased influence of American culture with rising tourism from the United States. This is evident in the adoption of American celebrations like Halloween in October and Thanksgiving Day in November. Aruba has competed at the Olympic Games since 1988.Infrastructure Queen Beatrix International Airport is near Oranjestad. Aruba has four ports: Barcadera, the main cargo port; Paardenbaai, the cruise ship terminal in Oranjestad/Taratata; Commandeurs Baai (Commander's Bay) in Savaneta; and Sint Nicolaas Baai in San Nicolaas. Paardenbaai services all the cruise-ship lines such as Royal Caribbean, Carnival, NCL, Holland America, MSC Cruises, Costa Cruises, P&O Cruises and Disney. Nearly one million tourists enter this port per year. Aruba Ports Authority, owned and operated by the Aruban government, runs these seaports. Arubus is a government-owned bus company. Its buses operate from 3:30 a.m. until 12:30 a.m., 365 days a year. Private minibuses/people movers service zones such as the Hotel Area, San Nicolaas, Santa Cruz and Noord. A streetcar service runs on rails on the main street of Oranjestad. Water- en Energiebedrijf Aruba, N.V. (W.E.B.) produces and distributes potable water and power. Average daily water consumption in Aruba is about 35,600 m3 (46,500 cu. yd.) per day., and average power generation is 104 MW. W.E.B. produces electricity, which is distributed by N.V. Elmar. Both companies share the same parent holding which is Utilities Aruba N.V. The Sunrise Solar Park was installed and opened in 2018.There are three sewage treatment plants at Zeewijk, Parkietenbos and Bubali. The one in Bubali (near the bird sanctuary) is 4 decades old and is processing over 8,000 m3 (10,000 cu. yd.) per day, around double its original capacity of 4,500 m3 (5900 cu. yd.) per day (due to Aruba's growth). A solid waste landfill (16 hectares; 40 acres) is located at Parkietenbos. The capacity is between 130 and 150 kilotons per year. Sometimes there are huge spontaneous fires creating pollution. There are two telecommunications providers: government-based Setar, and privately owned Digicel. Digicel is Setar's competitor in wireless technology using the GSM platform. Places of interest Notable people See also * Central Bank of Aruba * Index of Aruba-related articles * List of monuments of Aruba * Outline of Aruba Notes Sources * * * * ReferencesFurther reading Aymer, Paula L. – Uprooted Women: Migrant Domestics in the Caribbean. * Brown, Enid – Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles: An Annotated English-Language Bibliography. Gerber, Stanford N. – The Family in the Caribbean: Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on the Family in the Caribbean, Aruba, 1969. Green, Vera M. – Migrants in Aruba: Interethnic Integration. Hartert, Ernst – On the Birds of the Islands of Aruba, Curaçao, and Bonaire. * Ridderstaat J., Croes R. and Nijkamp P. (2014), Tourism and Long-run Economic Growth in Aruba, International Journal of Tourism Research, 16, pages 472–487, doi: 10.1002/jtr.1941. External links of the Government of Aruba }} }} Category:Island countries Category:Caribbean countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands Category:Countries and territories where Dutch is an official language Category:Former Dutch colonies Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Former British colonies and protectorates in the Americas Category:Islands of the Dutch Caribbean Category:Small Island Developing States Category:Special territories of the European Union Category:States and territories established in 1986 Category:Dependent territories in the Caribbean	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aruba	2025-04-05T18:25:19.993203
691	Articles of Confederation	The Articles of Confederation, officially the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, was an agreement and early body of law in the Thirteen Colonies, which served as the nation's first frame of government during the American Revolution. It was debated by the Second Continental Congress inside present-day Independence Hall in Philadelphia between July 1776 and November 1777, was finalized by the Congress on November 15, 1777, and came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 colonial states. A central and guiding principle of the Articles was the establishment and preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the original 13 states. The Articles consciously established a weak confederal government, affording it only those powers the former colonies recognized as belonging to the British Crown and Parliament during the colonial era. The document provided clearly written rules for how the states' league of friendship, known as the Perpetual Union, was to be organized. While waiting for all states to ratify the Articles, the Congress observed them as it conducted business during the American Revolution, directing the Revolutionary War effort, conducting diplomacy with foreign states, addressing territorial issues, and dealing with Native American relations. Little changed procedurally once the Articles of Confederation went into effect, since their ratification mostly codified laws already in existence and procedures the Continental Congress had already been following. The body was renamed the Congress of the Confederation, but most Americans continued to call it the Continental Congress, since its organization remained the same. As the Confederation Congress attempted to govern the continually growing 13 colonial states, its delegates discovered that the limitations on the central government, such as in assembling delegates, raising funds, and regulating commerce, limited its ability to do so. As the government's weaknesses became apparent, especially after the Shays's Rebellion, several prominent political thinkers in the fledgling union began asking for changes to the Articles that would strengthen the powers afforded the central government. In September 1786, some states met to address interstate protectionist trade barriers between them. Shortly thereafter, as more states became interested in meeting to revise the Articles, a meeting was set in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787. This became the Constitutional Convention. Delegates quickly agreed that the defects of the frame of government could not be remedied by altering the Articles, and so went beyond their mandate by replacing it with a new constitution. On March 4, 1789, the government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the Constitution. The new Constitution provided for a much stronger federal government by establishing a chief executive (the president), courts, and taxing powers. Background and context The political push to increase cooperation among the then-loyal colonies began with the Albany Congress in 1754 and Benjamin Franklin's proposed Albany Plan, an inter-colonial collaboration to help solve mutual local problems. Over the next two decades, some of the basic concepts it addressed would strengthen; others would weaken, especially in the degree of loyalty (or lack thereof) owed the Crown. Colonists' civil disobedience resulted in the British enacting coercive and quelling measures, such as the passage of what colonists called the Intolerable Acts in the British Parliament, and armed skirmishes which resulted in dissidents being proclaimed rebels. These actions eroded the number of colonists continuing to be Loyalists to the Crown. Together with the highly effective propaganda campaign of the Patriot leaders, caused an increasing number of colonists to begin agitating for independence from the mother country. In 1775, with events outpacing communications, the Second Continental Congress began acting as the provisional government for the United Colonies. It was an era of constitution writing—most states were busy at the task—and leaders felt the new nation must have a written constitution; a "rulebook" for how the new nation should function. During the war, Congress exercised an unprecedented level of political, diplomatic, military and economic authority. It adopted trade restrictions, established and maintained an army, issued fiat money, created a military code and negotiated with foreign governments. To transform themselves from outlaws into a legitimate nation, the colonists needed international recognition for their cause and foreign allies to support it. In early 1776, Thomas Paine argued in the closing pages of the first edition of Common Sense that the "custom of nations" demanded a formal declaration of American independence if any European power were to mediate a peace between the Americans and Great Britain. The monarchies of France and Spain, in particular, could not be expected to aid those they considered rebels against another legitimate monarch. Foreign courts needed to have American grievances laid before them persuasively in a "manifesto" which could also reassure them that the Americans would be reliable trading partners. Without such a declaration, Paine concluded, "[t]he custom of all courts is against us, and will be so, until, by an independence, we take rank with other nations." Beyond improving their existing association, the records of the Second Continental Congress show that the need for a declaration of independence was intimately linked with the demands of international relations. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee introduced a resolution before the Continental Congress declaring the colonies independent; at the same time, he also urged Congress to resolve "to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign Alliances" and to prepare a plan of confederation for the newly independent states. Congress then created three overlapping committees to draft the Declaration, a model treaty, and the Articles of Confederation. The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the model treaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articles of Confederation, which established "a firm league" among the thirteen free and independent states, constituted an international agreement to set up central institutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.Drafting commemorating the Articles of Confederation bicentennial; the draft was completed on November 15, 1777]] On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing the Committee of Five to prepare a draft of the Declaration of Independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of 13 with one representative from each colony to prepare a draft of a constitution for a union of the states. The committee was made up of the following individuals: * John Dickinson (Pennsylvania, chairman of the committee) * Samuel Adams (Massachusetts) * Josiah Bartlett (New Hampshire) * Button Gwinnett (Georgia) * Joseph Hewes (North Carolina) * Stephen Hopkins (Rhode Island) * Robert R. Livingston (New York) * Thomas McKean (Delaware) * Thomas Nelson (Virginia) * Edward Rutledge (South Carolina) * Roger Sherman (Connecticut) * Thomas Stone (Maryland) * Francis Hopkinson (New Jersey, added to the committee last) The committee met frequently, and chairman John Dickinson presented their results to the Congress on July 12, 1776. Afterward, there were long debates on such issues as state sovereignty, the exact powers to be given to Congress, whether to have a judiciary, western land claims, and voting procedures. To further complicate work on the constitution, Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia twice, for Baltimore, Maryland, in the winter of 1776, and later for Lancaster then York, Pennsylvania, in the fall of 1777, to evade advancing British troops. Even so, the committee continued with its work. The final draft of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was completed on November 15, 1777. Consensus was achieved by including language guaranteeing that each state retained its sovereignty, leaving the matter of western land claims in the hands of the individual states, including language stating that votes in Congress would be en bloc by state, and establishing a unicameral legislature with limited and clearly delineated powers. Ratification The Articles of Confederation was submitted to the states for ratification in late November 1777. The first state to ratify was Virginia on December 16, 1777; 12 states had ratified the Articles by February 1779, 14 months into the process. The lone holdout, Maryland, refused to go along until the landed states, especially Virginia, had indicated they were prepared to cede their claims west of the Ohio River to the Union. It would be two years before the Maryland General Assembly became satisfied that the various states would follow through, and voted to ratify. During this time, Congress observed the Articles as its de facto frame of government. Maryland finally ratified the Articles on February 2, 1781. Congress was informed of Maryland's assent on March 1, and officially proclaimed the Articles of Confederation to be the law of the land. The several states ratified the Articles of Confederation on the following dates: {\|class"sortable wikitable" style"align:left" ! colspan=2 \| State ! Date \|- \| \| Virginia \| \|- \| \| South Carolina \| \|- \| \| New York \| \|- \| \| Rhode Island \| \|- \| \| Connecticut \| \|- \| \| Georgia \| \|- \| \| New Hampshire \| \|- \| \| Pennsylvania \| \|- \| \| Massachusetts \| \|- \| \| North Carolina \| \|- \| \| New Jersey \| \|- \| \| Delaware \| \|- \| \| Maryland \| \|} Article summaries The Articles of Confederation contain a preamble, thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The individual articles set the rules for current and future operations of the confederation's central government. Under the Articles, the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the national Congress, which was empowered to make war and peace, negotiate diplomatic and commercial agreements with foreign countries, and to resolve disputes between the states. The document also stipulates that its provisions "shall be inviolably observed by every state" and that "the Union shall be perpetual". Summary of the purpose and content of each of the 13 articles: # Establishes the name of the confederation with these words: "The stile of this confederacy shall be 'The United States of America. # Asserts the sovereignty of each state, except for the specific powers delegated to the confederation government: "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated." # Declares the purpose of the confederation: "The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever." # Elaborates upon the intent "to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this union," and to establish equal treatment and freedom of movement for the free inhabitants of each state to pass unhindered between the states, excluding "paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice." All these people are entitled to equal rights established by the state into which they travel. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, if caught they will be extradited to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed. # Allocates one vote in the Congress of the Confederation (the "United States in Congress Assembled") to each state, which is entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress are to be appointed by state legislatures. No congressman may serve more than three out of any six years. # Only the central government may declare war, or conduct foreign political or commercial relations. No state or official may accept foreign gifts or titles, and granting any title of nobility is forbidden to all. No states may form any sub-national groups. No state may tax or interfere with treaty stipulations already proposed. No state may wage war without permission of Congress, unless invaded or under imminent attack on the frontier; no state may maintain a peacetime standing army or navy, unless infested by pirates, but every State is required to keep ready, a well-trained, disciplined, and equipped militia. # Whenever an army is raised for common defense, the state legislatures shall assign military ranks of colonel and below. # Expenditures by the United States of America will be paid with funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states in proportion to the real property values of each. # Powers and functions of the United States in Congress Assembled. #* Grants to the United States in Congress assembled the sole and exclusive right and power to determine peace and war; to exchange ambassadors; to enter into treaties and alliances, with some provisos; to establish rules for deciding all cases of captures or prizes on land or water; to grant letters of marque and reprisal (documents authorizing privateers) in times of peace; to appoint courts for the trial of pirates and crimes committed on the high seas; to establish courts for appeals in all cases of captures, but no member of Congress may be appointed a judge; to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states. #* The court will be composed of jointly appointed commissioners or Congress shall appoint them. Each commissioner is bound by oath to be impartial. The court's decision is final. #* Congress shall regulate the post offices; appoint officers in the military; and regulate the armed forces. #* The United States in Congress assembled may appoint a president who shall not serve longer than one year per three-year term of the Congress. #* Congress may request requisitions (demands for payments or supplies) from the states in proportion with their population, or take credit. #* Congress may not declare war, enter into treaties and alliances, appropriate money, or appoint a commander in chief without nine states assenting. Congress shall keep a journal of proceedings and adjourn for periods not to exceed six months. # When Congress is in recess, any of the powers of Congress may be executed by "The committee of the states, or any nine of them", except for those powers of Congress which require nine states in Congress to execute. # If Canada [referring to the British Province of Quebec] accedes to this confederation, it will be admitted. No other colony could be admitted without the consent of nine states. #Affirms that the Confederation will honor all bills of credit incurred, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by Congress before the existence of the Articles. # Declares that the Articles shall be perpetual, and may be altered only with the approval of Congress and the ratification of all the state legislatures. Congress under the Articles Army Under the Articles, Congress had the authority to regulate and fund the Continental Army, but it lacked the power to compel the States to comply with requests for either troops or funding. This left the military vulnerable to inadequate funding, supplies, and even food. Further, although the Articles enabled the states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers, as a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure; Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote: }} Phelps wrote: }} The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783–84. General Henry Knox, who would later become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles for the inability of the government to fund the army. The army had long been supportive of a strong union. Knox wrote: }} As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, "As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution." Once the war had been won, the Continental Army was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man the frontier forts and to protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, George Washington defused the Newburgh conspiracy, but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily. The Congress from time to time during the Revolutionary War requisitioned troops from the states. Any contributions were voluntary, and in the debates of 1788, the Federalists (who supported the proposed new Constitution) claimed that state politicians acted unilaterally, and contributed when the Continental army protected their state's interests. The Anti-Federalists claimed that state politicians understood their duty to the Union and contributed to advance its needs. Dougherty (2009) concludes that generally the States' behavior validated the Federalist analysis. This helps explain why the Articles of Confederation needed reforms.Foreign policy The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for several months because too few delegates were present at any one time to constitute a quorum so that it could be ratified. Afterward, the problem only got worse as Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Rarely did more than half of the roughly sixty delegates attend a session of Congress at the time, causing difficulties in raising a quorum. The resulting paralysis embarrassed and frustrated many American nationalists, including George Washington. Many of the most prominent national leaders, such as Washington, John Adams, John Hancock, and Benjamin Franklin, retired from public life, served as foreign delegates, or held office in state governments; and for the general public, local government and self-rule seemed quite satisfactory. This served to exacerbate Congress's impotence. Inherent weaknesses in the confederation's frame of government also frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786, Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure of Congress to fund an American naval force to confront the Barbary pirates, wrote in a diplomatic correspondence to James Monroe that, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the Confederacy shows its teeth." Furthermore, the 1786 Jay–Gardoqui Treaty with Spain also showed weakness in foreign policy. In this treaty, which was never ratified, the United States was to give up rights to use the Mississippi River for 25 years, which would have economically strangled the settlers west of the Appalachian Mountains. Finally, due to the Confederation's military weakness, it could not compel the British army to leave frontier forts which were on American soil—and which, in 1783, the British promised to leave, but which they delayed leaving pending U.S. implementation of other provisions such as ending action against Loyalists and allowing them to seek compensation. This incomplete British implementation of the Treaty of Paris would later be resolved by the implementation of Jay's Treaty in 1795 after the federal Constitution came into force. Taxation and commerce Under the Articles of Confederation, the central government's power was kept quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions but lacked enforcement powers. Implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. Congress was denied any powers of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states often failed to meet these requests in full, leaving both Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of money. As more money was printed by Congress, the continental dollars depreciated. In 1779, George Washington wrote to John Jay, who was serving as the president of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions." Mr. Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the States. In an appeal to the States to comply, Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace, and the safety of yourselves and posterity." He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith." The States did not respond with any of the money requested from them. Congress had also been denied the power to regulate either foreign trade or interstate commerce and, as a result, all of the States maintained control over their own trade policies. The states and the Confederation Congress both incurred large debts during the Revolutionary War, and how to repay those debts became a major issue of debate following the War. Some States paid off their war debts and others did not. Federal assumption of the states' war debts became a major issue in the deliberations of the Constitutional Convention. Accomplishments Nevertheless, the Confederation Congress did take two actions with long-lasting impact. The Land Ordinance of 1785 and Northwest Ordinance created territorial government, set up protocols for the admission of new states and the division of land into useful units, and set aside land in each township for public use. This system represented a sharp break from imperial colonization, as in Europe, and it established the precedent by which the national (later, federal) government would be sovereign and expand westward—as opposed to the existing states doing so under their sovereignty. The Land Ordinance of 1785 established both the general practices of land surveying in the west and northwest and the land ownership provisions used throughout the later westward expansion beyond the Mississippi River. Frontier lands were surveyed into the now-familiar squares of land called the township (36 square miles), the section (one square mile), and the quarter section (160 acres). This system was carried forward to most of the States west of the Mississippi (excluding areas of Texas and California that had already been surveyed and divided up by the Spanish Empire). Then, when the Homestead Act was enacted in 1867, the quarter section became the basic unit of land that was granted to new settler-farmers. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up northwestern land claims, organized the Northwest Territory and laid the groundwork for the eventual creation of new states. Although it did not happen under the articles, the land north of the Ohio River and west of the (present) western border of Pennsylvania ceded by Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, eventually became the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and the part of Minnesota that is east of the Mississippi River. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also made great advances in the abolition of slavery. New states admitted to the union in this territory would never be slave states. No new states were admitted to the Union under the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a blanket acceptance of the Province of Quebec (referred to as "Canada" in the Articles) into the United States if it chose to do so. It did not, and the subsequent Constitution carried no such special provision of admission. Additionally, ordinances to admit Frankland (later modified to Franklin), Kentucky, and Vermont to the Union were considered, but none were approved. Presidents of Congress Under the Articles of Confederation, the presiding officer of Congress—referred to in many official records as President of the United States in Congress Assembled—chaired the Committee of the States when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, an executive in the way the later president of the United States is a chief executive, since all of the functions he executed were under the direct control of Congress. There were 10 presidents of Congress under the Articles. The first, Samuel Huntington, had been serving as president of the Continental Congress since September 28, 1779. {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|- ! President ! Term \|- \| data-sort-value="Huntington, Samuel"\|Samuel Huntington \| July 10, 1781 \|- \| data-sort-value="McKean, Thomas"\|Thomas McKean \| November 5, 1781 \|- \| data-sort-value="Hanson, John"\|John Hanson \| November 4, 1782 \|- \| data-sort-value="Boudinot, Elias"\|Elias Boudinot \| November 3, 1783 \|- \| data-sort-value="Mifflin, Thomas"\|Thomas Mifflin \| June 3, 1784 \|- \| data-sort-value="Lee, Richard"\| Richard Henry Lee \| November 4, 1785 \|- \| data-sort-value="Hancock, John"\|John Hancock \| June 5, 1786 \|- \| data-sort-value="Gorham, Nathaniel"\|Nathaniel Gorham \| November 3, 1786 \|- \| data-sort-value="StClair, Arthur"\|Arthur St. Clair \| November 4, 1787 \|- \| data-sort-value="Griffin, Cyrus"\|Cyrus Griffin \| November 15, 1788 \|- \|} U.S. under the Articles The peace treaty left the United States independent and at peace but with an unsettled governmental structure. The Articles envisioned a permanent confederation but granted to the Congress—the only federal institution—little power to finance itself or to ensure that its resolutions were enforced. There was no president, no executive agencies, no judiciary, and no tax base. The absence of a tax base meant that there was no way to pay off state and national debts from the war years except by requesting money from the states, which seldom arrived. Although historians generally agree that the Articles were too weak to hold the fast-growing nation together, they do give credit to the settlement of the western issue, as the states voluntarily turned over their lands to national control. By 1783, with the end of the British blockade, the new nation was regaining its prosperity. However, trade opportunities were restricted by the mercantilism of the British and French empires. The ports of the British West Indies were closed to all staple products which were not carried in British ships. France and Spain established similar policies. Simultaneously, new manufacturers faced sharp competition from British products which were suddenly available again. Political unrest in several states and efforts by debtors to use popular government to erase their debts increased the anxiety of the political and economic elites which had led the Revolution. The apparent inability of the Congress to redeem the public obligations (debts) incurred during the war, or to become a forum for productive cooperation among the states to encourage commerce and economic development, only aggravated a gloomy situation. In 1786–87, Shays' Rebellion, an uprising of dissidents in western Massachusetts against the state court system, threatened the stability of state government. The Continental Congress printed paper money which was so depreciated that it ceased to pass as currency, spawning the expression "not worth a continental". Congress could not levy taxes and could only make requisitions upon the States. Less than a million and a half dollars came into the treasury between 1781 and 1784, although the governors had been asked for two million in 1783 alone. When John Adams went to London in 1785 as the first representative of the United States, he found it impossible to secure a treaty for unrestricted commerce. Demands were made for favors and there was no assurance that individual states would agree to a treaty. Adams stated it was necessary for the States to confer the power of passing navigation laws to Congress, or that the States themselves pass retaliatory acts against Great Britain. Congress had already requested and failed to get power over navigation laws. Meanwhile, each State acted individually against Great Britain to little effect. When other New England states closed their ports to British shipping, Connecticut hastened to profit by opening its ports. By 1787, Congress was unable to protect manufacturing and shipping. State legislatures were unable or unwilling to resist attacks upon private contracts and public credit. Land speculators expected no rise in values when the government could not defend its borders nor protect its frontier population. The idea of a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation grew in favor. Alexander Hamilton realized while serving as Washington's top aide that a strong central government was necessary to avoid foreign intervention and allay the frustrations due to an ineffectual Congress. Hamilton led a group of like-minded nationalists, won Washington's endorsement, and convened the Annapolis Convention in 1786 to petition Congress to call a constitutional convention to meet in Philadelphia to remedy the long-term crisis. Signatures The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the Congress. On November 28, the copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and the cover letter, dated November 17, had only the signatures of Henry Laurens and Charles Thomson, who were the President and Secretary to the Congress. The Articles, however, were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification. On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia and South Carolina signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also were unable to sign that day, since their delegations were absent. After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the Articles on July 21, 1778. The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the Articles until every state had ceded its western land claims. Chevalier de La Luzerne, French Minister to the United States, felt that the Articles would help strengthen the American government. In 1780, when Maryland requested France provide naval forces in the Chesapeake Bay for protection from the British (who were conducting raids in the lower part of the bay), he indicated that French Admiral Destouches would do what he could but La Luzerne also "sharply pressed" Maryland to ratify the Articles, thus suggesting the two issues were related. On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the Maryland General Assembly in Annapolis. As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor Thomas Sim Lee in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses ... an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The confirmation signing of the Articles by the two Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781, and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles were entered into force and the United States of America came into being as a sovereign federal state. Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time. Signers The signers and the states they represented were: ;Connecticut * Roger Sherman * Samuel Huntington * Oliver Wolcott * Titus Hosmer * Andrew Adams ;Delaware * Thomas McKean * John Dickinson * Nicholas Van Dyke ;Georgia * John Walton * Edward Telfair * Edward Langworthy ;Maryland * John Hanson * Daniel Carroll ;Massachusetts Bay * John Hancock * Samuel Adams * Elbridge Gerry * Francis Dana * James Lovell * Samuel Holten ;New Hampshire * Josiah Bartlett * John Wentworth Jr. ;New Jersey * John Witherspoon * Nathaniel Scudder ;New York * James Duane * Francis Lewis * William Duer * Gouverneur Morris ;North Carolina * John Penn * Cornelius Harnett * John Williams ;Pennsylvania * Robert Morris * Daniel Roberdeau * Jonathan Bayard Smith * William Clingan * Joseph Reed ;Rhode Island and Providence Plantations * William Ellery * Henry Marchant * John Collins ;South Carolina * Henry Laurens * William Henry Drayton * John Mathews * Richard Hutson * Thomas Heyward Jr. ;Virginia * Richard Henry Lee * John Banister * Thomas Adams * John Harvie * Francis Lightfoot Lee Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the Continental Association, the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) signed three of the great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. John Dickinson (Delaware), Daniel Carroll (Maryland) and Gouverneur Morris (New York), along with Sherman and Robert Morris, were the only five people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution (Gouverneur Morris represented Pennsylvania when signing the Constitution). Parchment pages Original parchment pages of the Articles of Confederation, National Archives and Records Administration. <gallery widths"180px" heights"300px"> File:Articles of Confederation 1-5.jpg\|Preamble to Art. V, Sec. 1 File:Articles of Confederation 5-6.jpg\|Art. V, Sec. 2 to Art. VI File:Articles of Confederation 7-9.jpg\|Art. VII to Art. IX, Sec. 2 File:Articles of Confederation 9-9.jpg\|Art. IX, Sec. 2 to Sec. 5 File:Articles of Confederation 9-13.jpg\|Art. IX, Sec. 5 to Art. XIII, Sec. 2 File:Articles of Confederation 13.jpg\|Art. XIII, Sec. 2 to signatures </gallery> Revision and replacement In September 1786, delegates from five states met at what became known as the Annapolis Convention to discuss the need for reversing the protectionist interstate trade barriers that each state had erected. At its conclusion, delegates voted to invite all states to a larger convention to be held in Philadelphia in 1787. The Confederation Congress later endorsed this convention "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation". Although the states' representatives to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, delegates held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new frame of government gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get close to a republic as defined by the philosophers of the Age of Enlightenment, while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from Federalist 39, described the change this way: }} In May 1786, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting Congress power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after Shays's Rebellion threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts. Historian Ralph Ketcham commented on the opinions of Patrick Henry, George Mason, and other Anti-Federalists who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution: Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines. Rakove identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by Rhode Island. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace." The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power. When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state", much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.Legitimacy of closing downTwo prominent political leaders in the Confederation, John Jay of New York and Thomas Burke of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges." According to Article XIII of the Confederation, any alteration had to be approved unanimously: <blockquote>[T]he Articles of this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteration at any time hereafter be made in any of them; unless such alteration be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State.</blockquote> On the other hand, Article VII of the proposed Constitution stated that it would become effective after ratification by a mere nine states, without unanimity: <blockquote>The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.</blockquote> The apparent tension between these two provisions was addressed at the time, and remains a topic of scholarly discussion. In 1788, James Madison remarked (in Federalist No. 40) that the issue had become moot: "As this objection ... has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further observation." Nevertheless, it is a historical and legal question whether opponents of the Constitution could have plausibly attacked the Constitution on that ground. At the time, there were state legislators who argued that the Constitution was not an alteration of the Articles of Confederation, but rather would be a complete replacement so the unanimity rule did not apply. Moreover, the Confederation had proven woefully inadequate and therefore was supposedly no longer binding. Modern scholars such as Francisco Forrest Martin agree that the Articles of Confederation had lost its binding force because many states had violated it, and thus "other states-parties did not have to comply with the Articles' unanimous consent rule". In contrast, law professor Akhil Amar suggests that there may not have really been any conflict between the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution on this point; Article VI of the Confederation specifically allowed side deals among states, and the Constitution could be viewed as a side deal until all states ratified it.Final monthsOn July 3, 1788, the Congress received New Hampshire's all-important ninth ratification of the proposed Constitution, thus, according to its terms, establishing it as the new framework of governance for the ratifying states. The following day delegates considered a bill to admit Kentucky into the Union as a sovereign state. The discussion ended with Congress making the determination that, in light of this development, it would be "unadvisable" to admit Kentucky into the Union, as it could do so "under the Articles of Confederation" only, but not "under the Constitution". By the end of July 1788, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution. Congress continued to convene under the Articles with a quorum until October. On Saturday, September 13, 1788, the Confederation Congress voted the resolve to implement the new Constitution, and on Monday, September 15 published an announcement that the new Constitution had been ratified by the necessary nine states, set the first Wednesday in January 1789 for appointing electors, set the first Wednesday in February 1789 for the presidential electors to meet and vote for a new president, and set the first Wednesday of March 1789 as the day "for commencing proceedings" under the new Constitution. On that same September 13, it determined that New York would remain the national capital.See also * Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture * Founding Fathers of the United States * Journals of the Continental Congress * History of the United States (1776–1789) * Libertarianism * Perpetual Union * Vetocracy Citations General and cited references * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (Collection published 1995.) * * * * * Rakove, Jack N. (1991) "The Articles of Confederation, 1775–1783. In Jack P. Green and J.R. Pole, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Oxford: Blackwell pp. 280–95. * * * * * * External links * [https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/articles-of-confederation Text version of the Articles of Confederation] * [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union] * [https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Articles of Confederation and related resources], Library of Congress * [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Today in History: November 15], Library of Congress * [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html United States Constitution Online—The Articles of Confederation] * [http://www.mp3books.com/shop/audio_item.aspx?id=819 Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio] * [//uscon.mobi/art/index.html Mobile friendly] version of the Articles of Confederation Category:1777 documents Category:1777 in Pennsylvania Category:1777 in the United States Category:1781 in American law Category:1781 in the United States Category:Defunct constitutions Category:Documents of the American Revolution Category:Federalism in the United States Category:History of York County, Pennsylvania Category:Legal history of the United States Category:Ordinances of the Continental Congress Category:Philadelphia in the American Revolution Category:Political charters Category:United States documents Category:York, Pennsylvania	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation	2025-04-05T18:25:20.028902
694	Asia Minor (disambiguation)	Asia Minor is an alternative name for Anatolia, the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. Asia Minor may also refer to: Asia Minor (album), an album by Jamaican-born jazz trumpeter Dizzy Reece "Asia Minor" (instrumental), a 1961 instrumental recording by Jimmy Wisner (operating under the name Kokomo) See also Asia Major (disambiguation)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minor_(disambiguation)	2025-04-05T18:25:20.032588
698	Atlantic Ocean	\| volume It covers approximately 17% of Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for separating the New World of the Americas (North America and South America) from the Old World of Afro-Eurasia (Africa, Asia, and Europe). Through its separation of Afro-Eurasia from the Americas, the Atlantic Ocean has played a central role in the development of human society, globalization, and the histories of many nations. While the Norse were the first known humans to cross the Atlantic, it was the expedition of Christopher Columbus in 1492 that proved to be the most consequential. Columbus' expedition ushered in an age of exploration and colonization of the Americas by European powers, most notably Portugal, Spain, France, and the United Kingdom. From the 16th to 19th centuries, the Atlantic Ocean was the center of both an eponymous slave trade and the Columbian exchange while occasionally hosting naval battles. Such naval battles, as well as growing trade from regional American powers like the United States and Brazil, both increased in degree during the early 20th century, and while no major military conflicts have taken place in the Atlantic recently, the ocean remains a core component of trade around the world. The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south. Other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica. The Atlantic Ocean is divided in two parts, the northern and southern Atlantic, by the Equator. Toponymy depicted in a 1710 French map of Africa]] The oldest known mentions of an "Atlantic" sea come from Stesichorus around mid-sixth century BC (Sch. A. R. 1. 211): (, , . ) and in The Histories of Herodotus around 450 BC (Hdt. 1.202.4): (, or ) where the name refers to "the sea beyond the pillars of Hercules" which is said to be part of the sea that surrounds all land. In these uses, the name refers to Atlas, the Titan in Greek mythology, who supported the heavens and who later appeared as a frontispiece in medieval maps and also lent his name to modern atlases. On the other hand, to early Greek sailors and in ancient Greek mythological literature such as the Iliad and the Odyssey, this all-encompassing ocean was instead known as Oceanus, the gigantic river that encircled the world; in contrast to the enclosed seas well known to the Greeks: the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. In contrast, the term "Atlantic" originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the West African coast. During the Age of Discovery, the Atlantic was also known to English cartographers as the Great Western Ocean. , Ireland in 1981.]] The pond is a term often used by British and American speakers in reference to the northern Atlantic Ocean, as a form of meiosis, or ironic understatement. It is used mostly when referring to events or circumstances "on this side of the pond" or "on the other side of the pond" or "across the pond", rather than to discuss the ocean itself. The term dates to 1640, first appearing in print in a pamphlet released during the reign of Charles I, and reproduced in 1869 in Nehemiah Wallington's Historical Notices of Events Occurring Chiefly in The Reign of Charles I, where "great Pond" is used in reference to the Atlantic Ocean by Francis Windebank, Charles I's Secretary of State. Extent and data The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defined the limits of the oceans and seas in 1953, but some of these definitions have been revised since then and some are not recognized by various authorities, institutions, and countries, for example the CIA World Factbook. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas vary. The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Labrador Sea, Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea with the northern divider passing through Iceland and Svalbard. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe and Africa: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Seaone of its marginal seasand, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia). In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean. The 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures compared to for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of or 23.5% of the global ocean and has a volume of or 23.3% of the total volume of the Earth's oceans. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers and has a volume of . The North Atlantic covers (11.5%) and the South Atlantic (11.1%). The average depth is and the maximum depth, the Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench, is . Biggest seas in Atlantic Ocean Top large seas: # Sargasso Sea3.5 million km<sup>2</sup> # Caribbean Sea2.754 million km<sup>2</sup> # Mediterranean Sea2.510 million km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Guinea2.35 million km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Mexico1.550 million km<sup>2</sup> # Norwegian Sea1.383 million km<sup>2</sup> # Greenland Sea1.205 million km<sup>2</sup> # Argentine Sea1 million km<sup>2</sup> # Labrador Sea841,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Irminger Sea780,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Baffin Bay689,000 km<sup>2</sup> # North Sea575,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Black Sea436,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Baltic Sea377,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Libyan Sea350,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Levantine Sea320,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Celtic Sea300,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Tyrrhenian Sea275,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Saint Lawrence226,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Bay of Biscay223,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Aegean Sea214,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Ionian Sea169,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Balearic Sea150,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Adriatic Sea138,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Bothnia116,300 km<sup>2</sup> # Sea of Crete95,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Maine93,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Ligurian Sea80,000 km<sup>2</sup> # English Channel75,000 km<sup>2</sup> # James Bay68,300 km<sup>2</sup> # Bothnian Sea66,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Sidra57,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Sea of the Hebrides47,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Irish Sea46,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Sea of Azov39,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Bothnian Bay36,800 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Venezuela17,840 km<sup>2</sup> # Bay of Campeche16,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Gulf of Lion15,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Sea of Marmara11,350 km<sup>2</sup> # Wadden Sea10,000 km<sup>2</sup> # Archipelago Sea8,300 km<sup>2</sup> Bathymetry map of ocean depth in the Atlantic basin]] The bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR). It runs from 87°N or south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 54°S. Expeditions to explore the bathymertry of the Atlantic include the Challenger expedition and the German Meteor expedition; , Columbia University's Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory and the United States Navy Hydrographic Office conduct research on the ocean. The MAR rises above the surrounding ocean floor and its rift valley is the divergent boundary between the North American and Eurasian plates in the North Atlantic and the South American and African plates in the South Atlantic. The MAR produces basaltic volcanoes in Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, and pillow lava on the ocean floor. The depth of water at the apex of the ridge is less than in most places, while the bottom of the ridge is three times as deep. The MAR is intersected by two perpendicular ridges: the Azores–Gibraltar transform fault, the boundary between the Nubian and Eurasian plates, intersects the MAR at the Azores triple junction, on either side of the Azores microplate, near the 40°N. A much vaguer, nameless boundary, between the North American and South American plates, intersects the MAR near or just north of the Fifteen-Twenty fracture zone, approximately at 16°N. In the 1870s, the Challenger expedition discovered parts of what is now known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, or: below the surface traverses the basins of the North and South Atlantic in a meridianal direction from Cape Farewell, probably its far south at least as Gough Island, following roughly the outlines of the coasts of the Old and the New Worlds.}} The remainder of the ridge was discovered in the 1920s by the German Meteor expedition using echo-sounding equipment. The exploration of the MAR in the 1950s led to the general acceptance of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics. The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat with occasional deeps, abyssal plains, trenches, seamounts, basins, plateaus, canyons, and some guyots. Various shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography with few deep channels cut across the continental rise. The mean depth between 60°N and 60°S is , or close to the average for the global ocean, with a modal depth between . The high surface salinity in the Atlantic, on which the Atlantic thermohaline circulation is dependent, is maintained by two processes: the Agulhas Leakage/Rings, which brings salty Indian Ocean waters into the South Atlantic, and the "Atmospheric Bridge", which evaporates subtropical Atlantic waters and exports it to the Pacific. Water masses {\| class"wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center;" \|+ Temperature-salinity characteristics for Atlantic water masses \|- ! Water mass !! Temperature !! Salinity \|- ! colspan"3" \| Upper waters () \|- \| align=left \| Atlantic Subarctic<br />Upper Water (ASUW) \|\| 0.0–4.0 °C \|\| 34.0–35.0 \|- \| align=left \| Western North Atlantic<br />Central Water (WNACW) \|\| 7.0–20 °C \|\| 35.0–36.7 \|- \| align=left \| Eastern North Atlantic<br />Central Water (ENACW) \|\| 8.0–18.0 °C \|\| 35.2–36.7 \|- \| align=left \| South Atlantic<br />Central Water (SACW) \|\| 5.0–18.0 °C \|\| 34.3–35.8 \|- ! colspan"3" \| Intermediate waters () \|- \| align=left \| Western Atlantic Subarctic<br />Intermediate Water (WASIW) \|\| 3.0–9.0 °C \|\| 34.0–35.1 \|- \| align=left \| Eastern Atlantic Subarctic<br />Intermediate Water (EASIW) \|\| 3.0–9.0 °C \|\| 34.4–35.3 \|- \| align=left \| Mediterranean Water (MW) \|\| 2.6–11.0 °C \|\| 35.0–36.2 \|- \| align=left \| Arctic Intermediate Water (AIW) \|\| −1.5–3.0 °C \|\| 34.7–34.9 \|- ! colspan="3" \| Deep and abyssal waters (1,500 m–bottom or 4,900 ft–bottom) \|- \| align=left \| North Atlantic<br />Deep Water (NADW) \|\| 1.5–4.0 °C \|\| 34.8–35.0 \|- \| align=left \| Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) \|\| −0.9–1.7 °C \|\| 34.6–34.7 \|- \| align=left \| Arctic Bottom Water (ABW) \|\| −1.8 to −0.5 °C \|\| 34.9–34.9 \|} The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major, upper water masses with distinct temperature and salinity. The Atlantic subarctic upper water in the northernmost North Atlantic is the source for subarctic intermediate water and North Atlantic intermediate water. North Atlantic central water can be divided into the eastern and western North Atlantic central water since the western part is strongly affected by the Gulf Stream and therefore the upper layer is closer to underlying fresher subpolar intermediate water. The eastern water is saltier because of its proximity to Mediterranean water. North Atlantic central water flows into South Atlantic central water at 15°N. There are five intermediate waters: four low-salinity waters formed at subpolar latitudes and one high-salinity formed through evaporation. Arctic intermediate water flows from the north to become the source for North Atlantic deep water, south of the Greenland-Scotland sill. These two intermediate waters have different salinity in the western and eastern basins. The wide range of salinities in the North Atlantic is caused by the asymmetry of the northern subtropical gyre and a large number of contributions from a wide range of sources: Labrador Sea, Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mediterranean, and South Atlantic Intermediate Water. The NADW is fed by a flow of warm shallow water into the northern North Atlantic which is responsible for the anomalous warm climate in Europe. Changes in the formation of NADW have been linked to global climate changes in the past. Since human-made substances were introduced into the environment, the path of the NADW can be traced throughout its course by measuring tritium and radiocarbon from nuclear weapon tests in the 1960s and CFCs. Gyres The clockwise warm-water North Atlantic Gyre occupies the northern Atlantic, and the counter-clockwise warm-water South Atlantic Gyre appears in the southern Atlantic. North of the North Atlantic Gyre, the cyclonic North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre plays a key role in climate variability. It is governed by ocean currents from marginal seas and regional topography, rather than being steered by wind, both in the deep ocean and at sea level. The subpolar gyre forms an important part of the global thermohaline circulation. Its eastern portion includes eddying branches of the North Atlantic Current which transport warm, saline waters from the subtropics to the northeastern Atlantic. There this water is cooled during winter and forms return currents that merge along the eastern continental slope of Greenland where they form an intense (40–50 Sv) current which flows around the continental margins of the Labrador Sea. A third of this water becomes part of the deep portion of the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). The NADW, in turn, feeds the meridional overturning circulation (MOC), the northward heat transport of which is threatened by anthropogenic climate change. Large variations in the subpolar gyre on a decade-century scale, associated with the North Atlantic oscillation, are especially pronounced in Labrador Sea Water, the upper layers of the MOC. The South Atlantic is dominated by the anti-cyclonic southern subtropical gyre. The South Atlantic Central Water originates in this gyre, while Antarctic Intermediate Water originates in the upper layers of the circumpolar region, near the Drake Passage and the Falkland Islands. Both these currents receive some contribution from the Indian Ocean. On the African east coast, the small cyclonic Angola Gyre lies embedded in the large subtropical gyre. The southern subtropical gyre is partly masked by a wind-induced Ekman layer. The residence time of the gyre is 4.4–8.5 years. North Atlantic Deep Water flows southward below the thermocline of the subtropical gyre. Sargasso Sea The Sargasso Sea in the western North Atlantic can be defined as the area where two species of Sargassum (S. fluitans and natans) float, an area wide and encircled by the Gulf Stream, North Atlantic Drift, and North Equatorial Current. This population of seaweed probably originated from Tertiary ancestors on the European shores of the former Tethys Ocean and has, if so, maintained itself by vegetative growth, floating in the ocean for millions of years. Other species endemic to the Sargasso Sea include the sargassum fish, a predator with algae-like appendages which hovers motionless among the Sargassum. Fossils of similar fishes have been found in fossil bays of the former Tethys Ocean, in what is now the Carpathian region, that were similar to the Sargasso Sea. It is possible that the population in the Sargasso Sea migrated to the Atlantic as the Tethys closed at the end of the Miocene around 17 Ma. The location of the spawning ground for European eels remained unknown for decades. In the early 19th century it was discovered that the southern Sargasso Sea is the spawning ground for both the European and American eel and that the former migrate more than and the latter . Ocean currents such as the Gulf Stream transport eel larvae from the Sargasso Sea to foraging areas in North America, Europe, and northern Africa. Recent but disputed research suggests that eels possibly use Earth's magnetic field to navigate through the ocean both as larvae and as adults. Climate in the Atlantic Oceanareas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing windcreate instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.\|alt=Map of Caribbean showing seven approximately parallel westward-pointing arrows that extend from east of the Virgin Islands to Cuba. The southern arrows bend northward just east of the Dominican Republic before straightening out again.]] The climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as winds. Because of the ocean's great capacity to store and release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme seasonal variations than inland climates. Precipitation can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from water temperatures. Hurricanes are a hazard in the western parts of the North Atlantic during the summer and autumn. Due to a consistently strong wind shear and a weak Intertropical Convergence Zone, South Atlantic tropical cyclones are rare. Geology and plate tectonics The Atlantic Ocean is underlain mostly by dense mafic oceanic crust made up of basalt and gabbro and overlain by fine clay, silt and siliceous ooze on the abyssal plain. The continental margins and continental shelf mark lower density, but greater thickness felsic continental rock that is often much older than that of the seafloor. The oldest oceanic crust in the Atlantic is up to 145 million years and is situated off the west coast of Africa and the east coast of North America, or on either side of the South Atlantic. In many places, the continental shelf and continental slope are covered in thick sedimentary layers. For instance, on the North American side of the ocean, large carbonate deposits formed in warm shallow waters such as Florida and the Bahamas, while coarse river outwash sands and silt are common in shallow shelf areas like the Georges Bank. Coarse sand, boulders, and rocks were transported into some areas, such as off the coast of Nova Scotia or the Gulf of Maine during the Pleistocene ice ages. Central Atlantic The break-up of Pangaea began in the central Atlantic, between North America and Northwest Africa, where rift basins opened during the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic. This period also saw the first stages of the uplift of the Atlas Mountains. The exact timing is controversial with estimates ranging from 200 to 170 Ma. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean coincided with the initial break-up of the supercontinent Pangaea, both of which were initiated by the eruption of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP), one of the most extensive and voluminous large igneous provinces in Earth's history associated with the Triassic–Jurassic extinction event, one of Earth's major extinction events. Theoliitic dikes, sills, and lava flows from the CAMP eruption at 200 Ma have been found in West Africa, eastern North America, and northern South America. The extent of the volcanism has been estimated to of which covered what is now northern and central Brazil. The formation of the Central American Isthmus closed the Central American Seaway at the end of the Pliocene 2.8 Ma ago. The formation of the isthmus resulted in the migration and extinction of many land-living animals, known as the Great American Interchange, but the closure of the seaway resulted in a "Great American Schism" as it affected ocean currents, salinity, and temperatures in both the Atlantic and Pacific. Marine organisms on both sides of the isthmus became isolated and either diverged or went extinct. North Atlantic Geologically, the North Atlantic is the area delimited to the south by two conjugate margins, Newfoundland and Iberia, and to the north by the Arctic Eurasian Basin. The opening of the North Atlantic closely followed the margins of its predecessor, the Iapetus Ocean, and spread from the central Atlantic in six stages: Iberia–Newfoundland, Porcupine–North America, Eurasia–Greenland, Eurasia–North America. Active and inactive spreading systems in this area are marked by the interaction with the Iceland hotspot. Seafloor spreading led to the extension of the crust and the formation of troughs and sedimentary basins. The Rockall Trough opened between 105 and 84 million years ago although the rift failed along with one leading into the Bay of Biscay. Spreading began opening the Labrador Sea around 61 million years ago, continuing until 36 million years ago. Geologists distinguish two magmatic phases. One from 62 to 58 million years ago predates the separation of Greenland from northern Europe while the second from 56 to 52 million years ago happened as the separation occurred. Iceland began to form 62 million years ago due to a particularly concentrated mantle plume. Large quantities of basalt erupted at this time period are found on Baffin Island, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Scotland, with ash falls in Western Europe acting as a stratigraphic marker. The opening of the North Atlantic caused a significant uplift of continental crust along the coast. For instance, despite 7 km thick basalt, Gunnbjorn Field in East Greenland is the highest point on the island, elevated enough that it exposes older Mesozoic sedimentary rocks at its base, similar to old lava fields above sedimentary rocks in the uplifted Hebrides of western Scotland. The North Atlantic Ocean contains about 810 seamounts, most of them situated along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The OSPAR database (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) mentions 104 seamounts: 74 within national exclusive economic zones. Of these seamounts, 46 are located close to the Iberian Peninsula. South Atlantic West Gondwana (South America and Africa) broke up in the Early Cretaceous to form the South Atlantic. The apparent fit between the coastlines of the two continents was noted on the first maps that included the South Atlantic and it was also the subject of the first computer-assisted plate tectonic reconstructions in 1965. This magnificent fit, however, has since then proven problematic and later reconstructions have introduced various deformation zones along the shorelines to accommodate the northward-propagating break-up. Geologically, the South Atlantic can be divided into four segments: equatorial segment, from 10°N to the Romanche fracture zone (RFZ); central segment, from RFZ to Florianopolis fracture zone (FFZ, north of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise); southern segment, from FFZ to the Agulhas–Falkland fracture zone (AFFZ); and Falkland segment, south of AFFZ. In the southern segment the Early Cretaceous (133–130 Ma) intensive magmatism of the Paraná–Etendeka Large Igneous Province produced by the Tristan hotspot resulted in an estimated volume of . It covered an area of in Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay and in Africa. Dyke swarms in Brazil, Angola, eastern Paraguay, and Namibia, however, suggest the LIP originally covered a much larger area and also indicate failed rifts in all these areas. Associated offshore basaltic flows reach as far south as the Falkland Islands and South Africa. Traces of magmatism in both offshore and onshore basins in the central and southern segments have been dated to 147–49 Ma with two peaks between 143 and 121 Ma and 90–60 Ma. This final stage, nevertheless, coincided with or resulted in the end of continental extension in Africa. Closure of the Atlantic An embryonic subduction margin is potentially developing west of Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Arc in the western Mediterranean is migrating westward into the central Atlantic where it joins the converging African and Eurasian plates. Together these three tectonic forces are slowly developing into a new subduction system in the eastern Atlantic Basin. Meanwhile, the Scotia Arc and Caribbean plate in the western Atlantic Basin are eastward-propagating subduction systems that might, together with the Gibraltar system, represent the beginning of the closure of the Atlantic Ocean and the final stage of the Atlantic Wilson cycle. History Old World Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies indicate that 80–60,000 years ago a major demographic expansion within Africa, derived from a single, small population, coincided with the emergence of behavioral complexity and the rapid MIS 5–4 environmental changes. This group of people not only expanded over the whole of Africa, but also started to disperse out of Africa into Asia, Europe, and Australasia around 65,000 years ago and quickly replaced the archaic humans in these regions. During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) 20,000 years ago humans had to abandon their initial settlements along the European North Atlantic coast and retreat to the Mediterranean. Following rapid climate changes at the end of the LGM this region was repopulated by Magdalenian culture. Other hunter-gatherers followed in waves interrupted by large-scale hazards such as the Laacher See volcanic eruption, the inundation of Doggerland (now the North Sea), and the formation of the Baltic Sea. The European coasts of the North Atlantic were permanently populated about 9–8.5 thousand years ago. This human dispersal left abundant traces along the coasts of the Atlantic Ocean. 50 kya-old, deeply stratified shell middens found in Ysterfontein on the western coast of South Africa are associated with the Middle Stone Age (MSA). The MSA population was small and dispersed and the rate of their reproduction and exploitation was less intense than those of later generations. While their middens resemble 12–11 kya-old Late Stone Age (LSA) middens found on every inhabited continent, the 50–45 kya-old Enkapune Ya Muto in Kenya probably represents the oldest traces of the first modern humans to disperse out of Africa. middens in 1880]] The same development can be seen in Europe. In La Riera Cave (23–13 kya) in Asturias, Spain, only some 26,600 molluscs were deposited over 10 kya. In contrast, 8–7 kya-old shell middens in Portugal, Denmark, and Brazil generated thousands of tons of debris and artefacts. The Ertebølle middens in Denmark, for example, accumulated of shell deposits representing some 50 million molluscs over only a thousand years. This intensification in the exploitation of marine resources has been described as accompanied by new technologiessuch as boats, harpoons, and fish hooks because many caves found in the Mediterranean and on the European Atlantic coast have increased quantities of marine shells in their upper levels and reduced quantities in their lower. The earliest exploitation, however, took place on the now submerged shelves, and most settlements now excavated were then located several kilometers from these shelves. The reduced quantities of shells in the lower levels can represent the few shells that were exported inland. New World During the LGM the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of northern North America while Beringia connected Siberia to Alaska. In 1973, late American geoscientist Paul S. Martin proposed a "blitzkrieg" colonization of the Americas by which Clovis hunters migrated into North America around 13,000 years ago in a single wave through an ice-free corridor in the ice sheet and "spread southward explosively, briefly attaining a density sufficiently large to overkill much of their prey." Others later proposed a "three-wave" migration over the Bering Land Bridge. These hypotheses remained the long-held view regarding the settlement of the Americas, a view challenged by more recent archaeological discoveries: the oldest archaeological sites in the Americas have been found in South America; sites in northeast Siberia report virtually no human presence there during the LGM; and most Clovis artefacts have been found in eastern North America along the Atlantic coast. Furthermore, colonisation models based on mtDNA, yDNA, and atDNA data respectively support neither the "blitzkrieg" nor the "three-wave" hypotheses but they also deliver mutually ambiguous results. Contradictory data from archaeology and genetics will most likely deliver future hypotheses that will, eventually, confirm each other. A proposed route across the Pacific to South America could explain early South American finds and another hypothesis proposes a northern path, through the Canadian Arctic and down the North American Atlantic coast. Early settlements across the Atlantic have been suggested by alternative theories, ranging from purely hypothetical to mostly disputed, including the Solutrean hypothesis and some of the Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories. }} sagas, including the Grœnlendinga saga, this interpretative map of the "Norse World" shows that Norse knowledge of the Americas and the Atlantic remained limited.]] The Norse settlement of the Faroe Islands and Iceland began during the 9th and 10th centuries. A settlement on Greenland was established before 1000 CE, but contact with it was lost in 1409 and it was finally abandoned during the early Little Ice Age. This setback was caused by a range of factors: an unsustainable economy resulted in erosion and denudation, while conflicts with the local Inuit resulted in the failure to adapt their Arctic technologies; a colder climate resulted in starvation, and the colony got economically marginalized as the Great Plague harvested its victims on Iceland in the 15th century. Iceland was initially settled 865–930 CE following a warm period when winter temperatures hovered around which made farming favorable at high latitudes. This did not last, however, and temperatures quickly dropped; at 1080 CE summer temperatures had reached a maximum of . The (Book of Settlement) records disastrous famines during the first century of settlement"men ate foxes and ravens" and "the old and helpless were killed and thrown over cliffs"and by the early 1200s hay had to be abandoned for short-season crops such as barley. Atlantic World s influenced the Portuguese discoveries and trading port routes, here shown in the India Run ("Carreira da Índia"), which would be developed in subsequent years.]] Christopher Columbus reached the Americas in 1492, sailing under the Spanish flag. Six years later Vasco da Gama reached India under the Portuguese flag, by navigating south around the Cape of Good Hope, thus proving that the Atlantic and Indian Oceans are connected. In 1500, in his voyage to India following Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil, taken by the currents of the South Atlantic Gyre.<!-- unref --> Following these explorations, Spain and Portugal quickly conquered and colonized large territories in the New World and forced the Amerindian population into slavery in order to exploit the vast quantities of silver and gold they found. Spain and Portugal monopolized this trade in order to keep other European nations out, but conflicting interests nevertheless led to a series of Spanish-Portuguese wars. A peace treaty mediated by the Pope divided the conquered territories into Spanish and Portuguese sectors while keeping other colonial powers away. England, France, and the Dutch Republic enviously watched the Spanish and Portuguese wealth grow and allied themselves with pirates such as Henry Mainwaring and Alexandre Exquemelin. They could explore the convoys leaving the Americas because prevailing winds and currents made the transport of heavy metals slow and predictable. From Columbus to the Industrial Revolution trans-Atlantic trade, including colonialism and slavery, became crucial for Western Europe. For European countries with direct access to the Atlantic (including Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain) 1500–1800 was a period of sustained growth during which these countries grew richer than those in Eastern Europe and Asia. Colonialism evolved as part of the trans-Atlantic trade, but this trade also strengthened the position of merchant groups at the expense of monarchs. Growth was more rapid in non-absolutist countries, such as Britain and the Netherlands, and more limited in absolutist monarchies, such as Portugal, Spain, and France, where profit mostly or exclusively benefited the monarchy and its allies. Trans-Atlantic trade also resulted in increasing urbanization: in European countries facing the Atlantic, urbanization grew from 8% in 1300, 10.1% in 1500, to 24.5% in 1850; in other European countries from 10% in 1300, 11.4% in 1500, to 17% in 1850. Likewise, GDP doubled in Atlantic countries but rose by only 30% in the rest of Europe. By the end of the 17th century, the volume of the Trans-Atlantic trade had surpassed that of the Mediterranean trade. Gold deposits are a mile or two underwater on the ocean floor, however, the deposits are also encased in rock that must be mined through. Currently, there is no cost-effective way to mine or extract gold from the ocean to make a profit. Various international treaties attempt to reduce pollution caused by environmental threats such as oil spills, marine debris, and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea. UN FAO partitioned the Atlantic into major fishing areas: ;Northeast Atlantic: Northeast Atlantic is schematically limited to the 40°00' west longitude (except around Greenland), south to the 36°00' north latitude, and to the 68°30' east longitude, with both the west and east longitude limits reaching to the north pole. The Atlantic's subareas include: Barents Sea; Norwegian Sea, Spitzbergen, and Bear Island; Skagerrak, Kattegat, Sound, Belt Sea, and Baltic Sea; North Sea; Iceland and Faroes Grounds; Rockall, Northwest Coast of Scotland, and North Ireland; Irish Sea, West of Ireland, Porcupine Bank, and eastern and western English Channel; Bay of Biscay; Portuguese Waters; Azores Grounds and Northeast Atlantic South; North of Azores; and East Greenland. There are also two defunct subareas. : In the Northeast Atlantic total catches decreased between the mid-1970s and the 1990s and reached 8.7 million tons in 2013. Blue whiting reached a 2.4 million tons peak in 2004 but was down to 628,000 tons in 2013. Recovery plans for cod, sole, and plaice have reduced mortality in these species. Arctic cod reached its lowest levels in the 1960s–1980s but is now recovered. Arctic saithe and haddock are considered fully fished; Sand eel is overfished as was capelin which has now recovered to fully fished. Limited data makes the state of redfishes and deep-water species difficult to assess but most likely they remain vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of northern shrimp and Norwegian lobster are in good condition. In the Northeast Atlantic, 21% of stocks are considered overfished. ;Eastern central-Atlantic: In the eastern central-Atlantic small pelagic fishes constitute about 50% of landings with sardine reaching 0.6–1.0 million tons per year. Pelagic fish stocks are considered fully fished or overfished, with sardines south of Cape Bojador the notable exception. Almost half of the stocks are fished at biologically unsustainable levels. Total catches have been fluctuating since the 1970s; reaching 3.9 million tons in 2013 or slightly less than the peak production in 2010. Waste and pollution Marine pollution is a generic term for the entry into the ocean of potentially hazardous chemicals or particles. The biggest culprits are rivers and with them many agriculture fertilizer chemicals as well as livestock and human waste. The excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone. strewn over the beaches of the South Atlantic Inaccessible Island]] Marine debris, which is also known as marine litter, describes human-created waste floating in a body of water. Oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter. The North Atlantic garbage patch is estimated to be hundreds of kilometers across in size. Other pollution concerns include agricultural and municipal waste. Municipal pollution comes from the eastern United States, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. A USAF C-124 aircraft from Dover Air Force Base, Delaware was carrying three nuclear bombs over the Atlantic Ocean when it experienced a loss of power. For their own safety, the crew jettisoned two nuclear bombs, which were never recovered. Climate change North Atlantic hurricane activity has increased over past decades because of increased sea surface temperature (SST) at tropical latitudes, changes that can be attributed to either the natural Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) or to anthropogenic climate change. A 2005 report indicated that the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) slowed down by 30% between 1957 and 2004. In 2024, the research highlighted a significant weakening of the AMOC by approximately 12% over the past two decades. If the AMO were responsible for SST variability, the AMOC would have increased in strength, which is apparently not the case. Furthermore, it is clear from statistical analyses of annual tropical cyclones that these changes do not display multidecadal cyclicity. The ocean mixed layer plays an important role in heat storage over seasonal and decadal time scales, whereas deeper layers are affected over millennia and have a heat capacity about 50 times that of the mixed layer. This heat uptake provides a time-lag for climate change but it also results in thermal expansion of the oceans which contributes to sea level rise. 21st-century global warming will probably result in an equilibrium sea-level rise five times greater than today, whilst melting of glaciers, including that of the Greenland ice sheet, expected to have virtually no effect during the 21st century, will likely result in a sea-level rise of over a millennium. Theories of natural delimitation between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans "]] Scientific researchers have proposed delimiting the boundary between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by two different natural boundaries, by the Shackleton fracture zone and by the Scotia Arc the former being more current than the latter. See also * Atlantic Revolutions * List of countries and territories bordering the Atlantic Ocean * * Seven Seas * Shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean * Atlantic hurricanes * Piracy in the Atlantic World * Transatlantic crossing * South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone * Natural delimitation between the Pacific and South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc References Sources * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * \|doi-access=free}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20161005044614/https://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S23_Ed3_Sheet_1_Small.jpg map]<!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * \|issue5}}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * \|titleThe American cyclopaedia: a popular dictionary of general knowledge\|last1Ripley\|first1G.\|last2Anderson Dana\|first2C.\|publisherAppleton\|year1873\|pages69–\|access-date=15 April 2011}}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * }}<!-- --> * <!-- --> * }}<!-- --> Further reading * * External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090829012101/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/geoghist/histories/history/hiscountries/A/atlanticocean.html Atlantic Ocean]. Cartage.org.lb (archived) * [https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3320.lh000817/ "Map of Atlantic Coast of North America from the Chesapeake Bay to Florida"] from 1639 via the Library of Congress Category:Oceans Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Oceans surrounding Antarctica	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean	2025-04-05T18:25:20.123714
700	Arthur Schopenhauer	\|birth_place = Gdańsk (Danzig),<!--keep both names as per the Danzig/Gdansk vote (Talk:Gdańsk/Vote): "the first occurrence of the name should be used in the form Gdańsk (Danzig)"--> Crown of the Kingdom of Poland \|death_date \|death_place = Frankfurt, German Confederation \|education = \|relatives = \|thesis_title = On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason \|thesis_year1813\| thesis_urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/50966/pg50966-images.html \|institutions = University of Berlin \|school_tradition = \|main_interests = Metaphysics, aesthetics, ethics, morality, psychology \|notable_ideas = ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work The World as Will and Representation (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the manifestation of a blind and irrational noumenal will. Building on the transcendental idealism of Immanuel Kant, Schopenhauer developed an atheistic metaphysical and ethical system that rejected the contemporaneous ideas of German idealism. Schopenhauer was among the first philosophers in the Western tradition to share and affirm significant tenets of Indian philosophy, such as asceticism, denial of the self, and the notion of the world-as-appearance. His work has been described as an exemplary manifestation of philosophical pessimism. Though his work failed to garner substantial attention during his lifetime, he had a posthumous impact across various disciplines, including philosophy, literature, and science. His writing on aesthetics, morality, and psychology has influenced many thinkers and artists. Early life Arthur Schopenhauer was born on 22 February 1788, in Gdańsk (then part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; later in the Kingdom of Prussia Danzig) on Św. Ducha 47 (in Prussia Heiliggeistgasse), the son of and his wife Johanna Schopenhauer (née Trosiener), both descendants of wealthy German patrician families. While they came from a Protestant background, neither of them was very religious; both supported the French Revolution, were republicans, cosmopolitans and Anglophiles. When Gdańsk became part of Prussia in 1793, Heinrich moved to Hamburg—a free city with a republican constitution. His firm continued trading in Danzig where most of their extended families remained. Adele, Arthur's only sibling, was born on 12 July 1797. In 1797, Arthur was sent to Le Havre to live with the family of his father's business associate, Grégoire de Blésimaire. He seemed to enjoy his two-year stay there, learning to speak French and fostering a life-long friendship with Jean Anthime Grégoire de Blésimaire. As early as 1799, Arthur started playing the flute. In 1803, he accompanied his parents on a European tour of Holland, Britain, France, Switzerland, Austria and Prussia. Viewed as primarily a pleasure tour, Heinrich used the opportunity to visit some of his business associates abroad. Heinrich presented Arthur with a choice: he could either stay at home to begin preparations for university or travel with them to further his merchant education. Arthur chose to travel with them. He deeply regretted his choice later because the merchant training was very tedious. He spent twelve weeks of the tour attending school in Wimbledon, where he was confused by strict and intellectual Anglicans who he described as shallow. He continued to sharply criticize Anglican religiosity later in life despite his general Anglophilia. He was also under pressure from his father, who became very critical of his educational results. In 1805, Heinrich drowned in a canal near their home in Hamburg. Although it was possible that his death was accidental, his wife and son believed that it was suicide. He was prone to anxiety and depression, each becoming more pronounced later in his life. Heinrich had become so fussy, even his wife started to doubt his mental health. "There was, in the father's life, some dark and vague source of fear which later made him hurl himself to his death from the attic of his house in Hamburg." Arthur showed similar moodiness during his youth and often acknowledged that he inherited it from his father. There were other instances of serious mental health problems on his father's side of the family. Despite his hardship, Schopenhauer liked his father and later referred to him in a positive light. Heinrich Schopenhauer left the family with a significant inheritance that was split in three among Johanna and the children. Arthur Schopenhauer was entitled to control of his part when he reached the age of majority. He invested it conservatively in government bonds and earned annual interest that was more than double the salary of a university professor. After quitting his merchant apprenticeship, with some encouragement from his mother, he dedicated himself to studies at the Ernestine Gymnasium, Gotha, in Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. While there, he also enjoyed social life among the local nobility, spending large amounts of money, which deeply concerned his frugal mother. He left the Gymnasium after writing a satirical poem about one of the schoolmasters. Although Arthur claimed that he left voluntarily, his mother's letter indicates that he may have been expelled. Arthur spent two years as a merchant in honor of his dead father. During this time, he had doubts about being able to start a new life as a scholar. Most of his prior education was as a practical merchant and he had trouble learning Latin; a prerequisite for an academic career. His mother moved away, with her daughter Adele, to Weimar—then the centre of German literature—to enjoy social life among writers and artists. Arthur and his mother did not part on good terms. In one letter, she wrote: "You are unbearable and burdensome, and very hard to live with; all your good qualities are overshadowed by your conceit, and made useless to the world simply because you cannot restrain your propensity to pick holes in other people." His mother, Johanna, was generally described as vivacious and sociable. She died 24 years later. Some of Arthur's negative opinions about women may be rooted in his troubled relationship with his mother. Arthur moved to Hamburg to live with his friend Jean Anthime, who was also studying to become a merchant. Education He moved to Weimar but did not live with his mother, who even tried to discourage him from coming by explaining that they would not get along very well. Their relationship deteriorated even further due to their temperamental differences. He accused his mother of being financially irresponsible, flirtatious and seeking to remarry, which he considered an insult to his father's memory. His mother, while professing her love to him, criticized him sharply for being moody, tactless, and argumentative, and urged him to improve his behavior so that he would not alienate people. Arthur concentrated on his studies, which were now going very well, and he also enjoyed the usual social life such as balls, parties and theater. By that time Johanna's famous salon was well established among local intellectuals and dignitaries, the most celebrated of them being Goethe. Arthur attended her parties, usually when he knew that Goethe would be there—although the famous writer and statesman seemed not even to notice the young and unknown student. It is possible that Goethe kept a distance because Johanna warned him about her son's depressive and combative nature, or because Goethe was then on bad terms with Arthur's language instructor and roommate, Franz Passow. Schopenhauer was also captivated by the beautiful Karoline Jagemann, mistress of Karl August, Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and he wrote to her his only known love poem. Despite his later celebration of asceticism and negative views of sexuality, Schopenhauer occasionally had sexual affairs—usually with women of lower social status, such as servants, actresses, and sometimes even paid prostitutes. In a letter to his friend Anthime he claims that such affairs continued even in his mature age and admits that he had two out-of-wedlock daughters (born in 1819 and 1836), both of whom died in infancy. In their youthful correspondence Arthur and Anthime were somewhat boastful and competitive about their sexual exploits—but Schopenhauer seemed aware that women usually did not find him very charming or physically attractive, and his desires often remained unfulfilled. He left Weimar to become a student at the University of Göttingen in 1809. There are no written reasons about why Schopenhauer chose that university instead of the then more famous University of Jena, but Göttingen was known as more modern and scientifically oriented, with less attention given to theology. Law or medicine were usual choices for young men of Schopenhauer's status who also needed career and income; he chose medicine due to his scientific interests. Among his notable professors were Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut, Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren, Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, Friedrich Stromeyer, Heinrich Adolf Schrader, Johann Tobias Mayer and Konrad Johann Martin Langenbeck. He studied metaphysics, psychology and logic under Gottlob Ernst Schulze, the author of Aenesidemus, who made a strong impression and advised him to concentrate on Plato and Immanuel Kant. He decided to switch from medicine to philosophy around 1810–11 and he left Göttingen, which did not have a strong philosophy program: besides Schulze, the only other philosophy professor was Friedrich Bouterwek, whom Schopenhauer disliked. He did not regret his medicinal and scientific studies; he claimed that they were necessary for a philosopher, and even in Berlin he attended more lectures in sciences than in philosophy. During his days at Göttingen, he spent considerable time studying, but also continued his flute playing and social life. His friends included Friedrich Gotthilf Osann, Karl Witte, Christian Charles Josias von Bunsen, and William Backhouse Astor Sr. He arrived at the newly founded University of Berlin for the winter semester of 1811–12. At the same time, his mother had just begun her literary career; she published her first book in 1810, a biography of her friend Karl Ludwig Fernow, which was a critical success. Arthur attended lectures by the prominent post-Kantian philosopher Johann Gottlieb Fichte, but quickly found many points of disagreement with his epistemology; he also found Fichte's lectures tedious and hard to understand. He later mentioned Fichte only in critical, negative terms—seeing his philosophy as a lower-quality version of Kant's and considering it useful only because Fichte's poor arguments unintentionally highlighted some failings of Kantianism. He also attended the lectures of the famous Protestant theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher, whom he also quickly came to dislike. His notes and comments on Schleiermacher's lectures show that Schopenhauer was becoming very critical of religion and moving towards atheism. He learned by self-directed reading; besides Plato, Kant and Fichte he also read the works of Schelling, Fries, Jacobi, Bacon, Locke, and much current scientific literature. He attended philological courses by August Böckh and Friedrich August Wolf and continued his naturalistic interests with courses by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Paul Erman, Johann Elert Bode, Ernst Gottfried Fischer, Johann Horkel, Friedrich Christian Rosenthal and Hinrich Lichtenstein (Lichtenstein was also a friend whom he met at one of his mother's parties in Weimar). Early work Schopenhauer left Berlin in a rush in 1813, fearing that the city could be attacked and that he could be pressed into military service as Prussia had just joined the war against France. He returned to Weimar but left after less than a month, disgusted by the fact that his mother was now living with her supposed lover, , a civil servant twelve years younger than her; he considered the relationship an act of infidelity to his father's memory. He settled for a while in Rudolstadt, hoping that no army would pass through the small town. He spent his time in solitude, hiking in the mountains and the Thuringian Forest and writing his dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason. Schopenhauer completed his dissertation at about the same time as the French army was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. He became irritated by the arrival of soldiers in the town and accepted his mother's invitation to visit her in Weimar. She tried to convince him that her relationship with Gerstenbergk was platonic and that she had no intention of remarrying. But Schopenhauer remained suspicious and often came in conflict with Gerstenbergk because he considered him untalented, pretentious, and nationalistic. His mother had just published her second book, Reminiscences of a Journey in the Years 1803, 1804, and 1805, a description of their family tour of Europe, which quickly became a hit. She found his dissertation incomprehensible and said it was unlikely that anyone would ever buy a copy. In a fit of temper Arthur told her that people would read his work long after the "rubbish" she wrote was totally forgotten. In fact, although they considered her novels of dubious quality, the Brockhaus publishing firm held her in high esteem because they consistently sold well. Hans Brockhaus later claimed that his predecessors "saw nothing in this manuscript, but wanted to please one of our best-selling authors by publishing her son's work. We published more and more of her son Arthur's work and today nobody remembers Johanna, but her son's works are in steady demand and contribute to Brockhaus' reputation." He kept large portraits of the pair in his office in Leipzig for the edification of his new editors.—a historian of religion, orientalist and disciple of Herder—who introduced him to Eastern philosophy (see also Indology). Schopenhauer was immediately impressed by the Upanishads (he called them "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed that they contained superhuman concepts) and the Buddha, and put them on a par with Plato and Kant. He continued his studies by reading the Bhagavad Gita, an amateurish German journal Asiatisches Magazin, and Asiatick Researches by the Asiatic Society. Schopenhauer held a profound respect for Indian philosophy; and loved Hindu texts. Although he never revered a Buddhist text he regarded Buddhism as the most distinguished religion. His studies on Hindu and Buddhist texts were constrained by the lack of adequate literature, and the latter were mostly restricted to Theravada Buddhism. He also claimed that he formulated most of his ideas independently, and only later realized the similarities with Buddhism. Schopenhauer read the Latin translation and praised the Upanishads in his main work, The World as Will and Representation (1819), as well as in his Parerga and Paralipomena (1851), and commented <blockquote>In the whole world there is no study so beneficial and so elevating as that of the Upanishads. It has been the solace of my life, it will be the solace of my death.</blockquote> As the relationship with his mother fell to a new low, in May 1814 he left Weimar and moved to Dresden. He continued his philosophical studies, enjoyed the cultural life, socialized with intellectuals and engaged in sexual affairs. His friends in Dresden were Johann Gottlob von Quandt, Friedrich Laun, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause and Ludwig Sigismund Ruhl, a young painter who made a romanticized portrait of him in which he improved some of Schopenhauer's unattractive physical features. His criticisms of local artists occasionally caused public quarrels when he ran into them in public. Schopenhauer's main occupation during his stay in Dresden was his seminal philosophical work, The World as Will and Representation, which he started writing in 1814 and finished in 1818. He was recommended to the publisher Friedrich Arnold Brockhaus by Baron Ferdinand von Biedenfeld, an acquaintance of his mother. Although Brockhaus accepted his manuscript, Schopenhauer made a poor impression because of his quarrelsome and fussy attitude, as well as very poor sales of the book after it was published in December 1818. In September 1818, while waiting for his book to be published and conveniently escaping an affair with a maid that caused an unwanted pregnancy, Schopenhauer left Dresden for a year-long vacation in Italy. He visited Venice, Bologna, Florence, Naples and Milan, travelling alone or accompanied by mostly English tourists he met. He spent the winter months in Rome, where he accidentally met his acquaintance Karl Witte and engaged in numerous quarrels with German tourists in the Caffè Greco, among them Johann Friedrich Böhmer, who also mentioned his insulting remarks and unpleasant character. He enjoyed art, architecture, and ancient ruins, attended plays and operas, and continued his philosophical contemplation and love affairs. One of his affairs supposedly became serious, and for a while he contemplated marriage to a rich Italian noblewoman—but, despite his mentioning this several times, no details are known and it may have been Schopenhauer exaggerating. He corresponded regularly with his sister Adele and became close to her as her relationship with Johanna and Gerstenbergk also deteriorated. She informed him about their financial troubles as the banking house of A. L. Muhl in Danzig—in which her mother invested their whole savings and Arthur a third of his—was near bankruptcy. Arthur offered to share his assets, but his mother refused and became further enraged by his insulting comments. The women managed to receive only thirty percent of their savings while Arthur, using his business knowledge, took a suspicious and aggressive stance towards the banker and eventually received his part in full. The affair additionally worsened the relationships among all three members of the Schopenhauer family. He shortened his stay in Italy because of the trouble with Muhl and returned to Dresden. Disturbed by the financial risk and the lack of responses to his book he decided to take an academic position since it provided him with both income and an opportunity to promote his views. He contacted his friends at universities in Heidelberg, Göttingen and Berlin and found Berlin most attractive. He scheduled his lectures to coincide with those of the famous philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, whom Schopenhauer described as a "clumsy charlatan". He was especially appalled by Hegel's supposedly poor knowledge of natural sciences and tried to engage him in a quarrel about it already at his test lecture in March 1820. Hegel was also facing political suspicions at the time, when many progressive professors were fired, while Schopenhauer carefully mentioned in his application that he had no interest in politics. Despite their differences and the arrogant request to schedule lectures at the same time as his own, Hegel still voted to accept Schopenhauer to the university. Only five students turned up to Schopenhauer's lectures, and he dropped out of academia. A late essay, "On University Philosophy", expressed his resentment towards the work conducted in academies. Later life ]] After his trying in academia, he continued to travel extensively, visiting Leipzig, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Schaffhausen, Vevey, Milan and spending eight months in Florence. Before he left for his three-year travel, Schopenhauer had an incident with his Berlin neighbor, 47-year-old seamstress Caroline Louise Marquet. The details of the August 1821 incident are unknown. He claimed that he had just pushed her from his entrance after she had rudely refused to leave, and that she had purposely fallen to the ground so that she could sue him. She claimed that he had attacked her so violently that she had become paralyzed on her right side and unable to work. She immediately sued him, and the process lasted until May 1827, when a court found Schopenhauer guilty and forced him to pay her an annual pension until her death in 1842. Schopenhauer enjoyed Italy, where he studied art and socialized with Italian and English nobles. It was his last visit to the country. He left for Munich and stayed there for a year, mostly recuperating from various health issues, some of them possibly caused by venereal diseases (the treatment his doctor used suggests syphilis). He contacted publishers, offering to translate Hume into German and Kant into English, but his proposals were declined. Returning to Berlin, he began to study Spanish so he could read some of his favorite authors in their original language. He liked Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Lope de Vega, Miguel de Cervantes, and especially Baltasar Gracián. He also made failed attempts to publish his translations of their works. A few attempts to revive his lectures—again scheduled at the same time as Hegel's—also failed, as did his inquiries about relocating to other universities. During his Berlin years, Schopenhauer occasionally mentioned his desire to marry and have a family. For a while he was unsuccessfully courting 17-year-old Flora Weiss, who was 22 years younger than himself. His unpublished writings from that time show that he was already very critical of monogamy but still not advocating polygyny—instead musing about a polyamorous relationship that he called "tetragamy". He had an on-and-off relationship with a young dancer, Caroline Richter (she also used the surname Medon after one of her ex-lovers). They met when he was 33 and she was 19 and working at the Berlin Opera. She had already had numerous lovers and a son out of wedlock, and later gave birth to another son, this time to an unnamed foreign diplomat (she soon had another pregnancy but the child was stillborn). As Schopenhauer was preparing to escape from Berlin in 1831, due to a cholera epidemic, he offered to take her with him on the condition that she left her young son behind. She refused and he went alone; in his will he left her a significant sum of money, but insisted that it should not be spent in any way on her second son. Schopenhauer claimed that, in his last year in Berlin, he had a prophetic dream that urged him to escape from the city. As he arrived in his new home in Frankfurt, he supposedly had another supernatural experience, an apparition of his dead father and his mother, who was still alive. This experience led him to spend some time investigating paranormal phenomena and magic. He was quite critical of the available studies and claimed that they were mostly ignorant or fraudulent, but he did believe that there are authentic cases of such phenomena and tried to explain them through his metaphysics as manifestations of the will. Upon his arrival in Frankfurt, he experienced a period of depression and declining health. He renewed his correspondence with his mother, and she seemed concerned that he might commit suicide like his father. By now Johanna and Adele were living very modestly. Johanna's writing did not bring her much income, and her popularity was waning. Their correspondence remained reserved, and Arthur seemed undisturbed by her death in 1838. His relationship with his sister grew closer and he corresponded with her until she died in 1849. In July 1832, Schopenhauer left Frankfurt for Mannheim but returned in July 1833 to remain there for the rest of his life, except for a few short journeys. He lived alone except for a succession of pet poodles named Atman and Butz. In 1836, he published On the Will in Nature. In 1838, he sent his essay "On the Freedom of the Will" to the contest of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences in 1838 and won the prize in 1839. He sent another essay, "On the Basis of Morality", to the Royal Danish Society of Sciences in 1839, but did not win the (1840) prize despite being the only contestant. The Society was appalled that several distinguished contemporary philosophers were mentioned in a very offensive manner, and claimed that the essay missed the point of the set topic and that the arguments were inadequate. Schopenhauer, who had been very confident that he would win, was enraged by this rejection. He published both essays as The Two Basic Problems of Ethics. The first edition, published September 1840 but with an 1841 date, again failed to draw attention to his philosophy. In the preface to the second edition, in 1860, he was still pouring insults on the Royal Danish Society. Two years later, after some negotiations, he managed to convince his publisher, Brockhaus, to print the second, updated edition of The World as Will and Representation. That book was again mostly ignored and the few reviews were mixed or negative. Schopenhauer began to attract some followers, mostly outside academia, among practical professionals (several of them were lawyers) who pursued private philosophical studies. He jokingly referred to them as "evangelists" and "apostles". One of the most active early followers was Julius Frauenstädt, who wrote numerous articles promoting Schopenhauer's philosophy. He was also instrumental in finding another publisher after Brockhaus declined to publish Parerga and Paralipomena, believing that it would be another failure. Though Schopenhauer later stopped corresponding with him, claiming that he did not adhere closely enough to his ideas, Frauenstädt continued to promote Schopenhauer's work. They renewed their communication in 1859 and Schopenhauer named him heir for his literary estate. Frauenstädt also became the editor of the first collected works of Schopenhauer. In 1848, Schopenhauer witnessed violent upheaval in Frankfurt after General Hans Adolf Erdmann von Auerswald and Prince Felix Lichnowsky were murdered. He became worried for his own safety and property. Even earlier in life he had had such worries and kept a sword and loaded pistols near his bed to defend himself from thieves. He gave a friendly welcome to Austrian soldiers who wanted to shoot revolutionaries from his window and as they were leaving he gave one of the officers his opera glasses to help him monitor rebels. The rebellion passed without any loss to Schopenhauer and he later praised Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz for restoring order. He even modified his will, leaving a large part of his property to a Prussian fund that helped soldiers who became invalids while fighting rebellion in 1848 or the families of soldiers who died in battle. As Young Hegelians were advocating change and progress, Schopenhauer claimed that misery is natural for humans and that, even if some utopian society were established, people would still fight each other out of boredom, or would starve due to overpopulation. ]] In 1851, Schopenhauer published Parerga and Paralipomena, which contains essays that are supplementary to his main work. It was his first successful, widely read book, partly due to the work of his disciples who wrote praising reviews. The essays that proved most popular were the ones that actually did not contain the basic philosophical ideas of his system. Many academic philosophers considered him a great stylist and cultural critic but did not take his philosophy seriously. His early critics liked to point out similarities of his ideas to those of Fichte and Schelling, or to claim that there were numerous contradictions in his philosophy. Both criticisms enraged Schopenhauer. He was becoming less interested in intellectual fights, but encouraged his disciples to do so. His private notes and correspondence show that he acknowledged some of the criticisms regarding contradictions, inconsistencies, and vagueness in his philosophy, but claimed that he was not concerned about harmony and agreement in his propositions and that some of his ideas should not be taken literally but instead as metaphors. Academic philosophers were also starting to notice his work. In 1856, the University of Leipzig sponsored an essay contest about Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was won by Rudolf Seydel's very critical essay. Schopenhauer's friend Jules Lunteschütz made the first of his four portraits of him—which Schopenhauer did not particularly like—which was soon sold to a wealthy landowner, Carl Ferdinand Wiesike, who built a house to display it. Schopenhauer seemed flattered and amused by this, and would claim that it was his first chapel. As his fame increased, copies of paintings and photographs of him were being sold and admirers were visiting the places where he had lived and written his works. People visited Frankfurt's Englischer Hof to observe him dining. Admirers gave him gifts and asked for autographs. He complained that he still felt isolated due to his not very social nature and the fact that many of his good friends had already died from old age. in Frankfurt]] He remained healthy in his own old age, which he attributed to regular walks no matter the weather and always getting enough sleep. He had a great appetite and could read without glasses, but his hearing had been declining since his youth and he developed problems with rheumatism. He remained active and lucid, continued his reading, writing and correspondence until his death. The numerous notes that he made during these years, amongst others on aging, were published posthumously under the title Senilia. In the spring of 1860 his health began to decline, and he experienced shortness of breath and heart palpitations; in September he suffered inflammation of the lungs and, although he was starting to recover, he remained very weak. The last friend to visit him was Wilhelm Gwinner; according to him, Schopenhauer was concerned that he would not be able to finish his planned additions to Parerga and Paralipomena but was at peace with dying. He died of pulmonary-respiratory failure on 21 September 1860 while sitting at home on his couch. He died at the age of 72 and had a funeral conducted by a Lutheran minister. Philosophy Theory of perception In November 1813 Goethe invited Schopenhauer to help him on his Theory of Colours. Although Schopenhauer considered colour theory a minor matter, he accepted the invitation out of admiration for Goethe. Nevertheless, these investigations led him to his most important discovery in epistemology: finding a demonstration for the a priori'' nature of causality. Kant openly admitted that it was Hume's skeptical assault on causality that motivated the critical investigations in Critique of Pure Reason and gave an elaborate proof to show that causality is a priori. After G. E. Schulze had made it plausible that Kant had not disproven Hume's skepticism, it was up to those loyal to Kant's project to prove this important matter. The difference between the approaches of Kant and Schopenhauer was this: Kant simply declared that the empirical content of perception is "given" to us from outside, an expression with which Schopenhauer often expressed his dissatisfaction. He, on the other hand, was occupied with the questions: how do we get this empirical content of perception; how is it possible to comprehend subjective sensations "limited to my skin" as the objective perception of things that lie "outside" of me? Causality is therefore not an empirical concept drawn from objective perceptions, as Hume had maintained; instead, as Kant had said, objective perception presupposes knowledge of causality. By this intellectual operation, comprehending every effect in our sensory organs as having an external cause, the external world arises. With vision, finding the cause is essentially simplified due to light acting in straight lines. We are seldom conscious of the process that interprets the double sensation in both eyes as coming from one object, that inverts the impressions on the retinas, and that uses the change in the apparent position of an object relative to more distant objects provided by binocular vision to perceive depth and distance. Schopenhauer stresses the importance of the intellectual nature of perception; the senses furnish the raw material by which the intellect produces the world as representation. He set out his theory of perception for the first time in On Vision and Colors, Schopenhauer did not deny that the external world existed and was known empirically, yet he followed Kant in claiming that our knowledge and experience of the world is always in some sense dependent on us. For Schopenhauer in particular, the spatiotemporal form and causal structure of the external world are contributed to our experiences of it by the mind as it renders perceptions. Schopenhauer reiterates this in the first sentence of his main work: "The world is my representation (Die Welt ist meine Vorstellung)". Everything that there is for cognition (the entire world) exists simply as an object in relation to a subject—a 'representation' to a subject. Everything that belongs to the world is, therefore, 'subject-dependent'. In Book One of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers the world from this angle—that is, insofar as it is representation. Kant had previously argued that we perceive reality as something spatial and temporal not because reality is inherently spatial and temporal, but because that is how our minds operate in perceiving an object. Therefore, understanding objects in space and time represents our 'contribution' to an experience. For Schopenhauer, Kant's 'greatest service' lay in the 'differentiation between phenomena and the thing-in-itself (noumena), based on the proof that between everything and us there is always a perceiving mind.' In other words, Kant's primary achievement is to demonstrate that instead of being a blank slate where reality merely reveals its character, the mind, with sensory support, actively participates in constructing reality. Thus, Schopenhauer believed that Kant had shown that the everyday world of experience, and indeed the entire material world related to space and time, is merely 'appearance' or 'phenomena,' entirely distinct from the thing-in-itself.' World as will In Book Two of The World as Will and Representation, Schopenhauer considers what the world is beyond the aspect of it that appears to us—that is, the aspect of the world beyond representation, the world considered "in-itself" or "noumena", its inner essence. The very being in-itself of all things, Schopenhauer argues, is will (Wille). The empirical world that appears to us as representation has plurality and is ordered in a spatio-temporal framework. The world as thing in-itself must exist outside the subjective forms of space and time. Although the world manifests itself to our experience as a multiplicity of objects (the "objectivation" of the will), each element of this multiplicity has the same blind essence striving towards existence and life. Human rationality is merely a secondary phenomenon that does not distinguish humanity from the rest of nature at the fundamental, essential level. The advanced cognitive abilities of human beings, Schopenhauer argues, serve the ends of willing—an illogical, directionless, ceaseless striving that condemns the human individual to a life of suffering unredeemed by any final purpose. Schopenhauer's philosophy of the will as the essential reality behind the world as representation is often called metaphysical voluntarism. Yet the will as thing in-itself is free, as it exists beyond the realm of representation and thus is not constrained by any of the forms of necessity that are part of the principle of sufficient reason. According to Schopenhauer, salvation from our miserable existence can come through the will's being "tranquillized" by the metaphysical insight that reveals individuality to be merely an illusion. The saint or 'great soul' intuitively "recognizes the whole, comprehends its essence, and finds that it is constantly passing away, caught up in vain strivings, inner conflict, and perpetual suffering". The negation of the will, in other words, stems from the insight that the world in-itself (free from the forms of space and time) is one. Ascetic practices, Schopenhauer remarks, are used to aid the will's "self-abolition", which brings about a blissful, redemptive "will-less" state of emptiness that is free from striving or suffering. Art and aesthetics , who "directed such purely objective perception to the most insignificant objects, and set up a lasting monument of their objectivity and spiritual peace in paintings of still life. The aesthetic beholder does not contemplate this without emotion."]] For Schopenhauer, human "willing"—desiring, craving, etc.—is at the root of suffering. A temporary way to escape this pain is through aesthetic contemplation. Here one moves away from ordinary cognizance of individual things to cognizance of eternal Platonic Ideas—in other words, cognizance that is free from the service of will. In aesthetic contemplation, one no longer perceives an object of perception as something from which one is separated; rather "it is as if the object alone existed without anyone perceiving it, and one can thus no longer separate the perceiver from the perception, but the two have become one, the entirety of consciousness entirely filled and occupied by a single perceptual image". Subject and object are no longer distinguishable, and the Idea comes to the fore. From this aesthetic immersion, one is no longer an individual who suffers as a result of servitude to one's individual will but, rather, becomes a "pure, will-less, painless, timeless, subject of cognition". The pure, will-less subject of cognition is cognizant only of Ideas, not individual things: this is a kind of cognition that is unconcerned with relations between objects according to the Principle of Sufficient Reason (time, space, cause and effect) and instead involves complete absorption in the object. Art is the practical consequence of this brief aesthetic contemplation, since it attempts to depict the essence/pure Ideas of the world. Music, for Schopenhauer, is the purest form of art because it is the one that depicts the will itself without it appearing as subject to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, therefore as an individual object. According to Daniel Albright, "Schopenhauer thought that music was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself". He deemed music a timeless, universal language comprehended everywhere, that can imbue global enthusiasm, if in possession of a significant melody. Mathematics Schopenhauer's realist views on mathematics are evident in his criticism of contemporaneous attempts to prove the parallel postulate in Euclidean geometry. Writing shortly before the discovery of hyperbolic geometry demonstrated the logical independence of the axiom—and long before the general theory of relativity revealed that it does not necessarily express a property of physical space—Schopenhauer criticized mathematicians for trying to use indirect concepts to prove what he held was directly evident from intuitive perception. Throughout his writings, Schopenhauer criticized the logical derivation of philosophies and mathematics from mere concepts, instead of from intuitive perceptions. Although Schopenhauer could see no justification for trying to prove Euclid's parallel postulate, he did see a reason for examining another of Euclid's axioms. Schopenhauer asserts that the task of ethics is not to prescribe moral actions that ought to be done, but to investigate moral actions. As such, he states that philosophy is always theoretical: its task to explain what is given. According to Kant's transcendental idealism, space and time are forms of our sensibility in which phenomena appear in multiplicity. Reality in itself is free from multiplicity, not in the sense that an object is one, but that it is outside the possibility of multiplicity. Two individuals, though they appear distinct, are in-themselves not distinct. Appearances are entirely subordinated to the principle of sufficient reason. The egoistic individual who focuses his aims on his own interests has to deal with empirical laws as well as he can. What is relevant for ethics are individuals who can act against their own self-interest. If we take a man who suffers when he sees his fellow men living in poverty and consequently uses a significant part of his income to support their needs instead of his own pleasures, then the simplest way to describe this is that he makes less distinction between himself and others than is usually made. Regarding how things appear to us, the egoist asserts a gap between two individuals, but the altruist experiences the sufferings of others as his own. In the same way a compassionate man cannot hurt animals, though they appear as distinct from himself. What motivates the altruist is compassion. The suffering of others is for him not a cold matter to which he is indifferent, but he feels connectiveness to all beings. Compassion is thus the basis of morality. Eternal justice Schopenhauer calls the principle through which multiplicity appears the principium individuationis. When we behold nature we see that it is a cruel battle for existence. Individual manifestations of the will can maintain themselves only at the expense of others—the will, as the only thing that exists, has no other option but to devour itself to experience pleasure. This is a fundamental characteristic of the will, and cannot be circumvented. Unlike temporal or human justice, which requires time to repay an evil deed and "has its seat in the state, as requiting and punishing", Eternal justice is not retributive, because retribution requires time. There are no delays or reprieves. Instead, punishment is tied to the offence, "to the point where the two become one. ... Tormenter and tormented are one. The [Tormenter] errs in that he believes he is not a partaker in the suffering; the [tormented], in that he believes he is not a partaker in the guilt." Those who have experienced this intuitive knowledge cannot affirm life, but exhibit asceticism and quietism, meaning that they are no longer sensitive to motives, are not concerned about their individual welfare, and accept without resistance the evil that others inflict on them. They welcome poverty and neither seek nor flee death.}} He named a force within man that he felt took invariable precedence over reason: the will to live or will to life (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent drive within human beings, and all creatures, to stay alive; a force that inveigles us into reproducing. Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it as an immensely powerful force that lay unseen within man's psyche, guaranteeing the quality of the human race: It has often been argued that Schopenhauer's thoughts on sexuality foreshadowed the theory of evolution, a claim met with satisfaction by Darwin as he included a quotation from Schopenhauer in his Descent of Man. This has also been noted about Freud's concepts of the libido and the unconscious mind, and evolutionary psychology in general. Political and social thought Politics ]] Schopenhauer's politics were an echo of his system of ethics, which he elucidated in detail in his Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik (the two essays On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality). In occasional political comments in his Parerga and Paralipomena and Manuscript Remains, Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government. Schopenhauer shared the view of Thomas Hobbes on the necessity of the state and state action to check the innate destructive tendencies of our species. He also defended the independence of the legislative, judicial and executive branches of power, and a monarch as an impartial element able to practise justice (in a practical and everyday sense, not a cosmological one). He declared that monarchy is "natural to man in almost the same way as it is to bees and ants, to cranes in flight, to wandering elephants, to wolves in a pack in search of prey, and to other animals". Intellect in monarchies, he writes, always has "much better chances against stupidity, its implacable and ever-present foe, than it has in republics; but this is a great advantage." By his own admission, Schopenhauer did not give much thought to politics, and several times he wrote proudly of how little attention he paid "to political affairs of [his] day". In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he maintained his position of "minding not the times but the eternities". He wrote many disparaging remarks about Germany and the Germans. A typical example is: "For a German it is even good to have somewhat lengthy words in his mouth, for he thinks slowly, and they give him time to reflect." Punishment The State, Schopenhauer claimed, punishes criminals to prevent future crimes. It places "beside every possible motive for committing a wrong a more powerful motive for leaving it undone, in the inescapable punishment. Accordingly, the criminal code is as complete a register as possible of counter-motives to all criminal actions that can possibly be imagined ..." He claimed that this doctrine was not original to him but had appeared in the writings of Plato, Seneca, Hobbes, Pufendorf, and Anselm Feuerbach. Races and religions Schopenhauer attributed civilizational primacy to the northern "white races" due to their sensitivity and creativity (except for the ancient Egyptians and Hindus, whom he saw as equal): <blockquote>The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmans, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate. This they had to do in order to make up for the parsimony of nature and out of it all came their high civilization.</blockquote> Schopenhauer was fervently opposed to slavery. Speaking of the treatment of slaves in the slave-holding states of the United States, he condemned "those devils in human form, those bigoted, church-going, strict sabbath-observing scoundrels, especially the Anglican parsons among them" for how they "treat their innocent black brothers who through violence and injustice have fallen into their devil's claws". The slave-holding states of North America, Schopenhauer writes, are a "disgrace to the whole of humanity". Schopenhauer also maintained a marked metaphysical and political anti-Judaism. He argued that Christianity constituted a revolt against what he styled the materialistic basis of Judaism, exhibiting an Indian-influenced ethics reflecting the Aryan-Vedic theme of spiritual self-conquest. He saw this as opposed to the ignorant drive toward earthly utopianism and superficiality of a worldly "Jewish" spirit: <blockquote>[Judaism] is, therefore, the crudest and poorest of all religions and consists merely in an absurd and revolting theism. It amounts to this that the κύριος ['Lord'], who has created the world, desires to be worshipped and adored; and so above all he is jealous, is envious of his colleagues, of all the other gods; if sacrifices are made to them he is furious and his Jews have a bad time ... It is most deplorable that this religion has become the basis of the prevailing religion of Europe; for it is a religion without any metaphysical tendency. While all other religions endeavor to explain to the people by symbols the metaphysical significance of life, the religion of the Jews is entirely immanent and furnishes nothing but a mere war-cry in the struggle with other nations.</blockquote> Women In his 1851 essay "On Women", Schopenhauer expressed opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" of "reflexive, unexamined reverence for the female (abgeschmackten Weiberveneration)". He wrote: "Women are directly fitted for acting as the nurses and teachers of our early childhood by the fact that they are themselves childish, frivolous and short-sighted; in a word, they are big children all their life long—a kind of intermediate stage between the child and the full-grown man." He opined that women are deficient in artistic faculties and sense of justice, and expressed his opposition to monogamy. He claimed that "woman is by nature meant to obey". The essay does give some compliments: "women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are", and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others. Schopenhauer's writings influenced many, from Friedrich Nietzsche to nineteenth-century feminists, and continue to inspire sexist views today. His biological analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists. When the elderly Schopenhauer sat for a sculpture portrait by the Prussian sculptor Elisabet Ney in 1859, he was much impressed by the young woman's wit and independence, as well as by her skill as a visual artist. After his time with Ney, he told Richard Wagner's friend Malwida von Meysenbug: "I have not yet spoken my last word about women. I believe that if a woman succeeds in withdrawing from the mass, or rather raising herself above the mass, she grows ceaselessly and more than a man." Pederasty In the third, expanded edition of The World as Will and Representation (1859), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the Metaphysics of Sexual Love. He wrote that pederasty has the benefit of preventing ill-begotten children. Concerning this, he stated that "the vice we are considering appears to work directly against the aims and ends of nature, and that in a matter that is all important and of the greatest concern to her it must in fact serve these very aims, although only indirectly, as a means for preventing greater evils." Schopenhauer ends the appendix with the statement that "by expounding these paradoxical ideas, I wanted to grant to the professors of philosophy a small favour. I have done so by giving them the opportunity of slandering me by saying that I defend and commend pederasty." Heredity and eugenics Schopenhauer viewed personality and intellect as inherited. He quotes Horace's saying, "From the brave and good are the brave descended" (Odes, iv, 4, 29) and Shakespeare's line from Cymbeline, "Cowards father cowards, and base things sire base" (IV, 2) to reinforce his hereditarian argument. Mechanistically, Schopenhauer believed that a person inherits his intellect through his mother, and personal character through the father. This belief in heritability of traits informed Schopenhauer's view of love—placing it at the highest level of importance. For Schopenhauer the "final aim of all love intrigues, be they comic or tragic, is really of more importance than all other ends in human life. What it all turns upon is nothing less than the composition of the next generation. ... It is not the weal or woe of any one individual, but that of the human race to come, which is here at stake." This view of the importance for the species of whom we choose to love was reflected in his views on eugenics or good breeding. Here Schopenhauer wrote: <blockquote>With our knowledge of the complete unalterability both of character and of mental faculties, we are led to the view that a real and thorough improvement of the human race might be reached not so much from outside as from within, not so much by theory and instruction as rather by the path of generation. Plato had something of the kind in mind when, in the fifth book of his Republic, he explained his plan for increasing and improving his warrior caste. If we could castrate all scoundrels and stick all stupid geese in a convent, and give men of noble character a whole harem, and procure men, and indeed thorough men, for all girls of intellect and understanding, then a generation would soon arise which would produce a better age than that of Pericles.</blockquote> In another context, Schopenhauer reiterated his eugenic thesis: "If you want Utopian plans, I would say: the only solution to the problem is the despotism of the wise and noble members of a genuine aristocracy, a genuine nobility, achieved by mating the most magnanimous men with the cleverest and most gifted women. This proposal constitutes my Utopia and my Platonic Republic." Analysts (e.g., Keith Ansell-Pearson) have suggested that Schopenhauer's anti-egalitarianist sentiment and his support for eugenics influenced the neo-aristocratic philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche, who initially considered Schopenhauer his mentor. Animal rights As a consequence of his monistic philosophy, Schopenhauer was very concerned about animal welfare and rights. For him, all individual animals, including humans, are essentially phenomenal manifestations of the one underlying Will. For him the word "will" designates force, power, impulse, energy, and desire; it is the closest word we have that can signify both the essence of all external things and our own direct, inner experience. Since every living thing possesses will, humans and animals are fundamentally the same and can recognize themselves in each other. For this reason, he claimed that a good person would have sympathy for animals, who are our fellow sufferers. In 1841, he praised the establishment in London of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and in Philadelphia of the Animals' Friends Society. Schopenhauer went so far as to protest using the pronoun "it" in reference to animals because that led to treatment of them as though they were inanimate things. To reinforce his points, Schopenhauer referred to anecdotal reports of the look in the eyes of a monkey who had been shot and also the grief of a baby elephant whose mother had been killed by a hunter. Schopenhauer was very attached to his succession of pet poodles. He criticized Spinoza's belief that animals are a mere means for the satisfaction of humans. Tim Madigan wrote that despite all of his bombast, Schopenhauer was a sympathetic character who had concerns for the suffering of animals. Intellectual interests and affinitiesIndologySchopenhauer read the Latin translation of the ancient Hindu texts, the Upanishads, translated by French writer Anquetil du Perron from the Persian translation of Prince Dara Shukoh entitled Sirre-Akbar ("The Great Secret"). He was so impressed by its philosophy that he called it "the production of the highest human wisdom", and believed it contained superhuman concepts. Schopenhauer considered India as "the land of the most ancient and most pristine wisdom, the place from which Europeans could trace their descent and the tradition by which they had been influenced in so many decisive ways", and regarded the Upanishads as "the most profitable and elevating reading which [...] is possible in the world. It has been the solace of my life, and will be the solace of my death." Schopenhauer was first introduced to Anquetil du Perron's translation by Friedrich Majer in 1814. They met during the winter of 1813–1814 in Weimar at the home of Schopenhauer's mother, according to the biographer Safranski. Majer was a follower of Herder, and an early Indologist. Schopenhauer did not begin serious study of the Indic texts until the summer of 1814. Safranski maintains that, between 1815 and 1817, Schopenhauer had another important cross-pollination with Indian thought in Dresden. This was through his neighbor of two years, Karl Christian Friedrich Krause. Krause was then a minor and rather unorthodox philosopher who attempted to mix his own ideas with ancient Indian wisdom. Krause had also mastered Sanskrit, unlike Schopenhauer, and they developed a professional relationship. It was from Krause that Schopenhauer learned meditation and received the closest thing to expert advice concerning Indian thought. For Schopenhauer, will had ontological primacy over the intellect; desire is prior to thought. Schopenhauer felt this was similar to notions of puruṣārtha or goals of life in Vedānta Hinduism. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, denial of the will is attained by: * personal experience of an extremely great suffering that leads to loss of the will to live; or * knowledge of the essential nature of life in the world through observation of the suffering of other people. The book Oupnekhat (Upanishad) always lay open on his table, and he invariably studied it before going to bed. He called the opening up of Sanskrit literature "the greatest gift of our century", and predicted that the philosophy and knowledge of the Upanishads would become the cherished faith of the West. Most noticeable, in the case of Schopenhauer's work, was the significance of the Chandogya Upanishad, whose Mahāvākya, Tat Tvam Asi, is mentioned throughout The World as Will and Representation. Buddhism Schopenhauer noted a correspondence between his doctrines and the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism. Similarities centered on the principles that life involves suffering, that suffering is caused by desire (taṇhā), and that the extinction of desire leads to liberation. Thus three of the four "truths of the Buddha" correspond to Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will. In Buddhism, while greed and lust are always unskillful, desire is ethically variable – it can be skillful, unskillful, or neutral. Buddhist nirvāṇa is not equivalent to the condition that Schopenhauer described as denial of the will. Nirvāṇa is not the extinguishing of the person'' as some Western scholars have thought, but only the "extinguishing" (the literal meaning of nirvana) of the flames of greed, hatred, and delusion that assail a person's character. Schopenhauer made the following statement in his discussion of religions: <blockquote>If I wished to take the results of my philosophy as the standard of truth, I should have to concede to Buddhism pre-eminence over the others. In any case, it must be a pleasure to me to see my doctrine in such close agreement with a religion that the majority of men on earth hold as their own, for this numbers far more followers than any other. And this agreement must be yet the more pleasing to me, inasmuch as in my philosophizing I have certainly not been under its influence [emphasis added]. For up till 1818, when my work appeared, there was to be found in Europe only a very few accounts of Buddhism.</blockquote> Buddhist philosopher Keiji Nishitani sought to distance Buddhism from Schopenhauer. While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his methodology was resolutely empirical, rather than speculative or transcendental: <blockquote>Philosophy ... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.</blockquote> Also note: <blockquote>This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.</blockquote> The argument that Buddhism affected Schopenhauer's philosophy more than any other Dharmic faith loses credence since he did not begin a serious study of Buddhism until after the publication of The World as Will and Representation in 1818. Scholars have started to revise earlier views about Schopenhauer's discovery of Buddhism. Proof of early interest and influence appears in Schopenhauer's 1815–16 notes (transcribed and translated by Urs App) about Buddhism. They are included in a recent case study that traces Schopenhauer's interest in Buddhism and documents its influence. Other scholarly work questions how similar Schopenhauer's philosophy actually is to Buddhism. Magic and occultism Some traditions in Western esotericism and parapsychology interested Schopenhauer and influenced his philosophical theories. He praised animal magnetism as evidence for the reality of magic in his On the Will in Nature, and went so far as to accept the division of magic into left-hand and right-hand magic, although he doubted the existence of demons. Schopenhauer grounded magic in the Will and claimed all forms of magical transformation depended on the human Will, not on ritual. This theory notably parallels Aleister Crowley's system of magic and its emphasis on human will. Schopenhauer rejected the theory of disenchantment and claimed philosophy should synthesize itself with magic, which he believed amount to "practical metaphysics". Neoplatonism, including the traditions of Plotinus and to a lesser extent Marsilio Ficino, has also been cited as an influence on Schopenhauer.Interests Schopenhauer had a wide range of interests, from science and opera to occultism and literature. In his student years, Schopenhauer went more often to lectures in the sciences than philosophy. He kept a strong interest as his personal library contained near to 200 books of scientific literature at his death, and his works refer to scientific titles not found in the library. Many evenings were spent in the theatre, opera and ballet; Schopenhauer especially liked the operas of Mozart, Rossini and Bellini. Schopenhauer considered music the highest art, and played the flute during his whole life. As a polyglot, he knew German, Italian, Spanish, French, English, Latin and ancient Greek, and was an avid reader of poetry and literature. He particularly revered Goethe, Petrarch, Calderón and Shakespeare. <blockquote>If Goethe had not been sent into the world simultaneously with Kant in order to counterbalance him, so to speak, in the spirit of the age, the latter would have been haunted like a nightmare many an aspiring mind and would have oppressed it with great affliction. But now the two have an infinitely wholesome effect from opposite directions and will probably raise the German spirit to a height surpassing even that of antiquity.</blockquote> In philosophy, his most important influences were, according to himself, Kant, Plato and the Upanishads. Concerning the Upanishads and Vedas, he writes in The World as Will and Representation: <blockquote>If the reader has also received the benefit of the Vedas, the access to which by means of the Upanishads is in my eyes the greatest privilege which this still young century (1818) may claim before all previous centuries, if then the reader, I say, has received his initiation in primeval Indian wisdom, and received it with an open heart, he will be prepared in the very best way for hearing what I have to tell him. It will not sound to him strange, as to many others, much less disagreeable; for I might, if it did not sound conceited, contend that every one of the detached statements which constitute the Upanishads, may be deduced as a necessary result from the fundamental thoughts which I have to enunciate, though those deductions themselves are by no means to be found there.</blockquote> Thoughts on other philosophers Giordano Bruno and Spinoza Schopenhauer saw Bruno and Spinoza as philosophers not bound to their age or nation. "Both were fulfilled by the thought, that as manifold the appearances of the world may be, it is still one being, that appears in all of them. ... Consequently, there is no place for God as creator of the world in their philosophy, but God is the world itself." Schopenhauer expressed regret that Spinoza stuck, for the presentation of his philosophy, with the concepts of scholasticism and Cartesian philosophy, and tried to use geometrical proofs that do not hold because of vague and overly broad definitions. Bruno on the other hand, who knew much about nature and ancient literature, presented his ideas with Italian vividness, and is amongst philosophers the only one who comes near Plato's poetic and dramatic power of exposition. It is yet even more remarkable that Schopenhauer mentions Spinoza as an example of the denial of the will, if one uses the French biography by Jean Maximilien Lucas as the key to Tractatus de Intellectus Emendatione.Immanuel Kant Kant's influence on Schopenhauer's development, personally as well as in philosophy, was extensive. Kant's philosophy lies at the foundation of Schopenhauer's, and he had high praise for the Transcendental Aesthetic section of Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Schopenhauer maintained that Kant stands in the same relation to philosophers such as Berkeley and Plato, as Copernicus to Hicetas, Philolaus, and Aristarchus: Kant succeeded in demonstrating what previous philosophers merely asserted. Schopenhauer writes about Kant's influence on his work in the preface to the second edition of The World as Will and Representation: In his study room, one bust was of Buddha, the other was of Kant. The bond which Schopenhauer felt with the philosopher of Königsberg is demonstrated in an unfinished poem he dedicated to Kant (included in volume 2 of the Parerga): Schopenhauer dedicated one fifth of his main work, The World as Will and Representation, to a detailed criticism of the Kantian philosophy. Schopenhauer praised Kant for his distinction between appearance and the thing-in-itself, whereas the general consensus in German idealism was that this was the weakest spot of Kant's theory, since, according to Kant, causality can find application on objects of experience only, and consequently, things-in-themselves cannot be the cause of appearances. The inadmissibility of this reasoning was also acknowledged by Schopenhauer. He insisted that this was a true conclusion, drawn from false premises.Post-Kantian school The leading figures of post-Kantian philosophy—Johann Gottlieb Fichte, F. W. J. Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel—were not respected by Schopenhauer. He argued that they were not philosophers at all, for they lacked "the first requirement of a philosopher, namely a seriousness and honesty of inquiry." Rather, they were merely sophists who, excelling in the art of beguiling the public, pursued their own selfish interests (such as professional advancement within the university system). Diatribes against the alleged vacuity, dishonesty, pomposity, and self-interest of these contemporaries are to be found throughout Schopenhauer's published writings. The following passage is an example: Schopenhauer deemed Schelling the most talented of the three and wrote that he would recommend his "elucidatory paraphrase of the highly important doctrine of Kant" concerning the intelligible character, if he had been honest enough to admit he was parroting Kant, instead of hiding this relation in a cunning manner. Schopenhauer reserved his most unqualified damning condemnation for Hegel, whom he considered less worthy than Fichte or Schelling. Whereas Fichte was merely a windbag (Windbeutel), Hegel was a "commonplace, inane, loathsome, repulsive, and ignorant charlatan." The philosophers Karl Popper and Mario Bunge agreed with this distinction. Hegel, Schopenhauer wrote in the preface to his Two Fundamental Problems of Ethics, not only "performed no service to philosophy, but he has had a detrimental influence on philosophy, and thereby on German literature in general, really a downright stupefying, or we could even say a pestilential influence, which it is therefore the duty of everyone capable of thinking for himself and judging for himself to counteract in the most express terms at every opportunity."Influence and legacy by Elisabeth Ney]] Schopenhauer remained the most influential German philosopher until the First World War. His philosophy was a starting point for a new generation of philosophers including Julius Bahnsen, Paul Deussen, Lazar von Hellenbach, Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann, Ernst Otto Lindner, Philipp Mainländer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Olga Plümacher and Agnes Taubert. His legacy shaped the intellectual debate, and forced movements that were utterly opposed to him, neo-Kantianism and positivism, to address issues they would otherwise have completely ignored, and in doing so he changed them markedly. Other philosophers of the 19th century who cited his influence include Hans Vaihinger, Volkelt, Solovyov and Weininger. Schopenhauer was well read by physicists, most notably Einstein, Schrödinger, Wolfgang Pauli, and Majorana. Einstein described Schopenhauer's thoughts as a "continual consolation" and called him a genius. In his Berlin study three figures hung on the wall: Faraday, Maxwell, Schopenhauer. Konrad Wachsmann recalled: "He often sat with one of the well-worn Schopenhauer volumes, and as he sat there, he seemed so pleased, as if he were engaged with a serene and cheerful work." When Erwin Schrödinger discovered Schopenhauer ("the greatest savant of the West") he considered switching his study of physics to philosophy. He maintained the idealistic views during the rest of his life. Wolfgang Pauli accepted the main tenet of Schopenhauer's metaphysics, that the thing-in-itself is will. But most of all Schopenhauer is famous for his influence on artists. Richard Wagner became one of the earliest and most famous adherents of the Schopenhauerian philosophy. The admiration was not mutual, and Schopenhauer proclaimed: "I remain faithful to Rossini and Mozart!" So he has been nicknamed "the artist's philosopher". He said that what he has written in War and Peace is also said by Schopenhauer in The World as Will and Representation. Jorge Luis Borges remarked that the reason he had never attempted to write a systematic account of his world view, despite his penchant for philosophy and metaphysics in particular, was because Schopenhauer had already written it for him. Other figures in literature who were strongly influenced by Schopenhauer were Thomas Mann, Thomas Hardy, Afanasy Fet, J.-K. Huysmans and George Santayana. In Herman Melville's final years, while he wrote Billy Budd, he read Schopenhauer's essays and marked them heavily. Scholar Brian Yothers notes that Melville "marked numerous misanthropic and even suicidal remarks, suggesting an attraction to the most extreme sorts of solitude, but he also made note of Schopenhauer's reflection on the moral ambiguities of genius." Schopenhauer's attraction to and discussions of both Eastern and Western religions in conjunction with each other made an impression on Melville in his final years. Sergei Prokofiev, although initially reluctant to engage with works noted for their pessimism, became fascinated with Schopenhauer after reading Aphorisms on the Wisdom of Life in Parerga and Paralipomena. "With his truths Schopenhauer gave me a spiritual world and an awareness of happiness." Friedrich Nietzsche owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading The World as Will and Representation and admitted that he was one of the few philosophers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay "Schopenhauer als Erzieher", one of his Untimely Meditations. Early in his career, Ludwig Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism, and some traits of Schopenhauer's influence (particularly Schopenhauerian transcendentalism) can be observed in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Later on, Wittgenstein rejected epistemological transcendental idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein became highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately shallow thinker. His friend Bertrand Russell had a low opinion on the philosopher, and even came to attack him in his History of Western Philosophy for hypocritically praising asceticism yet not acting upon it. Opposite to Russell on the foundations of mathematics, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer incorporated Kant's and Schopenhauer's ideas in the philosophical school of intuitionism, where mathematics is considered as a purely mental activity instead of an analytic activity wherein objective properties of reality are revealed. Brouwer was also influenced by Schopenhauer's metaphysics, and wrote an essay on mysticism. Schopenhauer's philosophy has made its way into a novel, The Schopenhauer Cure, by American existential psychiatrist and emeritus professor of psychiatry Irvin Yalom. Schopenhauer's philosophy, and the discussions on philosophical pessimism it has engendered, has been the focus of contemporary thinkers such as David Benatar, Thomas Ligotti, and Eugene Thacker. Their work also served as an inspiration for the popular HBO TV series True Detective as well as Life Is Beautiful. In this regard, Schopenhauer is sometimes considered the founding father of today's antinatalism. Advocates of idealism in contemporary analytic philosophy and neuroscience such as Bernardo Kastrup and Christof Koch owe their philosophical system, in part, to the metaphysics of Schopenhauer. Selected bibliography <!--older texts use "Ueber" instead of "Über"--> * On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason (Ueber die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde), 1813 * On Vision and Colors (Ueber das Sehn und die Farben), 1816 * Theory of Colors (Theoria colorum physiologica), 1830. * The World as Will and Representation (alternatively translated as The World as Will and Idea; original German is Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung): vol. 1, 1818–1819, vol. 2, 1844 Världen som vilja och föreställning Vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, Vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 pp.) ** The Longman Library of Primary Sources in Philosophy, vol. 1, 2008; vol. 2, 2010. Title translated as The World as Will and Presentation, rather than Representation. * The Art of Being Right (Eristische Dialektik: Die Kunst, Recht zu Behalten), 1831 * On the Will in Nature (Ueber den Willen in der Natur), 1836 * On the Freedom of the Will (Ueber die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens), 1838 * On the Basis of Morality (Ueber die Grundlage der Moral), 1839 * Contains On the Freedom of the Will and On the Basis of Morality. * Freely available from Internet Archive. Contains Preisschrift über die Freiheit des Willens and Preisschrift über die Grundlage der Moral. * Parerga and Paralipomena (2 vols., 1851) – Reprint: (Oxford: Clarendon Press) (2 vols., 1974) (English translation by E. F. J. Payne) Printings: * 1974 Hardcover, by ISBN ** Vols. 1 and 2, , Vol. 1, ISBN Vol. 2, , * 1974–1980 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, , * 2001 Paperback, Vol. 1, , Vol. 2, Essays and Aphorisms, being excerpts from Volume 2 of Parerga und Paralipomena, selected and translated by R. J. Hollingdale, with Introduction by R J Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 1970, Paperback 1973: * An Enquiry concerning Ghost-seeing, and what is connected therewith (Versuch über das Geistersehn und was damit zusammenhangt), 1851 * Arthur Schopenhauer, Manuscript Remains, Volume II, Berg Publishers Ltd., Online * * [http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ The Art of Controversy (Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten)] . (bilingual) [The Art of Being Right] * [http://librivox.org/studies-in-pessimism-by-arthur-schopenhauer/ Studies in Pessimism] – audiobook from LibriVox * The World as Will and Idea at the Internet Archive: [https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan01schouoft Volume I] [https://archive.org/details/theworldaswill02schouoft Volume II] ** [https://archive.org/details/theworldaswillan03schouoft Volume III] * "On the fourfold root of the principle of sufficient reason" and "On the will in nature". Two essays: [https://archive.org/details/onthefourfoldroo00schouoft Internet Archive]. Translated by Mrs. Karl Hillebrand (1903). [http://dlxs2.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?ccdl;idnocdl322 Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection]. Reprinted by Cornell University Library Digital Collections * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081029052257/http://www.schopenhauersource.org/type_list.php?type=manuscript Facsimile edition of Schopenhauer's manuscripts] in [https://web.archive.org/web/20150424113720/http://www.schopenhauersource.org/ SchopenhauerSource] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080304165547/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/s/schopenhauer/arthur/essays/complete.html Essays of Schopenhauer] See also * Antinatalism * Existential nihilism * Eye of a needle * God in Buddhism * Massacre of the Innocents (Guido Reni) * Misotheism * Mortal coil * Nihilism * Post-Schopenhauerian pessimism References Sources * Albright, Daniel (2004) Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources. University of Chicago Press. * Beiser, Frederick C., Weltschmerz: Pessimism in German Philosophy, 1860–1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). * * * Hannan, Barbara, ''The Riddle of the World: A Reconsideration of Schopenhauer's Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). * Magee, Bryan, Confessions of a Philosopher, Random House, 1998, . Chapters 20, 21. * Safranski, Rüdiger (1990) Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press, ; orig. German Schopenhauer und Die wilden Jahre der Philosophie, Carl Hanser Verlag (1987) * Thomas Mann editor, The Living Thoughts of Schopenhauer, Longmans Green & Co., 1939 Further reading Biographies * Copleston, Frederick, Arthur Schopenhauer, philosopher of pessimism (Burns, Oates & Washbourne, 1946) * Damm, O. F., Arthur Schopenhauer – eine Biographie (Reclam, 1912) * Fischer, Kuno, Arthur Schopenhauer (Heidelberg: Winter, 1893); revised as Schopenhauers Leben, Werke und Lehre (Heidelberg: Winter, 1898). * Grisebach, Eduard, Schopenhauer – Geschichte seines Lebens (Berlin: Hofmann, 1876). * Hamlyn, D. W., Schopenhauer, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1980, 1985) * Hasse, Heinrich, Schopenhauer. (Reinhardt, 1926) * Hübscher, Arthur, Arthur Schopenhauer – Ein Lebensbild (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1938). * Mann, Thomas, Schopenhauer (Bermann-Fischer, 1938) * Matthews, Jack, Schopenhauer's Will: Das Testament, Nine Point Publishing, 2015. . A recent creative biography by philosophical novelist Jack Matthews. * Safranski, Rüdiger, Schopenhauer und die wilden Jahre der Philosophie – Eine Biographie, hard cover Carl Hanser Verlag, München 1987, , pocket edition Fischer: . * Safranski, Rüdiger, Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy, trans. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1989) * Schneider, Walther, Schopenhauer – Eine Biographie (Vienna: Bermann-Fischer, 1937). * Wallace, William, Life of Arthur Schopenhauer (London: Scott, 1890; repr., St. Clair Shores, Mich.: Scholarly Press, 1970) * Zimmern, Helen, [https://archive.org/stream/arthurschopenha00zimmuoft#page/n7/mode/2up Arthur Schopenhauer: His Life and His Philosophy] (London: Longmans, Green & Co, 1876) Other books * App, Urs. [https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp200_schopenhauer.pdf Arthur Schopenhauer and China. Sino-Platonic Papers'' Nr. 200 (April 2010)] (PDF, 8.7 Mb PDF, 164 p.). Contains extensive appendixes with transcriptions and English translations of Schopenhauer's early notes about Buddhism and Indian philosophy. * App, Urs, Schopenhauers Kompass. Die Geburt einer Philosophie. UniversityMedia, Rorschach/ Kyoto 2011. * Atwell, John. Schopenhauer on the Character of the World, The Metaphysics of Will. * Atwell, John, Schopenhauer, The Human Character. * Edwards, Anthony. ''An Evolutionary Epistemological Critique of Schopenhauer's Metaphysics. 123 Books, 2011. * Copleston, Frederick, Schopenhauer: Philosopher of Pessimism, 1946 (reprinted London: Search Press, 1975). * Gardiner, Patrick, 1963. Schopenhauer. Penguin Books. * Janaway, Christopher, 2002. Schopenhauer: A Very Short introduction. Oxford University Press. * Janaway, Christopher, 2003. Self and World in Schopenhauer's Philosophy. Oxford University Press. * Magee, Bryan, The Philosophy of Schopenhauer, Oxford University Press (1988, reprint 1997). * Marcin, Raymond B. In Search of Schopenhauer's Cat: Arthur Schopenhauer's Quantum-Mystical Theory of Justice''. Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press, 2005. * Norberg, Jakob, [https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/schopenhauers-politics/CB3FAB9762A468BD306915D12E5B88F8 Schopenhauer's Politics] * Mannion, Gerard, "Schopenhauer, Religion and Morality – The Humble Path to Ethics", Ashgate Press, New Critical Thinking in Philosophy Series, 2003, 314pp. * Whittaker, Thomas, [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/38283 Schopenhauer] * Zimmern, Helen, Arthur Schopenhauer, his Life and Philosophy, London, Longman, and Co., 1876. * Kastrup, Bernardo. ''Decoding Schopenhauer's Metaphysics – The key to understanding how it solves the hard problem of consciousness and the paradoxes of quantum mechanics. Winchester/Washington, iff Books, 2020. * de Botton, Alain: The Consolations of Philosophy. Hamish Hamilton, London 2000. (Chapter: Consolation for a Broken Heart). Articles * * Jiménez, Camilo, 2006, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070702122520/http://www.avinus-magazin.eu/html/jimenez_-_der_junge_schopenhau.html Tagebuch eines Ehrgeizigen: Arthur Schopenhauers Studienjahre in Berlin]," Avinus Magazin (in German). * Luchte, James, 2009, "[http://luchte.wordpress.com/the-body-of-sublime-knowledge-the-aesthetic-phenomenology-of-arthur-schopenhauer/ The Body of Sublime Knowledge: The Aesthetic Phenomenology of Arthur Schopenhauer]," Heythrop Journal'', Volume 50, Number 2, pp. 228–242. * Mazard, Eisel, 2005, "[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ Schopenhauer and the Empirical Critique of Idealism in the History of Ideas.] " On Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy and his relation to his predecessors. * Sangharakshita, 2004, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20040826122437/http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.]" * * [https://books.google.com/books?idungVAQAAIAAJ&pgPP11 Oxenford's "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," (See p. 388)] * Thacker, Eugene, 2020. "A Philosophy in Ruins, An Unquiet Void." Introduction to Arthur Schopenhauer, On the Suffering of the World. Repeater Books. . External links * * * * * "[https://iep.utm.edu/schopenh/ Arthur Schopenhauer]" an article by Mary Troxell in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2011 * * [https://archive.org/details/cu31924029023327 Kant's philosophy as rectified by Schopenhauer] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110421040017/http://www.weple.org/timeline.html#ids14631,12007,12598,700,10671,9518,37304,95184,&title8%20German%20Philosophers Timeline of German Philosophers] * [http://ljhammond.com/classics/cl1.htm#scho A Quick Introduction to Schopenhauer] * Ross, Kelley L., 1998, "[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860)]". Two short essays, on Schopenhauer's life and work, and on his dim view of academia. Category:1788 births Category:1860 deaths Category:19th-century atheists Category:19th-century German essayists Category:19th-century German male writers Category:19th-century German philosophers Category:19th-century German writers Category:German abolitionists Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin Category:German animal rights scholars Category:Anti-natalists Category:Aphorists Category:Atheist philosophers Category:Burials at Frankfurt Main Cemetery Category:Critical theorists Category:Critics of Judaism Category:Critics of religions Category:German epistemologists Category:German writers on atheism Category:German atheists Category:German critics of Christianity Category:German ethicists Category:German eugenicists Category:German flautists Category:German logicians Category:German male essayists Category:German male non-fiction writers Category:German monarchists Category:German people of Dutch descent Category:German philologists Category:German scholars of Buddhism Category:Idealists Category:Kantian philosophers Category:Logicians Category:Metaphilosophers Category:Ontologists Category:Phenomenologists Category:German philosophers of art Category:German philosophers of culture Category:German philosophers of education Category:German philosophers of history Category:German philosophers of language Category:Philosophers of literature Category:Philosophers of logic Category:Philosophers of love Category:German philosophers of mind Category:Philosophers of pessimism Category:Philosophers of psychology Category:German philosophers of religion Category:German philosophers of science Category:German philosophy writers Category:German political philosophers Category:Simple living advocates Category:Theorists on Western civilization Category:University of Göttingen alumni Category:Writers from Gdańsk	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer	2025-04-05T18:25:20.185301
701	Angola	\| image_flag = Flag of Angola.svg<!-- DO NOT ADD the proposed flag; you WILL be reverted and warned! --> \| image_coat = Emblem of Angola.svg \| symbol_type = Emblem \| national_motto \|()}} \| national_anthem = "Angola Avante"<br />() \| image_map \| map_caption = Major cities of Angola \| capital = Luanda \| religion \| religion_year = 2020 \| religion_ref \| coordinates = \| largest_city = capital \| official_languages = Portuguese \| languages2_type = National Languages \| languages2 = Chokwe, Kimbundu, Kikongo, Oshiwambo, Luchazi, Umbundu \| ethnic_groups = \| ethnic_groups_ref \| ethnic_groups_year = 2021 \| demonym = Angolan \| government_type Unitary dominant-party presidential republic \| leader_title1 = President \| leader_name1 = João Lourenço \| leader_title2 = Vice President \| leader_name2 Esperança da Costa \| legislature = National Assembly \| sovereignty_type = Formation \| established_event1 = Independence from Portugal, under Communist rule \| established_date1 = 11 November 1975 \| established_event2 = United Nations full membership \| established_date2 = 22 November 1976 \| established_event3 = Current constitution \| established_date3 = 21 January 2010 \| area_km2 = 1246700 \| area_rank = 22nd \| area_sq_mi = 481354 \| percent_water = negligible \| population_estimate 37,290,193 \| population_estimate_year = 2023 \| population_estimate_rank = 41st \| population_density_km2 = 24.97 \| population_density_sq_mi = 64.65 \| population_density_rank = 157th \| GDP_PPP $374.94 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2025 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 62nd \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $10,108 \| HDI = 0.591<!-- number only --> \| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 150th \| currency = Angolan kwanza \| currency_code = AOA \| time_zone = WAT \| utc_offset = +1 \| drives_on = Right \| calling_code = +244 \| cctld = .ao }} Angola, ; ; , }} officially the Republic of Angola,}} is a country on the west-central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and population and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is Luanda. Angola has been inhabited since the Paleolithic Age. After the Bantu expansion reached the region, states were formed by the 13th century and organised into confederations. The Kingdom of Kongo ascended to achieve hegemony among the other kingdoms from the 14th century. Portuguese explorers established relations with Kongo in 1483. To the south were the kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba, with the Ovimbundu kingdoms further south, and the Mbunda Kingdom in the east. The Portuguese began colonising the coast in the 16th century. Kongo fought three wars against the Portuguese, ending in the Portuguese conquest of Ndongo. The banning of the slave trade in the 19th century severely disrupted Kongo's undiversified economic system and European settlers gradually began to establish their presence in the interior of the region. The Portuguese colony that became Angola did not achieve its present borders until the early 20th century and experienced strong resistance from native groups such as the Cuamato, the Kwanyama, and the Mbunda. After a protracted anti-colonial struggle (1961–1974), Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a one-party Republic, but the country descended into a devastating civil war the same year, between the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), backed by the Soviet Union and Cuba; the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola, an originally Maoist and later anti-communist group supported by the United States and South Africa; the militant organization National Liberation Front of Angola, backed by Zaire; and the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda seeking the independence of the Cabinda exclave, also backed by Zaire. Since the end of the civil war in 2002, Angola has emerged as a relatively stable constitutional republic, and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, with China, the European Union, and the United States being the country's largest investment and trade partners. However, the economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's wealth concentrated in a disproportionately small part of the population as most Angolans have a low standard of living; life expectancy is among the lowest in the world, while infant mortality is among the highest. Angola is a member of the United Nations, African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, and the Southern African Development Community. , the Angolan population is estimated at 37.2 million. Angolan culture reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, namely the predominance of the Portuguese language and of the Catholic Church, intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.EtymologyThe name Angola comes from the Portuguese colonial name ('Kingdom of Angola'), which appeared as early as Paulo Dias de Novais's 1571 charter. The toponym was derived by the Portuguese from the title ngola, held by the kings of Ndongo and Matamba. Ndongo in the highlands, between the Kwanza and Lucala rivers, was nominally a possession of the Kingdom of Kongo. But in the 16th century it was seeking greater independence. History Early migrations and political units , Manikongo of the Kingdom of Kongo]] Modern Angola was populated predominantly by nomadic Khoi and San peoples prior to the first Bantu migrations. The Khoi and San peoples were hunter-gatherers, rather than practicing pastoralism or cultivation of crops. In the first millennium BC, they were displaced by Bantu peoples arriving from the north, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern Nigeria and southern Niger. Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of bananas and taro, as well as maintenance of large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain. Due to a number of inhibiting geographic factors throughout the territory of Angola, namely harshly traversable land, hot/humid climate, and a plethora of deadly diseases, intermingling of pre-colonial tribes in Angola had been rare. After settlement of the migrants, a number of political entities developed. The best-known of these was the Kingdom of Kongo, based in Angola. It extended northward to what are now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo, and Gabon. It established trade routes with other city-states and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa. Its traders even reached Great Zimbabwe and the Mutapa Empire, although the kingdom engaged in little or no trans-oceanic trade. To its south lay the Kingdom of Ndongo, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as Dongo. Next to that was the Kingdom of Matamba. The lesser Kingdom of Kakongo to the north was later a vassal of the Kingdom of Kongo. The people in all of these states spoke Kikongo as a common language.Portuguese colonization by King Manuel I of Portugal]] Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the area in 1484. The transition from a feudal system of slavery to a capitalist one with Portugal would prove crucial to the history of the Kingdom of Kongo. As relations between Kongo and Portugal grew in the early 16th century, trade between the kingdoms also increased. Most of the trade was in palm cloth, copper, and ivory, but also increasing numbers of slaves. Afonso continued to expand the kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with Afonso's earlier religious reforms, allowed the ruler to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade. The increased production and sale of guns within the kingdom was due to the salient issue of the slave trade, which had become an increasingly violent struggle. There was a constant need for slaves for the kings and queens to sell in exchange for foreign commodities, the absence of which would prevent them from having any influence with European powers such as Portugal and eventually the Dutch Republic. Kongolese kings needed this influence to garner support from European powers for quelling internal rebellions. The situation became increasingly complicated during the rule of Garcia II, who needed the assistance of the Dutch military to drive out the Portuguese from Luanda, in spite of the fact that Portugal was Kongo's primary slave trading partner. War broke out more widely in the Kingdom of Kongo after the death of António I. usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe. This part of the Atlantic slave trade continued until after Brazil's independence in the 1820s. meeting with the Portuguese, 1657]] from 1755]] Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal. During the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch West India Company occupied the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere. In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola. The Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola, Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective tariffs, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants. Angolan War of Independence marching in Luanda during the Portuguese Colonial Wars (1961–74).]] Under colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions. The first nationalist movements did not take root until after World War II, spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class, which included many mestiços. During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from ad hoc labour activism in the rural workforce. Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the Portuguese Communist Party. The National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA) recruited from Bakongo refugees in Zaire. Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in Léopoldville, and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions. People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo. Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community. The collapse of Portugal's Estado Novo government following the 1974 Carnation Revolution suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence. This was ratified by the Alvor Agreement later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975. The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June. In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops. It embarked on an ambitious programme of nationalisation, and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished. The ruling party survived an attempted coup d'état by the Maoist-oriented Communist Organisation of Angola (OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead. The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared social democracy to be its new platform. By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the Bicesse Accords, which scheduled new general elections for September 1992. 21st century is experiencing widespread urban renewal and redevelopment in the 21st century, backed largely by profits from the oil and diamond industries.]] On 22 February 2002, government troops killed Savimbi in a skirmish in the Moxico province. UNITA and the MPLA consented to the Luena Memorandum of Understanding in April; UNITA agreed to give up its armed wing. With the elections in 2008 and 2012, an MPLA-ruled dominant-party system emerged, with UNITA and the FNLA as opposition parties. Angola has a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, of the abundance of minefields, and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the exclave of Cabinda (carried out in the context of the protracted Cabinda conflict by the FLEC). While most of the internally displaced have now squatted around the capital, in musseques (shanty towns) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate. A drought in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in Southern Africa in 25 years, affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's eighteen provinces. Food prices rose and acute malnutrition rates doubled, impacting over 95,000 children. José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor. Some members of the dos Santos family were later linked to high levels of corruption. In July 2022, ex-president José Eduardo dos Santos died in Spain. In August 2022, the ruling party, MPLA, won another majority and President Lourenço won a second five-year term in the election. However, the election was the tightest in Angola's history.Geography At , Angola is the world's twenty-second largest country – comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas. It lies mostly between latitudes 4° and 18°S, and longitudes 12° and 24°E. Angola borders Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The coastal exclave of Cabinda in the north has borders with the Republic of the Congo to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south. Angola has a favorable coastline for maritime trade, with four natural harbors: Luanda, Lobito, Moçâmedes, and Porto Alexandre. These natural indentations contrast with Africa's typical coastline of rocky cliffs and deep bays. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country. Angola had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries. In Angola forest cover is around 53% of the total land area, equivalent to 66,607,380 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 79,262,780 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 65,800,190 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 807,200 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 40% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 3% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.Climate Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. In the north, the rainy season may last for as long as seven months—usually from September to April, with perhaps a brief slackening in January or February. while rainfall is becoming more variable. Angola is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Natural hazards such as floods, erosion, droughts, and epidemics (e.g.: malaria, cholera and typhoid fever) are expected to worsen with climate change. Rising sea levels also pose a significant risk to Angola's coastal areas, where around 50% of the population lives. In 2023 Angola emitted 174.71 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, around 0.32% of the world's total emissions, making it the 46th highest emitting country. In its Nationally Determined Contribution, Angola has pledged a 14% reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 and an additional 10% reduction conditional on international support. According to the World Bank, achieving climate resilience in Angola requires diversifying the country's economy away from its dependence on oil. After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership. The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defense Minister João Lourenço as Santos' chosen successor. In what has been described as a political purge to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos. He also removed Isabel dos Santos, daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol. In August 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, son of Angola's former president, was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption. Constitution , President of Angola]] The Constitution of 2010 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of judicial review. The new constitution, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is de facto no separation of powers. In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of authoritarian regime. Justice A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law. There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalized and its Judicial Counselors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women. In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of money-laundering as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation. Administrative divisions .]] , Angola is divided into twenty-one provinces (províncias'') and 162 municipalities. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships). The provinces are: {\| class="wikitable sortable" \|+ \|- bgcolor="#ACE1AF" !Number !Province !Capital !Area (km<sup>2</sup>) !Population <br /> (2014 Census) \|- \|1 \|Bengo \|Caxito \| align="right" \|31,371 \| align="right" \|356,641 \|- \|2 \|Benguela \|Benguela \| align="right" \|39,826 \| align="right" \|2,231,385 \|- \|3 \|Bié \|Cuíto \| align="right" \|70,314 \| align="right" \|1,455,255 \|- \|4 \|Cabinda \|Cabinda \| align="right" \|7,270 \| align="right" \|716,076 \|- \|5 \|Cuando \|Mavinga \| align="right" \|? \| align="right" \|? \|- \|6 \|Cuanza Norte \|N'dalatando \| align="right" \|24,110 \| align="right" \|443,386 \|- \|7 \|Cuanza Sul \|Sumbe \| align="right" \|55,600 \| align="right" \|1,881,873 \|- \|8 \|Cubango \|Menongue \| align="right" \|? \| align="right" \|? \|- \|9 \|Cunene \|Ondjiva \| align="right" \|87,342 \| align="right" \|990,087 \|- \|10 \|Huambo \|Huambo \| align="right" \|34,270 \| align="right" \|2,019,555 \|- \|11 \|Huíla \|Lubango \| align="right" \|79,023 \| align="right" \|2,497,422 \|- \|12 \|Icolo e Bengo \|Catete \| align="right" \|? \| align="right" \|? \|- \|13 \|Luanda \|Luanda \| align="right" \|2,417 \| align="right" \|6,945,386 \|- \|14 \|Lunda Norte \|Dundo \| align="right" \|103,760 \| align="right" \|862,566 \|- \|15 \|Lunda Sul \|Saurimo \| align="right" \|77,637 \| align="right" \|537,587 \|- \|16 \|Malanje \|Malanje \| align="right" \|97,602 \| align="right" \|986,363 \|- \|17 \|Moxico Leste \|Cazombo \| align="right" \|? \| align="right" \|? \|- \|18 \|Moxico \|Luena \| align="right" \|223,023 \| align="right" \|758,568 \|- \|19 \|Namibe \|Moçâmedes \| align="right" \|57,091 \| align="right" \|495,326 \|- \|20 \|Uíge \|Uíge \| align="right" \|58,698 \| align="right" \|1,483,118 \|- \|21 \|Zaire \|M'banza-Kongo \| align="right" \|40,130 \| align="right" \|594,428 \|} Exclave of Cabinda .]] With an area of approximately , the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo along the lower Congo River. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The city of Cabinda is the chief population centre. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom are citizens of neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber, and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname the Kuwait of Africa. Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Ever since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola (which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. Foreign relations Manuel Domingos Augusto.]] Angola is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language. On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council, with 190 favorable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016. Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL). [80] In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organization, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military.Military in full dress uniform]] The Angolan Armed Forces (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and National Air Force (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 (2015 est.). Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucanos for training, Czech-made L-39 Albatroses for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and 500 more were deployed in March 2023 due to the resurgence of the M23. The FAA has also participated in the Southern African Development Community (SADC)'s mission for peace in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique. Police The National Police departments are Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, to provide helicopter support for operations. The National Police are developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The force consists of an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 taxation and frontier supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators, 100 financial crimes detectives, and approximately 90 economic activity inspectors. The National Police have implemented a modernisation and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganisation, modernisation projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programmes and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm Uzis for officers in urban areas. Human rights Angola was classified as 'not free' by Freedom House in the Freedom in the World 2014 report and the 2024 report, however the report has noted increases in freedoms under João Lourenço. The 2014 report noted that the August 2012 parliamentary elections, in which the ruling Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls. Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013 Ibrahim Index of African Governance. It was ranked 39 out of 52 sub-Saharan African countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa. In 2019, homosexual acts were decriminalized in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining.Economy Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper, rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forest, and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resources. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped during the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002. Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of Angolan civil war to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average GDP growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007. In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest annual average GDP growth, at 11.1%. In 2004, the Exim Bank of China approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's infrastructure, and to limit the influence of the International Monetary Fund there. China is Angola's biggest trade partner and export destination as well as a significant source of imports. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly crude oil and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%. The oil glut led to a local price for unleaded gasoline of £0.37 a gallon. As of 2021, the biggest import partners were the European Union, followed by China, Togo, the United States, and Brazil. .]] Angola's financial system is maintained by the National Bank of Angola and managed by the governor Jose de Lima Massano. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by Deloitte, the monetary policy led by Banco Nacional de Angola (BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend. Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector. Angola was ranked 133rd in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. However, high poverty rates and blatant social inequality chiefly stems from persistent authoritarianism, "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of a pervasive corruption. The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth. "Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata that are about to become social classes. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities, where slightly more than 50% of the people reside. A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor" according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%. In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies. In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda. In the Human Development Index Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group. has grown with the country's economy and stability.]] In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the Luanda Leaks showed that U.S. consulting companies such as Boston Consulting Group, McKinsey & Company, and PricewaterhouseCoopers had helped members of the family of former President José Eduardo dos Santos (especially his daughter Isabel dos Santos) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland. After further revelations in the Pandora Papers, former generals Dias and do Nascimento and former presidential advisers were also accused of misappropriating significant public funds for personal benefit. The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression. One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the Angolan presence (including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy, telecommunications, and mass media has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of tourism enterprises. Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the country's development of oil resources. According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the civil war Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001. However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but has deepened in all respects. With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (US$6.8 billion), Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by Nigeria and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy, Abraão Gourgel, the financial market of the country grew modestly since 2002 and now occupies third place in sub-Saharan Africa. On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola was launched. BODIVA (Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives, in English) was allocated the secondary public debt market, and was expected to launch the corporate debt market by 2015, though the stock market itself was only expected to commence trading in 2016. Natural resources off the coast of central Angola]] The Economist reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's revenue and all of its dominant exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late 2005 and was expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC. In 2022, the country produced an average of 1.165 million barrels of oil per day, according to Agência Nacional de Petróleo, Gás e Biocombustíveis (ANPG), the national oil, gas and biofuels agency. According to the Heritage Foundation, a conservative American think tank, oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. "China has extended three multi-billion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from China International Fund Ltd." Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for corruption: according to a recent Human Rights Watch report, US$32 billion disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010. Furthermore, Sonangol, the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control, the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work program creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state." In 2002, Angola demanded compensation for oil spills allegedly caused by Chevron Corporation, the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters. Operations in its diamond mines include partnerships between state-run Endiama and mining companies such as ALROSA which operate in Angola. Access to biocapacity in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve. In addition, the World Bank estimates that "less than 3 per cent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited". Before independence in 1975, Angola was a bread-basket of southern Africa and a major exporter of bananas, coffee and sisal, but three decades of civil war destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with landmines and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and Portugal, while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty. Transport is the country's state-owned national carrier.]] Transport in Angola consists of: Three separate railway systems totalling of highway of which is paved 1,295 navigable inland waterways five major sea ports 243 airports, of which 32 are paved. Angola centers its port trade in five main ports: Namibe, Lobito, Soyo, Cabinda and Luanda. The port of Luanda is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent. Bridge in Benguela.]] Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Angola: the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway and the Beira-Lobito Highway. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternative tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The Angolan government has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union, and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made. The old airport in Luanda, Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, will be replaced by the new Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto International Airport. Telecommunications hosts a major seaport.]] 's construction boom is financed largely by oil and diamonds.]] The telecommunications industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola. In October 2014, the building of an optic fiber underwater cable was announced. This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally. On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in Luanda under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola", to promote debate on topical issues on telecommunications in Angola and worldwide. A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test LTE – with speeds up to 400 Mbit/s – and mobile penetration of about 75%; there are about 3.5 million smartphones in the Angolan market; There are about of optical fibre installed in the country. The first Angolan satellite, AngoSat-1, was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017. It was launched from the Baikonur space center in Kazakhstan on board a Zenit 3F rocket. The satellite was built by Russia's RSC Energia, a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player Roscosmos. The satellite payload was supplied by Airbus Defence & Space. Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on 27 December, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country. According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and e-government and was expected to remain in operation "at best" for 18 years. A replacement satellite named AngoSat-2 was pursued and was expected to be in service by 2020. As of February 2021, Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch was expected in about 17 months, by July 2022. The launch of AngoSat-2 occurred on 12 October 2022. Technology The management of the top-level domain '.ao' passed from Portugal to Angola in 2015, following new legislation. A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola".Demographics Angola has a population of 24,383,301 inhabitants according to the preliminary results of its 2014 census, the first one conducted or carried out since 15 December 1970. It is composed of Ovimbundu (language Umbundu) 37%, Ambundu (language Kimbundu) 23%, Bakongo 13%, and 32% other ethnic groups (including the Chokwe, the Ovambo, the Ganguela and the Xindonga) as well as about 2% mulattos (mixed European and African), 1.6% Chinese and 1% European. However, on 23 March 2016, official data revealed by Angola's National Statistic Institute – Instituto Nacional de Estatística (INE), states that Angola has a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s. there were an estimated 400,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo migrant workers, at least 220,000 Portuguese, and about 259,000 Chinese living in Angola. 1 million Angolans are mixed race (black and white). Also, 40,000 Vietnamese live in the country. Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese, but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola. The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants. Also, there is a small Brazilian community of about 5,000 people. The Roma were deported to Angola from Portugal. , the total fertility rate of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world. \| div_name = Province \| city_1 = Luanda \| div_1 = Luanda ProvinceLuanda \| pop_1 = 6,759,313 \| img_1 = Luanda Bay 5 - panoramio (cropped) (cropped).jpg \| city_2 = Lubango \|div_2 = Huíla ProvinceHuíla \| pop_2 = 600,751 \| img_2 = Lubango sight (cropped).jpg \| city_3 = Huambo \| div_3 = Huambo ProvinceHuambo \| pop_3 = 595,304 \| img_3 = Huambo Jardim da Cultura (cropped).jpg \| city_4 = Benguela \| div_4 = Benguela ProvinceBenguela \| pop_4 = 555,124 \| img_4 = Praia de Benguela (cropped).jpg \| city_5 = Cabinda (city)Cabinda \| div_5 = Cabinda ProvinceCabinda \| pop_5 = 550,000 \| city_6 = Malanje \| div_6 = Malanje ProvinceMalanje \| pop_6 = 455,000 \| city_7 = Saurimo \| div_7 = Lunda Sul ProvinceLunda Sul \| pop_7 = 393,000 \| city_8 = Lobito \| div_8 = Benguela ProvinceBenguela \| pop_8 = 357,950 \| city_9 = Cuíto \| div_9 = Bié ProvinceBié \| pop_9 = 355,423 \| city_10 = Uíge \| div_10 = Uíge ProvinceUíge \| pop_10 = 322,531 }} Languages In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the "syncretic" Tocoists and in the north-west a sprinkling of Kimbanguism can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of Pentecostal and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin. the U.S. Department of State estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population, while the Islamic Community of Angola puts the figure closer to 500,000. Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially Lebanon), although some are local converts. The Angolan government does not legally recognize any Muslim organizations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction. In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favoritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution. Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education. Health Epidemics of cholera, malaria, rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola. Demographic and Health Surveys is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more. In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola. The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in oncology, policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment. This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa. In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of vaccination against measles, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country. The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against polio and vitamin A supplementation. A yellow fever outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces. In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Angola has a serious level of hunger and ranks 103rd out of 127 countries. Angola's GHI score is 26.6 Education ]] Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers. Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies. By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%. 82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools, polytechnical institutes and universities in Portugal and Brazil through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites. ]] In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million Euros in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching". In 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising. The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country. At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries. Culture National Memorial in Luanda]] Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by Portuguese culture, especially in language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly Bantu culture. The diverse ethnic communities—the Ovimbundu, Ambundu, Bakongo, Chokwe, Mbunda and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in Luanda, since its foundation in the 16th century. In this urban culture, Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of Angolan authors. In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme "Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development. Media Cinema In 1972, one of Angola's first feature films, Sarah Maldoror's internationally co-produced Sambizanga, was released at the Carthage Film Festival to critical acclaim, winning the ''Tanit d'Or'', the festival's highest prize. Sports ]] Basketball is the second most popular sport in Angola. Its national team has won the AfroBasket 11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it is a regular competitor at the Summer Olympic Games and the FIBA World Cup. Angola is home to one of Africa's first competitive leagues. Bruno Fernando, a player for the Atlanta Hawks, is the only current NBA player from Angola. In football, Angola hosted the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations. The Angola national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, their first appearance in the World Cup finals. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won three COSAFA Cups and finished runner-up in the 2011 African Nations Championship. Angola has participated in the World Women's Handball Championship for several years. The country has also appeared in the Summer Olympics for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup, where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the martial art "Capoeira Angola" and "Batuque" which were practised by enslaved African Angolans transported as part of the Atlantic slave trade. See also Outline of Angola Index of Angola-related articles Notes References Further reading \|pages=38–40 }} * Birmingham, David (2006) Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors, Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio. * Bösl, Anton (2008) ''Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. [http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008] * Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening,'' The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. [http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening A Crude Awakening] * Hodges, Tony (2001). Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Oxford: James Currey. * Hodges, Tony (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press. * Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. [https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/ Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, January 2004)] * Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. [http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/ Coming Home: Return and Reintegration in Angola] * James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. * Kapuściński, Ryszard. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. . A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war. * Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2". Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106. * Lari, A. (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023754/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023828/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola".] African Security Review 13(4): 29–41. * Le Billon, Philippe (2005) Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola, Disasters 29(1): 1–25. * Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds". African Affairs (100): 55–80. * * MacQueen, Norrie An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976, Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp. 22–44 * Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). [https://web.archive.org/web/20130723154858/http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf Angola: Sacrifice of a People]. Luanda, Angola, MSF. * Mwakikagile, Godfrey Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response", pp. 324–346, . * Pearce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas". African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120305023855/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf Wayback Machine] * Porto, João Gomes (2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100821083212/http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war]. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. * Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. * Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch. External links * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/angola/ Angola]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080704131403/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/angola.htm Angola] from UCB Libraries GovPubs. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13036732 Angola profile] from the BBC News. * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=AO Key Development Forecasts for Angola] from International Futures. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120401150404/http://www.bti-project.org/country-reports/esa/ago/ Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2012 – Angola Country Report] Markus Weimer, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20120801221204/http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Africa/0312pp_weimer.pdf The Peace Dividend: Analysis of a Decade of Angolan Indicators, 2002–2012]". [https://www.academia.edu/12759680/The_participation_of_Hungarian_soldiers_in_UN_peacekeeping_operations_in_Angola The participation of Hungarian soldiers in UN peacekeeping operations in Angola] }} Category:1975 establishments in Angola Category:Central African countries Category:Countries in Africa Category:Former Portuguese colonies Category:Least developed countries Category:Former OPEC member states Category:Member states of the African Union Category:Member states of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Countries and territories where Portuguese is an official language Category:Republics Category:Southern African countries Category:States and territories established in 1975	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.286786
704	Demographics of Angola	<!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! --> Demographic features of the population of Angola include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects. According to 2014 census data, Angola had a population of 25,789,024 inhabitants in 2014. Ethnically, there are three main groups, each speaking a Bantu language: the Ovimbundu who represent 37% of the population, the Ambundu with 25%, and the Bakongo 11%. Other numerically important groups include the closely interrelated Chokwe and Lunda, the Ganguela and Nyaneka-Khumbi (in both cases classification terms that stand for a variety of small groups), the Ovambo, the Herero, the Xindonga and scattered residual groups of San. In addition, mixed race (European and African) people amount to about 7%, with nearly 1% of the population being whites, mainly ethnically Portuguese. As a former overseas territory of Portugal until 1975, Angola possesses a Portuguese population of over 200,000, a number that has been growing from 2000 onwards, because of Angola's growing demand for qualified human resources. Currently, Around 300,000 Angolans are white, around 500,000 Angolans are mixed race or black and white, and around 50,000 Angolans are from China. This accounts for around 850,000 people. In 1974, white Angolans made up a population of 350,000 people in an overall population of 6.3 million Angolans at that time. The only reliable source on these numbers is Gerald Bender & Stanley Yoder, Whites in Angola on the Eve of Independence: The Politics of Numbers, Africa Today, 21 (4) 1974, pp. 23 – 37. Today, many Angolans who are not ethnic Portuguese can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law. Estimates on the overall population are given in O Pais. Besides the Portuguese, significant numbers of people from other European and from diverse Latin American countries (especially Brazil) can be found. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up small businesses, while at least as many have come as workers for large enterprises (construction or other). Observers claim that the Chinese community in Angola might include as many as 300,000 persons at the end of 2010, but reliable statistics are not at this stage available. In 1974/75, over 25,000 Cuban soldiers arrived in Angola to help the MPLA forces at the beginning of the Angolan Civil War. Once this was over, a massive development cooperation in the field of health and education brought in numerous civil personnel from Cuba. However, only a very small percentage of all these people has remained in Angola, either for personal reasons (intermarriage) or as professionals (e.g., medical doctors). The largest religious denomination is Catholicism, to which adheres about half the population. Roughly 26% are followers of traditional forms of Protestantism (Congregationals, Methodists, Baptista, Lutherans, Reformed), but over the last decades there has in addition been a growth of Pentecostal communities and African Initiated Churches. In 2006, one out of 221 people were Jehovah's Witnesses. Africans from Mali, Nigeria and Senegal are mostly Sunnite Muslims, but do not make up more than 1 - 2% of the population. By now few Angolans retain African traditional religions following different ethnic faiths. Population According to the 2022 revision of the world factbook the total population was 34,795,287 in 2022. The proportion of children below the age of 14 in 2020 was 47.83%, 49.87% was between 15 and 65 years of age, while 2.3% was 65 years or older. \|titlestyle = background:#EEBC35; }} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 12 499 041 \| align="right" \| 13 289 983 \| align="right" \| 25 789 024 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 2 484 582 \| align="right" \| 2 513 566 \| align="right" \| 4 998 148 \| align="right" \| 19.38 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 2 062 888 \| align="right" \| 2 097 287 \| align="right" \| 4 160 174 \| align="right" \| 16.13 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 1 504 180 \| align="right" \| 1 533 993 \| align="right" \| 3 038 173 \| align="right" \| 11.78 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 1 222 700 \| align="right" \| 1 287 736 \| align="right" \| 2 510 436 \| align="right" \| 9.73 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 1 020 699 \| align="right" \| 1 153 802 \| align="right" \| 2 174 501 \| align="right" \| 8.43 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 913 726 \| align="right" \| 1 031 323 \| align="right" \| 1 945 050 \| align="right" \| 7.54 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 714 239 \| align="right" \| 789 281 \| align="right" \| 1 503 520 \| align="right" \| 5.83 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 654 408 \| align="right" \| 728 550 \| align="right" \| 1 382 959 \| align="right" \| 5.36 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 510 344 \| align="right" \| 539 742 \| align="right" \| 1 050 085 \| align="right" \| 4.07 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 417 953 \| align="right" \| 446 951 \| align="right" \| 864 904 \| align="right" \| 3.35 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 332 638 \| align="right" \| 376 532 \| align="right" \| 709 169 \| align="right" \| 2.75 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 229 641 \| align="right" \| 253 678 \| align="right" \| 483 319 \| align="right" \| 1.87 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 165 937 \| align="right" \| 190 217 \| align="right" \| 356 154 \| align="right" \| 1.38 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 95 614 \| align="right" \| 119 773 \| align="right" \| 215 387 \| align="right" \| 0.84 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 78 673 \| align="right" \| 101 494 \| align="right" \| 180 167 \| align="right" \| 0.70 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 39 257 \| align="right" \| 53 687 \| align="right" \| 92 944 \| align="right" \| 0.36 \|- \| align="right" \| 80–84 \| align="right" \| 28 351 \| align="right" \| 38 441 \| align="right" \| 66 792 \| align="right" \| 0.26 \|- \| align="right" \| 85–89 \| align="right" \| 9 967 \| align="right" \| 14 861 \| align="right" \| 24 828 \| align="right" \| 0.10 \|- \| align="right" \| 90–94 \| align="right" \| 7 603 \| align="right" \| 10 572 \| align="right" \| 18 175 \| align="right" \| 0.07 \|- \| align="right" \| 95+ \| align="right" \| 5 640 \| align="right" \| 8 498 \| align="right" \| 14 138 \| align="right" \| 0.05 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 6 051 650 \| align="right" \| 6 144 846 \| align="right" \| 12 196 496 \| align="right" \| 47.29 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 6 182 286 \| align="right" \| 6 797 811 \| align="right" \| 12 980 097 \| align="right" \| 50.33 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 265 105 \| align="right" \| 347 326 \| align="right" \| 612 431 \| align="right" \| 2.37 \|- \|} {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! width="80pt"\|Age Group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80pt"\|Female ! width="80pt"\|Total ! width="80pt"\|% \|- \| align="right" \| Total \| align="right" \| 15 168 180 \| align="right" \| 15 959 494 \| align="right" \| 31 127 674 \| align="right" \| 100 \|- \| align="right" \| 0–4 \| align="right" \| 2 499 013 \| align="right" \| 2 501 045 \| align="right" \| 5 000 058 \| align="right" \| 16.06 \|- \| align="right" \| 5–9 \| align="right" \| 2 486 762 \| align="right" \| 2 525 617 \| align="right" \| 5 012 379 \| align="right" \| 16.10 \|- \| align="right" \| 10–14 \| align="right" \| 2 109 413 \| align="right" \| 2 147 502 \| align="right" \| 4 256 915 \| align="right" \| 13.68 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–19 \| align="right" \| 1 646 467 \| align="right" \| 1 703 593 \| align="right" \| 3 350 060 \| align="right" \| 10.76 \|- \| align="right" \| 20–24 \| align="right" \| 1 324 586 \| align="right" \| 1 389 321 \| align="right" \| 2 713 907 \| align="right" \| 8.72 \|- \| align="right" \| 25–29 \| align="right" \| 1 080 096 \| align="right" \| 1 160 339 \| align="right" \| 2 240 435 \| align="right" \| 7.20 \|- \| align="right" \| 30–34 \| align="right" \| 893 015 \| align="right" \| 978 811 \| align="right" \| 1 871 826 \| align="right" \| 6.01 \|- \| align="right" \| 35–39 \| align="right" \| 743 420 \| align="right" \| 828 169 \| align="right" \| 1 571 589 \| align="right" \| 5.05 \|- \| align="right" \| 40–44 \| align="right" \| 618 724 \| align="right" \| 692 419 \| align="right" \| 1 311 143 \| align="right" \| 4.21 \|- \| align="right" \| 45–49 \| align="right" \| 503 305 \| align="right" \| 556 808 \| align="right" \| 1 060 113 \| align="right" \| 3.41 \|- \| align="right" \| 50–54 \| align="right" \| 401 888 \| align="right" \| 445 257 \| align="right" \| 847 145 \| align="right" \| 2.72 \|- \| align="right" \| 55–59 \| align="right" \| 304 199 \| align="right" \| 343 355 \| align="right" \| 647 554 \| align="right" \| 2.08 \|- \| align="right" \| 60–64 \| align="right" \| 222 814 \| align="right" \| 258 393 \| align="right" \| 481 207 \| align="right" \| 1.55 \|- \| align="right" \| 65–69 \| align="right" \| 148 455 \| align="right" \| 180 188 \| align="right" \| 328 643 \| align="right" \| 1.06 \|- \| align="right" \| 70–74 \| align="right" \| 93 883 \| align="right" \| 119 433 \| align="right" \| 213 316 \| align="right" \| 0.69 \|- \| align="right" \| 75–79 \| align="right" \| 53 235 \| align="right" \| 71 070 \| align="right" \| 124 305 \| align="right" \| 0.40 \|- \| align="right" \| 80+ \| align="right" \| 38 905 \| align="right" \| 58 174 \| align="right" \| 97 079 \| align="right" \| 0.31 \|- ! width="50"\|Age group ! width="80pt"\|Male ! width="80"\|Female ! width="80"\|Total ! width="50"\|Percent \|- \| align="right" \| 0–14 \| align="right" \| 7 095 188 \| align="right" \| 7 174 164 \| align="right" \| 14 269 352 \| align="right" \| 45.84 \|- \| align="right" \| 15–64 \| align="right" \| 7 738 514 \| align="right" \| 8 356 465 \| align="right" \| 16 094 979 \| align="right" \| 51.71 \|- \| align="right" \| 65+ \| align="right" \| 334 478 \| align="right" \| 428 865 \| align="right" \| 763 343 \| align="right" \| 2.45 \|- \|} Vital statistics Registration of vital events in Angola is not complete. The website Our World in Data prepared the following estimates based on statistics from the Population Department of the United Nations. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:right" \|- ! ! style="width:80pt;"\|Mid-year population (thousands) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Live births (thousands) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Deaths (thousands) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Natural change (thousands) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Crude birth rate (per 1000) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Crude death rate (per 1000) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Natural change (per 1000) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Total fertility rate (TFR) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Infant mortality (per 1000 live births) ! style="width:80pt;"\|Life expectancy (in years) \|- \|1950 \|4 478 \| 207 \| 119 \| 88 \|46.1 \|26.5 \|19.7 \|5.77 \|181.3 \|36.35 \|- \|1951 \| 4 570 \| 212 \| 122 \| 91 \|46.5 \|26.7 \|19.8 \|5.83 \|180.9 \|36.39 \|- \|1952 \| 4 664 \| 220 \| 125 \| 95 \|47.2 \|26.8 \|20.4 \|5.95 \|180.0 \|36.52 \|- \|1953 \| 4 759 \| 227 \| 128 \| 100 \|47.8 \|26.8 \|21.0 \|6.06 \|179.1 \|36.73 \|- \|1954 \| 4 850 \| 235 \| 130 \| 105 \|48.4 \|26.8 \|21.5 \|6.17 \|178.1 \|36.89 \|- \|1955 \| 4 938 \| 242 \| 133 \| 109 \|48.9 \|26.8 \|22.0 \|6.27 \|177.0 \|37.12 \|- \|1956 \| 5 022 \| 249 \| 136 \| 113 \|49.4 \|26.9 \|22.5 \|6.36 \|175.8 \|37.28 \|- \|1957 \| 5 104 \| 256 \| 138 \| 118 \|49.9 \|26.9 \|23.0 \|6.46 \|174.6 \|37.50 \|- \|1958 \| 5 186 \| 262 \| 140 \| 122 \|50.3 \|26.9 \|23.5 \|6.54 \|173.3 \|37.70 \|- \|1959 \| 5 270 \| 268 \| 142 \| 127 \|50.7 \|26.8 \|24.0 \|6.63 \|171.9 \|37.97 \|- \|1960 \| 5 357 \| 275 \| 143 \| 131 \|51.0 \|26.7 \|24.4 \|6.71 \|170.4 \|38.21 \|- \|1961 \| 5 441 \| 280 \| 150 \| 130 \|51.3 \|style="color:red" \|27.5 \|23.8 \|6.79 \|168.9 \|37.27 \|- \|1962 \| 5 521 \| 285 \| 151 \| 134 \|51.3 \|27.2 \|24.1 \|6.87 \|167.2 \|37.54 \|- \|1963 \| 5 600 \| 289 \| 152 \| 137 \|51.3 \|26.9 \|24.4 \|6.95 \|165.5 \|37.82 \|- \|1964 \| 5 673 \| 293 \| 152 \| 141 \|51.3 \|26.6 \|24.7 \|7.04 \|163.8 \|38.13 \|- \|1965 \| 5 737 \| 296 \| 151 \| 145 \|51.3 \|26.2 \|25.1 \|7.12 \|161.9 \|38.50 \|- \|1966 \| 5 787 \| 300 \| 151 \| 148 \|51.3 \|25.9 \|25.4 \|7.19 \|160.1 \|38.76 \|- \|1967 \| 5 828 \| 302 \| 151 \| 151 \|51.3 \|25.6 \|25.7 \|7.27 \|158.1 \|39.09 \|- \|1968 \| 5 868 \| 304 \| 149 \| 155 \|51.3 \|25.2 \|26.2 \|7.33 \|156.2 \|39.48 \|- \|1969 \| 5 928 \| 307 \| 148 \| 158 \|51.4 \|24.8 \|26.5 \|7.39 \|154.3 \|39.83 \|- \|1970 \| 6 030 \| 310 \| 148 \| 162 \|51.3 \|24.4 \|26.9 \|7.43 \|152.4 \|40.19 \|- \|1971 \| 6 177 \| 313 \| 148 \| 165 \|50.7 \|23.9 \|26.8 \|7.47 \|150.5 \|40.55 \|- \|1972 \| 6 365 \| 320 \| 149 \| 172 \|50.5 \|23.4 \|27.0 \|7.49 \|148.6 \|40.91 \|- \|1973 \| 6 578 \| 331 \| 151 \| 180 \|50.5 \|23.0 \|27.5 \|style="color:blue" \|7.50 \|146.8 \|41.27 \|- \|1974 \| 6 802 \| 342 \| 153 \| 189 \|50.5 \|22.6 \|27.9 \|7.50 \|145.0 \|41.65 \|- \|1975 \| 7 033 \| 354 \| 161 \| 194 \|50.5 \|22.9 \|27.6 \|7.49 \|144.6 \|41.19 \|- \|1976 \| 7 267 \| 366 \| 166 \| 201 \|50.5 \|22.8 \|27.7 \|7.49 \|143.6 \|41.16 \|- \|1977 \| 7 512 \| 378 \| 169 \| 209 \|50.5 \|22.6 \|28.0 \|7.48 \|142.0 \|41.44 \|- \|1978 \| 7 772 \| 392 \| 172 \| 220 \|50.6 \|22.2 \|28.4 \|7.47 \|140.5 \|41.83 \|- \|1979 \| 8 043 \| 407 \| 176 \| 231 \|50.7 \|21.9 \|28.8 \|7.46 \|139.1 \|42.18 \|- \|1980 \| 8 330 \| 423 \| 180 \| 242 \|50.9 \|21.7 \|29.2 \|7.46 \|137.8 \|42.45 \|- \|1981 \| 8 631 \| 440 \| 185 \| 255 \|51.1 \|21.5 \|29.6 \|7.46 \|136.5 \|42.77 \|- \|1982 \| 8 947 \| 458 \| 190 \| 268 \|51.3 \|21.2 \|30.1 \|7.46 \|135.2 \|43.05 \|- \|1983 \| 9 277 \| 477 \| 203 \| 274 \|51.6 \|22.0 \|29.6 \|7.46 \|136.1 \|42.09 \|- \|1984 \| 9 618 \| 498 \| 209 \| 289 \|51.9 \|21.8 \|30.1 \|7.46 \|135.0 \|42.35 \|- \|1985 \| 9 971 \| 519 \| 215 \| 304 \|52.1 \|21.6 \|30.6 \|7.45 \|134.0 \|42.65 \|- \|1986 \| 10 333 \| 538 \| 221 \| 317 \|style="color:blue" \|52.2 \|21.4 \|30.8 \|7.44 \|133.2 \|42.84 \|- \|1987 \| 10 694 \| 557 \| 245 \| 312 \|52.1 \|22.9 \|29.2 \|7.41 \|136.5 \|40.92 \|- \|1988 \| 11 060 \| 574 \| 247 \| 327 \|52.0 \|22.4 \|29.6 \|7.37 \|135.2 \|41.55 \|- \|1989 \| 11 439 \| 590 \| 253 \| 337 \|51.7 \|22.2 \|29.5 \|7.33 \|134.8 \|41.77 \|- \|1990 \| 11 829 \| 606 \| 260 \| 347 \|51.3 \|22.0 \|29.4 \|7.27 \|134.5 \|41.89 \|- \|1991 \| 12 229 \| 622 \| 250 \| 372 \|50.9 \|20.5 \|30.5 \|7.21 \|131.1 \|43.81 \|- \|1992 \| 12 633 \| 635 \| 273 \| 363 \|50.4 \|21.6 \|28.7 \|7.14 \|134.6 \|42.21 \|- \|1993 \| 13 038 \| 650 \| 279 \| 371 \|49.9 \|21.4 \|28.5 \|7.07 \|131.2 \|42.10 \|- \|1994 \| 13 462 \| 666 \| 274 \| 392 \|49.6 \|20.4 \|29.2 \|6.99 \|129.0 \|43.42 \|- \|1995 \| 13 912 \| 683 \| 262 \| 422 \|49.2 \|18.8 \|30.4 \|6.92 \|128.6 \|45.85 \|- \|1996 \| 14 383 \| 702 \| 268 \| 434 \|48.9 \|18.6 \|30.2 \|6.85 \|127.8 \|46.03 \|- \|1997 \| 14 871 \| 719 \| 273 \| 446 \|48.4 \|18.4 \|30.0 \|6.79 \|126.5 \|46.31 \|- \|1998 \| 15 367 \| 737 \| 293 \| 443 \|48.0 \|19.1 \|28.9 \|6.73 \|127.2 \|45.06 \|- \|1999 \| 15 871 \| 757 \| 296 \| 461 \|47.8 \|18.7 \|29.1 \|6.68 \|123.7 \|45.39 \|- \|2000 \| 16 394 \| 780 \| 299 \| 481 \|47.6 \|18.3 \|29.4 \|6.64 \|122.4 \|46.02 \|- \|2001 \| 16 942 \| 805 \| 301 \| 504 \|47.6 \|17.8 \|29.8 \|6.60 \|118.5 \|46.59 \|- \|2002 \| 17 516 \| 830 \|style="color:red" \| 302 \| 528 \|47.4 \|17.3 \|30.2 \|6.57 \|116.0 \|47.39 \|- \|2003 \| 18 124 \| 855 \| 286 \| 569 \|47.2 \|15.8 \|31.4 \|6.53 \|110.0 \|49.62 \|- \|2004 \| 18 771 \| 883 \| 284 \| 599 \|47.1 \|15.2 \|31.9 \|6.50 \|105.7 \|50.59 \|- \|2005 \| 19 451 \| 912 \| 282 \| 630 \|46.9 \|14.5 \|32.4 \|6.46 \|101.1 \|51.57 \|- \|2006 \| 20 162 \| 939 \| 281 \| 658 \|46.6 \|13.9 \|32.7 \|6.42 \|96.5 \|52.37 \|- \|2007 \| 20 910 \| 966 \| 274 \| 692 \|46.3 \|13.1 \|33.2 \|6.37 \|91.4 \|53.64 \|- \|2008 \| 21 692 \| 994 \| 270 \| 724 \|45.9 \|12.5 \|33.4 \|6.32 \|86.5 \|54.63 \|- \|2009 \| 22 508 \| 1 022 \| 265 \| 758 \|45.5 \|11.8 \|33.7 \|6.26 \|81.8 \|55.75 \|- \|2010 \| 23 364 \| 1 049 \| 261 \| 788 \|45.0 \|11.2 \|style="color:blue" \|33.8 \|6.19 \|77.2 \|56.73 \|- \|2011 \| 24 259 \| 1 074 \| 257 \| 817 \|44.4 \|10.6 \|33.7 \|6.12 \|73.0 \|57.60 \|- \|2012 \| 25 188 \| 1 103 \| 252 \| 851 \|43.9 \|10.0 \|33.8 \|6.04 \|68.8 \|58.62 \|- \|2013 \| 26 147 \| 1 130 \| 251 \| 879 \|43.3 \|9.6 \|33.7 \|5.95 \|65.2 \|59.31 \|- \|2014 \| 27 128 \| 1 156 \| 249 \| 907 \|42.7 \|9.2 \|33.5 \|5.86 \|62.0 \|60.04 \|- \|2015 \| 28 128 \| 1 181 \| 248 \| 933 \|42.0 \|8.8 \|33.2 \|5.77 \|59.4 \|60.66 \|- \|2016 \| 29 155 \| 1 205 \| 249 \| 956 \|41.4 \|8.6 \|32.8 \|5.69 \|57.0 \|61.09 \|- \|2017 \| 30 209 \| 1 231 \| 249 \| 983 \|40.8 \|8.2 \|32.6 \|5.60 \|54.9 \|61.68 \|- \|2018 \| 31 274 \| 1 257 \| 250 \| 1 008 \|40.2 \|8.0 \|32.2 \|5.52 \|53.0 \|62.14 \|- \|2019 \| 32 354 \| 1 284 \| 253 \| 1 032 \|39.7 \|7.8 \|31.9 \|5.44 \|51.3 \|62.45 \|- \|2020 \| 33 428 \| 1 313 \| 261 \| 1 051 \|39.3 \|7.8 \|31.5 \|5.37 \|49.6 \|62.26 \|- \|2021 \| 34 504 \| 1 339 \| 276 \| 1 063 \|\|38.8 \|8.0 \|30.8 \|5.30 \|48.1 \|61.64 \|- \|2022 \| 35 635 \| 1 358 \| 253 \| 1 105 \|38.1 \|7.1 \|31.0 \|5.21 \|50.2 \|61.7 \|- \|2023 \| 36 750 \| 1 381 \| 254 \| 1 127 \|style="color:red" \|37.6 \|6.9 \|30.7 \|style="color:red" \|5.12 \|48.6 \|62.1 \|- \|} Demographic and Health Surveys Total Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted TFR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR): {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! rowspan=2\| Year ! colspan=2\| Total ! colspan=2\| Urban ! colspan=2\| Rural \|- ! CBR !! TFR ! CBR !! TFR ! CBR !! TFR \|- \| 2006–2007 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 42.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 35.0 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 50.2 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 7.7 \|- \| 2011 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 45.5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.3 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 36.5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4.6 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 51.8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 7.7 \|- \| 2014 (census) \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.2 \| style="text-align:right;"\| \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.5 \|- \| 2015–16 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 43.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.2 (5.2) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 40.6 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 5.3 (4.4) \| style="text-align:right;"\| 48.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 8.2 (7.1) \|- \| 2023-24 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 33.7 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 4.8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 29.4 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 3.8 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 40.5 \| style="text-align:right;"\| 6.9 \|- \|} Ethnic groups Roughly 37% of Angolans are Ovimbundu, 25% are Ambundu, 13% are Bakongo, 7% are mestiço, 1-2% are white Africans, and people from other African ethnicities make up 22% of Angola's population. Romani people were deported to Angola from Portugal. Languages Portuguese is the official language of Angola, but Bantu and other African languages are also widely spoken. In fact, Kikongo, Kimbundu, Umbundu, Tuchokwe, Ganguela, and Ukanyama have the official status of "national languages". The mastery of Portuguese is widespread; in the cities the overwhelming majority are either fluent in Portuguese or have at least a reasonable working knowledge of this language; an increasing minority are native Portuguese speakers and have a poor, if any, knowledge of an African language. Religion Angola is a majority Christian country. Official statistics do not exist, however it is estimated that over 80% belong to a Christian church or community. More than half are Catholic, the remaining ones comprising members of traditional Protestant churches as well as of Pentecostal communities. Only 0.1% are Muslims - generally immigrants from other African countries. Some insider news says that there is an unofficial ban on Islam in Angola. Traditional indigenous religions are practiced by a very small minority, generally in peripheral rural societies. References Attribution: * * 2003 External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091005014319/http://www.worldmapper.org/countrycartograms/carto_ago.htm Population cartogram of Angola] Category:Society of Angola	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.341764
705	Politics of Angola	<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> The current political regime in Angola is presidentialism, in which the President of the Republic is also head of state and government; it is advised by a Council of Ministers, which together with the President form the national executive power. Legislative power rests with the 220 parliamentarians elected to the National Assembly. The President of the Republic, together with the parliament, appoints the majority of the members of the two highest bodies of the judiciary, that is, the Constitutional Court and the Supreme Court. The judiciary is still made up of the Court of Auditors and the Supreme Military Court. The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency with the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola. History Since the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, the politics of Angola takes place in a framework of a presidential republic, whereby the President of Angola is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the President, the government and parliament. Angola changed from a one-party Marxist-Leninist system ruled by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), in place since independence in 1975, to a multiparty democracy based on a new constitution adopted in 1992. That same year the first parliamentary and presidential elections were held. The MPLA won an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections. In the presidential elections, President José Eduardo dos Santos won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. A runoff election would have been necessary, but never took place. The renewal of civil war immediately after the elections, which were considered as fraudulent by UNITA, and the collapse of the Lusaka Protocol, created a split situation. To a certain degree the new democratic institutions worked, notably the National Assembly, with the active participation of UNITA's and the FNLA's elected MPs - while José Eduardo dos Santos continued to exercise his functions without democratic legitimation. However the armed forces of the MPLA (now the official armed forces of the Angolan state) and of UNITA fought each other until the leader of UNITA, Jonas Savimbi, was killed in action in 2002. From 2002 to 2010, the system as defined by the constitution of 1992 functioned in a relatively normal way. The executive branch of the government was composed of the President, the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all ministers and vice ministers, met regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces were appointed by and served at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 established the broad outlines of government structure and the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system was based on Portuguese and customary law but was weak and fragmented. Courts operated in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court served as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review was never constituted despite statutory authorization. In practice, power was more and more concentrated in the hands of the President who, supported by an ever-increasing staff, largely controlled parliament, government, and the judiciary. The 26-year-long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 6 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work. José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor. However, President João Lourenço started a campaign against corruption of the dos Santos era. In November 2017, Isabel dos Santos, the billionaire daughter of former President José Eduardo dos Santos, was fired from her position as head of the country's state oil company Sonangol. In August 2020, José Filomeno dos Santos, son of Angola's former president, was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption. In August 2022, the ruling party, MPLA, won another outright majority and President Joao Lourenco won a second five-year term in the election. However, the election was the tightest in Angola's history. Executive branch The 2010 constitution grants the President almost absolute power. Elections for the National assembly are to take place every five years, and the President is automatically the leader of the winning party or coalition. It is for the President to appoint (and dismiss) all of the following: * The members of the government (state ministers, ministers, state secretaries and vice-ministers); * The members of the Constitutional Court; * The members of the Supreme Court; * The members of the Court of Auditors; * The members of the Military Supreme Court; * The Governor and Vice-Governors of the National Angolan Bank; * The General-Attorney, the Vice-General-Attorneys and their deputies (as well as the military homologous); * The Governors of the provinces; * The members of the Republic Council; * The members of the National Security Council; * The members of the Superior Magistrates Councils; * The General Chief of the Armed Forces and his deputy; * All other command posts in the military; * The Police General Commander, and the 2nd in command; * All other command posts in the police; * The chiefs and directors of the intelligence and security organs. The President is also provided a variety of powers, like defining the policy of the country. Even though it's not up to him/her to make laws (only to promulgate them and make edicts), the President is the leader of the winning party. The only "relevant" post that is not directly appointed by the President is the vice-president, which is the second in the winning party. José Eduardo dos Santos stepped down as President of Angola after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by João Lourenço, Santos' chosen successor.Legislative branchThe National Assembly (Assembleia Nacional) has 223 members, elected for a four-year term, 130 members by proportional representation, 90 members in provincial districts, and 3 members to represent Angolans abroad. The general elections in 1997 were rescheduled for 5 September 2008. The ruling party MPLA won 82% (191 seats in the National Assembly) and the main opposition party won only 10% (16 seats). The elections however have been described as only partly free but certainly not fair. A White Book on the elections in 2008 lists up all irregularities surrounding the Parliamentary elections of 2008.Political parties and electionsJudicial branchSupreme Court (or "Tribunal da Relacao") judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president. The Constitutional Court, with the power of judicial review, contains 11 justices. Four are appointed by the President, four by the National Assembly, two by the Superior Council of the Judiciary, and one elected by the public.Administrative divisionsAngola has eighteen provinces: Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, ZairePolitical pressure groups and leaders Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC (Henrique N'zita Tiago; António Bento Bembe) * note: FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda ProvinceInternational organization participationAfrican, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States, AfDB, CEEAC, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, FAO, Group of 77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, International Criminal Court (signatory), ICFTU, International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, International Development Association, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, International Labour Organization, International Monetary Fund, International Maritime Organization, Interpol, IOC, International Organization for Migration, ISO (correspondent), ITU, Non-Aligned Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, World Customs Organization, World Federation of Trade Unions, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrOSee also* ReferencesFurther readingANGOLA LIVRO BRANCO SOBRE AS ELEIÇÕES DE 2008. http://www.kas.de/proj/home/pub/8/2/year-2009/dokument_id-17396/index.html Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ * Amundsen, I. (2011) Angola Party Politics: Into the African Trend. Angola Brief vol. 1 no. 9 [http://www.cmi.no/publications/file/4025-angola-party-politics-into-the-african-trend.pdf] External links *[http://www.cmi.no The Chr. Michelsen Institute] The largest centre for development research in Scandinavia. In particular, see their collaborative [http://www.cmi.no/angola/ Angola Programme].	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.348757
706	Economy of Angola	\| population 36,749,906 (2023) \| gdp = $113.286 billion (nominal, 2024 est.) * $374.940 billion (PPP, 2024 est.)}} \| per capita = $2,961 (nominal, 2024 est.)}} \| components \| inflation 28% (2024 est.) 53% on less than $3.65/day (2018)}} \| gini 51.3 (2018) \| hdi = 0.591 (2022) (149th) 0.392 IHDI (2018)}} \| labor = 15,315,118 (2023) 64.3% employment rate (2021)}} \| occupations = $36.961 billion (2023 est.) \| export-goods = crude petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, ships, refined petroleum \| export-partners = 40% 9% * 7% * 7% * 7% (2022)}} \| imports $23.676 billion (2023 est.) \| import-goods = refined petroleum, wheat, cars, poultry, palm oil \| import-partners = 24% 10% * 8% * 5% * 4% (2022)}} \| current account $4.21 billion (2023 est.) with reported annual average GDP growth of 11.1 percent from 2001 to 2010. High international oil prices and rising oil production contributed to strong economic growth, although with high inequality, at that time. 2022 trade surplus was $30 billion, compared to $48 billion in 2012. Corruption is rife throughout the economy and the country remains heavily dependent on the oil sector, which in 2017 accounted for over 90 percent of exports by value and 64 percent of government revenue. With the end of the oil boom, from 2015 Angola entered into a period of economic contraction. History The Angolan economy has been dominated by the production of raw materials and the use of cheap labor since European rule began in the sixteenth century. The Portuguese used Angola principally as a source for the thriving slave trade across the Atlantic; Luanda became the greatest slaving port in Africa. Prior to the First World War, exportation of coffee, palm kernels and oil, cattle, leather and hides, and salt fish joined the principal exports, with small quantities of gold and cotton also being produced. Grains, sugar, and rum were also produced for local consumption. The principal imports were foodstuffs, cotton goods, hardware, and British coal. Legislation against foreign traders was implemented in the 1890s. The territory's prosperity, however, continued to depend on plantations worked by labor "indentured" from the interior. Before World War II, the Portuguese government was concerned primarily with keeping its colonies self-sufficient and therefore invested little capital in Angola's local economy. Despite the increase in civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. 21st century , a daughter of a former Angolan president, for corruption which may have led to Angola's recession]] An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. Angola ranked 160 of 174 nations in the United Nations Human Development Index in 2000. and production was expected to grow to per year by 2007. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola to rebuild infrastructure. The economy grew 18% in 2005 and growth was expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. By 2020, Angola had a national debt of $76 billion, of which $20 billion is to China. The construction industry is taking advantage of the growing economy, with various housing projects stimulated by the government such as the Angola Investe program and the Casa Feliz or Meña projects. Not all public construction projects are functional. For example, Kilamba Kiaxi, where a whole new satellite town of Luanda, consisting of housing facilities for several hundreds of thousands of people, was completely uninhabited for over four years because of skyrocketing prices, but completely sold out after the government decreased the original price and created mortgage plans at around the election time and thus made it affordable for middle-class people. ChevronTexaco started pumping from Block 14 in January 2000, but production decreased to in 2007 due to poor-quality oil. Angola joined the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries on January 1, 2007. Overview Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. With revenues booming from oil exports, the government has started to implement ambitious development programs to build roads and other basic infrastructure for the nation. In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now imports almost all its food. Severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, have brought agricultural activities to a near-standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. Expanding oil production is now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at . Diamonds provided much of the revenue for Jonas Savimbi's UNITA rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and fruits. This is a chart of trend of nominal gross domestic product of Angola at market prices using International Monetary Fund data; figures are in millions of units. {\|class="wikitable" \|- !Year \|\| Gross Domestic Product ($1,000,000) \|\| US Dollar Exchange \|\| Per Capita Income<br/> (as % of USA) \|- \|1980 \|\| \|\| \|\| 6.33 \|- \|1985 \|\| \|\| \|\| 4.46 \|- \|1990 \|\| \|\| \|\| 4.42 \|- \|1995 \|\| 5,066 \|\| 14 Angolan Kwanza \|\| 1.58 \|- \|2000 \|\| 9,135 \|\| 91,666 Angolan Kwanza \|\| 1.96 \|- \|2005 \|\| 28,860 \|\| 2,515,452 Angolan Kwanza \|\| 4.73 \|} The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2023. Inflation below 5% is in green. {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" !Year !GDP<br /><small>(in bn. US$ PPP)</small> !GDP per capita<br /><small >(in US$ PPP)</small> !GDP <small>(in bn. US$ nominal)</small> !GDP growth<br /><small>(real)</small> !Inflation rate<br /><small>(in Percent)</small> !Government debt<br><small>(in % of GDP)</small> \|- \|1980 \|10.9 \|1,317 \|6.6 \|2.4% \|46.7% \|n/a \|- \|1981 \|11.4 \|1,341 \|6.2 \|−4.4% \|1.3% \|n/a \|- \|1982 \|12.1 \|1,388 \|6.2 \|0.0% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1983 \|13.1 \|1,464 \|6.5 \|4.2% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1984 \|14.4 \|1,567 \|6.9 \|6.0% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1985 \|15.4 \|1,484 \|8.5 \|3.5% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1986 \|16.1 \|1,515 \|7.9 \|2.9% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1987 \|17.2 \|1,576 \|9.1 \|4.1% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1988 \|18.9 \|1,685 \|9.8 \|6.1% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1989 \|19.6 \|1,705 \|11.4 \|0.0% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1990 \|19.7 \|1,664 \|12.6 \|−3.5% \|1.8% \|n/a \|- \|1991 \|22.8 \|1,865 \|12.2 \|1.0% \|85.3% \|n/a \|- \|1992 \|26.0 \|2,057 \|9.4 \|11.4% \|299.1% \|n/a \|- \|1993 \|29.6 \|2,067 \|6.8 \|10.7% \|1,379.5% \|n/a \|- \|1994 \|33.3 \|2,475 \|5.0 \|10.5% \|949.8% \|n/a \|- \|1995 \|37.5 \|2,698 \|6.2 \|10.4% \|2,672.2% \|n/a \|- \|1996 \|42.5 \|2,955 \|8.0 \|11.2% \|4,146.0% \|n/a \|- \|1997 \|46.4 \|3,120 \|9.4 \|7.3% \|221.9% \|n/a \|- \|1998 \|49.1 \|3,196 \|8.0 \|4.7% \|107.4% \|n/a \|- \|1999 \|50.9 \|3,207 \|7.5 \|2.2% \|248.2% \|n/a \|- \|2000 \|53.6 \|3,272 \|11.2 \|3.1% \|325.0% \|133.9% \|- \|2001 \|57.2 \|3,373 \|10.9 \|4.2% \|152.6% \|133.5% \|- \|2002 \|66.0 \|3,766 \|15.3 \|13.7% \|108.9% \|73.7% \|- \|2003 \|69.3 \|3,823 \|17.8 \|3.0% \|98.2% \|58.0% \|- \|2004 \|78.9 \|4,205 \|23.6 \|11.0% \|43.5% \|47.7% \|- \|2005 \|93.7 \|4,815 \|37.0 \|15.0% \|23.0% \|33.5% \|- \|2006 \|107.7 \|5,341 \|52.4 \|11.5% \|13.3% \|18.7% \|- \|2007 \|126.1 \|6,030 \|65.3 \|14.0% \|12.2% \|21.0% \|- \|2008 \|142.9 \|6,586 \|88.5 \|11.2% \|12.5% \|31.4% \|- \|2009 \|145.0 \|6,443 \|70.3 \|0.9% \|13.7% \|56.2% \|- \|2010 \|153.9 \|6,586 \|83.8 \|4.9% \|14.5% \|37.2% \|- \|2011 \|162.5 \|6,700 \|111.8 \|3.5% \|13.5% \|29.6% \|- \|2012 \|186.1 \|7,389 \|128.1 \|8.5% \|10.3% \|26.7% \|- \|2013 \|199.9 \|7,644 \|136.7 \|5.0% \|8.8% \|33.1% \|- \|2014 \|220.4 \|8,123 \|145.7 \|4.8% \|7.3% \|39.8% \|- \|2015 \|204.6 \|7,274 \|116.2 \|0.9% \|9.2% \|57.1% \|- \|2016 \|204.9 \|7,027 \|101.1 \|−2.6% \|30.7% \|75.7% \|- \|2017 \|217.8 \|7,210 \|122.0 \|−0.2% \|29.8% \|69.3% \|- \|2018 \|220.1 \|7,038 \|101.4 \|−1.3% \|16.6% \|93.0% \|- \|2019 \|222.5 \|6,877 \|84.5 \|−0.7% \|17.1% \|113.6% \|- \|2020 \|212.7 \|6,362 \|57.1 \|−5.6% \|22.3% \|138.9% \|- \|2021 \|224.9 \|6,518 \|74.9 \|1.2% \|25.8% \|86.8% \|- \|2022 \|248.1 \|6,944 \|122.8 \|3.0% \|21.4% \|66.7% \|- \|2023 \|260.3 \|7,077 \|93.8 \|1.3% \|13.1% \|84.9% \|} Agriculture Angola produced, in 2018: * 8.6 million tons of cassava (8th largest producer in the world); * 3.5 million tons of banana (7th largest producer in the world, or the 10th largest, if we consider together with plantain); * 2.2 million tons of maize; * 1.2 million tons of sweet potato (10th largest producer in the world); * 806 thousand tons of potato; * 597 thousand tons of pineapple (13th largest producer in the world); * 572 thousand tons of sugarcane; * 355 thousand tons of cabbage; * 314 thousand tons of beans; * 280 thousand tons of palm oil; * 154 thousand tons of peanut; In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products, like coffee (16 thousand tons). Foreign trade Exports in 2004 reached US$10,530,764,911. The vast majority of Angola's exports, 92% in 2004, are petroleum products. US$785 million worth of diamonds, 7.5% of exports, were sold abroad that year. Nearly all of Angola's oil goes to the United States, in 2006, making it the eighth largest supplier of oil to the United States, and to China, in 2006. In the first quarter of 2008, Angola became the main exporter of oil to China. The rest of its petroleum exports go to Europe and Latin America. From the 2000s, many Chinese have settled and started up businesses. Resources Petroleum Angola produces and exports more petroleum than any other nation in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassing Nigeria first in the 2000s, then in 2022. In January 2007 Angola became a member of OPEC, before leaving in December 2023, as they wanted to expand their oil production. Under the Lourenço since 2017, the country has made efforts to incentive investments and reverse declining production, resulting in fresh investments made by international oil companies. Chevron Corporation, TotalEnergies., ExxonMobil, Eni, and BP all operate in the country and represent a vast majority of daily production. Block 17, operated by TotalEnergies, is Angola's biggest producing asset and is known as the Golden Block. The French major is currently executing several subsea tieback projects there, including CLOV 3 and Begonia, whose final investment decisions (FIDs) were taken in 2022. The United Nations has criticized the Angolan government for using torture, rape, summary executions, arbitrary detention, and disappearances, actions which Angolan government has justified on the need to maintain oil output. Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports 7% of its oil from Angola, about three times as much as it imported from Kuwait just prior to the Gulf War in 1991. The U.S. Government has invested US$4 billion in Angola's petroleum sector. Oil makes up over 90% of Angola's exports. Diamonds Angola is the third largest producer of diamonds in Africa and has only explored 40% of the diamond-rich territory within the country, but has had difficulty in attracting foreign investment because of corruption, human rights violations, and diamond smuggling. Production rose by 30% in 2006 and Endiama, the national diamond company of Angola, expects production to increase by 8% in 2007 to 10 million carats annually. The government is trying to attract foreign companies to the provinces of Bié, Malanje and Uíge. The Angolan government loses $375 million annually from diamond smuggling. In 2003, the government began Operation Brilliant, an anti-smuggling investigation that arrested and deported 250,000 smugglers between 2003 and 2006. Rafael Marques, a journalist and human rights activist, described the diamond industry in his 2006 ''Angola's Deadly Diamonds'' report as plagued by "murders, beatings, arbitrary detentions and other human rights violations." Marques called on foreign countries to boycott Angola's "conflict diamonds". In December 2014, the Bureau of International Labor Affairs issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor that classified Angola as one of the major diamond-producing African countries relying on both child labor and forced labor. The U.S. Department of Labor reported that "there is little publicly available information on [Angola's] efforts to enforce child labor law". Diamonds accounted for 1.48% of Angolan exports in 2014. Iron Under Portuguese rule, Angola began mining iron in 1957, producing 1.2 million tons in 1967 and 6.2 million tons by 1971. In the early 1970s, 70% of Portuguese Angola's iron exports went to Western Europe and Japan.<ref name"diaexploration"/> After independence in 1975, the Angolan Civil War (1975–2002) destroyed most of the territory's mining infrastructure. The redevelopment of the Angolan mining industry started in the late 2000s.See also Banco Espírito Santo Angola United Nations Economic Commission for Africa References Further reading McCormick, Shawn H. The Angolan Economy: Prospects for Growth in a Postwar Environment, 1994. OECD, International Energy Agency. Angola: Towards an Energy Strategy, 2006. External links [https://web.archive.org/web/20000816233248/http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/an/p0005.htm MBendi overview of Angola] [http://www.trademap.org/open_access/Index.aspx?proceedtrue&reporter024 Angola latest trade data on ITC Trade Map] [http://www.cotecna.com/en/Tools/~/media/Documents/Datasheets%20-%20Factsheets/Angola/Angola-Cotecna-Datasheet.ashx Exports to Angola Datasheet] * Angola Category:Blood diamonds Angola Angola	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.401424
708	Transport in Angola	Transport in Angola comprises: Roads Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Angola: the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway the Beira-Lobito Highway Map of Trans-African Highways.PNG\|Map of Trans-African Highways. Walking home.jpg\|Walking home on EN 105. Tired are they.jpg\|Donkey-drawn carts. Transportation Jingu.jpg\|Three-wheeled motorcycles. The riches transportation.jpg\|Trucks. Midd Town Luanda.jpg\|Automobiles in Luanda. The Nowhere road.jpg\|New highway (2019). Railways There are three separate railway lines in Angola: Luanda Railway (CFL) (northern); Benguela Railway (CFB) (central), operated by the Lobito Atlantic Railway joint venture; Moçâmedes Railway (CFM) (southern); Reconstruction of these three lines began in 2005 and they are now all operational. The Benguela Railway connects to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Waterways 1,300 km navigable (2008) country comparison to the world: 36 Pipelines gas 352 km; liquid petroleum gas 85 km; crude oil 1,065 km (2013) In April 2012, the Zambian Development Agency (ZDA) and an Angolan company signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) to build a multi-product pipeline from Lobito to Lusaka, Zambia, to deliver various refined products to Zambia. Angola plans to build an oil refinery in Lobito in the coming years. Ports and harbors thumb\|Ship loading minerals at Moçâmedes harbour, Angola The government plans to build a deep-water port at Barra do Dande, north of Luanda, in Bengo province near Caxito. Merchant marine total: 58 country comparison to the world: 115 by type: cargo 13, oil tanker 8, other 37 (2008) Airports 102 (2021) thumb\|Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto International Airport The old airport in Luanda, Quatro de Fevereiro Airport, will be replaced by the new Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto International Airport. Airports – with paved runways total: 30 over 3,047 m: 5 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8 1,524 to 2,437 m: 12 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 1 (2008) Airports – with unpaved runways total: 181 (2008) over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 32 914 to 1,523 m: 100 under 914 m: 42 (2008) Angolan Airlines TAAG Angola Airlines Sonair Fly Angola Heliports total: 1 (2021) References	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.406824
709	Angolan Armed Forces	\| image \| alt \| caption \| image2 Angolan_Armed_Forces_emblem.png \| alt2 \| caption2 \| motto \| founded \| current_form = 1993 \| disbanded \| branches Angolan Army<br> Angolan Navy<br> National Air Force \| headquarters Ministry of National Defence, Rua 17 de Setembro, Luanda, Angola \| flying_hours \| website \| commander-in-chief = President João Lourenço \| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief \| chief minister \| chief minister_title \| minister = João Ernesto dos Santos \| minister_title = Minister of National Defence and Homeland Veterans \| chief_of_staff \| chief_of_staff_title \| commander = General António Egídio de Sousa Santos \| commander_title = Chief of General Staff <!-- Manpower --> \| age \| conscription 24 months \| ranked \| reserve \| deployed = <!-- Financial --> \| amount $7 billion (2014) \| percent_GDP = 5.25% (2014) <!-- Industrial --> \| domestic_suppliers \| foreign_suppliers \| imports <br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/><br/> \| exports = <!-- Related articles --> \| history = Angolan War of Independence <br /> South African Border War <br /> Angolan Civil War <br /> First Congo War <br /> Republic of the Congo Civil War <br /> Second Congo War <br /> 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état \| ranks = Military ranks of Angola }} The Angolan Armed Forces () or FAA is the military of Angola. The FAA consist of the Angolan Army (), the Angolan Navy () and the National Air Force of Angola (). Reported total manpower in 2021 was about 107,000. Branches Army The Army (Exército) is the land component of the FAA. It is organized in six military regions (Cabinda, Luanda, North, Center, East and South), with an infantry division being based in each one. Distributed by the six military regions / infantry divisions, there are 25 motorized infantry brigades, one tank brigade and one engineering brigade. The Army also includes an artillery regiment, the Military Artillery School, the Army Military Academy, an anti-aircraft defense group, a composite land artillery group, a military police regiment, a logistical transportation regiment and a field artillery brigade. The Army further includes the Special Forces Brigade (including Commandos and Special Operations units), but this unit is under the direct command of the General Staff of the FAA. Air Force The National Air Force of Angola (FANA, Força Aérea Nacional de Angola) is the air component of the FAA. It is organized in six aviation regiments, each including several squadrons. To each of the regiments correspond an air base. Besides the aviation regiments, there is also a Pilot Training School. The Air Force's personnel total about 8,000; its equipment includes transport aircraft and six Russian-manufactured Sukhoi Su-27 fighter aircraft. In 2002, one was lost during the civil war with UNITA forces. In 1991, the Air Force/Air Defense Forces had 8,000 personnel and 90 combat-capable aircraft, including 22 fighters, 59 fighter ground attack aircraft and 16 attack helicopters. Navy The Angola Navy (MGA, Marinha de Guerra de Angola) is the naval component of the FAA. It is organized in two naval zones (North and South), with naval bases in Luanda, Lobito and Moçâmedes. It includes a Marines Brigade and a Marines School, based in Ambriz. The Navy numbers about 1,000 personnel and operates only a handful of small patrol craft and barges. The Navy has been neglected and ignored as a military arm mainly due to the guerrilla struggle against the Portuguese and the nature of the civil war. From the early 1990s to the present the Angolan Navy has shrunk from around 4,200 personnel to around 1,000, resulting in the loss of skills and expertise needed to maintain equipment. Portugal has been providing training through its Technical Military Cooperation (CTM) programme. The Navy is requesting procurement of a frigate, three corvettes, three offshore patrol vessel and additional fast patrol boats. Most of the vessels in the navy's inventory dates back from the 1980s or earlier, and many of its ships are inoperable due to age and lack of maintenance. However the navy acquired new boats from Spain and France in the 1990s. Germany has delivered several Fast Attack Craft for border protection in 2011. In September 2014 it was reported that the Angolan Navy would acquire seven Macaé-class patrol vessels from Brazil as part of a Technical Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) covering the production of the vessels as part of Angola's Naval Power Development Programme (Pronaval). The military of Angola aims to modernize its naval capability, presumably due to a rise in maritime piracy within the Gulf of Guinea which may have an adverse effect on the country's economy. The navy's current known inventory includes the following: * Fast attack craft ** 4 Mandume class craft (Bazan Cormoran type, refurbished in 2009) * Patrol boats 3 18.3m long Patrulheiro patrol boats (refurbished in 2002) 5 ARESA PVC-170 ** 2 Namacurra-class harbour patrol boats * Fisheries Patrol Boats Ngola Kiluange and Nzinga Mbandi (delivered in September and October 2012 from Damen Shipyards)(Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) 28-metre FRV 2810 (Pensador) (Operated by Navy personnel under the Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fisheries) * Landing craft ** LDM-400 – 1 or 3 (reportedly has serviceability issues) * Coastal defense equipment (CRTOC) ** SS-C1 Sepal radar system The navy also has several aircraft for maritime patrol: {\| class="wikitable" ! Aircraft ! Origin ! Type ! Versions ! In service ! Notes \|- \| Fokker F27 \| Netherlands \| Medium transport \| \| 2 \| \|- \| EMB 111 \| Brazil \| Maritime patrol \| \| 6 \| \|- \| Boeing 707 \| United States \| Maritime patrol \| \| 1 \| \|- \|} Specialized units Special forces The FAA include several types of special forces, namely the Commandos, the Special Operations and the Marines. The Angolan special forces follow the general model of the analogous Portuguese special forces, receiving similar training. The Commandos and the Special forces are part of the Special Forces Brigade (BRIFE, Brigada de Forças Especiais), based at Cabo Ledo, in the Bengo Province. The BRIFE includes two battalions of commandos, a battalion of special operations and sub-units of combat support and service support. The BRIFE also included the Special Actions Group (GAE, Grupo de Ações Especiais), which is presently inactive and that was dedicated to long range reconnaissance, covert and sabotage operations. In the Cabo Ledo base is also installed the Special Forces Training School (EFFE, Escola de Formação de Forças Especiais). Both the BRIFE and the EFFE are directly under the Directorate of Special Forces of the General Staff of the Armed Forces. The marines (fuzileiros navais) constitute the Marines Brigade of the Angolan Navy. The Marines Brigade is not permanently dependent of the Directorate of Special Forces, but can detach their units and elements to be put under the command of that body for the conduction of exercises or real operations. The Marines have a special forces unit known as Special Operations Marines(FOE, Fuzileiros Operaçües Especiais). Since the disbandment of the Angolan Parachute Battalion in 2004, the FAA do not have a specialized paratrooper unit. However, elements of the commandos, special operations and marines are parachute qualified. Territorial troops The Directorate of People's Defense and Territorial Troops of the Defence Ministry or ODP was established in late 1975. It had 600,000 members, having personnel in virtually every village by 1979. It had both armed and unarmed units dispersed in villages throughout the country. The People's Vigilance Brigades () also serve a similar purpose. Training establishments Armed Forces Academy The Military Academy () is a military university public higher education establishment whose mission is to train officers of the Permanent Staff of the Army. It has been in operation since 21 August 2009 by presidential decree. Its headquarters are in Lobito. It trains in the following specialties: Infantry Tanks Land Artillery Anti-Air Defense Military Engineering Logistics Telecommunications Hidden Direction of Troops Military Administration Armament and Technique Chemical Defense Operational Military Intelligence Technical Repair and Maintenance Platoon of Auto and Armored Technique Navy Naval War Institute (INSG) * Naval Academy * Naval Specialist School Air Force * Angolan Military Aviation School * Pilot Basic Training School (Lobito) Institutions/other units Museum of the Armed Forces Military Hospitals The Military hospital of the FAA is the Main Military Hospital. It has the following lineage: * 1961 – Evacuation Infirmary * 1962 – Military Hospital of Luanda * 1975 – Military Hospital * 1976 – Central Military Hospital * 1989 – Main Military Hospital It provides specialized medical assistance in accordance with the military health system; It also promotes post-graduate education and scientific research. Currently, the Main Military Hospital serves 39 special medical specialties. It is a headed by a Director General whose main supporting body is the board of directors. Supreme Military Court The Supreme Military Court is the highest organ of the hierarchy of military courts. The Presiding Judge, the Deputy Presiding Judge and the other Counselor Judges of the Supreme Military Court are appointed by the President of the Republic. The composition, organization, powers and functioning of the Supreme Military Court are established by law. Military Bands The FAA maintains Portuguese-style military bands in all three branches and in individual units. The primary band is the 100-member Music Band of the Presidential Security Household. The music band of the Army Command was created on 16 June 1994 and four years later, on 15 August 1998, the National Air Force created a music band within an artistic brigade. The navy has its own marching band, as well as a small musical group known as Banda 10 de Julho (10 July Band), based at the Luanda Naval Base. Foreign deployments The FAPLA's main counterinsurgency effort was directed against UNITA in the southeast, and its conventional capabilities were demonstrated principally in the undeclared South African Border War. The FAPLA first performed its external assistance mission with the dispatch of 1,000 to 1,500 troops to São Tomé and Príncipe in 1977 to bolster the socialist regime of President Manuel Pinto da Costa. During the next several years, Angolan forces conducted joint exercises with their counterparts and exchanged technical operational visits. The Angolan expeditionary force was reduced to about 500 in early 1985. The Angolan Armed Forces were controversially involved in training the armed forces of fellow Lusophone states Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau. In the case of the latter, the 2012 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état was cited by the coup leaders as due to Angola's involvement in trying to "reform" the military in connivance with the civilian leadership. Occasionally skirmishes on the DRC-Angola border happening, sometimes also in connection with the Cabinda conflict. In 2020 one Angolan soldier died after a gun battle with congolese forces in Kasai region on DRC territory. A presence during the unrest in Ivory Coast, 2010–2011, were not officially confirmed. However, the , citing Jeune Afrique, said that among President Gbagbo's guards were 92 personnel of President Dos Santos's Presidential Guard Unit. Angola is basically interested in the participation of the FAA operations of the African Union and has formed special units for this purpose. In 2021, the Angolan Parliament approved integration of FAA into Southern African Development Community (SADC)'s mission for peace in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique. Angola sent a team of 20 officers to participate.ReferencesFurther reading* Human Rights Watch, [https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/angola/ Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process], October 1999 Utz Ebertz and Marie Müller, Legacy of a resource-fueled war: The role of generals in Angola's mining sector, BICC Focus, June 2013 Area Handbook for Angola, August 1967, Angola, A Country Study (1979 and 1991) Rocky Williams, "National defence reform and the African Union." SIPRI Yearbook 2004: 231–249. Weigert, Stephen L. Angola: a modern military history, 1961–2002. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. Martin Rupiya et al., 'Angola', in Evolutions and Revolutions The Twenty-Seventh of May: An Historical Note on the Abortive 1977 "coup" in Angola David Birmingham, African Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 309 (Oct. 1978), pp. 554–564 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society External links [http://www.minden.gov.ao/Default.aspx Official site of the Angolan Ministry of National Defence] [https://web.archive.org/web/20071007115647/http://worldnavies.glt.pl/ World Navies] [https://web.archive.org/web/20150924075242/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4106/is_200412/ai_n10298510 Brinkman, Inge "Language, Names, and War: The Case of Angola", African Studies Review] Category:Military of Angola Category:Military history of Angola Category:Angolan Civil War Category:1991 establishments in Angola Category:Military units and formations established in 1991	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angolan_Armed_Forces	2025-04-05T18:25:20.418628
710	Foreign relations of Angola	The foreign relations of Angola are based on Angola's strong support of U.S. foreign policy as the Angolan economy is dependent on U.S. foreign aid. From 1975 to 1989, Angola was aligned with the Eastern bloc, in particular the Soviet Union, Libya, and Cuba. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA during the Civil War that ended in 2002. {\| class="wikitable sortable" ! colspan="3" \| \|- !# !Country !Date \|- \|1 \| \| \|- \|2 \| \| \|- \|3 \| \| \|- \|4 \| \| \|- \|5 \| \| \|- \|6 \| \| \|- \|7 \| \| \|- \|8 \| \| \|- \|9 \| \| \|- \|10 \| \| \|- \|11 \| \| \|- \|12 \| \| \|- \|13 \| \| \|- \|14 \| \| \|- \|15 \| \| \|- \|16 \| \| \|- \|17 \| \| \|- \|18 \| \| \|- \|19 \| \| \|- \|20 \| \| \|- \|21 \| \| \|- \|22 \| \| \|- \|23 \| \| \|- \|24 \| \| \|- \|25 \| \| \|- \|26 \| \| \|- \|27 \| \| \|- \|28 \| \| \|- \|29 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|30 \| \| \|- \|31 \| \| \|- \|32 \| \| \|- \|33 \| \| \|- \|34 \| \| \|- \|35 \| \| \|- \|36 \| \| \|- \|37 \| \| \|- \|38 \| \| \|- \|39 \| \| \|- \|40 \| \| \|- \|41 \| \| \|- \|42 \| \| \|- \|43 \| \| \|- \|44 \| \| \|- \|45 \| \| \|- \|46 \| \| \|- \|47 \| \| \|- \|48 \| \| \|- \|49 \| \| \|- \|50 \| \| \|- \|51 \| \| \|- \|52 \| \| \|- \|53 \| \| \|- \|54 \| \| \|- \|55 \| \| \|- \|56 \| \| \|- \|57 \| \| \|- \|58 \| \| \|- \|59 \| \| \|- \|60 \| \| \|- \|61 \| \| \|- \|62 \| \| \|- \|63 \| \| \|- \|64 \| \| \|- \|65 \| \| \|- \|66 \| \| \|- \|67 \| \| \|- \|68 \| \| \|- \|69 \| \| \|- \|70 \| \| \|- \|71 \| \| \|- \|72 \| \| \|- \|73 \| \| \|- \|74 \| \| \|- \|75 \| \| \|- \|76 \| \| \|- \|77 \| \| \|- \|78 \| \| \|- \|79 \| \| \|- \|80 \| \| \|- \|81 \| \| \|- \|82 \| \| \|- \|84 \| \| \|- \|88 \| \| \|- \|89 \| \| \|- \|90 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|91 \| \| \|- \|92 \| \| \|- \|93 \| \| \|- \|94 \| \| \|- \|95 \| \| \|- \|96 \| \| \|- \|97 \| \| \|- \|98 \| \| \|- \|99 \| \| \|- \|100 \| \| \|- \|101 \| \| \|- \|102 \| \| \|- \|103 \| \| \|- \|104 \| \| \|- \|105 \| \| \|- \|106 \| \| \|- \|107 \| \| \|- \|108 \| \| \|- \|109 \| \| \|- \|110 \| \| \|- \|111 \| \| \|- \|112 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|113 \| \| \|- \|114 \| \| \|- \|115 \| \| \|- \|116 \| \| \|- \|117 \| \| \|- \|118 \| \| \|- \|119 \| \| \|- \|120 \| \| \|- \|121 \| \| \|- \|122 \| \| \|- \|123 \| \| \|- \|124 \| \| \|- \|125 \| \| \|- \|126 \| \| \|- \|127 \| \| \|- \|128 \| \| \|- \|129 \| \| \|- \|130 \| \| \|- \|131 \| \| \|- \|132 \| \| \|- \|133 \| \| \|- \|134 \| \| \|- \|135 \| \| \|- \|136 \| \| \|- \|137 \| \| \|- \|138 \| \| \|- \|139 \| \| \|- \|140 \| \| \|- \|— \| \| \|- \|141 \| \| \|- \|142 \| \| \|- \|143 \| \| \|- \|144 \| \| \|- \|145 \| \| \|- \|146 \| \| \|- \|147 \| \| \|- \|148 \| \| \|- \|149 \| \| \|- \|150 \| \| \|- \|151 \| \| \|- \|152 \| \| \|- \|153 \| \| \|- \|154 \| \| \|- \|155 \| \| \|- \|156 \| \| \|- \|157 \| \| \|- \|158 \| \| \|- \|159 \| \| \|- \|160 \| \| \|- \|161 \| \| \|- \|162 \| \| \|- \|163 \| \| \|- \|164 \| \| \|- \|165 \| \| \|- \|166 \| \| \|- \|167 \| \| \|- \|168 \| \| \|- \|169 \| \| \|- \|170 \| \| \|- \|171 \| \| \|- \|172 \| \| \|- \|173 \| \| \|} Bilateral relations Africa {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;" \|- ! style="width:15%;" \| Country ! style="width:12%;" \| Formal Relations Began !Notes \|- valign="top" \|\|\|30 October 1977 * Angola has an embassy in Praia. * Cape Verde has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate in Benguela. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|17 October 1978 "We never challenged the expulsions themselves; we challenged the way they were being conducted – all the beating of people and looting their goods, even sometimes their clothes," Mende said. * Angola has an embassy in Kinshasa. * DR Congo has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|<!--Date started-->\|\|See Angola–Kenya relations * Angola has an embassy in Nairobi. * Kenya has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|5 July 1975 This affected the Angolan Civil War that had been ongoing since Angola's independence in 1975. Namibia's ruling party SWAPO sought to support the ruling party MPLA in Angola against the rebel movement UNITA, whose stronghold is in southern Angola, bordering to Namibia. The defence pact allowed Angolan troops to use Namibian territory when attacking Jonas Savimbi's UNITA. * Angola has an embassy in Windhoek and consulates-general in Oshakati and Rundu. * Namibia has an embassy in Luanda and consulates-general in Menongue and Ondjiva. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|15 March 1976 See Angola–Argentina relations * Angola has an embassy in Buenos Aires. * Argentina has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|<!--Date started-->12 November 1975 * Angola has an embassy in Brasília and consulates-general in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. * Brazil has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|1 February 1978\|\| Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 February 1978 Canada-Angola relations were established in 1978, and Canada is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe. Ties have grown since the end of the civil war in 2002, with increased engagement in areas of mutual interest. As Chair of the United Nations Security Council's Angola Sanctions Committee, Canada limited the ability of UNITA to continue its military campaign, sanctions helped to bring a ceasefire agreement to end Angola's conflict. * Angola is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States. * Canada is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Harare, Zimbabwe and maintains an honorary consulate in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|15 November 1975 * Angola has an embassy in Havana. * Cuba has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|20 February 1976\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 February 1976 See Angola–Mexico relations * Angola is accredited to Mexico from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States. * Mexico is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa and maintains an honorary consulate in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|14 July 1994\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 July 1994 See Angola–United States relations From the mid-1980s through at least 1992, the United States was the primary source of military and other support for the UNITA rebel movement, which was led from its creation through 2002 by Jonas Savimbi. The U.S. refused to recognize Angola diplomatically during this period. Relations between the United States of America and the Republic of Angola (formerly the People's Republic of Angola) have warmed since Angola's ideological renunciation of Communism before the 1992 elections. * Angola has an embassy in Washington, D.C., and consulates-general in Houston and New York City. * United States has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|6 March 1987\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 March 1987 See Angola–Uruguay relations * Angola has a consulate-general in Montevideo. * Uruguay is accredited to Angola from its embassy in Pretoria, South Africa. \|} Asia {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;" \|- ! style="width:15%;" \| Country ! style="width:12%;" \| Formal Relations Began !Notes \|- valign="top" \|\|\|12 January 1983\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 January 1983 See Angola–China relations Chinese prime minister Wen Jiabao visited Angola in June 2006, offering a US$9 billion loan for infrastructure improvements in return for petroleum. The PRC has invested heavily in Angola since the end of the civil war in 2002. João Manuel Bernardo, the current ambassador of Angola to China, visited the PRC in November 2007. * Angola has an embassy in Beijing and a consulate-general in Macau. * China has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|2 June 1979\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 June 1979 See Angola–India relations * Angola has an embassy in New Delhi. * India has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|16 April 1992 * Angola has an embassy in Tokyo. * Japan has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|20 October 1977\|\| Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 October 1977 See Angola–Turkey relations * Angola has an embassy in Ankara. Turkey has an embassy in Luanda. See Angola–Vietnam relations Angola-Vietnam relations were established on 12 November 1975 after Angola gained its independence, when future president of Angola Agostinho Neto visited Vietnam. Angola and Vietnam have steadfast partners as both transitioned from Cold War-era foreign policies of international communism to pro-Western pragmatism following the fall of the Soviet Union. Angola has an embassy in Hanoi. * Vietnam has an embassy in Luanda. \|} Europe {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;" \|- ! style="width:15%;" \| Country ! style="width:12%;" \| Formal Relations Began !Notes \|- valign="top" \|\|\|17 February 1976 See Angola–Germany relations * Angola has an embassy in Berlin. * Germany has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|<!--Date started-->14 April 1975\|\| * Angola has an embassy to the Holy See based in Rome. * Holy See has an Apostolic Nuncio to Angola. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|4 June 1976\|\| See Angola–Italy relations * Angola has an embassy in Rome. * Italy has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|18 February 1976 colonizing the territory from 1483 until independence in 1975. Angola's war for independence did not end in a military victory for either side, but was suspended as a result of a coup in Portugal that replaced the Caetano regime. * Angola has an embassy in Lisbon and a consulate-general in Porto. * Portugal has an embassy in Luanda and a consulate-general in Benguela. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|11 November 1975\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 1975 See Angola–Russia relations * Angola has an embassy in Moscow. * Russia has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|12 November 1975\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 12 November 1975 See Angola–Serbia relations The defence minister of Serbia, Dragan Šutanovac, stated in a 2011 meeting in Luanda that Serbia would negotiate with the Angolan military authorities for the construction of a new military hospital in Angola. Angola supports Serbia's stance on Kosovo, and recognizes Serbia's territorial integrity. * Angola has an embassy in Belgrade. * Serbia has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|19 October 1977\|\|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 October 1977 See Angola–Spain relations * Angola has an embassy in Madrid. * Spain has an embassy in Luanda. \|- valign="top" \|\|\|14 October 1977\|\|Angola established diplomatic relations with the UK on 14 October 1977. Angola maintains an embassy in London. The United Kingdom is accredited to Angola through its embassy in Luanda. Both countries share common membership of the Atlantic co-operation pact, and the World Trade Organization. \|} See also * List of diplomatic missions in Angola * List of diplomatic missions of Angola * Visa requirements for Angolan citizens References External links *	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Angola	2025-04-05T18:25:20.478035
711	Albert Sidney Johnston	\| death_date = \| image = ASJohnston.jpg \| signature = Albert Sidney Johnston signature.svg \| caption = Albert Sidney Johnston, c. 1861 \| nickname \| birth_place Washington, Kentucky, U.S. \| death_place = Shiloh, Tennessee \| placeofburial = Texas State Cemetery \| allegiance = <br /><br /> Confederate States of America \| serviceyears = 1826–1834; 1846–1861 (USA)<br />1836–1840 (Republic of Texas)<br />1861–1862 (CSA) \| rank = Brevet brigadier general<br /> Senior Brigadier General (Texas) <br /> General (CSA) \| branch = <br /> Texian Army<br /> \| unit = 2nd U.S. Infantry<br />6th U.S. Infantry<br />Los Angeles Mounted Rifles (CSA) \| commands = 1st Texas Rifles (USV)<br />2nd U.S. Cavalry<br />Department of the Pacific (USA)<br />Army of Central Kentucky (CSA)<br />Army of Mississippi (CSA)<br />Department No. 2 (CSA) \| battles = * Black Hawk War * Texas-Indian Wars ** Battle of the Neches * Mexican–American War ** Battle of Monterrey * Utah War * American Civil War ** Battle of Shiloh \| awards = Hall of Honor \| relations \| laterwork }} Albert Sidney Johnston (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) was an American military officer who served as a general in three different armies: the Texian Army, the United States Army, and the Confederate States Army. He saw extensive combat during his 34-year military career, fighting actions in the Black Hawk War, the Texas-Indian Wars, the Mexican–American War, the Utah War, and the American Civil War, where he died on the battlefield. Considered by Confederate States President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the later emergence of Robert E. Lee, he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. Johnston was the highest-ranking officer on either side killed during the war. Davis believed the loss of General Johnston "was the turning point of our fate." Johnston was unrelated to Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston. Early life and education Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail (Harris) Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut. He was a grandson of Revolutionary War patriot Edward Harris. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis. Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, Davis two years behind Johnston. In 1826, Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry. Johnston was assigned to New York and Missouri posts. In August 1827, he participated in the expedition to capture Red Bird, the rebellious Winnebago chief. Johnston later wrote: "I must confess that I consider Red Bird one of the noblest and most dignified men I ever saw... He said: 'I have offended. I sacrifice myself to save my country.'" Johnston served in the brief Black Hawk War of 1832 as chief of staff to Brevet Brigadier General Henry Atkinson. The commander praised Johnston for "talents of the first order, a gallant soldier by profession and education and a gentleman of high standing and integrity." The senior Johnston resigned his commission in 1834 to care for his dying wife in Kentucky, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis. Afterward, Johnston said he fought Huston "as a public duty... he had little respect for the practice of dueling." He believed that the "safety of the republic depended upon the efficiency of the army... and upon the good discipline and subordination of the troops, which could only be secured by their obedience to their legal commander. General Huston embodied the lawless spirit in the army, which had to be met and controlled at whatever personal peril." Many years later, Huston said that the duel was "a shameful piece of business, and I wouldn't do it again under any circumstances... Why, when I reflect upon the circumstances, I hate myself... that one act blackened all the good ones of my life. But I couldn't challenge Congress; and President Houston, although a duelist, was too far above me in rank. Well, thank God I didn't kill him." On December 22, 1838, Mirabeau B. Lamar, the second president of the Republic of Texas, appointed Johnston as Secretary of War. He defended the Texas border against Mexican attempts to recover the state in rebellion. In 1839, he campaigned against Native Americans in northern Texas during the Cherokee War of 1838–39. At the Battle of the Neches, Johnston and Vice President David G. Burnet were both cited in the commander's report "for active exertions on the field" and "having behaved in such a manner as reflects great credit upon themselves." In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky. United States Army at Camp Floyd, Utah Territory, winter of 1858–59]] When the United States declared war on Mexico in May 1846, Johnston rode 400 miles from his home in Galveston to Port Isabel to volunteer for service in Brigadier General Zachary Taylor's Army of Occupation. Johnston was elected as colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers but the enlistments of his soldiers ran out just before the army's advance on Monterrey, so Taylor appointed him as the inspector general of Brigadier General William O. Butler's division of volunteers. Johnston convinced a few volunteers of his former regiment to stay on and fight. During the Battle of Monterrey, Butler was wounded and carried to the rear, and Johnston assumed an active leadership role in the division. Future U.S. general, Joseph Hooker, was with Johnston at Monterrey and wrote: "It was through [Johnston's] agency, mainly, that our division was saved from a cruel slaughter... The coolness and magnificent presence [that he] displayed on this field... left an impression on my mind that I have never forgotten." General Taylor considered Johnston "the best soldier he had ever commanded." Johnston resigned from the army just after the battle of Monterrey in October 1846. He had promised his wife, Eliza, that he would only volunteer for six months' service. In addition, President James K. Polk's administration's preference for officers associated with the Democratic Party prevented the promotion of those, such as Johnston, who were perceived as Whigs: He remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by later 12th president Zachary Taylor to the U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849 for a district of Texas encompassing the military posts from the upper Colorado River to the upper Trinity River. On March 31, 1856, Johnston received a promotion to temporary command of the entire Department of Texas. He campaigned aggressively against the Comanche, writing to his daughter that "the Indians harass our frontiers and the 2nd Cavalry and other troops thrash them wherever they catch them." In March 1857, Brigadier General David E. Twiggs was appointed permanent commander of the department and Johnston returned to his position as colonel of the 2nd Cavalry.Utah War As a key figure in the Utah War, Johnston took command of the U.S. forces dispatched to crush the Latter Day Saint rebellion in November 1857. Their objective was to install Alfred Cumming as governor of the Utah Territory, replacing Brigham Young, and restore U.S. legal authority in the region. As Johnston had replaced Brigadier General William S. Harney in command, he only joined the army after it had already departed for Utah. Johnston's adjutant general, and future U.S. general in the Civil War, Major Fitz John Porter wrote: "Experienced on the Plains and of established reputation for energy, courage, and resources, [Johnston's] presence restored confidence at all points, and encouraged the weak-hearted and panic-stricken multitude. The long chain of wagons, kinked, tangled, and hard to move, uncoiled and went forward smoothly." Johnston worked tirelessly over the next few months to maintain the effectiveness of his army in the harsh winter environment at Fort Bridger, Wyoming. Major Porter wrote to an associate: "Col. Johnston has done everything to add to the efficiency of the command – and put it in a condition to sustain the dignity and honor of the country – More he cannot do… Don't let any one come here over Col. Johnston – It would be much against the wishes and hopes of everyone here – who would gladly see him a Brigadier General." Even the Mormons commended Johnston's actions, with the Salt Lake City Deseret News reporting that "It takes a cool brain and good judgment to maintain a contented army and healthy camp through a stormy winter in the Wasatch Mountains." Johnston and his troops hoped for war. They had learned of the Mountain Meadows Massacre and wanted revenge against the Mormons. However, a peaceful resolution was reached after the army had endured the harsh winter at Fort Bridger. In late June 1858, Johnston led the army through Salt Lake City without incident to establish Camp Floyd some 50 miles distant. In a report to the War Department, Johnston reported that "horrible crimes… have been perpetrated in this territory, crimes of a magnitude and of an apparently studied refinement in atrocity, hardly to be conceived of, and which have gone unwhipped of justice." Nevertheless, Johnston's army peacefully occupied the Utah Territory. U.S. Army Commander-in-Chief, Major General Winfield Scott, was delighted with Johnston's performance during the campaign and recommended his promotion to brevet brigadier general: "Colonel Johns[t]on is more than a good officer – he is a God send to the country thro' the army." The Senate confirmed Johnston's promotion on March 24, 1858. With regard to the relations established by Johnston with the Native American tribes of the area, Major Porter reported that "Colonel Johnston took every occasion to bring the Indians within knowledge and influence of the army, and induced numerous chiefs to come to his camp... Colonel Johnston was ever kind, but firm, and dignified to them... The Utes, Pi-Utes, Bannocks, and other tribes, visited Colonel Johnston, and all went away expressing themselves pleased, assuring him that so long as he remained they would prove his friends, which the colonel told them would be best for them. Thus he effectively destroyed all influence of the Mormons over them, and insured friendly treatment to travelers to and from California and Oregon." In August 1859, parts of Johnston's Army of Utah were implicated as participants in an alleged massacre at Spring Valley, a retaliation against an Indian massacre of an emigrant train to California. There are conflicting reports of the event and Johnston only referenced it in a November 1859 report to Scott. He wrote: "I have ascertained that three [emigrant] parties were robbed, and ten or twelve of their members, comprising men, women, and children, murdered... The perpetrators of the robbery of the first party were severely chastised by a detachment of dragoons, under the command of Lieutenant Gay. The troops failed to discover the robbers of the last two parties that were attacked. They are supposed to be vagabonds from the Shoshonee (sic) or Snake and Bannack (sic) Indians, whose chiefs deny any complicity with these predatory bands. There is abundant evidence to prove that these robber bands are accompanied by white men, and probably instigated and led by them. On that account I am inclined to believe the disclaimer of the Indians referred to, of having any knowledge of the robberies or any share in the plunder." The only evidence of the massacre is the account of Elijah Nicholas Wilson (written in 1910, about 51 years after the incident) and oral histories. In late February 1860, Johnston received orders from the War Department recalling him to Washington D.C. to prepare for a new assignment. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. Slavery Johnston was a slave owner and a strong supporter of slavery. By 1846, he owned four slaves in Texas. In 1855, having discovered that a slave was stealing from the Army payroll, Johnston refused to have him physically punished and instead sold him for $1,000 to recoup the losses. Johnston explained that "whipping will not restore what is lost and it will not benefit the [culprit], whom a lifetime of kind treatment has failed to make honest." In 1856, he called abolitionism "fanatical, idolatrous, negro worshipping" in a letter to his son, fearing that the abolitionists would incite a slave revolt in the Southern states. Upon moving to California, Johnston sold one slave to his son and freed another, Randolph Hughes, or "Ran", who agreed to accompany the family on the condition of a $12/month contract for five more years of servitude. Ran accompanied Johnston throughout the American Civil War until the latter's death. American Civil War At the outbreak of the American Civil War, Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific On April 28, he moved to Los Angeles, the home of his wife's brother John Griffin. Considering staying in California with his wife and five children, Johnston remained there until May. A sixth child was born in the family home in Los Angeles. His eldest son, Capt. Albert S. Johnston, Jr. was later killed in an accidental explosion on a steamer ship while on liberty in Los Angeles in 1863. Soon, Johnston enlisted in the Los Angeles Mounted Rifles (a pro-Southern militia unit) as a private, leaving Warner's Ranch on May 27. He participated in their trek across the Southwestern deserts to Texas, crossing the Colorado River into the Confederate Territory of Arizona on July 4, 1861. His escort was commanded by Alonzo Ridley, Undersheriff of Los Angeles, who remained at Johnston's side until he was killed. Early in the Civil War, Confederate President Jefferson Davis decided that the Confederacy would attempt to hold as much territory as possible, distributing military forces around its borders and coasts. In the summer of 1861, Davis appointed several generals to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River east to the Allegheny Mountains. Aged 58 when the war began, Johnston was old by Army standards. He came east to offer his service for the Confederacy without having been promised anything, merely hoping for an assignment. The most sensitive, and in many ways, the most crucial areas, along the Mississippi River and in western Tennessee along the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers were placed under the command of Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk and Brig. Gen. Gideon J. Pillow. The latter had initially been in command in Tennessee as that State's top general. Their impolitic occupation of Columbus, Kentucky, on September 3, 1861, two days before Johnston arrived in the Confederacy's capital of Richmond, Virginia, after his cross-country journey, drove Kentucky from its stated neutrality. The majority of Kentuckians allied with the U.S. camp. Polk and Pillow's action gave U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant an excuse to take control of the strategically located town of Paducah, Kentucky, without raising the ire of most Kentuckians and the pro-U.S. majority in the State legislature. Confederate command in Western Theater On September 10, 1861, Johnston was assigned to command the huge area of the Confederacy west of the Allegheny Mountains, except for coastal areas. He became commander of the Confederacy's western armies in the area often called the Western Department or Western Military Department. Johnston's appointment as a full general by his friend and admirer Jefferson Davis had already been confirmed by the Confederate Senate on August 31, 1861. The appointment had been backdated to rank from May 30, 1861, making him the second-highest-ranking general in the Confederate States Army. Only Adjutant General and Inspector General Samuel Cooper ranked ahead of him. After his appointment, Johnston immediately headed for his new territory. He was permitted to call on Arkansas, Tennessee, and Mississippi governors for new troops. However, politics largely stifled this authority, especially concerning Mississippi. Johnston had fewer than 40,000 men spread throughout Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Of these, 10,000 were in Missouri under Missouri State Guard Maj. Gen. Sterling Price. Johnston maintained his defense by conducting raids and other measures to make it appear he had larger forces than he did, a strategy that worked for several months.Battle of Mill SpringsEast Tennessee (a heavily pro-union region of the southern U.S. during the Civil War) was occupied for the Confederacy by two unimpressive brigadier generals appointed by Jefferson Davis: Felix Zollicoffer, a brave but untrained and inexperienced officer, and soon-to-be Maj. Gen. George B. Crittenden, a former U.S. Army officer with apparent alcohol problems. While Crittenden was away in Richmond, Zollicoffer moved his forces to the north bank of the upper Cumberland River near Mill Springs (now Nancy, Kentucky), putting the river to his back and his forces into a trap. Zollicoffer decided it was impossible to obey orders to return to the other side of the river because of the scarcity of transport and proximity of U.S. troops. When U.S. Brig. Gen. George H. Thomas moved against the Confederates, Crittenden decided to attack one of the two parts of Thomas's command at Logan's Cross Roads near Mill Springs before the U.S. forces could unite. As the battle progressed, Zollicoffer was killed and the Confederates were turned back and routed by a U.S. bayonet charge, their force of 4,000 suffering 533 casualties, while Crittenden's conduct in the battle was so inept that subordinates accused him of being drunk. The Confederate troops who escaped were assigned to other units as General Crittenden faced an investigation of his conduct. After the Confederate defeat at Mill Springs, Davis sent Johnston a brigade and a few other scattered reinforcements. He also assigned him Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, who was supposed to attract recruits because of his victories early in the war and act as a competent subordinate for Johnston. The brigade was led by Brig. Gen. John B. Floyd, considered incompetent. He took command at Fort Donelson as the senior general present just before U.S. Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant attacked the fort. Historians believe the assignment of Beauregard to the west stimulated U.S. commanders to attack the forts before Beauregard could make a difference in the theater. U.S. Army officers heard that he was bringing 15 regiments with him, but this was an exaggeration of his forces.Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, NashvilleBased on the assumption that Kentucky neutrality would act as a shield against a direct invasion from the north, circumstances that no longer applied in September 1861, Tennessee initially had sent men to Virginia and concentrated defenses in the Mississippi Valley. Even before Johnston arrived in Tennessee, construction of two forts had been started to defend the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers, which provided avenues into the State from the north. Both forts were located in Tennessee to respect Kentucky neutrality, but these were not in ideal locations. Fort Henry on the Tennessee River was in an unfavorable low-lying location, commanded by hills on the Kentucky side of the river. After Johnston asserted his authority, Polk had to allow Dixon to proceed. Dixon recommended that the forts be maintained and strengthened, although they were not in ideal locations, because much work had been done on them, and the Confederates might not have time to build new ones. Johnston accepted his recommendations. Pillow took up a position at nearby Clarksville, Tennessee, and did not move into the fort until February 7, 1862. Alerted by a U.S. reconnaissance on January 14, 1862, Johnston ordered Tilghman to fortify the high ground opposite Fort Henry, which Polk had failed to do despite Johnston's orders. Tilghman failed to act decisively on these orders, which were too late to be adequately carried out in any event. Gen. Beauregard arrived at Johnston's headquarters at Bowling Green on February 4, 1862, and was given overall command of Polk's force at the western end of Johnston's line at Columbus, Kentucky. On February 6, 1862, U.S. gunboats quickly reduced the defenses of ill-sited Fort Henry, inflicting 21 casualties on the small remaining Confederate force. Brig. Gen. Lloyd Tilghman surrendered the 94 remaining officers and men of his approximately 3,000-man force, which had not been sent to Fort Donelson, before Grant's U.S. forces could even take up their positions. Johnston knew he could be trapped at Bowling Green if Fort Donelson fell, so he moved his force to Nashville, the capital of Tennessee and an increasingly important Confederate industrial center, beginning on February 11, 1862. Johnston also reinforced Fort Donelson with 12,000 more men, including those under Floyd and Pillow, a curious decision given his thought that the U.S. gunboats alone could take the fort. The senior generals sent to the fort to command the enlarged garrison, Gideon J. Pillow and John B. Floyd, squandered their chance to avoid having to surrender most of the garrison and on February 16, 1862, Brig. Gen. Simon Buckner, having been abandoned by Floyd and Pillow, surrendered Fort Donelson. Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest escaped with his cavalry force of about 700 men before the surrender. The Confederates suffered about 1,500 casualties, with an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 taken prisoner. U.S. casualties were 500 killed, 2,108 wounded, and 224 missing. His passive defensive performance while positioning himself in a forward position at Bowling Green, spreading his forces too thinly, not concentrating his forces in the face of U.S. advances, and appointing or relying upon inadequate or incompetent subordinates subjected him to criticism at the time and by later historians. The fall of the forts exposed Nashville to an imminent attack, and it fell without resistance to U.S. forces under Brig. Gen. Buell on February 25, 1862, two days after Johnston had to pull his forces out to avoid having them captured as well.Concentration at CorinthJohnston was in a perilous situation after the fall of Ft. Donelson and Henry; with barely 17,000 men to face an overwhelming concentration of Union force, he hastily fled south into Mississippi by way of Nashville and then into northern Alabama. Johnston himself retreated with the force under his personal command, the Army of Central Kentucky, from the vicinity of Nashville. Johnston decided to concentrate forces with those formerly under Polk and now already under Beauregard's command at the strategically located railroad crossroads of Corinth, Mississippi, which he reached by a circuitous route. Johnston kept the U.S. forces, now under the overall command of Maj. Gen. Henry Halleck, confused and hesitant to move, allowing Johnston to reach his objective undetected. He scraped together reinforcements from Louisiana, as well as part of Polk's force at Island No. 10, and 10,000 additional troops under Braxton Bragg brought up from Mobile. Bragg at least calmed the nerves of Beauregard and Polk, who had become agitated by their apparent dire situation in the face of numerically superior forces, before Johnston's arrival on March 24, 1862. Johnston's army of 17,000 men gave the Confederates a combined force of about 40,000 to 44,669 men at Corinth. On March 29, 1862, Johnston officially took command of this combined force, which continued to use the Army of the Mississippi name under which Beauregard had organized it on March 5. Johnston's only hope was to crush Grant before Buell and others could reinforce him. Beauregard felt that this offensive was a mistake and could not possibly succeed, but Johnston replied "I would fight them if they were a million" as he drove his army on to Pittsburg Landing. His army was finally in position within a mile or two of Grant's force, undetected, by the evening of April 5, 1862.Battle of Shiloh and deathJohnston launched a massive surprise attack with his concentrated forces against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the U.S. camps, Johnston personally rallied troops up and down the line on his horse. One of his famous moments in the battle occurred when he witnessed some of his soldiers breaking from the ranks to pillage and loot the U.S. camps and was outraged to see a young lieutenant among them. "None of that, sir", Johnston roared at the officer, "we are not here for plunder." Then, realizing he had embarrassed the man, he picked up a tin cup from a table and announced, "Let this be my share of the spoils today", before directing his army onward. At about 2:30 pm, while leading one of those charges against a U.S. camp near the "Peach Orchard", he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. The bullet clipped a part of his popliteal artery, and his boot filled up with blood. No medical personnel were on the scene since Johnston had sent his personal surgeon to care for the wounded Confederate troops and U.S. prisoners earlier in the battle.'s drawing of the death of General Johnston]] Within a few minutes, Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting. Among his staff was Isham G. Harris, the Governor of Tennessee, who had ceased to make any real effort to function as governor after learning that Abraham Lincoln had appointed Andrew Johnson as military governor of Tennessee. Seeing Johnston slumping in his saddle and his face turning deathly pale, Harris asked: "General, are you wounded?" Johnston glanced down at his leg wound, then faced Harris and said his last words in a weak voice: "Yes... and I fear seriously." Harris and other staff officers removed Johnston from his horse, carried him to a small ravine near the "Hornets Nest", and desperately tried to aid the general, who had lost consciousness. Harris then sent an aide to fetch Johnston's surgeon but did not apply a tourniquet to Johnston's wounded leg. A few minutes later, Johnston died from blood loss before a doctor could be found. It is believed that Johnston may have lived for as long as one hour after receiving his fatal wound. It was later discovered that Johnston had a tourniquet in his pocket when he died. It is possible that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round, as many Confederates were firing at the U.S. lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. Alonzo Ridley of Los Angeles commanded the bodyguard "the Guides" of Gen. A. S. Johnston and was by his side when he fell. Johnston was the highest-ranking fatality of the war on either side and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. At the time, Davis considered him the best general in the country. Legacy and honors by Elisabet Ney in the Texas State Cemetery in Austin, Texas]] Johnston was survived by his wife, Eliza, and six children. His wife and five younger children, including one born after he went to war, chose to live out their days at home in Los Angeles with Eliza's brother, Dr. John Strother Griffin. Johnston's eldest son, Albert Sidney Jr. (born in Texas), had already followed him into the Confederate States Army. In 1863, Albert Jr. was on his way out of San Pedro harbor on a ferry after taking home leave in Los Angeles. While a steamer was taking on passengers from the ferry, a wave swamped the smaller boat, causing its boilers to explode. Albert Jr. was killed in the accident. Upon his passing, General Johnston received the highest praise ever given by the Confederate government: accounts were published on December 20, 1862, and after that, in the Los Angeles Star of his family's hometown. Johnston Street, Hancock Street, and Griffin Avenue, each in northeast Los Angeles, are named after the general and his family, who lived in the neighborhood. Johnston was initially buried in New Orleans. In 1866, a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body moved and reinterred at the Texas State Cemetery in Austin. The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed Elisabet Ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at the grave site, installed in 1905. The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once Johnston's plantation. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the Daughters of The Republic of Texas and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederate States of America. In 1916, the University of Texas at Austin recognized several confederate veterans (including Johnston) with statues on its South Mall. On August 21, 2017, as part of the wave of confederate monument removals in America, Johnston's statue was taken down. Plans were announced to add it to the Briscoe Center for American History on the east side of the university campus. Johnston was inducted to the Texas Military Hall of Honor in 1980. In the fall of 2018, A. S. Johnston Elementary School in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Cedar Crest Elementary. Johnston Middle School in Houston, Texas, was also renamed Meyerland Middle School. Three other elementary schools named for Confederate veterans were renamed simultaneously. See also * Albert Sidney Johnston High School, a defunct public high school in Austin, Texas * Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (Texas State Cemetery), a 1903 memorial sculpture by Elisabet Ney * Statue of Albert Sidney Johnston (University of Texas at Austin), a statue by Pompeo Coppini * List of American Civil War generals (Confederate) * List of Confederate monuments and memorials Notes References * Beauregard, G. T. The Campaign of Shiloh. p. 579. In Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, vol. I, edited by Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence C. Buel. New York: Century Co., 1884–1888. . * * * * * * Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. . * * * * Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. . * * * * * Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. . * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * External links [https://www.womenhistoryblog.com/2009/07/eliza-johnston.html Eliza Johnston], Wife Of Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston [https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fjo32 Albert Sidney Johnston] at Handbook of Texas Online * Category:1803 births Category:1862 deaths Category:Confederate States of America military personnel killed in the American Civil War Category:Deaths from bleeding Category:Burials at Texas State Cemetery Category:Confederate States Army full generals Category:People from Washington, Kentucky Category:Military personnel from Texas Category:People of California in the American Civil War Category:People of Texas in the American Civil War Category:American people of the Black Hawk War Category:Transylvania University alumni Category:United States Army generals Category:United States Military Academy alumni Category:People of the Texas Revolution Category:People of the Utah War Category:American proslavery activists Category:American slave owners Category:Politicians killed in the American Civil War Category:Preston family (Virginia)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston	2025-04-05T18:25:20.500771
713	Android (robot)	thumb\|Repliee Q2, an android, can mimic human functions such as blinking, breathing and speaking, with the ability to recognize and process speech and touch, and then respond in kind. An android is a humanoid robot or other artificial being, often made from a flesh-like material. Historically, androids existed only in the domain of science fiction and were frequently seen in film and television, but advances in robot technology have allowed the design of functional and realistic humanoid robots. Terminology thumb\|Early example of the term androides used to describe human-like mechanical devices, London Times, 22 December 1795 The Oxford English Dictionary traces the earliest use (as "Androides") to Ephraim Chambers' 1728 Cyclopaedia, in reference to an automaton that St. Albertus Magnus allegedly created. By the late 1700s, "androides", elaborate mechanical devices resembling humans performing human activities, were displayed in exhibit halls. The term "android" appears in US patents as early as 1863 in reference to miniature human-like toy automatons. The term android was used in a more modern sense by the French author Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam in his work Tomorrow's Eve (1886), featuring an artificial humanoid robot named Hadaly. While the term "android" is used in reference to human-looking robots in general (not necessarily male-looking humanoid robots), a robot with a female appearance can also be referred to as a gynoid. Besides one can refer to robots without alluding to their sexual appearance by calling them anthrobots (a portmanteau of anthrōpos and robot; see anthrobotics) or anthropoids (short for anthropoid robots; the term humanoids is not appropriate because it is already commonly used to refer to human-like organic species in the context of science fiction, futurism and speculative astrobiology). Authors have used the term android in more diverse ways than robot or cyborg. In some fictional works, the difference between a robot and android is only superficial, with androids being made to look like humans on the outside but with robot-like internal mechanics. Waseda University initiated the WABOT project in 1967, and in 1972 completed the WABOT-1, the first android, a full-scale humanoid intelligent robot. Its limb control system allowed it to walk with the lower limbs, and to grip and transport objects with hands, using tactile sensors. Its vision system allowed it to measure distances and directions to objects using external receptors, artificial eyes and ears. And its conversation system allowed it to communicate with a person in Japanese, with an artificial mouth. In 1984, WABOT-2 was revealed, and made a number of improvements. It was capable of playing the organ. Wabot-2 had ten fingers and two feet, and was able to read a score of music. It was also able to accompany a person. In 1986, Honda began its humanoid research and development program, to create humanoid robots capable of interacting successfully with humans. The Intelligent Robotics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Ishiguro at Osaka University, and the Kokoro company demonstrated the Actroid at Expo 2005 in Aichi Prefecture, Japan and released the Telenoid R1 in 2010. In 2006, Kokoro developed a new DER 2 android. The height of the human body part of DER2 is 165 cm. There are 47 mobile points. DER2 can not only change its expression but also move its hands and feet and twist its body. The "air servosystem" which Kokoro developed originally is used for the actuator. As a result of having an actuator controlled precisely with air pressure via a servosystem, the movement is very fluid and there is very little noise. DER2 realized a slimmer body than that of the former version by using a smaller cylinder. Outwardly DER2 has a more beautiful proportion. Compared to the previous model, DER2 has thinner arms and a wider repertoire of expressions. Once programmed, it is able to choreograph its motions and gestures with its voice. The Intelligent Mechatronics Lab, directed by Hiroshi Kobayashi at the Tokyo University of Science, has developed an android head called Saya, which was exhibited at Robodex 2002 in Yokohama, Japan. There are several other initiatives around the world involving humanoid research and development at this time, which will hopefully introduce a broader spectrum of realized technology in the near future. Now Saya is working at the Science University of Tokyo as a guide. The Waseda University (Japan) and NTT docomo's manufacturers have succeeded in creating a shape-shifting robot WD-2. It is capable of changing its face. At first, the creators decided the positions of the necessary points to express the outline, eyes, nose, and so on of a certain person. The robot expresses its face by moving all points to the decided positions, they say. The first version of the robot was first developed back in 2003. After that, a year later, they made a couple of major improvements to the design. The robot features an elastic mask made from the average head dummy. It uses a driving system with a 3DOF unit. The WD-2 robot can change its facial features by activating specific facial points on a mask, with each point possessing three degrees of freedom. This one has 17 facial points, for a total of 56 degrees of freedom. As for the materials they used, the WD-2's mask is fabricated with a highly elastic material called Septom, with bits of steel wool mixed in for added strength. Other technical features reveal a shaft driven behind the mask at the desired facial point, driven by a DC motor with a simple pulley and a slide screw. Apparently, the researchers can also modify the shape of the mask based on actual human faces. To "copy" a face, they need only a 3D scanner to determine the locations of an individual's 17 facial points. After that, they are then driven into position using a laptop and 56 motor control boards. In addition, the researchers also mention that the shifting robot can even display an individual's hair style and skin color if a photo of their face is projected onto the 3D Mask. Singapore Prof Nadia Thalmann, a Nanyang Technological University scientist, directed efforts of the Institute for Media Innovation along with the School of Computer Engineering in the development of a social robot, Nadine. Nadine is powered by software similar to Apple's Siri or Microsoft's Cortana. Nadine may become a personal assistant in offices and homes in future, or she may become a companion for the young and the elderly. Assoc Prof Gerald Seet from the School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering and the BeingThere Centre led a three-year R&D development in tele-presence robotics, creating EDGAR. A remote user can control EDGAR with the user's face and expressions displayed on the robot's face in real time. The robot also mimics their upper body movements. South Korea thumb\|200px\|EveR-2, the first android that can sing KITECH researched and developed EveR-1, an android interpersonal communications model capable of emulating human emotional expression via facial "musculature" and capable of rudimentary conversation, having a vocabulary of around 400 words. She is tall and weighs , matching the average figure of a Korean woman in her twenties. EveR-1's name derives from the Biblical Eve, plus the letter r for robot. EveR-1's advanced computing processing power enables speech recognition and vocal synthesis, at the same time processing lip synchronization and visual recognition by 90-degree micro-CCD cameras with face recognition technology. An independent microchip inside her artificial brain handles gesture expression, body coordination, and emotion expression. Her whole body is made of highly advanced synthetic jelly silicon and with 60 artificial joints in her face, neck, and lower body; she is able to demonstrate realistic facial expressions and sing while simultaneously dancing. In South Korea, the Ministry of Information and Communication had an ambitious plan to put a robot in every household by 2020. Several robot cities have been planned for the country: the first will be built in 2016 at a cost of 500 billion won (US$440 million), of which 50 billion is direct government investment. The new robot city will feature research and development centers for manufacturers and part suppliers, as well as exhibition halls and a stadium for robot competitions. The country's new Robotics Ethics Charter will establish ground rules and laws for human interaction with robots in the future, setting standards for robotics users and manufacturers, as well as guidelines on ethical standards to be programmed into robots to prevent human abuse of robots and vice versa. United States Walt Disney and a staff of Imagineers created Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln that debuted at the 1964 New York World's Fair. Dr. William Barry, an Education Futurist and former visiting West Point Professor of Philosophy and Ethical Reasoning at the United States Military Academy, created an AI android character named "Maria Bot". This Interface AI android was named after the infamous fictional robot Maria in the 1927 film Metropolis, as a well-behaved distant relative. Maria Bot is the first AI Android Teaching Assistant at the university level. Maria Bot has appeared as a keynote speaker as a duo with Barry for a TEDx talk in Everett, Washington in February 2020. Resembling a human from the shoulders up, Maria Bot is a virtual being android that has complex facial expressions and head movement and engages in conversation about a variety of subjects. She uses AI to process and synthesize information to make her own decisions on how to talk and engage. She collects data through conversations, direct data inputs such as books or articles, and through internet sources. Maria Bot was built by an international high-tech company for Barry to help improve education quality and eliminate education poverty. Maria Bot is designed to create new ways for students to engage and discuss ethical issues raised by the increasing presence of robots and artificial intelligence. Barry also uses Maria Bot to demonstrate that programming a robot with life-affirming, ethical framework makes them more likely to help humans to do the same. Maria Bot is an ambassador robot for good and ethical AI technology. Hanson Robotics, Inc., of Texas and KAIST produced an android portrait of Albert Einstein, using Hanson's facial android technology mounted on KAIST's life-size walking bipedal robot body. This Einstein android, also called "Albert Hubo", thus represents the first full-body walking android in history. Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Texas at Arlington also developed the android portrait of sci-fi author Philip K. Dick (creator of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, the basis for the film Blade Runner), with full conversational capabilities that incorporated thousands of pages of the author's works. In 2005, the PKD android won a first-place artificial intelligence award from AAAI. Use in fiction Androids are a staple of science fiction. Isaac Asimov pioneered the fictionalization of the science of robotics and artificial intelligence, notably in his 1950s series I, Robot. One thing common to most fictional androids is that the real-life technological challenges associated with creating thoroughly human-like robots — such as the creation of strong artificial intelligence—are assumed to have been solved. Fictional androids are often depicted as mentally and physically equal or superior to humans—moving, thinking and speaking as fluidly as them. Perhaps the clearest example of this is John Brunner's 1968 novel Into the Slave Nebula, where the blue-skinned android slaves are explicitly shown to be fully human. More recently, the androids Bishop and Annalee Call in the films Aliens and Alien Resurrection are used as vehicles for exploring how humans deal with the presence of an "Other". The 2018 video game Detroit: Become Human also explores how androids are treated as second class citizens in a near future society. Female androids, or "gynoids", are often seen in science fiction, and can be viewed as a continuation of the long tradition of men attempting to create the stereotypical "perfect woman". Examples include the Greek myth of Pygmalion and the female robot Maria in Fritz Lang's Metropolis. Some gynoids, like Pris in Blade Runner, are designed as sex-objects, with the intent of "pleasing men's violent sexual desires", or as submissive, servile companions, such as in The Stepford Wives. Fiction about gynoids has therefore been described as reinforcing "essentialist ideas of femininity", although others have suggested that the treatment of androids is a way of exploring racism and misogyny in society. The 2015 Japanese film Sayonara, starring Geminoid F, was promoted as "the first movie to feature an android performing opposite a human actor". See also References Further reading Kerman, Judith B. (1991). Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. . Perkowitz, Sidney (2004). Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids. Joseph Henry Press. . Shelde, Per (1993). Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films. New York: New York University Press. . Ishiguro, Hiroshi. "Android science." Cognitive Science Society. 2005. Glaser, Horst Albert and Rossbach, Sabine: The Artificial Human, Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York 2011 "The Artificial Human" TechCast Article Series, Jason Rupinski and Richard Mix, "Public Attitudes to Androids: Robot Gender, Tasks, & Pricing" Carpenter, J. (2009). Why send the Terminator to do R2D2s job?: Designing androids as rhetorical phenomena. Proceedings of HCI 2009: Beyond Gray Droids: Domestic Robot Design for the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK. 1 September. Telotte, J.P. Replications: A Robotic History of the Science Fiction Film. University of Illinois Press, 1995. External links Category:Japanese inventions Category:South Korean inventions Category:Osaka University research Category:Science fiction themes Category:Human–machine interaction Category:Robots	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(robot)	2025-04-05T18:25:20.530290
717	Alberta	\| image_map = Alberta in Canada 2.svg \| Label_map = yes \| coordinates \| official_lang English \| capital = Edmonton \| largest_city = Calgary \| largest_metro = Calgary Region \| Premier = Danielle Smith \| government_type = Parliamentary constitutional monarchy \| Viceroy = Salma Lakhani \| ViceroyType = Lieutenant governor \| Legislature = Legislative Assembly of Alberta \| Former = District of Alberta, District of Assiniboia, District of Athabasca, District of Saskatchewan \| AdmittanceOrder = 10th, with Saskatchewan \| AdmittanceDate = (split from NWT) \| area_rank = 6th \| area_total_km2 = 661849 \| area_land_km2 = 640082 \| area_water_km2 = 19532 \| PercentWater = 2.97 \| population_demonym = Albertan \| population_rank = 4th \| population_total = 4368370 <!-- Use "Population_est" below for latest StatCan quarterly estimate. --> \| population_ref \| population_as_of = 2021 \| population_est = 4960097<!-- Latest StatCan quarterly estimate only. --> \| pop_est_as_of = Q1 2025 \| pop_est_ref \| DensityRank = 6th \| Density_km2 6.7 \| GDP_rank = 3rd \| GDP_per_capita = $101,818 \| GDP_per_capita_rank = 3rd \| HDI_year = 2021 \| HDI 0.955—<span style="color:#090">Very high</span> \| HDI_rank = 1st \| HouseSeats = 34 \| SenateSeats = 6 \| timezone1 = Mountain \| utc_offset1 = −07:00 \| timezone1_DST = Mountain DST \| utc_offset1_DST = −06:00 \| PostalAbbreviation = AB \| PostalCodePrefix = T \| iso_code = CA-AB \| website = www.alberta.ca \| flower = Wild rose \| tree = Lodgepole pine \| bird = Great horned owl }} Alberta is a province of Canada. It is a part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta borders British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Territories to the north, and the U.S. state of Montana to the south. It is one of the only two landlocked provinces in Canada, with eastern neighbour Saskatchewan being the other. The eastern part of the province is occupied by the Great Plains, while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains. The province has a predominantly continental climate but experiences quick temperature changes due to air aridity. Seasonal temperature swings are less pronounced in western Alberta due to occasional Chinook winds. Alberta is the fourth-largest province by area at , and the fourth-most populous, being home to 4,262,635 people. The two are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas. More than half of Albertans live in either Edmonton or Calgary, which contributes to continuing the rivalry between the two cities. English is the official language of the province. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone. Alberta's economy is advanced, open, market-based, and characterized by a highly educated workforce, strong institutions and property rights, and sophisticated financial markets. The service sector employs 80% of Albertans in fields like healthcare, education, professional services, retail, tourism and financial services. The industrial base includes manufacturing, construction, and agriculture (10%, 5%, and 2% of employment respectively), while the knowledge economy includes approximately 3000 tech companies employing 60,000 people, mainly in Calgary and Edmonton. The energy sector employs 5% of Albertans but significantly impacts exports and GDP. Alberta's exports, primarily US-bound, consist of 70% oil and gas, 13% food products, and 12% industrial products. Oil and gas are culturally influential, having shaped politics, generated "striking it rich" narratives, and created boom-and-bust cycles. In 2023, Alberta's output was $350 billion, 15% of Canada's GDP. Until the 1930s, Alberta's political landscape consisted of two major parties: the centre-left Liberals and the agrarian United Farmers of Alberta. Today, Alberta is generally perceived as a conservative province. The right-wing Social Credit Party held office continually from 1935 to 1971 before the centre-right Progressive Conservatives held office continually from 1971 to 2015, the latter being the longest unbroken run in government at the provincial or federal level in Canadian history. Since before becoming part of Canada, Alberta has been home to several First Nations like Plains Indians and Woodland Cree. It was also a territory used by fur traders of the rival companies Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company. The Dominion of Canada bought the lands that would become Alberta as part of the NWT in 1870. From the late 1800s to early 1900s, many immigrants arrived to prevent the prairies from being annexed by the United States. Growing wheat and cattle ranching also became very profitable. In 1905, the Alberta Act was passed, creating the province of Alberta. Massive oil reserves were discovered in 1947. The exploitation of oil sands began in 1967. Alberta is renowned for its natural beauty, richness in fossils and for housing important nature reserves. Alberta is home to six UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites: the Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Dinosaur Provincial Park, Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo National Park and Writing-on-Stone Provincial Park. Other popular sites include Banff National Park, Elk Island National Park, Jasper National Park, Waterton Lakes National Park, and Drumheller.EtymologyAlberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta (1848–1939), the fourth daughter of Queen Victoria. Princess Louise was the wife of John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, Governor General of Canada (1878–83). Lake Louise and Mount Alberta were also named in her honour. The name "Alberta" is a feminine Latinized form of Albert, the name of Princess Louise's father, the Prince Consort ( , masculine) and its Germanic cognates, ultimately derived from the Proto-Germanic language Aþalaberhtaz (compound of "noble" + "bright/famous"). Geography Alberta, with an area of , is the fourth-largest province after Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia. Alberta's southern border is the 49th parallel north, which separates it from the U.S. state of Montana. The 60th parallel north divides Alberta from the Northwest Territories. The 110th meridian west separates it from the province of Saskatchewan; while on the west its boundary with British Columbia follows the 120th meridian west south from the Northwest Territories at 60°N until it reaches the Continental Divide at the Rocky Mountains, and from that point follows the line of peaks marking the Continental Divide in a generally southeasterly direction until it reaches the Montana border at 49°N. The province extends north to south and east to west at its maximum width. Its highest point is at the summit of Mount Columbia in the Rocky Mountains along the southwest border while its lowest point is on the Slave River in Wood Buffalo National Park in the northeast. With the exception of the semi-arid climate of the steppe in the south-eastern section, the province has adequate water resources. There are numerous rivers and lakes in Alberta used for swimming, fishing and a range of water sports. There are three large lakes, Lake Claire () in Wood Buffalo National Park, Lesser Slave Lake (), and Lake Athabasca (), which lies in both Alberta and Saskatchewan. The longest river in the province is the Athabasca River, which travels from the Columbia Icefield in the Rocky Mountains to Lake Athabasca. The largest river is the Peace River with an average flow of . The Peace River originates in the Rocky Mountains of northern British Columbia and flows through northern Alberta and into the Slave River, a tributary of the Mackenzie River. Alberta's capital city, Edmonton, is at about the geographic centre of the province. It is the most northerly major city in Canada and serves as a gateway and hub for resource development in northern Canada. With its proximity to Canada's largest oil fields, the region has most of western Canada's oil refinery capacity. Calgary is about south of Edmonton and north of Montana, surrounded by extensive ranching country. Almost 75% of the province's population lives in the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor. The land grant policy to the railways served as a means to populate the province in its early years. at Banff National Park. The Alberta Mountain forests makes up the southwestern boundary of Alberta.]] Most of the northern half of the province is boreal forest, while the Rocky Mountains along the southwestern boundary are largely temperate coniferous forests of the Alberta Mountain forests and Alberta–British Columbia foothills forests. The southern quarter of the province is prairie, ranging from shortgrass prairie in the southeastern corner to mixed grass prairie in an arc to the west and north of it. The central aspen parkland region extending in a broad arc between the prairies and the forests, from Calgary, north to Edmonton, and then east to Lloydminster, contains the most fertile soil in the province and most of the population. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain farming or cattle ranching, with mixed farming more common in the north and centre, while ranching and irrigated agriculture predominate in the south. The Alberta badlands are in southeastern Alberta, where the Red Deer River crosses the flat prairie and farmland, and features deep canyons and striking landforms. Dinosaur Provincial Park, near Brooks, showcases the badlands terrain, desert flora, and remnants from Alberta's past when dinosaurs roamed the then lush landscape. Climate in Alberta]] Alberta extends for over from north to south; its climate, therefore, varies considerably. Average high temperatures in January range from in the southwest to in the far north. The presence of the Rocky Mountains also influences the climate to the southwest, which disrupts the flow of the prevailing westerly winds and causes them to drop most of their moisture on the western slopes of the mountain ranges before reaching the province, casting a rain shadow over much of Alberta. The northerly location and isolation from the weather systems of the Pacific Ocean cause Alberta to have a dry climate with little moderation from the ocean. Annual precipitation ranges from in the southeast to in the north, except in the foothills of the Rocky Mountains where total precipitation including snowfall can reach annually. steppe climate.]] Northern Alberta is mostly covered by boreal forest and has a subarctic climate. The agricultural area of southern Alberta has a semi-arid steppe climate because the annual precipitation is less than the water that evaporates or is used by plants. The southeastern corner of Alberta, part of the Palliser Triangle, experiences greater summer heat and lower rainfall than the rest of the province, and as a result, suffers frequent crop yield problems and occasional severe droughts. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains and enjoys the mild temperatures brought by winter Chinook winds. Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely aspen parkland, a biome transitional between prairie to the south and boreal forest to the north. Alberta has a humid continental climate with warm summers and cold winters. The province is open to cold Arctic weather systems from the north, which often produce cold winter conditions. As the fronts between the air masses shift north and south across Alberta, the temperature can change rapidly. Arctic air masses in the winter produce extreme minimum temperatures varying from in northern Alberta to in southern Alberta, although temperatures at these extremes are rare. In the summer, continental air masses have produced record maximum temperatures from in the mountains to over in southeastern Alberta. Alberta is a sunny province. Annual bright sunshine totals range between 1,900 up to just under 2,600 hours per year. Northern Alberta gets about 18 hours of daylight in the summer. In southwestern Alberta, the cold winters are frequently interrupted by warm, dry Chinook winds blowing from the mountains, which can propel temperatures upward from frigid conditions to well above the freezing point in a very short period. During one Chinook recorded at Pincher Creek, temperatures soared from in just one hour. After Saskatchewan, Alberta experiences the most tornadoes in Canada with an average of 15 verified per year. Thunderstorms, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is notable for having the highest frequency of hail in Canada, which is caused by orographic lifting from the nearby Rocky Mountains, enhancing the updraft/downdraft cycle necessary for the formation of hail. {\| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin:1em auto; width:60%;" \|+Climate averages for communities in Alberta \|- !Community !Region !July daily<br/>maximum \|- \|Medicine Hat \|\| Southern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4b \|- \|Brooks \|\| Southern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4a \|- \|Lethbridge \|\| Southern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4b \|- \|Fort McMurray \|\| Northern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3a \|- \|Wetaskiwin \|\| Central Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|Edmonton \|\| Edmonton Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4a \|- \|Cold Lake \|\| Northern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3a \|- \|Camrose \|\| Central Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|Fort Saskatchewan \|\| Edmonton Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|Lloydminster \|\| Central Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3a \|- \|Red Deer \|\| Central Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4a \|- \|Grande Prairie \|\| Northern Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|Leduc \|\| Edmonton Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|Calgary \|\| Calgary Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4a \|- \|Chestermere \|\| Calgary Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|- \|St. Albert \|\| Edmonton Metropolitan Region \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 4a \|- \|Lacombe \|\| Central Alberta \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 3b \|} Ecology Flora is the provincial flower of Alberta.]] In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring is marked by the early flowering of the prairie crocus (Pulsatilla nuttalliana) anemone; this member of the buttercup family has been recorded flowering as early as March, though April is the usual month for the general population. Other prairie flora known to flower early are the golden bean (Thermopsis rhombifolia) and wild rose (Rosa acicularis). Members of the sunflower (Helianthus) family blossom on the prairie in the summer months between July and September. The southern and east central parts of Alberta are covered by short prairie grass, which dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the prairie coneflower (Ratibida), fleabane, and sage (Artemisia). Both yellow and white sweet clover (Melilotus) can be found throughout the southern and central areas of the province. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides. These are largely deciduous, typically aspen, poplar, and willow. Many species of willow and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain. North of the North Saskatchewan River, evergreen forests prevail for thousands of square kilometres. Aspen poplar, balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) or in some parts cottonwood (Populus deltoides), and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) are the primary large deciduous species. Conifers include jack pine (Pinus banksiana), Rocky Mountain pine, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), both white and black spruce, and the deciduous conifer tamarack (Larix laricina). Fauna in Kananaskis Country. The bighorn sheep is the provincial mammal of Alberta.]] The four climatic regions (alpine, boreal forest, parkland, and prairie) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals. The south and central prairie was the homeland of the American bison, also known as buffalo, with its grasses providing pasture and breeding ground for millions of buffalo. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then, buffalo have made a comeback, living on farms and in parks all over Alberta. Herbivores are found throughout the province. Moose, mule deer, elk, and white-tailed deer are found in the wooded regions, and pronghorn can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta. Bighorn sheep and mountain goats live in the Rocky Mountains. Rabbits, porcupines, skunks, squirrels, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is home to only one venomous snake species, the prairie rattlesnake. Alberta is home to many large carnivores such as wolves, grizzly bears, black bears, and mountain lions, which are found in the mountains and wooded regions. Smaller carnivores of the canine and feline families include coyotes, red foxes, Canada lynx, and bobcats. Wolverines can also be found in the northwestern areas of the province. Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north are the nesting ground of many migratory birds. Vast numbers of ducks, geese, swans and pelicans arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. Eagles, hawks, owls, and crows are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found. Alberta, like other temperate regions, is home to mosquitoes, flies, wasps, and bees. Rivers and lakes are populated with pike, walleye, whitefish, rainbow, speckled, brown trout, and sturgeon. Native to the province, the bull trout, is the provincial fish and an official symbol of Alberta. Turtles are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province. Frogs and salamanders are a few of the amphibians that make their homes in Alberta. Alberta is the only province in Canada — as well as one of the few places in the world — that is free from Norwegian rats. Since the early 1950s, the Government of Alberta has operated a rat-control program, which has been so successful that only isolated instances of wild rat sightings are reported, usually of rats arriving in the province aboard trucks or by rail. In 2006, Alberta Agriculture reported zero findings of wild rats; the only rat interceptions have been domesticated rats that have been seized from their owners. It is illegal for individual Albertans to own or keep Norwegian rats of any description; the animals can only be kept in the province by zoos, universities and colleges, and recognized research institutions. In 2009, several rats were found and captured, in small pockets in southern Alberta, putting Alberta's rat-free status in jeopardy. A colony of rats was subsequently found in a landfill near Medicine Hat in 2012 and again in 2014. Paleontology , in the Horseshoe Canyon Formation at Dinosaur Provincial Park. Some of the specimens, from left to right, are Hypacrosaurus, Edmontosaurus, Lambeosaurus, Gorgosaurus (both in the background), Tyrannosaurus, and Triceratops.]] Alberta has one of the greatest diversities and abundances of Late Cretaceous dinosaur fossils worldwide. History warriors in Macleod in 1907]] Paleo-Indians arrived in what would later be Alberta at least 10,000 years ago, toward the end of the last ice age. They are thought to have migrated from Siberia to Alaska on a land bridge across the Bering Strait and then possibly moved south along the east side of the Rocky Mountains through Alberta, settling along the way or moving on to settle other parts of the Americas. Others may have travelled south along the west coast and then moved inland. Over time they differentiated into various First Nations peoples, including the Plains Indians of southern Alberta such as those of the Blackfoot Confederacy and the Plains Cree, who generally lived by hunting buffalo, and the more northerly tribes such as the Woodland Cree and Chipewyan who hunted and trapped other types of animals, and fished for a living. The extreme southernmost portion of Alberta was part of the French (and Spanish) territory of Louisiana, which was sold to the United States in 1803. In the Treaty of 1818, the portion of the Louisiana territory north of the Forty-Ninth Parallel was ceded to the United Kingdom. The area was grouped with Rupert's Land to make the North-Western Territory. , a trading post and regional headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company in 1820]] Fur trade expanded in the north, but there was intense friction and competition between the rival HBC and NWC. In 1821 the British government forced them to merge to stop the hostilities. After amalgamation, the Hudson's Bay Company dominated the economy of Alberta until 1870, when HBC control of Rupert's Land was ended and the territory was transferred to the newly federated Canada. Southern Alberta, Northern Alberta, other parts of the Northland and Rupert's land became Canada's North-West Territories. was one of several areas afflicted during the 2013 Alberta floods.]] First Nations and representatives of the Crown negotiated the Numbered Treaties, in which the Crown gained title to the land that would later become Alberta, and the Crown committed to the ongoing support of the First Nations and guaranteed their hunting and fishing rights. The most significant treaties for Alberta are Treaty 6 (1876), Treaty 7 (1877) and Treaty 8 (1899). The District of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly and the House of Commons were elected, and senators appointed, to represent Alberta. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905, the District of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status, with the election of a Liberal majority with Alexander Cameron Rutherford as the first premier. At first the economy was very active, then around 1912, Alberta suffered a recession. The First World War presented special challenges to the new province as an extraordinary number of working-age men volunteered for active service, leaving relatively few workers to maintain services and production. Over 50% of Alberta's doctors volunteered for service overseas. In 1918 Albertans experienced the 1918 flu epidemic. Alberta voters sought innovation, electing a Farmers government in 1921, then the world's first Social Credit government in 1935. Alberta's economy stayed sluggish, especially during the Depression. But discovery of oil at Leduc in 1946 opened a new era of prosperity and wealth for the province. On June 21, 2013, during the 2013 Alberta floods Alberta experienced heavy rainfall that triggered catastrophic flooding throughout much of the southern half of the province along the Bow, Elbow, Highwood and Oldman rivers and tributaries. A dozen municipalities in Southern Alberta declared local states of emergency on June 21 as water levels rose and numerous communities were placed under evacuation orders. In 2016, the Fort McMurray wildfire resulted in the largest fire evacuation of residents in Alberta's history, as more than 80,000 people were ordered to evacuate. Like the rest of the world, Alberta was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic starting in 2020. The last restrictions were lifted in 2022. Demographics The 2021 Canadian census reported Alberta had a population of 4,262,635 living in 1,633,220 of its 1,772,670 total dwellings, an 4.8% change from its 2016 population of 4,067,175. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. Since 2000, Alberta's population has experienced a relatively high rate of growth, mainly because of its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province had high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as British Columbia), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration compared to other provinces. In 2016, Alberta continued to have the youngest population among the provinces with a median age of 36.7 years, compared with the national median of 41.2 years. Also in 2016, Alberta had the smallest proportion of seniors (12.3%) among the provinces and one of the highest population shares of children (19.2%), further contributing to Alberta's young and growing population. About 81% of the population lives in urban areas and only about 19% in rural areas. The Calgary–Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized area in the province and is one of the most densely populated areas of Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have experienced very high rates of growth in recent history. Alberta's population rose from 73,022 in 1901 to 3,290,350 according to the 2006 census. According to the 2016 census Alberta has 779,155 residents (19.2%) between the ages of 0–14, 2,787,805 residents (68.5%) between the ages of 15–64, and 500,215 residents (12.3%) aged 65 and over. Additionally, as per the 2016 census, 1,769,500 residents hold a postsecondary certificate, diploma or degree, 895,885 residents have obtained a secondary (high) school diploma or equivalency certificate, and 540,665 residents do not have any certificate, diploma or degree. ! 2011 ! 2006 ! 2001 ! 1996 \|- \| Calgary CMA \|1,392,609 \| 1,214,839 \| 1,079,310 \| 951,395 \| 821,628 \|- \| Edmonton CMA \|1,321,426 \| 1,159,869 \| 1,034,945 \| 937,845 \| 862,597 \|- \|Lethbridge CMA \|117,394 \|105,999 \|95,196 \|87,388 \|82,025 \|- ! Urban municipalities (10 largest): ! 2016 ! 2011 ! 2006 ! 2001 ! 1996 \|- \| Calgary \|1,239,220 \| 1,096,833 \| 988,193 \| 878,866 \| 768,082 \|- \| Edmonton \|932,546 \| 812,201 \| 730,372 \| 666,104 \| 616,306 \|- \| Red Deer \|100,418 \| 90,564 \| 82,772 \| 67,707 \| 60,080 \|- \| Lethbridge \|92,729 \| 83,517 \| 78,713 \| 68,712 \| 64,938 \|- \| St. Albert <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> \|65,589 \| 61,466 \| 57,719 \| 53,081 \| 46,888 \|- \| Medicine Hat \|63,260 \| 60,005 \| 56,997 \| 51,249 \| 46,783 \|- \| Grande Prairie \|63,166 \| 55,032 \| 47,076 \| 36,983 \| 31,353 \|- \| Airdrie <small>(included in Calgary CMA)</small> \|61,581 \| 42,564 \| 28,927 \| 20,382 \| 15,946 \|- \| Spruce Grove <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> \|34,066 \| 26,171 \| 19,496 \| 15,983 \| 14,271 \|- \| Leduc <small>(included in Edmonton CMA)</small> \|29,993 \| 24,304 \| 16,967 \| 15,032 \| 14,346 \|- ! Specialized/rural municipalities (5 largest): ! 2016 The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. As of the 2016 census, English is the most common mother tongue, with 2,991,485 native speakers. Other mother tongues include: Punjabi, with 36,320 native speakers (1.13%); Tagalog, with 29,740 (0.92%); Ukrainian, with 29,455 (0.91%); Spanish, with 29,125 (0.90%); Polish, with 21,990 (0.68%); Arabic, with 20,495 (0.64%); Dutch, with 19,980 (0.62%); and Vietnamese, with 19,350 (0.60%). The most common aboriginal language is Cree 17,215 (0.53%). Other common mother tongues include Italian with 13,095 speakers (0.41%); Urdu with 11,275 (0.35%); and Korean with 10,845 (0.33%); then Hindi 8,985 (0.28%); Persian 7,700 (0.24%); Portuguese 7,205 (0.22%); and Hungarian 6,770 (0.21%). According to Statistics Canada, Alberta is home to the second-highest proportion (2%) of Francophones in western Canada (after Manitoba). Despite this, relatively few Albertans claim French as their mother tongue. Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province, after migration from other areas of Canada or descending from Métis. Ethnicity Alberta has considerable ethnic diversity. In line with the rest of Canada, many Albertans are descended from immigrants of Western European nations, notably England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales and France, but large numbers later came from other regions of Europe, notably Germany, Ukraine and Scandinavia. More recently, Africans, Asians and South Americans in larger numbers have also contributed to Alberta's mosaic. Many Alberta families today can trace their ethnicity in many directions. In the 2006 Canadian census, the most commonly reported ethnic origins among Albertans were: 885,825 English (27.2%); 679,705 German (20.9%); 667,405 Canadian (20.5%); 661,265 Scottish (20.3%); 539,160 Irish (16.6%); 388,210 French (11.9%); 332,180 Ukrainian (10.2%); 172,910 Dutch (5.3%); 170,935 Polish (5.2%); 169,355 North American Indian (5.2%); 144,585 Norwegian (4.4%); and 137,600 Chinese (4.2%). (Each person could choose as many ethnicities as were applicable so the percentages add up to much more than 100.) Amongst those of British heritage, the Scots have had a particularly strong influence on place-names. Many cities and towns have names of Scottish origins, such as Calgary, Airdrie, Canmore, and Banff. Both Edmonton and Calgary have historic Chinatowns, and Calgary has Canada's third-largest Chinese community. The Chinese presence began with workers employed in the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the 1880s. In 2021, 27.8% of the population consisted of visible minorities and 6.8% of the population was Indigenous, mostly of First Nations and Métis descent. A small number of Inuit live in the province. The Indigenous population has been growing at a faster rate than the population of Alberta as a whole. Some of this increase is due to Albertans who are only now embracing their Metis lineage. Religion in Edmonton]] According to the 2021 census, religious groups in Alberta included: Christianity (2,009,820 persons or 48.1%) * Irreligion (1,676,045 persons or 40.1%) * Islam (202,535 persons or 4.8%) * Sikhism (103,600 persons or 2.5%) * Hinduism (78,520 persons or 1.9%) * Buddhism (42,830 persons or 1.0%) * Indigenous Spirituality (19,755 persons or 0.5%) * Judaism (11,390 persons or 0.3%) * Other (33,220 persons or 0.8%) As of the 2011 National Household Survey, the largest religious group was Roman Catholic, representing 24.3% of the population. Alberta had the second-highest percentage of non-religious residents among the provinces (after British Columbia) at 31.6% of the population. Of the remainder, 7.5% of the population identified themselves as belonging to the United Church of Canada, while 3.9% were Anglican. Lutherans made up 3.3% of the population while Baptists comprised 1.9%. Members of LDS Church are mostly concentrated in the extreme south of the province. Alberta has a population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist sect similar to the Mennonites, and has a significant population of Seventh-day Adventists. Alberta is home to several Byzantine Rite Churches as part of the legacy of Eastern European immigration, including the Ukrainian Catholic Eparchy of Edmonton, and the Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada's Western Diocese which is based in Edmonton. Muslims made up 3.2% of the population, Sikhs 1.5%, Buddhists 1.2%, and Hindus 1.0%. Many of these are immigrants, but others have roots that go back to the first settlers of the prairies. Canada's oldest mosque, the Al-Rashid Mosque, is in Edmonton, whereas Calgary is home to Canada's largest mosque, the Baitun Nur Mosque. Alberta is also home to a growing Jewish population of about 15,400 people who constituted 0.3% of Alberta's population. Most of Alberta's Jews live in the metropolitan areas of Calgary (8,200) and Edmonton (5,500). Economy Alberta's economy, historically weak during the early period of Confederation, experienced a postwar boom supported by the burgeoning petroleum industry and to a lesser extent, agriculture and technology. In 2013, Alberta's per capita GDP exceeded that of the United States, Norway, or Switzerland, and was the highest of any province in Canada at $84,390. This was 56% higher than the national average of $53,870 and more than twice that of some of the Atlantic provinces. In 2006, the deviation from the national average was the largest for any province in Canadian history. According to the 2006 census, the median annual family income after taxes was $70,986 in Alberta (compared to $60,270 in Canada as a whole). In 2014, Alberta had the second-largest economy in Canada after Ontario, with a GDP exceeding $376 billion. The GDP of the province calculated at basic prices rose by 4.6% in 2017 to $327.4 billion, which was the largest increase recorded in Canada, and it ended two consecutive years of decreases. Alberta's debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to peak at 12.1% in fiscal year 2021–2022, falling to 11.3% the following year. The Calgary-Edmonton Corridor is the most urbanized region in the province and one of the densest in Canada. The region covers a distance of roughly north to south. In 2001, the population of the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor was 2.15 million (72% of Alberta's population). It is also one of the fastest-growing regions in the country by population. A 2003 study by TD Bank Financial Group found the corridor to be the only Canadian urban centre to amass a United States level of wealth while maintaining a Canadian style quality of life, offering universal health care benefits. The report found that GDP per capita in the corridor was 10% above average United States metropolitan areas and 40% above other Canadian cities at that time. The Fraser Institute states that Alberta also has very high levels of economic freedom and rates Alberta as the freest economy in Canada, and second-freest economy amongst U.S. states and Canadian provinces. In 2014, merchandise exports totalled US$121.4 billion. Energy revenues totalled $111.7 billion and Energy resource exports totalled $90.8 billion. Farm Cash receipts from agricultural products totalled $12.9 billion. Shipments of forest products totalled $5.4 billion while exports were $2.7 billion. Manufacturing sales totalled $79.4 billion, and Alberta's information and communications technology (ICT) industries generated over $13 billion in revenue. In total, Alberta's 2014 GDP amassed $364.5 billion in 2007 dollars, or $414.3 billion in 2015 dollars. In 2015, Alberta's GDP grew unstably despite low oil prices, with growth rates as high 4.4% and as low as 0.2%. Agriculture and forestry . Nearly one-half of Canadian beef is produced here.]] Agriculture has a significant position in the province's economy. The province has over three million head of cattle, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Forty percent of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta. The province also produces the most bison meat in Canada. Sheep for wool and mutton are also raised. Wheat and canola are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production; other grains are also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation. Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion. Across the province, the once common grain elevator is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreasing; farmers typically truck the grain to central points. Alberta is the leading beekeeping province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering hives indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the Peace River valley where the season is short but the working days are long for honeybees to produce honey from clover and fireweed. Hybrid canola also requires bee pollination, and some beekeepers service this need. field, Edmonton]] Forestry plays a vital role in Alberta's economy, providing over 15,000 jobs and contributing billions of dollars annually. Uses for harvested timber include pulpwood, hardwood, engineered wood and bioproducts such as chemicals and biofuels. Industry Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and gas products in Canada. Alberta is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas and the fourth-largest producer. Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are in central and north-central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products that are shipped all over the world. Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. The Athabasca oil sands surrounding Fort McMurray have estimated unconventional oil reserves approximately equal to the conventional oil reserves of the rest of the world, estimated to be . Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional in situ methods to extract the bitumen from the oil sands. As of late 2006, there were over $100 billion in oil sands projects under construction or in the planning stages in northeastern Alberta. Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the oil sands is the price of oil. The oil price increases since 2003 have made it profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss. By mid-2014, rising costs and stabilizing oil prices threatened the economic viability of some projects. An example of this was the shelving of the Joslyn North project in the Athabasca region in May 2014. With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably patents related to interactive liquid-crystal display systems. With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with civil and private funds. Tourism at Bow Valley Provincial Park in Canmore]] Alberta has been a tourist destination from the early days of the 20th century, with attractions including outdoor locales for skiing, hiking, and camping, shopping locales such as West Edmonton Mall, Calgary Stampede, outdoor festivals, professional athletic events, international sporting competitions such as the Commonwealth Games and Olympic Games, as well as more eclectic attractions. According to Alberta Economic Development, Calgary and Edmonton both host over four million visitors annually. Banff, Jasper and the Rocky Mountains are visited by about three million people per year. Alberta tourism relies heavily on Southern Ontario tourists, as well as tourists from other parts of Canada, the United States, and many other countries. There are also natural attractions like Elk Island National Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, and the Columbia Icefield. Alberta's Rockies include well-known tourist destinations Banff National Park and Jasper National Park. The two mountain parks are connected by the scenic Icefields Parkway. Banff is located west of Calgary on Highway 1, and Jasper is located west of Edmonton on the Yellowhead Highway. Five of Canada's fourteen UNESCO World Heritage Sites are located within the province: Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks, Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, Wood Buffalo National Park, Dinosaur Provincial Park and Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump. A number of these areas hold ski resorts, most notably Banff Sunshine, Lake Louise, Marmot Basin, Norquay and Nakiska. . The event is one of the world's largest rodeos.]] About 1.2 million people visit the Calgary Stampede, a celebration of Canada's own Wild West and the cattle ranching industry. About 700,000 people enjoy Edmonton's K-Days (formerly Klondike Days and Capital EX). Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the Yukon gold fields, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous Chilkoot Pass. Another tourist destination that draws more than 650,000 visitors each year is the Drumheller Valley, located northeast of Calgary. Drumheller, known as the "Dinosaur Capital of The World", offers the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology. Drumheller also had a rich mining history being one of Western Canada's largest coal producers during the war years. Another attraction in east-central Alberta is Alberta Prairie Railway Excursions, a popular tourist attraction operated out of Stettler, that offers train excursions into the prairie and caters to tens of thousands of visitors every year. Government and politics (red) and 74 rural municipalities, which include municipal districts (often named as counties) (orange), improvement districts (dark green) and special areas (light green) (2020)]] The Government of Alberta is organized as a parliamentary democracy with a unicameral legislature. Its unicameral legislature—the Legislative Assembly—consists of 87 members elected first past the post (FPTP) from single-member constituencies. Locally municipal governments and school boards are elected and operate separately. Their boundaries do not necessarily coincide. As King of Canada, Charles III is the head of state of Alberta. His duties concerning the Government of Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor Salma Lakhani. The King and lieutenant governor are figureheads whose actions are highly restricted by custom and constitutional convention. The lieutenant governor handles numerous honorific duties in the name of the King. The government is headed by the premier. The premier is normally a member of the Legislative Assembly, and draws all the members of the Cabinet from among the members of the Legislative Assembly. The City of Edmonton is the seat of the provincial government—the capital of Alberta. The current premier is Danielle Smith, who was sworn in on October 11, 2022. is the meeting place for the Legislative Assembly of Alberta]] Alberta's elections have tended to yield much more conservative outcomes than those of other Canadian provinces. From the 1980s to the 2010s, Alberta had three main political parties, the Progressive Conservatives ("Conservatives" or "Tories"), the Liberals, and the social democratic New Democrats. The Wildrose Party, a more libertarian party formed in early 2008, gained much support in the 2012 election and became the official opposition, a role it held until 2017 when it was dissolved and succeeded by the new United Conservative Party created by the merger of Wildrose and the Progressive Conservatives. The strongly conservative Social Credit Party was a power in Alberta for many decades, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in 1971. For 44 years the Progressive Conservatives governed Alberta. They lost the 2015 election to the NDP (which formed their own government for the first time in provincial history, breaking almost 80 consecutive years of right-wing rule), suggesting at the time a possible shift to the left in the province, also indicated by the election of progressive mayors in both of Alberta's major cities. Since becoming a province in 1905, Alberta has seen only five changes of government—only six parties have governed Alberta: the Liberals, from 1905 to 1921; the United Farmers of Alberta, from 1921 to 1935; the Social Credit Party, from 1935 to 1971; the Progressive Conservative Party, from 1971 to 2015; from 2015 to 2019, the Alberta New Democratic Party; and from 2019, the United Conservative Party, with the most recent transfer of power being the first time in provincial history that an incumbent government was not returned to a second term.Administrative divisionsThe province is divided into ten types of local governments – urban municipalities (including cities, towns, villages and summer villages), specialized municipalities, rural municipalities (including municipal districts (often named as counties), improvement districts, and special areas), Métis settlements, and Indian reserves. All types of municipalities are governed by local residents and were incorporated under various provincial acts, with the exception of improvement districts (governed by either the provincial or federal government), and Indian reserves (governed by local band governments under federal jurisdiction). Law enforcement officers in St. Albert. The RCMP provides municipal policing throughout most of Alberta.]] Policing in the province of Alberta upon its creation was the responsibility of the Royal Northwest Mounted Police. In 1917, due to pressures of the First World War, the Alberta Provincial Police was created. This organization policed the province until it was disbanded as a Great Depression-era cost-cutting measure in 1932. It was at that time the, now renamed, Royal Canadian Mounted Police resumed policing of the province, specifically RCMP "K" Division. With the advent of the Alberta Sheriffs Branch, the distribution of duties of law enforcement in Alberta has been evolving as certain aspects, such as traffic enforcement, mobile surveillance and the close protection of the Premier of Alberta have been transferred to the Sheriffs. In 2006, Alberta formed the Alberta Law Enforcement Response Teams (ALERT) to combat organized crime and the serious offences that accompany it. ALERT is made up of members of the RCMP, Sheriffs Branch, and various major municipal police forces in Alberta. Military Military bases in Alberta include Canadian Forces Base (CFB) Cold Lake, CFB Edmonton, CFB Suffield and CFB Wainwright. Air force units stationed at CFB Cold Lake have access to the Cold Lake Air Weapons Range. CFB Edmonton is the headquarters for the 3rd Canadian Division. CFB Suffield hosts British troops and is the largest training facility in Canada. Taxation According to Alberta's 2009 budget, government revenue in that year came mainly from royalties on non-renewable natural resources (30.4%), personal income taxes (22.3%), corporate and other taxes (19.6%), and grants from the federal government primarily for infrastructure projects (9.8%). In 2014, Alberta received $6.1 billion in bitumen royalties. With the drop in the price of oil in 2015 it was down to $1.4 billion. In 2016, Alberta received "about $837 million in royalty payments from oil sands Royalty Projects". According to the 2018–2021 fiscal plan, the two top sources of revenue in 2016 were personal income tax at $10,763 million and federal transfers of $7,976 million with total resource revenue at $3,097 million. Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial sales tax. Alberta residents are subject to the federal sales tax, the Goods and Services Tax of 5%. {\| class="wikitable floatright" \|+ 2018–2021 fiscal plan \| Revenue source \|\| in millions of dollars In 2016, under Premier Rachel Notley, while most Albertans continued to pay the 10% income tax rate, new tax brackets 12%, 14%, and 15% for those with higher incomes ($128,145 annually or more) were introduced. in addition to a variety of tax deductions for persons with disabilities, students, and the aged. Alberta's municipalities and school jurisdictions have their own governments who usually work in co-operation with the provincial government. By 2018, most Albertans continued to pay the 10% income tax rate. According to a March 2015 Statistics Canada report, the median household income in Alberta in 2014 was about $100,000, which is 23% higher than the Canadian national average. Based on Statistic Canada reports, low-income Albertans, who earn less than $25,000 and those in the high-income bracket earning $150,000 or more, are the lowest-taxed people in Canada. pay more in provincial taxes than residents in British Columbia and Ontario. Tax revenue also increased from $400 million to $700 million. In 2017/18 Alberta collected about $2.4 billion in education property taxes from municipalities. Alberta municipalities raise a significant portion of their income through levying property taxes. The value of assessed property in Alberta was approximately $727 billion in 2011. Most real property is assessed according to its market value. Depending on the property type, property owners may appeal a property assessment to their municipal 'Local Assessment Review Board', 'Composite Assessment Review Board,' or the Alberta Municipal Government Board. Culture performing at the CSIO Spruce Meadows 'Masters' Tournament]] Calgary is famous for its Stampede, dubbed "The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth". The Stampede is Canada's biggest rodeo festival and features various races and competitions, such as calf roping and bull riding. In line with the western tradition of rodeo are the cultural artisans that reside and create unique Alberta western heritage crafts. Summer brings many festivals to Alberta, especially in Edmonton. The Edmonton Fringe Festival is the world's second-largest after the Edinburgh Festival. Both Calgary and Edmonton host many annual festivals and events, including folk music festivals. The city's "heritage days" festival sees the participation of over 70 ethnic groups. Edmonton's Churchill Square is home to a large number of the festivals, including A Taste of Edmonton and The Works Art & Design Festival throughout the summer months. In 2019, Minister of Culture and Tourism Ricardo Miranda announced the Alberta Artist in Residence program in conjunction with the province's first Month of the Artist to celebrate the arts and the value they bring to the province, both socially and economically, The artist is selected each year via a public and competitive process is expected to do community outreach and attend events to promote the arts throughout the province. The award comes with $60,000 funding which includes travel and materials costs. On January 31, 2019, Lauren Crazybull was named Alberta's first artist in residence. Nine comprehensive community colleges offer primarily offer diploma and certificate programs, Bow Valley College, Keyano College, Lakeland College, Lethbridge College, Medicine Hat College, NorQuest College, Northern Lakes College, Olds College, and Portage College. In addition, there are also four polytechnic institutes that provide specific career training and provides apprenticeships and diplomas, the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology, the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, Northwestern Polytechnic, and Red Deer Polytechnic. The Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity is a specialized arts and cultural institution that is also empowered to provide diploma programs under the Post-secondary Learning Act. There was some controversy in 2005 over the rising cost of post-secondary education for students (as opposed to taxpayers). In 2005, Premier Ralph Klein made a promise that he would freeze tuition and look into ways of reducing schooling costs.Health care Alberta provides a publicly funded, fully integrated health system, through Alberta Health Services (AHS)—a quasi-independent agency that delivers health care on behalf of the Government of Alberta's Ministry of Health. The Alberta government provides health services for all its residents as set out by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984. Alberta became Canada's second province (after Saskatchewan) to adopt a Tommy Douglas-style program in 1950, a precursor to the modern medicare system. Alberta's health care budget was $22.5 billion during the 2018–2019 fiscal year (approximately 45% of all government spending), making it the best-funded health-care system per-capita in Canada. Every hour the province spends more than $2.5 million, (or $60 million per day), to maintain and improve health care in the province. Notable health, education, research, and resources facilities in Alberta, all of which are located within Calgary or Edmonton. Health centres in Calgary include: in Calgary is the largest hospital in Alberta.]] * Alberta Children's Hospital * Foothills Medical Centre * Grace Women's Health Centre * Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta * Peter Lougheed Centre * Rockyview General Hospital * South Health Campus * Tom Baker Cancer Centre * University of Calgary Medical Centre (UCMC) Health centres in Edmonton include: * Alberta Diabetes Institute * Cross Cancer Institute * Edmonton Clinic * Grey Nuns Community Hospital * Lois Hole Hospital for Women * Mazankowski Alberta Heart Institute * Misericordia Community Hospital * Rexall Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research * Royal Alexandra Hospital * Stollery Children's Hospital * University of Alberta Hospital The Edmonton Clinic complex, completed in 2012, provides a similar research, education, and care environment as the Mayo Clinic in the United States. All public health care services funded by the Government of Alberta are delivered operationally by Alberta Health Services. AHS is the province's single health authority, established on July 1, 2008, which replaced nine regional health authorities. AHS also funds all ground ambulance services in the province, as well as the province-wide Shock Trauma Air Rescue Service (STARS) air ambulance service. Transportation Air , the province's largest airport by passenger traffic.]] Alberta is well-connected by air, with international airports in both Calgary and Edmonton. Calgary International Airport and Edmonton International Airport are the fourth- and fifth-busiest in Canada, respectively. Calgary's airport is a hub for WestJet Airlines and a regional hub for Air Canada, primarily serving the prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba) for connecting flights to British Columbia, eastern Canada, fifteen major United States centres, nine European airports, one Asian airport and four destinations in Mexico and the Caribbean. Edmonton's airport acts as a hub for the Canadian north and has connections to all major Canadian airports as well as airports in the United States, Europe, Mexico, and the Caribbean . Public transit Calgary, Edmonton, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial public transit systems. In addition to buses, Calgary and Edmonton operate light rail transit (LRT) systems. Edmonton LRT, which is underground in the downtown core and on the surface outside the downtown core was the first of the modern generation of light rail systems to be built in North America, while the Calgary CTrain has one of the highest numbers of daily riders of any LRT system in North America. Rail passenger train passing by freight trains in the background, at Jasper station]] There are more than of operating mainline railway in Alberta. The vast majority of this trackage is owned by the Canadian Pacific Kansas City (CPKC) and Canadian National Railway (CN) companies, which operate freight transport across the province. Additional railfreight service in the province is provided by two shortline railways: the Battle River Railway and Forty Mile Rail. Passenger trains include Via Rail's Canadian (Toronto–Vancouver) and Jasper–Prince Rupert trains, which use the CN mainline and pass through Jasper National Park and parallel the Yellowhead Highway during at least part of their routes. The Rocky Mountaineer operates two sections: one from Vancouver to Banff over CP tracks, and a section that travels over CN tracks to Jasper. In 2024 Alberta's premier, Danielle Smith, announced a 15-year master plan to expand passenger rail in Alberta. This plan envisions rail services to Lethbridge, Medicine Hat, Banff, Grande Prairie, Fort McMurray, and most importantly an intercity rail service between Edmonton and Calgary, as well as a commuter rail systems in the respective cities. Ground-breaking was planned for 2027, according to Transportation Minister Devin Dreeshen.Road Alberta has over of highways and roads in its road network. The main north–south corridor is Highway 2, which begins south of Cardston at the Carway border crossing and is part of the CANAMEX Corridor. Beginning at the Coutts border crossing and ending at Lethbridge, Highway 4, effectively extends Interstate 15 into Alberta and is the busiest United States gateway to the province. Highway 3 joins Lethbridge to Fort Macleod and links Highway 2 to Highway 4. Highway 2 travels north through Fort Macleod, Calgary, Red Deer, and Edmonton. (the Trans-Canada Highway) at Alberta Highway 22 (Cowboy Trail).]] North of Edmonton, the highway continues to Athabasca, then northwesterly along the south shore of Lesser Slave Lake into High Prairie, north to Peace River, west to Fairview and finally south to Grande Prairie, where it ends at an interchange with Highway 43. Highway 2 is supplemented by two more highways that run parallel to it: Highway 22, west of Highway 2, known as Cowboy Trail, and Highway 21, east of Highway 2. Highway 43 travels northwest into Grande Prairie and the Peace River Country. Travelling northeast from Edmonton, the Highway 63 connects to Fort McMurrayand the Athabasca oil sands. Friendship partners Alberta has relationships with many provinces, states, and other entities worldwide. * Gangwon-do, South Korea (1974) * Hokkaido, Japan (1980) * Heilongjiang, China (1981) * Montana, United States (1985) * Tyumen, Russia (1992) * Khanty–Mansi, Russia (1995) * Yamalo-Nenets, Russia (1997) * Jalisco, Mexico (1999) * Alaska, United States (2002) * Saxony, Germany (2002) * Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine (2004) * Lviv, Ukraine (2005) * California, United States (1997) * Guangdong, China (2017) See also * Index of Alberta-related articles * Outline of Alberta * Royal eponyms in Canada * Edmonton * Calgary * Banff National Park Notes References Further reading * * * * * * External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190109112227/http://albertasource.ca/ Alberta Encyclopedia] * [https://cartographic.info/ca_street/place.php?p=ab List of streets in Alberta with maps] Category:1905 establishments in Canada Category:Canadian Prairies Category:Provinces and territories of Canada Category:States and territories established in 1905	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta	2025-04-05T18:25:20.634142
728	List of anthropologists	Anthropologist A John Adair B. R. Ambedkar Giulio Angioni Jon Altman Arjun Appadurai Talal Asad Timothy Asch Scott Atran Marc Augé B Nigel Barley Fredrik Barth Vasily Bartold Keith H. Basso Daisy Bates Gregory Bateson Mary Catherine Bateson Richard Bauman Ruth Behar Ruth Benedict Dorothy A. Bennett Carl H. Berendt Lee Berger Brent Berlin Catherine Helen Webb Berndt Catherine L. Besteman Theodore C. Bestor Lewis Binford Evelyn Blackwood Wilhelm Bleek Maurice Bloch Anton Blok Franz Boas Tom Boellstorff Paul Bohannan Dmitri Bondarenko Pere Bosch-Gimpera Pierre Bourdieu Philippe Bourgois Charles L. Briggs Paul Broca Christian Bromberger Kari Bruwelheide Peter Buck (Te Rangi Hīroa) C Julio Caro Baroja Edmund Carpenter Napoleon Chagnon Pierre Clastres Mabel Cook Cole Malcolm Carr Collier Harold C. Conklin Carleton S. Coon Frank Hamilton Cushing D Regna Darnell Raymond Dart Emma Lou Davis Wade Davis Ernesto de Martino Ella Cara Deloria Raymond J. DeMallie Philippe Descola Stanley Diamond Mary Douglas Cora Du Bois Eugene Dubois Robin Dunbar Ann Dunham Katherine Dunham Elizabeth Cullen Dunn Émile Durkheim E Mary Lindsay Elmendolf Verrier Elwin Matthew Engelke Friedrich Engels Arturo Escobar E. E. Evans-Pritchard F James Ferguson Raymond Firth Raymond D. Fogelson Meyer Fortes Gregory Forth Dian Fossey Kate Fox Robin Fox James Frazer Lina Fruzzetti G Clifford Geertz Alfred Gell Ernest Gellner Herb Di Gioia Max Gluckman Maurice Godelier Jane Goodall Marjorie Harness Goodwin Igor Gorevich Harold A. Gould David Graeber Hilma Granqvist J. Patrick Gray Marcel Griaule Jacob Grimm Wilhelm Grimm H Abdellah Hammoudi Michael Harkin Michael Harner John P. Harrington Marvin Harris K. David Harrison Kirsten Hastrup Jacquetta Hawkes Brian Douglas Hayden Rose Oldfield Hayes Stephen C. Headley Thor Heyerdahl Arthur Maurice Hocart Ian Hodder E. Adamson Hoebel Earnest Hooton Robin W.G. Horton Aleš Hrdlička Eva Verbitsky Hunt Dell Hymes I Miyako Inoue Bill Irons J Ira Jacknis John M. Janzen Thomas Des Jean F. Landa Jocano Alfred E. Johnson William Jones Michal Josephy Jeffrey S. Juris K Sergei Kan Jomo Kenyatta David Kertzer Alice Beck Kehoe Anatoly Khazanov Dolly Kikon Richard G. Klein Chris Knight Eduardo Kohn Dorinne K. Kondo Andrey Korotayev Conrad Kottak Charles H. Kraft Grover Krantz Alfred L. Kroeber Theodora Kroeber Lars Krutak Adam Kuper L William Labov George Lakoff Harold E. Lambert Edmund Leach Eleanor Leacock Murray Leaf Louis Leakey Mary Leakey Richard Leakey Richard Borshay Lee Charles Miller Leslie Claude Lévi-Strauss Ellen Lewin C. Scott Littleton Albert Buell Lewis Oscar Lewis Phillip Harold Lewis Roland Littlewood Robert Lowie Nancy Lurie M Alan Macfarlane Saba Mahmood Bronisław Malinowski George Marcus Jonathan M. Marks Karl Marx John Alden Mason Michael Atwood Mason Marcel Mauss Phillip McArthur Irma McClaurin Charles Harrison McNutt Margaret Mead Mervyn Meggitt Josef Mengele Nicholas Miklouho-Maclay Emily Martin Horace Mitchell Miner Sidney Mintz Louis Molet Ashley Montagu James Mooney Henrietta L. Moore John H. Moore Lewis H. Morgan Desmond Morris George Murdock Yolanda Murphy N Laura Nader Moni Nag Jeremy Narby Raoul Naroll Josiah Nott Erland Nordenskiöld O Gananath Obeyesekere Kaori O'Connor Aihwa Ong Marvin Opler Morris Opler Sherry Ortner Keith F. Otterbein Evelia Edith Oyhenart P Elsie Clews Parsons Bronisław Piłsudski Thomas J. Pluckhahn Hortense Powdermaker A.H.J. Prins Harald E.L. Prins Q Buell Quain James Quesada R Paul Rabinow Wilhelm Radloff Laurence Ralph Lucinda Ramberg Roy Rappaport Hans Ras Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown Margaret Read Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff Kathy Reichs Audrey Richards W. H. R. Rivers Paul Rivet Uzma Z. Rizvi Joel Robbins Renato Rosaldo Gayle Rubin Robert A. Rubinstein S Marshall Sahlins Noel B. Salazar Roger Sandall Edward Sapir Patricia Sawin Nancy Scheper-Hughes Wilhelm Schmidt Tobias Schneebaum James C. Scott Thayer Scudder Elman Service Afanasy Shchapov Gerald F. Schroedl Florence Connolly Shipek Sydel Silverman Audra Simpson Cathy Small Christen A. Smith Jacques Soustelle Melford Spiro James Spradley Julian Steward Herbert Spencer Marilyn Strathern William Sturtevant Niara Sudarkasa T Michael Taussig Sharika Thiranagama Edward Burnett Tylor Colin Turnbull Victor Turner Bruce Trigger V Karl Verner L. P. Vidyarthi Eduardo Viveiros de Castro Christoph von Fürer-Haimendorf W Anthony F. C. Wallace Lee Henderson Watkins Camilla Wedgwood Hank Wesselman Kath Weston Douglas R. White Isobel Mary White Leslie White Tim White Benjamin Whorf Unni Wikan Clark Wissler Eric Wolf Alvin Wolfe Sol Worth Y Nur Yalman Kim Yeshi Z Jarrett Zigon R. Tom Zuidema Fictional anthropologists Mary Albright (Jane Curtin) in the sitcom 3rd Rock from the Sun Temperance "Bones" Brennan (Emily Deschanel) in the television series Bones Temperance Brennan in the novel series Temperance Brennan by Kathy Reichs Chakotay (Robert Beltran) in the television series Star Trek: Voyager Michael Burnham (Sonequa Martin-Green) in the television series Star Trek: Discovery Daniel Jackson (Michael Shanks, James Spader) in the television series and film Stargate SG-1 Charlotte Lewis (Rebecca Mader) in the television series Lost Korekiyo Shinguji See also List of female anthropologists List of Black Anthropologists List of Chinese sociologists and anthropologists References Anthropologists	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_anthropologists	2025-04-05T18:25:20.668948
734	Actinopterygii	\| image = \| image_caption \| subdivision_ranks Subclasses \| subdivision = Cladistia (bichirs) Actinopteri Chondrostei (sturgeon and paddlefish) Neopterygii *Holostei (bowfin and gars) Teleosteomorpha *** Teleostei (teleosts) \| authority = Klein<!--1805–1892-->, 1885 }} Actinopterygii (; (aktis)\|having rays\|\| (ptérux)\|wing, fins}}), members of which are known as ray-finned fish or actinopterygians, is a class of bony fish that comprise over 50% of living vertebrate species. They are so called because of their lightly built fins made of webbings of skin supported by radially extended thin bony spines called lepidotrichia, as opposed to the bulkier, fleshy lobed fins of the sister clade Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish). Resembling folding fans, the actinopterygian fins can easily change shape and wetted area, providing superior thrust-to-weight ratios per movement compared to sarcopterygian and chondrichthyian fins. The fin rays attach directly to the proximal or basal skeletal elements, the radials, which represent the articulation between these fins and the internal skeleton (e.g., pelvic and pectoral girdles). The vast majority of actinopterygians are teleosts. By species count, they dominate the subphylum Vertebrata, and constitute nearly 99% of the over 30,000 extant species of fish. They are the most abundant nektonic aquatic animals and are ubiquitous throughout freshwater and marine environments from the deep sea to subterranean waters to the highest mountain streams. Extant species can range in size from Paedocypris, at ; to the massive ocean sunfish, at ; and to the giant oarfish, at . The largest ever known ray-finned fish, the extinct Leedsichthys from the Jurassic, has been estimated to have grown to . Characteristics )}} A: dorsal fin, B: fin rays, C: lateral line, D: kidney, E: swim bladder, F: Weberian apparatus, G: inner ear, H: brain, I: nostrils, L: eye, M: gills, N: heart, O: stomach, P: gall bladder, Q: spleen, R: internal sex organs (ovaries or testes), S: ventral fins, T: spine, U: anal fin, V: tail (caudal fin). Possible other parts not shown: barbels, adipose fin, external genitalia (gonopodium)]] Ray-finned fishes occur in many variant forms. The main features of typical ray-finned fish are shown in the adjacent diagram. The swim bladder is a more derived structure and used for buoyancy. Except from the bichirs, which just like the lungs of lobe-finned fish have retained the ancestral condition of ventral budding from the foregut, the swim bladder in ray-finned fishes derives from a dorsal bud above the foregut. In some fish like the arapaima, the swim bladder has been modified for breathing air again, and in other lineages it has been completely lost. The teleosts have urinary and reproductive tracts that are fully separated, while the Chondrostei have common urogenital ducts, and partially connected ducts are found in Cladistia and Holostei. Ray-finned fishes have many different types of scales; but all teleosts have leptoid scales. The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges, while the inner part is crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more transparent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel- or dentine-like layers found in the scales of many other fish. Unlike ganoid scales, which are found in non-teleost actinopterygians, new scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows. Teleosts and chondrosteans (sturgeons and paddlefish) also differ from the bichirs and holosteans (bowfin and gars) in having gone through a whole-genome duplication (paleopolyploidy). The WGD is estimated to have happened about 320 million years ago in the teleosts, which on average has retained about 17% of the gene duplicates, and around 180 (124–225) million years ago in the chondrosteans. It has since happened again in some teleost lineages, like Salmonidae (80–100 million years ago) and several times independently within the Cyprinidae (in goldfish and common carp as recently as 14 million years ago). Body shapes and fin arrangements Ray-finned fish vary in size and shape, in their feeding specializations, and in the number and arrangement of their ray-fins. Leedsichthys was a filter-feeder and the largest ray-finned fish to have ever lived \|File:Lactoria fornasini1.jpg\|Lactoria fornasini is a poisonous species of boxfish \|File:Lepisosteus platostomus drawing.jpg\|Gars (along with the bowfin) are the only surviving members of the Holostei }} Reproduction (Gasterosteus aculeatus) males (red belly) build nests and compete to attract females to lay eggs in them. Males then defend and fan the eggs. Painting by Alexander Francis Lydon, 1879]] In nearly all ray-finned fish, the sexes are separate, and in most species the females spawn eggs that are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after they are laid. Development then proceeds with a free-swimming larval stage. However other patterns of ontogeny exist, with one of the commonest being sequential hermaphroditism. In most cases this involves protogyny, fish starting life as females and converting to males at some stage, triggered by some internal or external factor. Protandry, where a fish converts from male to female, is much less common than protogyny. Most families use external rather than internal fertilization. Of the oviparous teleosts, most (79%) do not provide parental care. Viviparity, ovoviviparity, or some form of parental care for eggs, whether by the male, the female, or both parents is seen in a significant fraction (21%) of the 422 teleost families; no care is likely the ancestral condition. Viviparity is relatively rare and is found in about 6% of living teleost species; male care is far more common than female care. Male territoriality "preadapts" a species for evolving male parental care. There are a few examples of fish that self-fertilise. The mangrove rivulus is an amphibious, simultaneous hermaphrodite, producing both eggs and spawn and having internal fertilisation. This mode of reproduction may be related to the fish's habit of spending long periods out of water in the mangrove forests it inhabits. Males are occasionally produced at temperatures below and can fertilise eggs that are then spawned by the female. This maintains genetic variability in a species that is otherwise highly inbred. Classification and fossil record Actinopterygii is divided into the subclasses Cladistia, Chondrostei and Neopterygii. The Neopterygii, in turn, is divided into the infraclasses Holostei and Teleostei. During the Mesozoic (Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous) and Cenozoic the teleosts in particular diversified widely. As a result, 96% of living fish species are teleosts (40% of all fish species belong to the teleost subgroup Acanthomorpha), while all other groups of actinopterygians represent depauperate lineages. The classification of ray-finned fishes can be summarized as follows: * Cladistia, which include bichirs and reedfish * Actinopteri, which include: Chondrostei, which include Acipenseriformes (paddlefishes and sturgeons) Neopterygii, which include: *Teleostei (most living fishes) Holostei, which include: *Lepisosteiformes (gars) *Amiiformes (bowfin) The cladogram below shows the main clades of living actinopterygians and their evolutionary relationships to other extant groups of fishes and the four-limbed vertebrates (tetrapods). The latter include mostly terrestrial species but also groups that became secondarily aquatic (e.g. whales and dolphins). Tetrapods evolved from a group of bony fish during the Devonian period. Approximate divergence dates for the different actinopterygian clades (in millions of years, mya) are from Near et al., 2012. Crown group actinopterygians most likely originated near the Devonian-Carboniferous boundary. The earliest fossil relatives of modern teleosts are from the Triassic period (Prohalecites, Pholidophorus), although it is suspected that teleosts originated already during the Paleozoic Era. This group had once been classified with the sharks: the similarities are obvious, as not only do the chondrosteans mostly lack bone, but the structure of the jaw is more akin to that of sharks than other bony fish, and both lack scales (excluding the Polypteriforms). Additional shared features include spiracles and, in sturgeons, a heterocercal tail (the vertebrae extend into the larger lobe of the caudal fin). However the fossil record suggests that these fish have more in common with the Teleostei than their external appearance might suggest. \|} cheirolepidiform Cheirolepis canadensis]] elonichthyiform Elonichthys peltigerus]] aeduelliform Aeduella blainvillei]] palaeonisciform Palaeoniscum freieslebeni]] bobasatraniiform Bobasatrania canadensis]] perleidiform Thoracopterus magnificus]] prohaleciteiform Prohalecites sp., the earliest teleosteomorph]] aspidorhynchiform Aspidorhynchus sp.]] pachycormiform Pachycormus curtus]] acipenseriform Yanosteus longidorsalis]] aulopiform Nematonotus longispinus]] ichthyodectiform Thrissops formosus]] carangiform Mene oblonga]] pleuronectiform Amphistium paradoxum]] ) from the Lower Eocene about 50 million years ago]] syngnathiform Nerophis zapfei]] . The first spine of the dorsal fin of the anglerfish is modified so it functions like a fishing rod with a lure]] ]] skeleton}}]] Taxonomy The listing below is a summary of all extinct (indicated by a dagger, †) and living groups of Actinopterygii with their respective taxonomic rank. The taxonomy follows ''Eschmeyer's Catalog of Fishes''' and Phylogenetic Classification of Bony Fishes and FishBase and extinct groups from Van der Laan 2016 and Xu 2021. Order †?Asarotiformes Schaeffer 1968 * Order †?Discordichthyiformes Minikh 1998 * Order †?Paphosisciformes Grogan & Lund 2015 * Order †?Scanilepiformes Selezneya 1985 * Order †Cheirolepidiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 * Order †Paramblypteriformes Heyler 1969 * Order †Rhadinichthyiformes * Order †Palaeonisciformes Hay 1902 * Order †Tarrasiiformes sensu Lund & Poplin 2002 * Order †Ptycholepiformes Andrews et al. 1967 * Order †Haplolepidiformes Westoll 1944 * Order †Aeduelliformes Heyler 1969 * Order †Platysomiformes Aldinger 1937 * Order †Dorypteriformes Cope 1871 * Order †Eurynotiformes Sallan & Coates 2013 * Subclass Cladistia Pander 1860 Order †Guildayichthyiformes Lund 2000 Order Polypteriformes Bleeker 1859 (bichirs and reedfishes) Subclass Actinopteri Cope 1972 s.s. * Order †Elonichthyiformes Kazantseva-Selezneva 1977 * Order †Phanerorhynchiformes * Order †Bobasatraniiformes Berg 1940 * Order †Saurichthyiformes Aldinger 1937 Subclass Chondrostei Müller, 1844 * Order †Birgeriiformes Heyler 1969 * Order †Chondrosteiformes Aldinger, 1937 * Order Acipenseriformes Berg 1940 (includes sturgeons and paddlefishes) Subclass Neopterygii Regan 1923 sensu Xu & Wu 2012 * Order †Pholidopleuriformes Berg 1937 * Order †Redfieldiiformes Berg 1940 * Order †Platysiagiformes Brough 1939 * Order †Polzbergiiformes Griffith 1977 * Order †Perleidiformes Berg 1937 * Order †Louwoichthyiformes Xu 2021 * Order †Peltopleuriformes Lehman 1966 * Order †Luganoiiformes Lehman 1958 * Order †Pycnodontiformes Berg 1937 * Infraclass Holostei Müller 1844 ** Division Halecomorphi Cope 1872 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 * Order †Parasemionotiformes Lehman 1966 * Order †Ionoscopiformes Grande & Bemis 1998 * Order Amiiformes Huxley 1861 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998 (bowfins) Division Ginglymodi Cope 1871 * Order †Dapediiformes Thies & Waschkewitz 2015 * Order †Semionotiformes Arambourg & Bertin 1958 * Order Lepisosteiformes Hay 1929 (gars) * Clade Teleosteomorpha Arratia 2000 sensu Arratia 2013 ** Order †Prohaleciteiformes Arratia 2017 Division Aspidorhynchei Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 * Order †Aspidorhynchiformes Bleeker 1859 * Order †Pachycormiformes Berg 1937 Infraclass Teleostei Müller 1844 sensu Arratia 2013 * Order †?Araripichthyiformes * Order †?Ligulelliiformes Taverne 2011 * Order †?Tselfatiiformes Nelson 1994 * Order †Pholidophoriformes Berg 1940 * Order †Dorsetichthyiformes Nelson, Grand & Wilson 2016 * Order †Leptolepidiformes * Order †Crossognathiformes Taverne 1989 * Order †Ichthyodectiformes Bardeck & Sprinkle 1969 * Teleocephala de Pinna 1996 s.s. **Megacohort Elopocephalai Patterson 1977 sensu Arratia 1999 (Elopomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) *** Order Elopiformes Gosline 1960 (ladyfishes and tarpon) *** Order Albuliformes Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Forey et al. 1996 (bonefishes) *** Order Notacanthiformes Goodrich 1909 (halosaurs and spiny eels) *** Order Anguilliformes Jarocki 1822 sensu Goodrich 1909 (true eels) ** Megacohort Osteoglossocephalai sensu Arratia 1999 ***Supercohort Osteoglossocephala sensu Arratia 1999 (Osteoglossomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) **** Order †Lycopteriformes Chang & Chou 1977 **** Order Hiodontiformes McAllister 1968 sensu Taverne 1979 (mooneye and goldeye) **** Order Osteoglossiformes Regan 1909 sensu Zhang 2004 (bony-tongued fishes) *** Supercohort Clupeocephala Patterson & Rosen 1977 sensu Arratia 2010 ****Cohort Otomorpha Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Otocephala; Ostarioclupeomorpha) ***** Subcohort Clupei Wiley & Johnson 2010 (Clupeomorpha Greenwood et al. 1966) ****** Order †Ellimmichthyiformes Grande 1982 ****** Order Clupeiformes Bleeker 1859 (herrings and anchovies) ***** Subcohort Alepocephali ****** Order Alepocephaliformes Marshall 1962 ***** Subcohort Ostariophysi Sagemehl 1885 ****** Section Anotophysa (Rosen & Greenwood 1970) Sagemehl 1885 ******* Order †Sorbininardiformes Taverne 1999 ******* Order Gonorynchiformes Regan 1909 (milkfishes) ****** Section Otophysa' Garstang 1931 ******* Order Cypriniformes Bleeker 1859 sensu Goodrich 1909 (barbs, carp, danios, goldfishes, loaches, minnows, rasboras) ******* Order Characiformes Goodrich 1909 (characins, pencilfishes, hatchetfishes, piranhas, tetras, dourado / golden (genus Salminus) and pacu) ******* Order Gymnotiformes Berg 1940 (electric eels and knifefishes) ******* Order Siluriformes Cuvier 1817 sensu Hay 1929 (catfishes) **** Cohort Euteleosteomorpha (Greenwood et al. 1966) (Euteleostei Greenwood 1967 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996) *****Subcohort Lepidogalaxii ****** Order Lepidogalaxiiformes Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (salamanderfish) ***** Subcohort Protacanthopterygii Greenwood et al. 1966 sensu Johnson & Patterson 1996 ****** Order Argentiniformes (barreleyes and slickheads) (formerly in Osmeriformes) ****** Order Galaxiiformes ****** Order Salmoniformes Bleeker 1859 sensu Nelson 1994 (salmon, trout and pike) ***** Subcohort Stomiati ****** Order Osmeriformes (smelts) ****** Order Stomiiformes Regan 1909 (bristlemouths and marine hatchetfishes) ***** Subcohort Neoteleostei Nelson 1969 ******Infracohort Ateleopodia ******* Order Ateleopodiformes (jellynose fish) ****** Infracohort Eurypterygia Rosen 1973 *******Section Aulopa [Cyclosquamata Rosen 1973] ******** Order Aulopiformes Rosen 1973 (Bombay duck and lancetfishes) ******* Section Ctenosquamata Rosen 1973 ********Subsection Myctophata [Scopelomorpha] ********* Order Myctophiformes Regan 1911 (lanternfishes) ******** Subsection Acanthomorpha Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 *********Division Lampridacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 [Lampridomorpha; Lampripterygii] ********** Order Lampriformes Regan 1909 (oarfish, opah and ribbonfishes) ********* Division Paracanthomorphacea sensu Grande et al. 2013 (Paracanthopterygii Greenwood 1937) ********** Order Percopsiformes Berg 1937 (cavefishes and trout-perches) ********** Order †Sphenocephaliformes Rosen & Patterson 1969 ********** Order Zeiformes Regan 1909 (dories) ********** Order Gadiformes Goodrich 1909 (cods) ********* Division Polymixiacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Polymyxiomorpha; Polymixiipterygii) ********** Order †Pattersonichthyiformes Gaudant 1976 ********** Order †Ctenothrissiformes Berg 1937 ********** Order Polymixiiformes Lowe 1838 (beardfishes) ********* Division Euacanthomorphacea Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Euacanthomorpha sensu Johnson & Patterson 1993; Acanthopterygii Gouan 1770 sensu]) **********Order Trachichthyiformes (fangtooths and pineconefishes) **********Subdivision Berycimorphaceae Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 *********** Order Beryciformes (alfonsinos and holocentrids) (incl. Holocentriformes,Stephanoberyciformes; Cetomimiformes) ********** Subdivision Percomorphaceae Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Percomorpha sensu Miya et al. 2003; Acanthopteri) ***********Series Ophidiimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ************ Order Ophidiiformes (pearlfishes) *********** Series Batrachoidimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ************ Order Batrachoidiformes (toadfishes) *********** Series Gobiomopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ************ Order Gobiiformes (cardinalfishes, sleepers and gobies) *********** Series Scombrimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ************ Order Syngnathiformes (seahorses, pipefishes, sea moths, cornetfishes and flying gurnards) ************ Order Scombriformes (Tunas and (mackerels) *********** Series Carangimopharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 ************ Subseries Anabantaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 ************* Order Synbranchiformes (swamp eels) ************* Order Anabantiformes (Labyrinthici) (gouramies, snakeheads, ) ************ Subseries Carangaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 ************* Order Carangiformes (Jack mackerels, pompanos, flatfishes, billfishes) ************ Subseries Ovalentaria Smith & Near 2012 (Stiassnyiformes sensu Li et al. 2009) ************* Order Atheriniformes Rosen 1964 (silversides and rainbowfishes) ************* Order Cyprinodontiformes Berg 1940 (livebearers, killifishes) ************* Order Beloniformes Berg 1940 (flyingfishes and ricefishes) ************* Order Cichliformes Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013 (Cichlids, Convict blenny, leaf fishes) ************* Order Mugiliformes Berg 1940 (mullets) ************* Order Blenniiformes Springer 1993 (Blennies, damselfish,Clingfishes) *********** Series Eupercaria Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2014 (Percomorpharia Betancur-Rodriguez et al. 2013) ************Order Perciformes Bleeker 1859 ************Order Centrarchiformes Bleeker 1859 (Sunfishes and mandarin fishes) ************Order Labriformes (Wrasses and Parrotfishes) ************Order Acropomatiformes ************Order Acanthuriformes ************ Order Lophiiformes Garman 1899 (Anglerfishes) ************** Order Tetraodontiformes Regan 1929 (Filefishes and pufferfish) References <!-- AnimalBiology58:23. MolecularPhylogeneticsAndEvolution46:224. --> External links * * Category:Fish classes Category:Extant Silurian first appearances	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinopterygii	2025-04-05T18:25:20.746635
736	Albert Einstein	\| birth_place = Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire \| death_date \| death_place = Princeton, New Jersey, U.S. \| resting_place \| children \| family = Einstein \| spouse = * }} \| module }} }} Albert Einstein, ; In the middle part of his career, Einstein made important contributions to statistical mechanics and quantum theory. Especially notable was his work on the quantum physics of radiation, in which light consists of particles, subsequently called photons. With physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, he laid the groundwork for Bose–Einstein statistics. For much of the last phase of his academic life, Einstein worked on two endeavors that ultimately proved unsuccessful. First, he advocated against quantum theory's introduction of fundamental randomness into science's picture of the world, objecting that . Second, he attempted to devise a unified field theory by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from mainstream modern physics. Life and career Childhood, youth and education Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, Einstein, then fifteen, stayed behind in Munich in order to finish his schooling. His father wanted him to study electrical engineering, but he was a fractious pupil who found the Gymnasium's regimen and teaching methods far from congenial. He later wrote that the school's policy of strict rote learning was harmful to creativity. At the end of December 1894, a letter from a doctor persuaded the Luitpold's authorities to release him from its care, and he joined his family in Pavia. While in Italy as a teenager, he wrote an essay entitled "On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field". A family tutor, Max Talmud, said that only a short time after he had given the twelve year old Einstein a geometry textbook, the boy ... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.}} Einstein recorded that he had "mastered integral and differential calculus" while still just fourteen. His love of algebra and geometry was so great that at twelve, he was already confident that nature could be understood as a "mathematical structure". At thirteen, when his range of enthusiasms had broadened to include music and philosophy, Talmud introduced Einstein to Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Kant became his favorite philosopher; according to Talmud, In 1895, at the age of sixteen, Einstein sat the entrance examination for the federal polytechnic school (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland. He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the test, but performed with distinction in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the polytechnic's principal, he completed his secondary education at the Argovian cantonal school (a gymnasium) in Aarau, Switzerland, graduating in 1896. While lodging in Aarau with the family of Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. (His sister, Maja, later married Winteler's son Paul.) '' certificate from canton Aargau, 1896 At seventeen, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, a year older than him, took up a teaching post in Olsberg, Switzerland. The five other polytechnic school freshmen following the same course as Einstein included just one woman, a twenty year old Serbian, Mileva Marić. Over the next few years, the pair spent many hours discussing their shared interests and learning about topics in physics that the polytechnic school's lectures did not cover. In his letters to Marić, Einstein confessed that exploring science with her by his side was much more enjoyable than reading a textbook in solitude. Eventually the two students became not only friends but also lovers. Historians of physics are divided on the question of the extent to which Marić contributed to the insights of Einstein's annus mirabilis publications. There is at least some evidence that he was influenced by her scientific ideas, When Marić learned of his infidelity soon after moving to Berlin with him in April 1914, she returned to Zurich, taking Hans Albert and Eduard with her. 50]}} As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein agreed that if he were to win a Nobel Prize, he would give the money that he received to Marić; he won the prize two years later. Einstein married Löwenthal in 1919. In 1923, he began a relationship with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of his close friend Hans Mühsam. Löwenthal nevertheless remained loyal to him, accompanying him when he emigrated to the United States in 1933. In 1935, she was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems. She died in December 1936. A volume of Einstein's letters released by Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2006 added some other women with whom he was romantically involved. They included Margarete Lebach (a married Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he accepted gifts while married to Löwenthal. After being widowed, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova, thought by some to be a Russian spy; her husband, the Russian sculptor Sergei Konenkov, created the bronze bust of Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. Following an episode of acute mental illness at about the age of twenty, Einstein's son Eduard was diagnosed with schizophrenia. His successful acquisition of Swiss citizenship in February 1901 was not followed by the usual sequel of conscription; the Swiss authorities deemed him medically unfit for military service. He found that Swiss schools too appeared to have no use for him, failing to offer him a teaching position despite the almost two years that he spent applying for one. Eventually it was with the help of Marcel Grossmann's father that he secured a post in Bern at the Swiss Patent Office, His 24-page doctoral dissertation also addressed a topic in molecular physics. Titled "Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen" ("A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions") and dedicated "Meinem Freunde Herr Dr. Marcel Grossmann gewidmet" (to his friend Marcel Grossman), it was completed on 30 April 1905 and approved by Professor Alfred Kleiner of the University of Zurich three months later. (Einstein was formally awarded his PhD on 15 January 1906.) Four other pieces of work that Einstein completed in 1905—his famous papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, his special theory of relativity and the equivalence of mass and energy—have led to the year being celebrated as an annus mirabilis for physics akin to 1666 (the year in which Isaac Newton experienced his greatest epiphanies). The publications deeply impressed Einstein's contemporaries. 1908–1933: Academic career in Europe Einstein's sabbatical as a civil servant approached its end in 1908, when he secured a junior teaching position at the University of Bern. In 1909, a lecture on relativistic electrodynamics that he gave at the University of Zurich, much admired by Alfred Kleiner, led to Zurich's luring him away from Bern with a newly created associate professorship. in Zurich, 1913\|upright=1.1]] In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater, the ETH Zurich, to take up a chair in theoretical physics. His teaching activities there centered on thermodynamics and analytical mechanics, and his research interests included the molecular theory of heat, continuum mechanics and the development of a relativistic theory of gravitation. In his work on the latter topic, he was assisted by his friend Marcel Grossmann, whose knowledge of the kind of mathematics required was greater than his own. and moved into an apartment in the Berlin district of Dahlem on 1 April 1914. Britain's closest equivalent of the Nobel award, the Royal Society's Copley Medal, was not hung around Einstein's neck until 1925. Einstein resigned from the Prussian Academy in March 1933. His accomplishments in Berlin had included the completion of the general theory of relativity, proving the Einstein–de Haas effect, contributing to the quantum theory of radiation, and the development of Bose–Einstein statistics. A total eclipse of the Sun that took place on 29 May 1919 provided an opportunity to put his theory of gravitational lensing to the test, and observations performed by Sir Arthur Eddington yielded results that were consistent with his calculations. Eddington's work was reported at length in newspapers around the world. On 7 November 1919, for example, the leading British newspaper, The Times, printed a banner headline that read: – New Theory of the Universe– Newtonian Ideas Overthrown}}. Einstein began his new life as an intellectual icon in America, where he arrived on 2 April 1921. He was welcomed to New York City by Mayor John Francis Hylan, and then spent three weeks giving lectures and attending receptions. He spoke several times at Columbia University and Princeton, and in Washington, he visited the White House with representatives of the National Academy of Sciences. He returned to Europe via London, where he was the guest of the philosopher and statesman Viscount Haldane. He used his time in the British capital to meet several people prominent in British scientific, political or intellectual life, and to deliver a lecture at King's College. In July 1921, he published an essay, "My First Impression of the U.S.A.", in which he sought to sketch the American character, much as had Alexis de Tocqueville in Democracy in America (1835).) He was greeted with even greater enthusiasm on the last leg of his tour, in which he spent twelve days in Mandatory Palestine, newly entrusted to British rule by the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. Sir Herbert Samuel, the British High Commissioner, welcomed him with a degree of ceremony normally only accorded to a visiting head of state, including a cannon salute. One reception held in his honor was stormed by people determined to hear him speak: he told them that he was happy that Jews were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein's decision to tour the eastern hemisphere in 1922 meant that he was unable to go to Stockholm in the December of that year to participate in the Nobel prize ceremony. His place at the traditional Nobel banquet was taken by a German diplomat, who gave a speech praising him not only as a physicist but also as a campaigner for peace. 1925: Touring South America In March and April 1925, Einstein and his wife visited South America, where they spent about a week in Brazil, a week in Uruguay and a month in Argentina. Their tour was suggested by Jorge Duclout (1856–1927) and Mauricio Nirenstein (1877–1935) with the support of several Argentine scholars, including Julio Rey Pastor, Jakob Laub, and Leopoldo Lugones. and was financed primarily by the Council of the University of Buenos Aires and the Asociación Hebraica Argentina (Argentine Hebraic Association) with a smaller contribution from the Argentine-Germanic Cultural Institution. 1930–1931: Touring the US , 1931]] In December 1930, Einstein began another significant sojourn in the United States, drawn back to the US by the offer of a two month research fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Caltech supported him in his wish that he should not be exposed to quite as much attention from the media as he had experienced when visiting the US in 1921, and he therefore declined all the invitations to receive prizes or make speeches that his admirers poured down upon him. But he remained willing to allow his fans at least some of the time with him that they requested. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including Chinatown, a lunch with the editors of The New York Times, and a performance of Carmen at the Metropolitan Opera, where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor Jimmy Walker and met Nicholas Murray Butler, the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as "the ruling monarch of the mind". Harry Emerson Fosdick, pastor at New York's Riverside Church, gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at Madison Square Garden during a Hanukkah celebration. at the Hollywood premiere of Chaplin's City Lights, January 1931]] Einstein next traveled to California, where he met Caltech president and Nobel laureate Robert A. Millikan. His friendship with Millikan was , as Millikan , where Einstein was a pronounced pacifist. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author Upton Sinclair and film star Charlie Chaplin, both noted for their pacifism. Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Studios, gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a "highly emotional temperament", from which came his "extraordinary intellectual energy". Chaplin's film City Lights was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. Walter Isaacson, Einstein's biographer, described this as . Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his "modest little flat" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was . Einstein and Chaplin were cheered at the premiere of the film. Chaplin said to Einstein, "They cheer me because they understand me, and they cheer you because no one understands you." 1933: Emigration to the US , )]] In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the Gestapo repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag had passed the Enabling Act on 23 March, transforming Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship, and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on, they heard that their cottage had been raided by the Nazis and Einstein's personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp, Belgium on 28 March, Einstein immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a Hitler Youth camp.]] In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian Gerald Holton describes how, with , thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the German Student Union in the Nazi book burnings, with Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaiming, "Jewish intellectualism is dead." One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. Aided by the Academic Assistance Council, founded in April 1933 by British Liberal politician William Beveridge to help academics escape Nazi persecution, Einstein was able to leave Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he visited England for about six weeks at the invitation of the British Member of Parliament Commander Oliver Locker-Lampson, who had become friends with him in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his Cromer home in a secluded wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of Roughton, Norfolk. To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him; a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein was published in the Daily Herald on 24 July 1933.) at the new Institute. He soon developed a close friendship with Gödel; the two would take long walks together discussing their work. Bruria Kaufman, his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully. He lived in Princeton at his home from 1935 onwards. The Albert Einstein House was made a National Historic Landmark in 1976. World War II and the Manhattan Project ]] In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, In 1960 Einstein was included posthumously as a charter member of the World Academy of Art and Science (WAAS), an organization founded by distinguished scientists and intellectuals who committed themselves to the responsible and ethical advances of science, particularly in light of the development of nuclear weapons. US citizenship certificate from judge Phillip Forman in 1940]] Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the meritocracy in American culture compared to Europe. He recognized the "right of individuals to say and think what they pleased" without social barriers. As a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his early education. Einstein joined the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans. He considered racism America's "worst disease", seeing it as . As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial as an alleged foreign agent in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. Later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as "Why Socialism?". The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932; by the time of his death, it was 1,427 pages long. Relationship with Zionism Einstein was a figurehead leader in the establishment of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which opened in 1925. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the World Zionist Organization, Chaim Weizmann, to help raise funds for the planned university. He made suggestions for the creation of an Institute of Agriculture, a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology in order to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as malaria, which he called an "evil" that was undermining a third of the country's development. He also promoted the establishment of an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic. Einstein was not a nationalist and opposed the creation of an independent Jewish state. He felt that the waves of arriving Jews of the Aliyah could live alongside existing Arabs in Palestine. The state of Israel was established without his help in 1948; Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the Zionist movement. Upon the death of Israeli president Weizmann in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the largely ceremonial position of President of Israel at the urging of Ezriel Carlebach. In a German-language letter to philosopher Eric Gutkind, dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote: He became a vegetarian himself only during the last part of his life. In March 1954 he wrote in a letter: Love of music Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: ... I get most joy in life out of music. and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. Scientific career Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. \|\| Photoelectric effect \|\| 18 March \|\| 9 June \|\| Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta). \|\| Brownian motion \|\| 11 May \|\| 18 July \|\| Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics. \|- \| "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" \|\| Special relativity \|\| 30 June \|\| 26September \|\| Reconciled Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing changes to mechanics, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer. \|\| equivalence \|\| 27September \|\| 21 November \|\| Equivalence of matter and energy, E=mc<sup>2</sup>, the existence of "rest energy", and the basis of nuclear energy. \|} Special relativity Einstein's "" As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled "On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It", he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of gravitational time dilation, gravitational redshift and gravitational lensing. In 1911, Einstein published another article "On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally. Gravitational waves In 1916, Einstein predicted gravitational waves, ripples in the curvature of spacetime which propagate as waves, traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the hole argument was mistaken He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was lacking at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the cosmological constant, into the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of Mach's principle in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or Einstein's static universe. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. While the use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was criticized by Erwin Schrödinger and others, Einstein's approach has been echoed by physicists including Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz. Wormholes In 1935, Einstein collaborated with Nathan Rosen to produce a model of a wormhole, often called Einstein–Rosen bridges. The Einstein field equations cover the latter aspect of the theory, relating the curvature of spacetime to the distribution of matter and energy. The geodesic equation covers the former aspect, stating that freely falling bodies follow lines that are as straight as possible in a curved spacetime. Einstein regarded this as an "independent fundamental assumption" that had to be postulated in addition to the field equations in order to complete the theory. Believing this to be a shortcoming in how general relativity was originally presented, he wished to derive it from the field equations themselves. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. Accordingly, Einstein proposed that the field equations would determine the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, to be a geodesic. Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from applying the field equations to the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. Old quantum theory Photons and energy quanta In a 1905 paper, It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Stimulated emission In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Matter waves Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie's work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein observed that de Broglie waves could explain the quantization rules of Bohr and Sommerfeld. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926. Quantum mechanics Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God "is not playing at dice". Their debates would influence later interpretations of quantum mechanics. Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Einstein never fully accepted quantum mechanics. While he recognized that it made correct predictions, he believed a more fundamental description of nature must be possible. Over the years he presented multiple arguments to this effect, but the one he preferred most dated to a debate with Bohr in 1930. Einstein suggested a thought experiment in which two objects are allowed to interact and then moved apart a great distance from each other. The quantum-mechanical description of the two objects is a mathematical entity known as a wavefunction. If the wavefunction that describes the two objects before their interaction is given, then the Schrödinger equation provides the wavefunction that describes them after their interaction. But because of what would later be called quantum entanglement, measuring one object would lead to an instantaneous change of the wavefunction describing the other object, no matter how far away it is. Moreover, the choice of which measurement to perform upon the first object would affect what wavefunction could result for the second object. Einstein reasoned that no influence could propagate from the first object to the second instantaneously fast. Indeed, he argued, physics depends on being able to tell one thing apart from another, and such instantaneous influences would call that into question. Because the true "physical condition" of the second object could not be immediately altered by an action done to the first, Einstein concluded, the wavefunction could not be that true physical condition, only an incomplete description of it. A more famous version of this argument came in 1935, when Einstein published a paper with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen that laid out what would become known as the EPR paradox. In this thought experiment, two particles interact in such a way that the wavefunction describing them is entangled. Then, no matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would imply the ability to predict, perfectly, the result of measuring the position of the other particle. Likewise, a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in an equally precise prediction for of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is forbidden by the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality. In 1964, John Stewart Bell carried the analysis of quantum entanglement much further. He deduced that if measurements are performed independently on the two separated particles of an entangled pair, then the assumption that the outcomes depend upon hidden variables within each half implies a mathematical constraint on how the outcomes on the two measurements are correlated. This constraint would later be called a Bell inequality. Bell then showed that quantum physics predicts correlations that violate this inequality. Consequently, the only way that hidden variables could explain the predictions of quantum physics is if they are "nonlocal", which is to say that somehow the two particles are able to interact instantaneously no matter how widely they ever become separated. Bell argued that because an explanation of quantum phenomena in terms of hidden variables would require nonlocality, the EPR paradox . Despite this, and although Einstein personally found the argument in the EPR paper overly complicated, that paper became among the most influential papers published in Physical Review. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of quantum information theory. Unified field theory Encouraged by his success with general relativity, Einstein sought an even more ambitious geometrical theory that would treat gravitation and electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his unified field theory in a Scientific American article titled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation". His attempt to find the most fundamental laws of nature won him praise but not success: a particularly conspicuous blemish of his model was that it did not accommodate the strong and weak nuclear forces, neither of which was well understood until many years after his death. Although most researchers now believe that Einstein's approach to unifying physics was mistaken, his goal of a theory of everything is one to which his successors still aspire. Other investigations Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, and other research. Collaboration with other scientists in Brussels, a gathering of the world's top physicists. Einstein is in the center.]] In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists. Einstein–de Haas experiment In 1908, Owen Willans Richardson predicted that a change in the magnetic moment of a free body will cause this body to rotate. This effect is a consequence of the conservation of angular momentum and is strong enough to be observable in ferromagnetic materials. Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas published two papers in 1915 claiming the first experimental observation of the effect. Measurements of this kind demonstrate that the phenomenon of magnetization is caused by the alignment (polarization) of the angular momenta of the electrons in the material along the axis of magnetization. These measurements also allow the separation of the two contributions to the magnetization: that which is associated with the spin and with the orbital motion of the electrons. The Einstein-de Haas experiment is the only experiment concived, realized and published by Albert Einstein himself. A complete original version of the Einstein-de Haas experimental equipment was donated by Geertruida de Haas-Lorentz, wife of de Haas and daughter of Lorentz, to the Ampère Museum in Lyon France in 1961 where it is currently on display. It was lost among the museum's holdings and was rediscovered in 2023. Einstein as an inventor In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.}} Einstein also invented an electromagnetic pump, sound reproduction device, and several other household devices. Legacy Non-scientific , Einstein, Ole Colbjørnsen, Jørgen Vogt, and Ilse Einstein at a picnic in Oslo in 1920.]] While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986 Einstein's right of publicity was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, In 1999, Einstein was named Time's Person of the Century. Scientific In 1999, a survey of the top 100 physicists voted for Einstein as the "greatest physicist ever", while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists gave the top spot to Isaac Newton, with Einstein second. Physicist Lev Landau ranked physicists from 0 to 5 on a logarithmic scale of productivity and genius, with Newton and Einstein belonging in a "super league", with Newton receiving the highest ranking of 0, followed by Einstein with 0.5, while fathers of quantum mechanics such as Werner Heisenberg and Paul Dirac were ranked 1, with Landau himself a 2. Physicist Eugene Wigner noted that while John von Neumann had the quickest and acute mind he ever knew, the understanding of Einstein was deeper than von Neumann's, stating that: The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics declared 2005 the "World Year of Physics", also known as "Einstein Year", in recognition of Einstein's "miracle year" in 1905. It was also declared the "International Year of Physics" by the United Nations. In popular culture in 1951, sitting in a car on his 74th birthday, having been asked to smile for the camera once again.\|224x224px]] Einstein became one of the most famous scientific celebrities after the confirmation of his general theory of relativity in 1919. Although most of the public had little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and admired. In the period before World War II, The New Yorker published a vignette in their "The Talk of the Town" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". Eventually he came to cope with unwanted enquirers by pretending to be someone else: Publications Scientific : * * * * – Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat– of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid \| language = de \| place = Berne, Switzerland \| journal = Annalen der Physik \| series = Vierte Folge \| volume = 17 (all series: 322) \| issue = 8 \| pages = 549–560 \| via = Wiley Online Library, Hoboken, New Jersey, US (10 March 2006) \| doi = 10.1002/andp.19053220806 \| bibcode = 1905AnP...322..549E \| hdl = 10915/2785 \| hdl-access free \|url http://sedici.unlp.edu.ar/handle/10915/2785 \| doi-access = free }} * * * * * * * * * First of a series of papers on this topic. * * * * * * * * A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . * }} Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page. Popular * * * }} * The chasing a light beam thought experiment is described on pages 48–51. Political * * * * Einstein, Albert (September 1960). [https://archive.org/download/gandhiwieldsweap00shar/gandhiwieldsweap00shar.pdf Foreword to Gandhi Wields the Weapon of Moral Power: Three Case Histories.] Introduction by Bharatan Kumarappa. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. pp. v–vi. . Foreword originally written in April 1953. See also * Bern Historical Museum (Einstein Museum) * Einstein notation * Frist Campus Center at Princeton University room 302 is associated with Einstein. The center was once the Palmer Physical Laboratory. * Heinrich Burkhardt * Heinrich Zangger * History of gravitational theory * List of coupled cousins * List of German inventors and discoverers * List of Jewish Nobel laureates * List of peace activists * Relativity priority dispute * Sticky bead argument Notes References Works cited * * * * }} * }} * * * * * * * * * * * }} * * * * \|publisherFarrar, Straus and Giroux \|isbn978-0-374-14664-1 }} * * * * * * * }} * * * * }} Further reading * * * * * * * * , or * * * * * External links * * * * * [https://www.ias.edu/scholars/einstein Home page of Albert Einstein] at The Institute for Advanced Study * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150828225916/http://www.pha.jhu.edu/einstein/stuff/einstein%26music.pdf Einstein and his love of music (archived 2015)], Physics World, Jan 2005 * including the Nobel Lecture 11 July 1923 Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140222071037/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2745/ Einstein's declaration of intention for American citizenship (archived 2014)] on the World Digital Library Archival materials collections * [http://www.shapell.org/Collection/Jewish-Figures/Einstein-Albert Albert Einstein Historical Letters, Documents & Papers] from Shapell Manuscript Foundation * [http://vault.fbi.gov/Albert%20Einstein Albert Einstein] in FBI Records: The Vault * [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Albert Einstein Archives Online (80,000+ Documents, currently offline)] from The Hebrew University of Jerusalem ([https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna46785542 MSNBC coverage in 19 March 2012]) * [http://www.albert-einstein.org/ The Albert Einstein Archives] at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130929151059/http://archon.brandeis.edu/?pcollections%2Ffindingaid&id41 Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection (archived 2013)] at Brandeis University * [https://archivesspace.bu.edu/repositories/9/resources/1096 Finding aid to Albert Einstein collection] from Boston University * [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00524 Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection] in Harry Ransom Center of University of Texas at Austin * [https://archives.cjh.org/repositories/5/resources/3884 Finding aid to Albert Einstein Collection] from Center for Jewish History Digital collections * [http://einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu/ The Digital Einstein Papers] An open-access site for The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, from Princeton University * [https://digitallibrary.vassar.edu/collections/other-collections?f%5B0%5D=collection%3A5218 Albert Einstein Digital Collection] from Vassar College Digital Collections * * [https://albert.ias.edu/ Albert – The Digital Repository of the IAS], which contains many digitized original documents and photographs }} Category:1879 births Category:1955 deaths Category:19th-century German Jews Category:20th-century American engineers Category:20th-century American inventors Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American physicists Category:20th-century Swiss inventors Category:Academic staff of Charles University Category:Academic staff of ETH Zurich Category:Academic staff of the University of Bern Category:Academic staff of the University of Zurich Category:American agnostics Category:American Ashkenazi Jews Category:American democratic socialists Category:American humanists Category:American letter writers Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American Nobel laureates Category:American pacifists Category:American relativity theorists Category:American science writers Category:American Zionists Category:Anti-nationalists Category:Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm Category:Denaturalized citizens of Germany Albert Category:ETH Zurich alumni Category:European democratic socialists Category:German agnostics Category:German Ashkenazi Jews Category:German emigrants to Switzerland Category:German humanists Category:German male non-fiction writers Category:German Nobel laureates Category:German relativity theorists Category:German Zionists Category:Institute for Advanced Study faculty Category:Jewish agnostics Category:Jewish American non-fiction writers Category:Jewish American physicists Category:Jewish German physicists Category:Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States Category:Jewish Nobel laureates Category:Jewish scientists Category:Jewish socialists Category:Labor Zionists Category:Max Planck Institute directors Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Naturalised citizens of Austria Category:Naturalised citizens of Switzerland Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Nobel laureates in Physics Category:Pantheists Category:Patent examiners Category:People from Ulm Category:People who lost German citizenship Category:People with multiple citizenship Category:Philosophers of mathematics Category:Philosophers of science Category:Philosophy of science Category:Quantum physicists Category:Recipients of Franklin Medal Category:Scientists from Munich Category:Stateless people Category:Swiss agnostics Category:Swiss Ashkenazi Jews Category:Swiss cosmologists Category:Swiss emigrants to the United States Category:Swiss Nobel laureates Category:Swiss physicists Category:University of Zurich alumni Category:Winners of the Max Planck Medal Category:Württemberger emigrants to the United States	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein	2025-04-05T18:25:20.889661
737	Afghanistan	<br />}}\|<br />}}}} \| image_flag = Flag of Taliban.svg \| flag_caption = Flag \| image_coat = Arms of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.svg \| alt_coat Coat of Arms of the Islamic Emirate \| symbol_type = Emblem \| national_motto = <br/><br/> "There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God." (Shahadah) \| national_anthem <br />""<br />"This Is the Home of the Brave"<br/> \| image_map = \| capital = Kabul \| coordinates \| largest_city = Kabul \| official_languages = \| ethnic_groups = 9% Hazara \| 9% Uzbek \| 4% Aimaq \| 3% Turkmen \| 2% Baloch \| 4% other }} \| ethnic_groups_ref * 99.9% Islam 89.1% Sunni (official) 10.8% Shia * 0.1% other \| religion_year = 2020 \| religion_ref \| demonym Afghan \| government_type = Unitary totalitarian theocratic Islamic emirate<!--Non-monarchical emirate--> \| leader_title1 = Supreme Leader \| leader_name1 = \| leader_title2 = Prime Minister \| leader_name2 = Hasan Akhund (acting) \| leader_title3 = Chief Justice \| leader_name3 = Abdul Hakim Haqqani \| legislature None and increasingly rules by decree.}} \| sovereignty_type = Formation \| established_event1 = Hotak dynasty \| established_date1 = 1709 \| established_event2 = \| established_date2 = 1747 \| established_event3 = Emirate \| established_date3 = 1823 \| established_event4 = Dost Mohammad unites Afghanistan \| established_date4 = 27 May 1863 \| established_event5 = Independence \| established_date5 = 19 August 1919 \| established_event6 = Kingdom \| established_date6 = 9 June 1926 \| established_event7 = Republic \| established_date7 = 17 July 1973 \| established_event8 = Democratic Republic \| established_date8 = 27–28 April 1978 \| established_event9 = Islamic State \| established_date9 = 28 April 1992 \| established_event10 = Islamic Emirate \| established_date10 = 27 September 1996 \| established_event11 = \| established_date11 = 26 January 2004 \| established_event12 = Restoration of Islamic Emirate \| established_date12 = 15 August 2021 \| area_km2 = 652,867 \| area_rank = 40th \| area_sq_mi = 252,072 \| percent_water = negligible \| population_estimate 36–50 million \| population_estimate_year = July 2024 \| population_estimate_rank = 36th \| population_density_km2 = \| population_density_sq_mi = \| population_density_rank \| GDP_PPP $91.668 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2023 \| GDP_PPP_rank \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $2,174 \| HDI_rank = 182nd \| currency = Afghani () \| currency_code = AFN \| time_zone = Afghanistan Time \| utc_offset +4:30<br />Lunar Hijri calendar \| DST_note DST is not observed \| drives_on = right \| cctld = .af \| today = }} Afghanistan,}} officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,\|}}}} is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul is the country's capital and largest city. Afghanistan's population is estimated to be between 36 and 50 million. Human habitation in Afghanistan dates to the Middle Paleolithic era. Popularly referred to as the graveyard of empires, the land has witnessed numerous military campaigns, including those by the Persians, Alexander the Great, the Maurya Empire, Arab Muslims, the Mongols, the British, the Soviet Union, and a US-led coalition. Afghanistan also served as the source from which the Greco-Bactrians and the Mughals, among others, rose to form major empires. Because of the various conquests and periods in both the Iranian and Indian cultural spheres, the area was a center for Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and later Islam. The modern state of Afghanistan began with the Durrani Afghan Empire in the 18th century, although Dost Mohammad Khan is sometimes considered to be the founder of the first modern Afghan state. Afghanistan became a buffer state in the Great Game between the British Empire and the Russian Empire. From India, the British attempted to subjugate Afghanistan but were repelled in the First Anglo-Afghan War; the Second Anglo-Afghan War saw a British victory. Following the Third Anglo-Afghan War in 1919, Afghanistan became free of foreign political hegemony, and emerged as the independent Kingdom of Afghanistan in 1926. This monarchy lasted almost half a century, until Zahir Shah was overthrown in 1973, following which the Republic of Afghanistan was established. Since the late 1970s, Afghanistan's history has been dominated by extensive warfare, including coups, invasions, insurgencies, and civil wars. The conflict began in 1978 when a communist revolution established a socialist state (itself a response to the dictatorship established following a coup d'état in 1973), and subsequent infighting prompted the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in 1979. Mujahideen fought against the Soviets in the Soviet–Afghan War and continued fighting among themselves following the Soviets' withdrawal in 1989. The Taliban controlled most of the country by 1996, but their Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan received little international recognition before its overthrow in the 2001 US invasion of Afghanistan. The Taliban returned to power in 2021 after capturing Kabul, ending the 2001–2021 war. , the Taliban government remains internationally unrecognized due to reported violations of human rights in Afghanistan, particularly regarding the rights of women in Afghanistan and the treatment of women by the Taliban. Afghanistan is rich in natural resources, including lithium, iron, zinc, and copper. It is the second-largest producer of cannabis resin, and third largest of both saffron and cashmere. The country is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and a founding member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. Due to the effects of war in recent decades, the country has dealt with high levels of terrorism, poverty, and child malnutrition. Afghanistan remains among the world's least developed countries, ranking 182nd on the Human Development Index. Afghanistan's gross domestic product (GDP) is $81 billion by purchasing power parity and $20.1 billion by nominal values. Per capita, its GDP is among the lowest of any country .Etymology Some scholars suggest that the root name Afghān is derived from the Sanskrit word Aśvakan, which was the name used for ancient inhabitants of the Hindu Kush. Aśvakan literally means "horsemen", "horse breeders", or "cavalrymen" (from aśva, the Sanskrit and Avestan words for "horse"). Historically, the ethnonym Afghān was used to refer to ethnic Pashtuns. The Arabic and Persian form of the name, Afġān, was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''Hudud al-'Alam. The last part of the name, "-stan", is a Persian suffix meaning "place of". Therefore, "Afghanistan" translates to "land of the Afghans", or "land of the Pashtuns" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam: The term "Afghanistan" was officially used in 1855, when the British recognized Dost Mohammad Khan as king of Afghanistan.HistoryPrehistory and antiquity s in the northern Badghis Province. Early peasant farming villages came into existence about 7,000 years ago.]] Excavations of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to Egypt in the historical value of its archaeological sites. Artifacts typical of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of Mundigak (near Kandahar in the south of the country) was a center of the Helmand culture. More recent findings established that the Indus Valley Civilization stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the Oxus River at Shortugai in northern Afghanistan. After 2000 BCE successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many Indo-European-speaking Indo-Iranians. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the Caspian Sea. The region at the time was referred to as Ariana. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the Medes and incorporated Arachosia, Aria, and Bactria within its eastern boundaries. An inscription on the tombstone of Darius I of Persia mentions the Kabul Valley in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered. The region of Arachosia, around Kandahar in modern-day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to Persia and is thus considered by some to be the "second homeland of Zoroastrianism". belt depicting Dionysus, from Tillya Tepe in the ancient region of Bactria]] Alexander the Great and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating Darius III of Persia a year earlier in the Battle of Gaugamela. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the region until 305 BCE, when they gave much of it to the Maurya Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the Hindu Kush until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest by the Greco-Bactrians. Much of it soon broke away and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. They were defeated and expelled by the Indo-Scythians in the late 2nd century BCE. The Silk Road appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia, and north to the cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khiva in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading lapis lazuli stones mainly from the Badakhshan region. During the first century BCE, the Parthian Empire subjugated the region but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast Kushan Empire, centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making Buddhism flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the Sassanids in the 3rd century CE, though the Indo-Sassanids continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the Kidarites who, in turn, was replaced by the Hephthalites. They were replaced by the Turk Shahi in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called Hindu Shahi. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by Buddhist culture. Medieval period originated from Ghor Province in central Afghanistan.]] Arab Muslims brought Islam to Herat and Zaranj in 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before the arrival of Islam, the region used to be home to various beliefs and cults, often resulting in Syncretism between the dominant religions such as Zoroastrianism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Judaism. An exemplification of the syncretism in the region would be that people were patrons of Buddhism but still worshipped local Iranian gods such as Ahura Mazda, Lady Nana, Anahita or Mihr (Mithra) and portrayed Greek gods as protectors of Buddha. The Zunbils and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the Saffarid Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the Samanids extended their Islamic influence south of the Hindu Kush. The Ghaznavids rose to power in the 10th century. By the 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni had defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively Islamized the wider region, with the exception of Kafiristan. Mahmud made Ghazni into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian Al-Biruni and the poet Ferdowsi. The Ghaznavid dynasty was overthrown by the Ghurids in 1186, whose architectural achievements included the remote Minaret of Jam. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the Khwarazmian dynasty in 1215. ]] In 1219 CE, Genghis Khan and his Mongol army overran the region. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of Herat and Balkh as well as Bamyan. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the Ilkhanate in the northwest while the Khalji dynasty administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of Timur (aka Tamerlane), who established the Timurid Empire in 1370. Under the rule of Shah Rukh, the city of Herat served as the focal point of the Timurid Renaissance, whose glory matched Florence of the Italian Renaissance as the center of a cultural rebirth. In the early 16th century Babur arrived from Ferghana and captured Kabul from the Arghun dynasty. Babur would go on to conquer the Afghan Lodi dynasty who had ruled the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat. Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara, Iranian Safavids, and Indian Mughals ruled parts of the territory. During the medieval period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name Khorasan, which was commonly used up to the 19th century among natives to describe their country.Hotak dynasty (centered in Kandahar) and Ashraf Hotak (centered in Isfahan)]] In 1709, Mirwais Hotak, a local Ghilzai tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated Gurgin Khan, the Georgian governor of Kandahar under the Safavids, and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died in 1715, and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who was soon killed by Mirwais's son Mahmud for possibly planning to sign a peace with the Safavids. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of Isfahan, and captured the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia. Durrani Empire After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani had returned to Kandahar with a contingent of 4,000 Pashtuns. The Abdalis had "unanimously accepted" Ahmad Shah as their new leader. With his ascension in 1747, Ahmad Shah had led multiple campaigns against the Mughal empire, Maratha empire, and then-receding Afsharid empire. Ahmad Shah had captured Kabul and Peshawar from the Mughal appointed governor, Nasir Khan. Ahmad Shah had then conquered Herat in 1750, and had also captured Kashmir in 1752. Ahmad Shah had launched two campaigns into Khorasan, 1750–1751 and 1754–1755. His first campaign had seen the siege of Mashhad, however, he was forced to retreat after four months. In November 1750, he moved to siege Nishapur, but he was unable to capture the city and was forced to retreat in early 1751. Ahmad Shah returned in 1754; he captured Tun, and on 23 July, he sieged Mashhad once again. Mashhad had fallen on 2 December, but Shahrokh was reappointed in 1755. He was forced to give up Torshiz, Bakharz, Jam, Khaf, and Turbat-e Haidari to the Afghans, as well as accept Afghan sovereignty. Following this, Ahmad Shah sieged Nishapur once again, and captured it. Ahmad Shah invaded India eight times during his reign, beginning in 1748. Crossing the Indus River, his armies sacked and absorbed Lahore into the Durrani Realm. He met Mughal armies at the Battle of Manupur (1748), where he was defeated and forced to retreat back to Afghanistan. He returned the next year in 1749 and captured the area around Lahore and Punjab, presenting it as an Afghan victory for this campaign. From 1749 to 1767, Ahmad Shah led six more invasions, the most important being the last; the Third Battle of Panipat created a power vacuum in northern India, halting Maratha expansion. ]] Ahmad Shah Durrani died in October 1772, and a civil war over succession followed, with his named successor, Timur Shah Durrani succeeding him after the defeat of his brother, Suleiman Mirza. Timur Shah Durrani ascended to the throne in November 1772, having defeated a coalition under Shah Wali Khan and Humayun Mirza. Timur Shah began his reign by consolidating power toward himself and people loyal to him, purging Durrani Sardars and influential tribal leaders in Kabul and Kandahar. One of Timur Shah's reforms was to move the capital of the Durrani Empire from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur Shah fought multiple series of rebellions to consolidate the empire, and he also led campaigns into Punjab against the Sikhs like his father, though more successfully. The most prominent example of his battles during this campaign was when he led his forces under Zangi Khan Durrani – with over 18,000 men total of Afghan, Qizilbash, and Mongol cavalrymen – against over 60,000 Sikh men. The Sikhs lost over 30,000 in this battle and staged a Durrani resurgence in the Punjab region The Durranis lost Multan in 1772 after Ahmad Shah's death. Following this victory, Timur Shah was able to lay siege to Multan and recapture it, incorporating it into the Durrani Empire once again, reintegrating it as a province until the Siege of Multan (1818). Timur Shah was succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani after his death in May 1793. Timur Shah's reign oversaw the attempted stabilization and consolidation of the empire. However, Timur Shah had over 24 sons, which plunged the empire in civil war over succession crises. Zaman Shah Durrani succeeded to the Durrani Throne following the death of his father, Timur Shah Durrani. His brothers Mahmud Shah Durrani and Humayun Mirza revolted against him, with Humayun centered in Kandahar and Mahmud Shah centered in Herat. Zaman Shah would defeat Humayun and force the loyalty of Mahmud Shah Durrani. Securing his position on the throne, Zaman Shah led three campaigns into Punjab. The first two campaigns captured Lahore, but he retreated due to intel about a possible Qajar invasion. Zaman Shah embarked on his third campaign for Punjab in 1800 to deal with a rebellious Ranjit Singh. However, he was forced to withdraw, and Zaman Shah's reign was ended by Mahmud Shah Durrani. However, just under two years into his reign, Mahmud Shah Durrani was deposed by his brother Shah Shuja Durrani on 13 July 1803. Shah Shuja attempted to consolidate the Durrani Realm but was deposed by his brother at the Battle of Nimla (1809). Mahmud Shah Durrani defeated Shah Shuja and forced him to flee, usurping the throne again. His second reign began on 3 May 1809.Barakzai dynasty and British wars ) and surrounding nations in 1839, during the First Anglo-Afghan War. Dost Mohammad Khan's realm can be seen as the Emirate of Kabul, with the Principality of Qandahar and the Emirate of Herat seen as well.]] By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the Persians in the west and the Sikh Empire in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, installed many of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. Fateh Khan was brutally murdered in 1818 by Mahmud Shah. As a result, the brothers of Fateh Khan and the Barakzai tribe rebelled, and a civil war brewed. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan fractured into many states, including the Principality of Qandahar, Emirate of Herat, Khanate of Qunduz, Maimana Khanate, and numerous other warring polities. The most prominent state was the Emirate of Kabul, ruled by Dost Mohammad Khan. With the collapse of the Durrani Empire, and the exile of the Sadozai Dynasty to be left to rule in Herat, Punjab and Kashmir were lost to Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Sikh Empire, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in March 1823 and captured the city of Peshawar following the Battle of Nowshera. In 1834, Dost Mohammad Khan led numerous campaigns, firstly campaigning to Jalalabad, and then allying with his rival brothers in Kandahar to defeat Shah Shuja Durrani and the British in the Expedition of Shuja ul-Mulk. In 1837, Dost Mohammad Khan attempted to conquer Peshawar and sent a large force under his son Wazir Akbar Khan, leading to the Battle of Jamrud. Akbar Khan and the Afghan army failed to capture the Jamrud Fort from the Sikh Khalsa Army, but killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa, thus ending the Afghan-Sikh Wars. By this time the British were advancing from the east, capitalizing on the decline of the Sikh Empire after it had its own period of turbulence following the death of Ranjit Singh, which engaged the Emirate of Kabul in the first major conflict during "The Great Game". in 1841, painted by British officer James Rattray]] In 1839 a British expeditionary force marched into Afghanistan, invading the Principality of Qandahar, and in August 1839, seized Kabul. Dost Mohammad Khan defeated the British in the Parwan campaign, but surrendered following his victory. He was replaced with the former Durrani ruler Shah Shuja Durrani as the new ruler of Kabul, a de facto puppet of the British. Following an uprising that saw the assassination of Shah Shuja, the 1842 retreat from Kabul of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of Elphinstone's army, and the punitive expedition of The Battle of Kabul that led to its sacking, the British gave up on their attempts to try to subjugate Afghanistan, allowing Dost Mohammad Khan to return as ruler. Following this, Dost Mohammad pursued a myriad of campaigns to unite most of Afghanistan in his reign, launching numerous incursions including against the surrounding states such as the Hazarajat campaign, conquest of Balkh, conquest of Kunduz, and the conquest of Kandahar. Dost Mohammad led his final campaign against Herat, conquering it and re-uniting Afghanistan. During his campaigns of re-unification, he held friendly relations with the British despite the First Anglo-Afghan War, and affirmed their status in the Second Anglo-Afghan treaty of 1857, while Bukhara and internal religious leaders pressured Dost Mohammad to invade India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Dost Mohammad died in June 1863, a few weeks after his successful campaign to Herat. Following his death, a civil war ensued among his sons, prominently Mohammad Afzal Khan, Mohammad Azam Khan, and Sher Ali Khan. Sher Ali won the resulting Afghan Civil War (1863–1869) and ruled Afghanistan until his death in 1879. In his final years, the British returned to Afghanistan in the Second Anglo-Afghan War to fight perceived Russian influence in the region. Sher Ali retreated to northern Afghanistan, intending to create a resistance there similar to his predecessors, Dost Mohammad Khan, and Wazir Akbar Khan. His untimely death however, saw Yaqub Khan declared the new Amir, leading to Britain gaining control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the Treaty of Gandamak of 1879, making it an official British Protected State. An uprising however, re-started the conflict, and Yaqub Khan was deposed. During this tumultuous period, Abdur Rahman Khan began his rise to power, becoming an eligible candidate to become Amir after he seized much of Northern Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman marched on Kabul, and was declared Amir, being recognized by the British as well. Another uprising by Ayub Khan threatened the British, where rebels confronted and defeated British forces in the Battle of Maiwand. Following up on his victory, Ayub Khan unsuccessfully besieged Kandahar, and his decisive defeat saw the end of the Second Anglo-Afghan War, with Abdur Rahman secured firmly as Amir. In 1893, Abdur Rahman signed an agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line, which forms the modern-day border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Shia-dominated Hazarajat and pagan Kafiristan remained politically independent until being conquered by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the "Iron Amir" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes. He died in 1901, succeeded by his son, Habibullah Khan. During the First World War, when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the central powers in the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition. They called on Afghanistan to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy. The effort to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it sparked discontent among the population about maintaining neutrality with the British. Habibullah was assassinated in February 1919, and Amanullah Khan eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan invaded British India, beginning the Third Anglo-Afghan War, and entering British India via the Khyber Pass. proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan in June 1926.]] After the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi on 19 August 1919, Emir Amanullah Khan declared the Emirate of Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the Soviet Union and the Weimar Republic. He proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan on 9 June 1926, forming the Kingdom of Afghanistan. He introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. Slavery was abolished in 1923. King Amanullah's wife, Queen Soraya, was an important figure during this period in the fight for woman's education and against their oppression. Some of the reforms, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of co-educational schools, alienated many tribal and religious leaders, leading to the Afghan Civil War (1928–1929). King Amanullah abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to Saqqawist forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of King Amanullah in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization, but was assassinated in 1933 by Abdul Khaliq. Mohammed Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned as king from 1933 to 1973. During the tribal revolts of 1944–1947, King Zahir's reign was challenged by Zadran, Safi, Mangal, and Wazir tribesmen led by Mazrak Zadran, Salemai, and Mirzali Khan, among others – many of whom were Amanullah loyalists. Afghanistan joined the League of Nations in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a national bank, and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry. , the last reigning monarch of Afghanistan, who reigned from 1933 until 1973]] Until 1946 King Zahir ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of prime minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another uncle, Shah Mahmud Khan, became prime minister in 1946 and experimented with allowing greater political freedom. He was replaced in 1953 by Mohammed Daoud Khan, a Pashtun nationalist who sought the creation of a Pashtunistan, leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union. Afterward, the 1964 constitution was formed, and the first non-royal prime minister was sworn in. Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. Afghanistan was neither a participant in World War II nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet development aid than any other country. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first president of Afghanistan, abolishing the monarchy. Democratic Republic and Soviet war , Afghanistan in 1987]] In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President Mohammed Daoud Khan, in what is called the Saur Revolution. The PDPA declared the establishment of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, with its first leader named as People's Democratic Party General Secretary Nur Muhammad Taraki. This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism. The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic, and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of civil war by 1979, waged by guerrilla mujahideen (and smaller Maoist guerrillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a proxy war as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States supported them through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), and the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime. Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham. In October 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by then-prime minister Hafizullah Amin, who became the new general secretary of the People's Democratic Party. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin, and thousands of people went missing. Displeased with Amin's government, the Soviet Army invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin. A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the Soviet–Afghan War. Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans, and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to Pakistan and Iran. Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of landmines were planted, and some cities such as Herat and Kandahar were also damaged from bombardment. After the Soviet withdrawal, the civil war ensued until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader Mohammad Najibullah collapsed in 1992. The Soviet–Afghan War had drastic social effects on Afghanistan. The militarization of society led to heavily armed police, private bodyguards, openly armed civil defense groups, and other such things becoming the norm in Afghanistan for decades thereafter. The traditional power structure had shifted from clergy, community elders, intelligentsia, and military in favor of powerful warlords.Post–Cold War conflict Another civil war broke out after the creation of a dysfunctional coalition government between leaders of various mujahideen factions. Amid a state of anarchy and factional infighting, various mujahideen factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion, while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting. The Taliban emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (talib) from Islamic madrassas (schools) in Pakistan, who soon had military support from Pakistan. Taking control of Kandahar city that year, where they established an emirate. The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially women. During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes. After the fall of Kabul to the Taliban, Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum formed the Northern Alliance, later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif in 1997 and 1998; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, Pervez Musharraf, began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance. By 2000, the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the northeast. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab suicide attackers in Panjshir Valley. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001. US invasion and Islamic Republic In October 2001, the United States invaded Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over Osama bin Laden, the prime suspect of the September 11 attacks, who was a "guest" of the Taliban and was operating his al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end. in Afghanistan, 2008]] In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the Afghan Interim Administration under Hamid Karzai was formed. The International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) was established by the UN Security Council to help assist the Karzai administration and provide basic security. By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute famine at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest infant and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry, and infrastructure was in ruins. Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country. As coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process, the Taliban began an insurgency to regain control. Afghanistan remained one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, government corruption, and the Taliban insurgency. The Afghan government was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the Afghan National Security Forces. Following 2002, nearly five million Afghans were repatriated. The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011, dropping to about 16,000 in 2018. In September 2014 Ashraf Ghani became president after the 2014 presidential election where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led Operation Resolute Support was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF. Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces and continue their fight against the Taliban. A report titled Body Count concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians had been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict. ]] On 19 February 2020, the US–Taliban deal was made in Qatar. The deal was one of the critical events that caused the collapse of the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF); following the signing of the deal, the US dramatically reduced the number of air attacks and deprived the ANSF of a critical edge in fighting the Taliban insurgency, leading to the Taliban takeover of Kabul. Second Taliban era NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg announced on 14 April 2021 that the alliance had agreed to start withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan by 1 May. Soon after NATO troops began withdrawing, the Taliban launched an offensive against the Afghan government and quickly advanced in front of collapsing Afghan government forces. The Taliban captured the capital city of Kabul on 15 August 2021, after regaining control over a vast majority of Afghanistan. Several foreign diplomats and Afghan government officials, including president Ashraf Ghani, were evacuated from the country, with many Afghan civilians attempting to flee along with them. On 17 August, first vice president Amrullah Saleh proclaimed himself caretaker president and announced the formation of an anti-Taliban front with a reported 6,000+ troops in the Panjshir Valley, along with Ahmad Massoud. However, by 6 September, the Taliban had taken control of most of Panjshir province, with resistance fighters retreating to the mountains. Clashes in the valley ceased mid-September. According to the Costs of War Project, 176,000 people were killed in the conflict, including 46,319 civilians, between 2001 and 2021. According to the Uppsala Conflict Data Program, at least 212,191 people were killed in the conflict. Though the state of war in the country ended in 2021, armed conflict persists in some regions amid fighting between the Taliban and the local branch of the Islamic State, as well as an anti-Taliban Republican insurgency. following the 2021 fall of Kabul]] The Taliban government is led by supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada and acting prime minister Hasan Akhund, who took office on 7 September 2021. Akhund is one of the four founders of the Taliban and was a deputy prime minister of the previous emirate; his appointment was seen as a compromise between moderates and hardliners. A new, all-male cabinet was formed, which included Abdul Hakim Haqqani as minister of justice. On 20 September 2021, United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres received a letter from acting minister of foreign affairs Amir Khan Muttaqi to formally claim Afghanistan's seat as a member state for their official spokesman in Doha, Suhail Shaheen. The United Nations did not recognize the previous Taliban government and chose to work with the then government-in-exile instead. Western nations suspended most of their humanitarian aid to Afghanistan following the Taliban's August 2021 takeover of the country; the World Bank and International Monetary Fund also halted their payments. More than half of Afghanistan's 39 million people faced an acute food shortage in October 2021. Human Rights Watch reported on 11 November 2021 that Afghanistan was facing widespread famine due to an economic and banking crisis. The Taliban have significantly tackled corruption, improving on the corruption perceptions index from 174th to 150th best out of 180 countries from 2021 to 2022, The Taliban have also reportedly reduced bribery and extortion in public service areas. At the same time, the human rights situation in the country has deteriorated. Following the 2001 invasion, more than 5.7 million refugees returned to Afghanistan; however, in 2021, 2.6 million Afghans remained refugees, primarily in Iran and Pakistan, and another 4 million were internally displaced. In October 2023, the Pakistani government ordered the expulsion of Afghans from Pakistan. Iran also decided to deport Afghan nationals back to Afghanistan. Taliban authorities condemned the deportations of Afghans as an "inhuman act". Afghanistan faced a humanitarian crisis in late 2023. On 10 November 2024, Afghanistan's Foreign Ministry confirmed that Taliban representatives would attend the 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference, marking the first time the country participated since the Taliban's return to power in 2021. Afghanistan had been barred from previous summits due to the lack of global recognition of the Taliban regime. However, the Taliban's environmental officials stressed that climate change is a humanitarian issue, not a political one, and should be addressed regardless of political differences.Geography Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia. The region centered at Afghanistan is considered the "crossroads of Asia", and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia. The renowned Urdu poet Allama Iqbal once wrote about the country: At over , Afghanistan is the world's 41st largest country. It is slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is landlocked. Afghanistan shares its longest land border (the Durand Line) with Pakistan to the east and south, followed by borders with Tajikistan to the northeast, Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the north-west, Uzbekistan to the north and China to the far northeast; India recognizes a border with Afghanistan through Pakistani-administered Kashmir. Clockwise from south-west, Afghanistan shares borders with the Sistan and Baluchestan Province, South Khorasan Province and Razavi Khorasan Province of Iran; Ahal Region, Mary Region and Lebap Region of Turkmenistan; Surxondaryo Region of Uzbekistan; Khatlon Region and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region of Tajikistan; Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China; and the Gilgit-Baltistan territory, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and Balochistan province of Pakistan. , Pamir Mountains]] The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. It is dominated by the Hindu Kush range, the western extension of the Himalayas that stretches to eastern Tibet via the Pamir Mountains and Karakoram Mountains in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys, often considered part of the "Roof of the World". The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the Turkestan Plains and the Sistan Basin; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively. Forests exist in the corridor between Nuristan and Paktika provinces (see East Afghan montane conifer forests), and tundra in the northeast. The country's highest point is Noshaq, at above sea level. The lowest point lies in Jowzjan Province along the Amu River bank, at above sea level. of Afghanistan]] Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. The Amu Darya rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby Hari Rud flows west towards Herat, and the Arghandab River from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the Indus River, Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than US$2 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed. In Afghanistan, forest cover is around 2% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,208,440 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, which was unchanged from 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,208,440 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest, 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership. The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive, causing landslides in some parts or avalanches during the winter. In June 2022, a destructive 5.9 earthquake struck near the border with Pakistan, killing at least 1,150 people and sparking fears of a major humanitarian crisis. On 7 October 2023, a 6.3 magnitude earthquake struck northwest of Herat, killing over 1,400 people. Climate of Afghanistan]] Afghanistan has a continental climate with harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast (around Nuristan), and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and can go over . Although Afghanistan has contributed minimally to global greenhouse gas emissions, it is one of the most vulnerable countries to climate change and least prepared to cope with its impacts. Climate change in Afghanistan is causing more frequent and severe droughts. Severe drought conditions affect 25 of the country's 34 provinces, impacting over half the population. These droughts cause desertification, reduce food and water security, disrupt agriculture and cause internal displacement. Extreme rainfall over short periods is also more likely, increasing the risk of floods and landslides. Due to rising temperatures, almost 14% of Afghanistan's glacier coverage was lost between 1990 and 2015 increasing the risk of glacial lake outburst floods. By 2050, climate change could displace an additional 5 million people within Afghanistan.Biodiversity is the official national animal of Afghanistan.]] Several types of mammals exist throughout Afghanistan. Snow leopards, Siberian tigers and brown bears live in the high elevation alpine tundra regions. The Marco Polo sheep exclusively live in the Wakhan Corridor region of north-east Afghanistan. Foxes, wolves, otters, deer, wild sheep, lynx and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, hedgehogs, gophers, and large carnivores such as jackals and hyenas. Gazelles, wild pigs and jackals populate the steppe plains of the south and west, while mongoose and cheetahs exist in the semi-desert south. The Afghan hound is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west. Endemic fauna of Afghanistan includes the Afghan flying squirrel, Afghan snowfinch, Paradactylodon (or the "Paghman mountain salamander"), Stigmella kasyi, Vulcaniella kabulensis, Afghan leopard gecko, Wheeleria parviflorellus, among others. Endemic flora include Iris afghanica. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within.Government and politics (the Presidential palace) in Kabul, photographed in 2020]] Following the effective collapse of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan during the 2021 Taliban offensive, the Taliban declared the country an Islamic Emirate. A new caretaker government was announced on 7 September. A traditional instrument of governance in Afghanistan is the loya jirga (grand assembly), a Pashtun consultative meeting that was mainly organized for choosing a new head of state, adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war. Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747, with the most recent one occurring in August 2020.Development of Taliban government On 17 August 2021, the leader of the Taliban-affiliated Hezb-e-Islami Gulbuddin party, Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, met with both Hamid Karzai, the former President of Afghanistan, and Abdullah Abdullah, the former chairman of the High Council for National Reconciliation and former Chief Executive, in Doha, Qatar, with the aim of forming a national unity government. President Ashraf Ghani, having fled the country during the Taliban advance to either Tajikistan or Uzbekistan, emerged in the United Arab Emirates and said that he supported such negotiations and was in talks to return to Afghanistan. Many figures within the Taliban generally agreed that continuation of the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan may, if correctly applied, be workable as the basis for the new religious state as their objections to the former government were political, and not religious. Hours after the final flight of American troops left Kabul on 30 August, a Taliban official interviewed said that a new government would likely be announced as early as Friday 3 September after Jumu'ah. It was added that Hibatullah Akhundzada would be officially named Emir, with cabinet ministers being revealed at the Arg in an official ceremony. Abdul Ghani Baradar would be named head of government as Prime Minister, while other important positions would go to Sirajuddin Haqqani and Mullah Yaqoob. Beneath the supreme leader, day-to-day governance will be entrusted to the cabinet. In a report by CNN-News18, sources said the new government was going to be governed similarly to Iran with Hibatullah Akhundzada as supreme leader similar to the role of Saayid Ali Khamenei, and would be based out of Kandahar. Baradar or Yaqoob would be head of government as Prime minister. The government's ministries and agencies will be under a cabinet presided over by the Prime Minister. The Supreme Leader would preside over an executive body known as the Supreme Council with anywhere from 11 to 72 members. Abdul Hakim Haqqani is likely to be promoted to Chief justice. According to the report, the new government will take place within the framework of an amended 1964 Constitution of Afghanistan. Government formation was delayed due to concerns about forming a broad-based government acceptable to the international community. It was later added however that the Taliban's Rahbari Shura, the group's leadership council was divided between the hardline Haqqani Network and moderate Abdul Ghani Baradar over appointments needed to form an "inclusive" government. Reports claimed that this culminated in a skirmish which led to Baradar being injured and treated in Pakistan, however this was denied by Baradar himself. As of early September 2021 the Taliban were planning the cabinet to be men-only. Journalists and other human rights activists, mostly women, protested in Herat and Kabul, calling for women to be included. The acting Cabinet announced on 7 September was men-only, and the Ministry of Women's Affairs was abolished. As of June 2024, no country has recognized the Taliban government as the legitimate authorities of Afghanistan, with the U.N adding that recognition was impossible so long as restrictions on female education and employment remained. On 16 September 2024, the Taliban suspended polio vaccination campaigns in Afghanistan, as reported by the United Nations, posing a significant risk to global polio eradication efforts.Administrative divisions Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (wilayat). Each province has a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial districts, each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor. The provincial governors are now appointed by the Prime Minister of Afghanistan, and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government. , which are further divided into a number of districts.]] The 34 provinces in alphabetical order are: # Badakhshan # Badghis # Baghlan # Balkh # Bamyan # Daykundi # Farah # Faryab # Ghazni # Ghor # Helmand # Herat # Jowzjan # Kabul # Kandahar # Kapisa # Khost # Kunar # Kunduz # Laghman # Logar # Nangarhar # Nimruz # Nuristan # Oruzgan # Paktia # Paktika # Panjshir # Parwan # Samangan # Sar-e Pol # Takhar # Wardak # Zabul Foreign relations Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946. Historically, Afghanistan had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the Soviet Union, which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and India, with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950. Relations with Pakistan have often been tense for various reasons such as the Durand Line border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups. The present Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is currently internationally unrecognized, but has had notable unofficial ties with China, Pakistan, and Qatar. Under the previous Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, it enjoyed cordial relations with a number of NATO and allied nations, particularly the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, and Turkey. In 2012, the United States and the then-republic in Afghanistan signed their Strategic Partnership Agreement in which Afghanistan became a major non-NATO ally. Such qualification was rescinded by US President Joe Biden in July 2022. Military The Armed Forces of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan captured a large amount of weapons, hardware, vehicles, aerocrafts, and equipment from the Afghan National Security Forces following the 2021 Taliban offensive and the Fall of Kabul. The total value of the captured equipment has been estimated at US$83 billion. Human rights Homosexuality is taboo in Afghan society; according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison. Under Sharia law offenders can be punished by death. However, an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between children and older men (typically wealthy warlords or elite people) called bacha bazi persists. Religious minorities such as Sikhs, Hindus, and Christians have reportedly faced persecution. Since May 2022, all women in Afghanistan have been required by law to wear full-body coverings when in public (either a burqa or an abaya paired with a niqāb, which leaves only the eyes uncovered). First Deputy Leader Sirajuddin Haqqani claimed the decree is only advisory and no form of hijab is compulsory in Afghanistan, though this contradicts the reality. It has been speculated that there is a genuine internal policy division over women's rights between hardliners, including leader Hibatullah Akhundzada, and pragmatists, though they publicly present a united front. Another decree was issued shortly after the first, requiring female TV presenters to cover their faces during broadcasts. Since the Taliban takeover, suicides among women have become more common, and the country could now be one of the few where the rate of suicide among women surpasses that among men. In May 2022, the Taliban dissolved Afghanistan's Human Rights Commission along with four other government departments, citing the country's budget deficit. In January 2025, International Criminal Court issued two warrants against the Taliban supreme leader Haibatullah Akhundzada and the Chief judge, Abdul Hakim Haqqani, for committing the crimes against humanity with the oppression and persecution of Afghan women and girls, and deprived of their freedom of movement, the rights to control their bodies, to education, and to a private and family life, while the alleged resistance and opposition were brutally suppressed with murder, imprisonment, torture, rape, and other forms of sexual violence, since 2021. ICC member states are obliged to arrest wanted persons if they are on their territory.Economy (anaar), for which Afghanistan is famous in Asia]] Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $20.1 billion in 2020, or $81 billion by purchasing power parity (PPP). Its GDP per capita is $2,459 (PPP) and $611 by nominal. it remains one of the world's least developed countries. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability. Da Afghanistan Bank serves as the central bank of the nation and the Afghani (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the Afghanistan International Bank, New Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Pashtany Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, and the First Micro Finance Bank. are one of Afghanistan's main exports.]] One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million expatriates, who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country. Some of the major national construction projects include the $35 billion New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town near Jalalabad. Similar development projects have also begun in Herat, Mazar-e-Sharif, and other cities. An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year. Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in telecom investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003. Afghan rugs are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items. Afghanistan is a member of WTO, SAARC, ECO, and OIC. It holds an observer status in SCO. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India. Since the Taliban's takeover of the country in August 2021, the United States has frozen about $9 billion in assets belonging to the Afghan central bank, blocking the Taliban from accessing billions of dollars held in US bank accounts. The GDP of Afghanistan is estimated to have dropped by 20% following the Taliban return to power. Following this, after months of free-fall, the Afghan economy began stabilizing, as a result of the Taliban's restrictions on smuggled imports, limits on banking transactions, and UN aid. In 2023, the Afghan economy began seeing signs of revival. This has also been followed by stable exchange rates, low inflation, stable revenue collection, and the rise of trade in exports. In the third quarter of 2023, the Afghani rose to be the best performing currency in the world, climbing over 9% against the US dollar. Agriculture ]] Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018. The country is known for producing pomegranates, grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. Afghanistan also became the world's top producer of cannabis in 2010. In March 2023, however, cannabis production was banned by a decree from Hibatullah Akhundzada. Saffron, the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly Herat Province. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are using to try to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute. Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147. The availability of cheap diesel-powered water pumps imported from China and Pakistan, and in the 2010s, of cheap solar power to pump water, resulted in expansion of agriculture and population in the southwestern deserts of Afghanistan in Kandahar, Helmand and Nimruz provinces in the 2010s. Wells have gradually been deepened, but water resources are limited. Opium is the major crop, but as of 2022, was under attack by the new Taliban government which, to suppress opium production, was systematically suppressing water pumping. In a 2023 report, poppy cultivation in southern Afghanistan was reduced by over 80% as a result of Taliban campaigns to stop its use toward opium. This included a 99% reduction of opium growth in the Helmand Province. In November 2023, a U.N report showed that in the entirety of Afghanistan, poppy cultivation dropped by over 95%, removing it from its place as being the world's largest opium producer.Mining stones]] The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, lithium, uranium, rare earth elements, chromite, gold, zinc, talc, barite, sulfur, lead, marble, precious and semi-precious stones, natural gas, and petroleum. Michael E. O'Hanlon of the Brookings Institution estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its mineral deposits, its gross national product would double and provide long-term funding for critical needs. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average of crude oil, of natural gas, and of natural gas liquids. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north. The country has significant amounts of lithium, copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other minerals. The Khanashin carbonatite in Helmand Province contains of rare earth elements. In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the Aynak copper mine to the China Metallurgical Group for $3 billion, making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history. The state-run Steel Authority of India won the mining rights to develop the huge Hajigak iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan. Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least . The lithium reserves of 21 Mio. tons could amount to the ones of Bolivia, which is currently viewed as the country with the largest lithium reserves. Other larger deposits are the ones of bauxite and cobalt. of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person—their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.Energy According to the World Bank, 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008. Overall the figure stands at 98.7%. As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 megawatts of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. The majority of electricity production is via hydropower, helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains. However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul. In recent years an increasing number of solar, biomass and wind power plants have been constructed. Currently under development are the CASA-1000 project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline. In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque Bamyan Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity. Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the Wakhan Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous hippie trail, attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including Herat, Kandahar and Kabul before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and Nepal. Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict. , a UNESCO World Heritage Site]] The city of Ghazni has significant history and historical sites, and together with Bamyan city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively. The cities of Herat, Kandahar, Balkh, and Zaranj are also very historic. The Minaret of Jam in the Hari River valley is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet Muhammad is kept in the Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, a city founded by Alexander the Great and the first capital of Afghanistan. The citadel of Alexander in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the Shrine of Ali, believed by many to be the location where Ali was buried. The National Museum of Afghanistan in Kabul hosts a large number of Buddhist, Bactrian Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s. Unexpectedly, tourism has seen improvement in Afghanistan following the Taliban takeover. Active efforts by the Taliban encouraged tourism to increase from 691 tourists in 2021, to 2,300 in 2022, to 5,200 in 2023, with some estimates of between 7,000 and 10,000. This is, however, threatened by the Islamic State – Khorasan Province, who took responsibility for attacks on tourists, such as the 2024 Bamyan shooting. Communication Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by Afghan Telecom, Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, MTN Group, and Roshan. The country uses its own space satellite called Afghansat 1, which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.Transportation ]] Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country has historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is Highway 1, often called the "Ring Road", which extends for and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush. The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy. A key portion of the Ring Road is the Salang Tunnel, completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan. It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the Kabul–Kandahar and the Kabul–Jalalabad Road. Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities. Airbus A310 in 2006]] Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, Ariana Afghan Airlines, and by the private company Kam Air. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include Air India, Emirates, Gulf Air, Iran Aseman Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, and Turkish Airlines. The country has four international airports: Kabul International Airport (formerly Hamid Karzai International Airport), Kandahar International Airport, Herat International Airport, and Mazar-e Sharif International Airport. Including domestic airports, there are 43. a long line from Toraghundi to the Turkmenistan border (where it continues as part of Turkmen Railways); and a short link from Aqina across the Turkmen border to Kerki, which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan. These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between Khaf, Iran and Herat, western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, was under construction as of 2019. About of the line will lie on the Afghan side. Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow and consist of both cars and auto rickshaws. In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use donkeys, mules or horses to transport or carry goods. Camels are primarily used by the Kochi nomads. Demographics form the world's largest tribal society.]] Population The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 35.7million as of 2024 by the Afghanistan National Statistics and Information Authority, About 25.3% are urbanite, 70.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.3% are nomadic. The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan. Millions have since returned and the war conditions contribute to the country having the highest fertility rate outside Africa. Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy, although it has the lowest life expectance of any country outside Africa. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down. The Gini coefficient in 2008 was 27.8. Fertility rate Afghanistan 2024 total fertility rate has been estimated at 4.4. In 2022 it was 4.5, about twice the world average rate. The rate has fallen since the early 1980s. Urbanization As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than Cambodia, Nepal and Sri Lanka. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital Kabul, due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants. Urbanization in Afghanistan is different from typical urbanization in that it is centered on just a few cities. Kabul is the largest city, with a population of 5 million. Dari and Pashto are the official languages of Afghanistan; bilingualism is very common. Dari, which is also referred to as Eastern Persian as it is a variety of and mutually intelligible with Persian (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in Iran), functions as the lingua franca in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Native speakers of Dari, of any ethnicity, are sometimes called Farsiwans. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy. According to CIA World Factbook, Dari Persian is spoken by 78% (L1 + L2) and functions as the lingua franca, while Pashto is spoken by 50%, Uzbek 10%, English 5%, Turkmen 2%, Urdu 2%, Pashayi 1%, Nuristani 1%, Arabic 1%, and Balochi 1% (2021 est). Data represent the most widely spoken languages; shares sum to more than 100% because there is much bilingualism in the country and because respondents were allowed to select more than one language. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi, Pashayi, and Nuristani. English is also understood by some of the population, and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s. Some Afghans retain some ability in Russian, which was taught in public schools during the 1980s. According to Pew Research Center, as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% Shia and 3% non-denominational. The CIA Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia. accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs. According to Deutsche Welle in September 2021, 250 remain in the country after 67 were evacuated to India. There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan, living mainly in Herat and Kabul. Over the years, this small community was forced to leave due to decades of warfare and religious persecution. By the end of the twentieth century, nearly the entire community had emigrated to Israel and the United States, with one known exception, Herat-born Zablon Simintov. He remained for years, being the caretaker of the only remaining Afghan synagogue. He left the country for the US after the second Taliban takeover. A woman who left shortly after him has since been identified as the likely last Jew in Afghanistan. Afghan Christians, who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches. Education Education in Afghanistan is overseen by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. However, the new regime has thus far forbidden female teachers and female students from returning to secondary schools. Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different universities around the country. About 21% of these are females. Former Education Minister Ghulam Farooq Wardak had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of formal learning. As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%). The top universities in Afghanistan are the American University of Afghanistan (AUAF) followed by Kabul University (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The National Military Academy of Afghanistan, modeled after the United States Military Academy at West Point, was a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the Afghan Armed Forces. The Afghan Defense University was constructed near Qargha in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include Kandahar University in the south, Herat University in the northwest, Balkh University and Kunduz University in the north, Nangarhar University and Khost University in the east. After the Taliban regained power in 2021, it became unclear to what extent female education would continue in the country. In March 2022, after they had been closed for some time, it was announced that secondary education would be reopened shortly. However, shortly before reopening, the order was rescinded and schools for older girls remained closed. Despite the ban, six provinces, Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-I-Pul, Faryab, and the Day Kundi, still allow girl's schools from grade 6 and up. In December 2023, investigations were being held by the United Nations on the claim that Afghan girls of all ages were allowed to study at religious schools. As of November 2024, some parts of the country allow women to attend religious schools to pursue dentistry, nursing, and other subjects.Health in Kabul is one of the largest hospitals in Afghanistan.]] According to the Human Development Index, Afghanistan is the 15th least developed country in the world. The average life expectancy is estimated to be around 60 years. The country's maternal mortality rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its infant mortality rate is 66 There are over 100 hospitals in Afghanistan, with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The French Medical Institute for Children and Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital in Kabul are the leading children's hospitals in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the Jamhuriat Hospital and Jinnah Hospital. In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility. The disability rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war. It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs. Non-governmental charities such as Save the Children and Mahboba's Promise assist orphans in association with governmental structures.Culture , 1939 – most Afghans are tribal.]] Afghans have both common cultural features and those that differ between the regions of Afghanistan, each with distinctive cultures partly as a result of geographic obstacles that divide the country. In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the Pashtun culture by following Pashtunwali (the Pashtun way). Key tenets of Pashtunwali include hospitality, the provision of sanctuary to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood. The Pashtuns are largely connected to the culture of Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. The remaining Afghans are culturally Persian and Turkic. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called Pashtunization, while some Pashtuns have been Persianized. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious. Afghan culture is deeply Islamic, but pre-Islamic practices persist. Child marriage is prevalent; the legal age for marriage is 16. The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's parallel cousin, and the groom is often expected to pay a bride price. ]] In the villages, families typically occupy mudbrick houses, or compounds with mudbrick or stone walled houses. Villages typically have a headman (malik), a master for water distribution (mirab) and a religious teacher (mullah). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. Another popular dress is the chapan which acts as a coat. The karakul is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President Hamid Karzai. The pakol is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerrilla leader Ahmad Shah Massoud. The Mazari hat originates from northern Afghanistan.Architecture The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including Greek and Buddhist stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples, and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the Great Mosque of Herat, the Blue Mosque, the Minaret of Jam, the Chil Zena, the Qala-i Bost in Lashkargah, the ancient Greek city of Ai-Khanoum. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. The two famous Buddhas of Bamiyan were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare but does exist: the Victory Arch at Paghman and the Darul Aman Palace in Kabul were built in this style in the 1920s. Afghan architecture also ranges deep into India such as the city of Agra, and the tomb of Sher Shah Suri, an Afghan Emperor of India. Art and ceramics pattern]] Carpet weaving is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still handmade by tribal and nomadic people today. Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the Soviet–Afghan War, "war rugs", a variant of Afghan rugs, were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs. In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills. Pottery has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of Istalif, north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery, and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries. Much of lapis lazuli stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in Chinese porcelain as cobalt blue, later used in ancient Mesopotamia and Turkey. The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of oil painting found in cave murals in the country. A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is Gandhara Art, produced by a fusion of Greco-Roman art and Buddhist art between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Later eras saw increased use of the Persian miniature style, with Kamaleddin Behzad of Herat being one of the most notable miniature artists of the Timurid and early Safavid periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. Abdul Ghafoor Breshna was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.Literature Classic Persian and Pashto poetry are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. One of the poetic styles is called landay. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are Divs, monstrous creatures. Thursdays are traditionally "poetry night" in the city of Herat when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems. Three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: Khwaja Abdullah Ansari of Herat, a great mystic and Sufi saint in the 11th century, Sanai of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, Rumi of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the greatest mystical poet of the Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres, movements and stylistic features imported from Europe. Khushal Khan Khattak of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include Rabi'a Balkhi, Jami, Rahman Baba, Khalilullah Khalili, and Parween Pazhwak. Music ]] Afghan classical music has close historical links with Indian classical music and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like raga. Genres of this style of music include ghazal (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian tabla, sitar and harmonium, and local instruments like zerbaghali, as well as dayereh and tanbur which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Middle East. The rubab is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian sarod instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include Ustad Sarahang and Sarban. Pop music developed in the 1950s through Radio Kabul and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first Mermon Parwin. Attan is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds. The dance is considered part of Afghan identity. Media and entertainment Afghanistan has around 350 radio stations and over 200 television stations. Radio Television Afghanistan, originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as TOLO and Shamshad TV. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873, and there are hundreds of print outlets today. Voice of America, BBC, and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio. Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls. Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian Bollywood films and listening to its filmi songs. It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry. The stereotypes of Afghans in India (Kabuliwala or Pathani) have also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors. Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including Salman Khan, Saif Ali Khan, Aamir Khan, Feroz Khan, Kader Khan, Naseeruddin Shah, Zarine Khan, Celina Jaitly, and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including Dharmatma, Khuda Gawah, Escape from Taliban, and Kabul Express.Cuisine , the most widely consumed bread in Afghanistan]] Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, yogurt, and whey. Kabuli palaw is the national dish of Afghanistan. The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity. Afghanistan is known for its high-quality pomegranates, grapes, and sweet melons. Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans. A typical Afghan diet consists of naan, yogurt, rice, and meat. Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruit. As a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr and Ashura are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of Vaisakhi is celebrated by the Sikh community and the Hindu festival Diwali by the Hindu community. National Independence Day is celebrated on 19 August to mark the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 and the country's full independence. and International Women's Day. Some regional festivals include the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in Mazar-i-Sharif, and the Damboora Festival in Bamyan Province.Sports ]] Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the Afghan Sports Federation. Cricket and association football are the two most popular sports in the country. The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, basketball, volleyball, golf, handball, boxing, taekwondo, weightlifting, bodybuilding, track and field, skating, bowling, snooker, chess, and other sports. The Afghanistan national basketball team won the first team sports title at the 2010 South Asian Games. In 2012, the country's 3x3 basketball team won the gold medal at the 2012 Asian Beach Games. In 2013, Afghanistan's football team followed as it won the SAFF Championship. The Afghan national cricket team, which was formed in 2001, won the 2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup. It won the ACC Twenty20 Cup in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team played in the 2015, 2019, and 2023 Cricket World Cups. The Afghanistan Cricket Board (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is based in Kabul. The Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium near Jalalabad. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces. The Afghanistan national football team has been competing in international football since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the Ghazi Stadium in Kabul, while football in Afghanistan is governed by the Afghanistan Football Federation. The national team has never competed or qualified for the FIFA World Cup but won an international football trophy in 2013. It is similar to polo, played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The Afghan Hound (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was used in wolf hunting. See also * Outline of Afghanistan Explanatory notes ف occurs only in loanwords in Pashto, it tends to be replaced with پ. is also an allophone of before voiced consonants; is an allophone of before voiced consonants in loanwords.}}--> }} References Citations General and cited sources * }} Further reading * \|titleConflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia \|publisherABC-CLIO \|year2003 \|isbn=978-1-85109-402-8}} * * * \|titleChasing Tales: Travel Writing, Journalism and the History of British Ideas About Afghanistan \|publisherRodopi \|year2007 \|isbn=978-90-420-2262-1}} * \|titleAfghanistan: a History of Conflict \|publisherCarlton Books \|year2001 \|isbn=978-1-84222-597-4}} * * \|titleThe Making of Modern Afghanistan \|publisherPalgrave Macmillan \|year2008 \|isbn=978-0-230-55421-4}} * \|publisherOxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-979856-8}} * * * * * * }} External links * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/afghanistan/ Afghanistan]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. * * * [http://uiuc.libguides.com/afghanistan_research_guide Research Guide to Afghanistan] }} Category:1709 establishments in Asia Category:Central Asian countries Category:Countries in Asia Category:Emirates Category:Iranian plateau Category:Islamic states Category:Landlocked countries Category:Least developed countries Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Category:Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Pashto-speaking countries and territories Category:Countries and territories where Persian is an official language Category:South Asian countries Category:States and territories established in 1709 Category:States and territories established in 1747 Category:Theocracies Category:Totalitarian states	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan	2025-04-05T18:25:21.078652
738	Albania	\| common_name = Albania \| image_flag = Flag of Albania.svg \| alt_flag = Red flag with a black double-headed eagle in the centre. \| image_coat \| national_motto <br>"You Albania, you give me honour,<br>you give me the name Albanian" \| national_anthem <br>"Hymn to the Flag"<br/><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;"></div> \| image_map \| map_caption Location of Albania (green)<br /> in Europe (dark grey) \| capital = Tirana \| largest_city = Tirana \| coordinates = \| official_languages = Albanian \| languages2_type = Recognised minority languages \| languages2 = \| religion * 50.67% Islam 45.86% Sunni 4.81% Bektashism \| * 16.02% Christianity 8.39% Catholicism 7.23% Orthodoxy ** 0.40% Protestantism \| 13.83% Non-denominational \| 3.55% Atheism \| 15.92% Undeclared}} \| religion_year = 2023 \| religion_ref \| demonym = Albanian \| government_type = Unitary parliamentary republic \| leader_title1 = President \| leader_name1 = Bajram Begaj \| leader_title2 = Prime Minister \| leader_name2 = Edi Rama \| legislature = Kuvendi \| leader_title3 = Parliament Speaker \| leader_name3 = Elisa Spiropali \| sovereignty_type = Establishment history \| established_event1 = Principality of Arbanon \| established_date1 = 1190 \| established_event2 = Albanian principalities \| established_date2 = 12th–15th centuries \| established_event3 = Kingdom of Albania \| established_date3 = February 1272 \| established_event4 = Principality of Albania \| established_date4 = 1368 \| established_event5 = League of Lezhë \| established_date5 = 2 March 1444 \| established_event6 = Pashalik of Scutari/Janina/Berat \| established_date6 = 1757/1787 \| established_event7 = League of Prizren \| established_date7 = 10 June 1878 \| established_event8 = Independent Albania \| established_date8 = 28 November 1912 \| established_event9 = Principality of Albania \| established_date9 = 29 July 1913 \| established_event10 = 1st Republic of Albania \| established_date10 = 31 January 1925 \| established_event11 = Kingdom of Albania \| established_date11 = 1 September 1928 \| established_event12 = 2nd Republic of Albania \| established_date12 = 10 January 1946 \| established_event13 = 3rd Republic of Albania \| established_date13 = 28 December 1976 \| established_event14 = 4th Republic of Albania \| established_date14 = 29 April 1991 \| established_event15 = \| established_date15 = 28 November 1998 \| area_km2 = 28,748 \| area_sq_mi = 11,100 \| area_rank = 140th <!-- Area rank should match List of countries and dependencies by area --> \| percent_water = 4.7 \| population_census 2,402,113 \| population_census_year = 2023 \| population_density_km2 83.6 \| GDP_PPP $61.261 billion \| GDP_PPP_rank = 118th \| GDP_PPP_year = 2025 \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $22,729 \| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI = 0.789 \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 74th \| currency = Lek \| currency_code = ALL \| patron_saint = Our Lady of Good Counsel \| time_zone = CET \| utc_offset = +1 \| time_zone_DST = CEST \| utc_offset_DST = +2 \| drives_on = right \| calling_code = +355 \| cctld = .al }} Albania ( ; or ),; or , also or .}} officially the Republic of Albania (),.}} is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. With an area of , it has a varied range of climatic, geological, hydrological and morphological conditions. Albania's landscapes range from rugged snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps and the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains, to fertile lowland plains extending from the Adriatic and Ionian seacoasts. Tirana is the capital and largest city in the country, followed by Durrës, Vlorë, and Shkodër. In ancient times, the Illyrians inhabited northern and central regions of Albania, whilst Epirotes inhabited the south. Several important ancient Greek colonies were also established on the coast. The Illyrian kingdom centred in what is now Albania was the dominant power before the rise of Macedon. In the 2nd century BC, the Roman Republic annexed the region, and after the division of the Roman Empire it became part of Byzantium. The first known Albanian autonomous principality, Arbanon, was established in the 12th century. The Kingdom of Albania, Principality of Albania and Albania Veneta were formed between the 13th and 15th centuries in different parts of the country, alongside other Albanian principalities and political entities. In the late 15th century, Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1912, the modern Albanian state declared independence. In 1939, Italy invaded the Kingdom of Albania, which became Greater Albania, and then a protectorate of Nazi Germany during World War II. After the war, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania was formed, which lasted until the Revolutions of 1991 concluded with the fall of communism in Albania and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania. Since its independence in 1912, Albania has undergone a diverse political evolution, transitioning from a monarchy to a communist regime before becoming a sovereign parliamentary constitutional republic. Governed by a constitution prioritising the separation of powers, the country's political structure includes a parliament, a ceremonial president, a functional prime minister and a hierarchy of courts. Albania is a developing country with an upper-middle income economy driven by the service sector, with manufacturing and tourism also playing significant roles. After the dissolution of its communist system the country shifted from centralised planning to an open market economy. Albanian citizens have universal health care access and free primary and secondary education. The country is an official candidate for membership in the European Union. Etymology The historical origins of the term "Albania" can be traced back to medieval Latin, with its foundations believed to be associated with the Illyrian tribe of the Albani. This connection gains further support from the work of the Ancient Greek geographer Ptolemy during the 2nd century AD, where he included the settlement of Albanopolis situated to the northeast of Durrës. The presence of a medieval settlement named Albanon or Arbanon hints at the possibility of historical continuity. The precise relationship among these historical references and the question of whether Albanopolis was synonymous with Albanon remain subjects of scholarly debate. The Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, in his 11th-century historical account, provides the earliest undisputed reference to the Albanians, when he mentions them having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1079. He also identifies the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. In the Middle Ages, Albania was denoted as or by its inhabitants, who identified themselves as or . Albanians employ the terms or for their nation, designations that trace their historical origins to the 14th century. But only in the late 17th and early 18th centuries did these terms gradually supersede and among Albanians. These two expressions are widely interpreted to symbolise "Children of the Eagles" and "Land of the Eagles". History Prehistory in the county of Korçë]] Mesolithic habitation in Albania has been evidenced in several open air sites which during that period were close to the Adriatic coastline and in cave sites. Mesolithic objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. The Neolithic era in Albania began around 7000 BC and is evidenced in finds which indicate domestication of sheep and goats and small-scale agriculture. A part of the Neolithic population may have been the same as the Mesolithic population of the southern Balkans like in the Konispol cave where the Mesolithic stratum co-exists with Pre-Pottery Neolithic finds. Cardium pottery culture appears in coastal Albania and across the Adriatic after 6500 BC, while the settlements of the interior took part in the processes which formed the Starčevo culture. The Albanian bitumen mines of Selenicë provide early evidence of bitumen exploitation in Europe, dating to Late Neolithic Albania (from 5000 BC), when local communities used it as pigment for ceramic decoration, waterproofing, and adhesive for reparing broken vessels. The bitumen of Selenicë circulated towards eastern Albania from the early 5th millennium BC. First evidence of its overseas trade export comes from Neolithic and Bronze Age southern Italy. The high-quality bitumen of Selenicë has been exploited throughout all the historical ages since the Late Neolithic era until today. The Indo-Europeanisation of Albania in the context of the IE-isation of the western Balkans began after 2800 BC. The presence of the Early Bronze Age tumuli in the vicinity of later Apollonia dates to 2679±174 calBC (2852-2505 calBC). These burial mounds belong to the southern expression of the Adriatic-Ljubljana culture (related to later Cetina culture) which moved southwards along the Adriatic from the northern Balkans. The same community built similar mounds in Montenegro (Rakića Kuće) and northern Albania (Shtoj). The first archaeogenetic find related to the IE-isation of Albania involves a man with predominantly Yamnaya ancestry buried in a tumulus of northeastern Albania which dates to 2663–2472 calBC. During the Middle Bronze Age, Cetina culture sites and finds appear in Albania. Cetina culture moved southwards across the Adriatic from the Cetina valley of Dalmatia. In Albania, Cetina finds are concentrated around southern Lake Shkodër and appear typically in tumulus cemeteries like in Shkrel and Shtoj and hillforts like Gajtan (Shkodër) as well as cave sites like Blaz, Nezir and Keputa (central Albania) and lake basin sites like Sovjan (southeastern Albania). Antiquity was the capital of the Illyrian kingdom of Ardiaei and Labeatae]] The incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples, amongst them numerous Illyrian and Epirote tribes. There were also several Greek colonies. The territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of the Vjosë. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, a Greek text written in the 4th century BC. Other colonies such as Apollonia and Epidamnos were established by Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC. was an important Greek colony on the Illyrian coast along the Adriatic Sea and one of the western points of the Via Egnatia route, that connected Rome and Constantinople]] The Illyrian Taulanti were a powerful Illyrian tribe that were among the earliest recorded tribes in the area. They lived in an area that corresponds much of present-day Albania. Together with the Dardanian ruler Cleitus, Glaucias, the ruler of the Taulantian kingdom, fought against Alexander the Great at the Battle of Pelium in 335 BC. As the time passed, the ruler of Ancient Macedonia, Cassander of Macedon captured Apollonia and crossed the river Genusus () in 314 BC. A few years later Glaucias laid siege to Apollonia and captured the Greek colony of Epidamnos. The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe, centred in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of northern Albania. Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron, the son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, Teuta, inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions. Middle Ages was the capital of the Principality of Arbanon in the Middle Ages]] The Roman Empire was split in 395 upon the death of Theodosius I into an Eastern and Western Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the Barbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the Slavs crossed the Danube and largely absorbed the indigenous Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the Balkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century. In the 11th century, the Great Schism formalised the break of communion between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Church that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of River Shkumbin and established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 under the leadership of Progon of Kruja. The realm was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri. Upon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem of Kruja. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of the Byzantine Empire, under the Byzantine Doukai of Epirus or Laskarids of Nicaea. commemorating the siege of Shkodra. It illustrates Sultan Mehmet II laying siege to the Albanian town of Scutari, then part of Venetian Empire]] Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, Serbs and Venetians started to take possession over the territory. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however, the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianised. After the dissolution of Arbanon, Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from the Despotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from Dyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down to Butrint. A Catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. The Albanians, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy taxes among others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the Janissary. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of Islamisation and the rapid construction of mosques. A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the League of Lezhë until the fall of Shkodër under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, who consistently defeated major Ottoman armies led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to unite several of the Albanian principalities, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the Lord of Albania. The Ottoman Empire's expansion ground to a halt during the time that Skanderbeg's forces resisted, and he has been credited with being one of the main reasons for the delay of Ottoman expansion into Western Europe, giving the Italian principalities more time to better prepare for the Ottoman arrival. However, the failure of most European nations, with the exception of Naples, in giving him support, along with the failure of Pope Pius II's plans to organise a promised crusade against the Ottomans meant that none of Skanderbeg's victories permanently hindered the Ottomans from invading the Western Balkans. Despite his brilliance as a military leader, Skanderbeg's victories were only delaying the final conquests. The constant Ottoman invasions caused enormous destruction to Albania, greatly reducing the population and destroying flocks of livestock and crops. Besides surrender, there was no possible way Skanderbeg would be able to halt the Ottoman invasions despite his successes against them. His manpower and resources were insufficient, preventing him from expanding the war efforts and driving the Turks from the Albanian borders. Albania was therefore doomed to face an unending series of Ottoman attacks until it eventually fell years after his death. When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of Vlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers. Others included members of the prominent Köprülü family, Zagan Pasha, Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. Furthermore, two sultans, Bayezid II and Mehmed III, both had mothers of Albanian origin. Rilindja The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an independent nation. Modern Albanian culture flourished too, especially Albanian literature and arts, and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Prior to the rise of nationalism, Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the Russian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which assigned Albanian-populated lands to their Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Treaty of Berlin. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the League of Prizren. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the Ottoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defence of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league Committee of the Real Muslims. Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from Vilayet of Scutari. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the Kararname that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia and Herzegovina are willing to defend the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under Abdyl Frashëri, became focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets, including Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir and Ioannina, into a unified vilayet, the Albanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the Battle of Novšiće, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan. Independence is regarded as the founding father of the modern Albanian nation]] Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied by the establishment of the Senate and Government by the Assembly of Vlorë on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London. On 29 July 1913, the Treaty of London delineated the borders of the country and its neighbors, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia, and Greece. Headquartered in Vlorë, the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of Albania until its own political institutions were in order. The International Gendarmerie was established as the Principality of Albania's first law enforcement agency. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied (Princ Vilhelm Vidi) was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrës and began to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, who owned half of the arable land. In February 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. To gain the support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from northern Albania, Prince Wied appointed their leader, Prênk Bibë Doda, foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men, mostly from Kosovo, and the rebels defeated northern Mirdita Catholics, capturing most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. Prince Wied's regime collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914. First Republic played a significant role in the 20th century, advocating for Albanian independence and cultural revival, while also serving as Prime Minister in 1924 and later as the head of the Albanian Orthodox Church.]] The interwar period in Albania was marked by persistent economic and social difficulties, political instability and foreign interventions. After World War I, Albania lacked an established government and internationally recognised borders, rendering it vulnerable to neighboring entities such as Greece, Italy, and Yugoslavia, all of which sought to expand their influence. Meanwhile, Italian influence continued to expand during this time, driven by economic interests and political ambitions. Fan Noli, renowned for his idealism, became prime minister in 1924, with a vision to institute a Western-style constitutional government, abolish feudalism, counter Italian influence, and enhance critical sectors, including infrastructure, education and healthcare. As World War II progressed, Italy aimed to expand its territorial dominion in the Balkans, including territorial claims on regions of Greece (Chameria), Macedonia, Montenegro and Kosovo. These ambitions laid the foundation of Greater Albania, which aimed to unite all areas with Albanian-majority populations into a single country. In 1943, as Italy's control declined, Nazi Germany assumed control of Albania, subjecting Albanians to forced labour, economic exploitation and repression under German rule. The tide shifted in 1944 when Albanian partisan forces, under the leadership of Enver Hoxha and other communist leaders, successfully liberated Albania from German occupation. Communism was the founding leader of communist Albania and its ruler for over four decades, implementing a regime marked by authoritarianism and isolationism]] The establishment of the People's Republic of Albania under the leadership of Enver Hoxha was a significant epoch in modern Albanian history. Hoxha's regime embraced Marxist–Leninist ideologies and implemented authoritarian policies, including prohibition of religious practices, severe restrictions on travel, and abolition of private property rights. It was also defined by a persistent pattern of purges, extensive repression, instances of betrayal, and hostility to external influences. were constructed to prevent potential external invasions. By 1983, approximately 173,371 bunkers were scattered throughout its territory]] Albania's diplomatic history under Hoxha was characterised by notable conflicts. Under this regime, citizens were forced to renounce their religious beliefs, adopt a secular way of life, and embrace socialist ideology. Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the International Monetary Fund's warnings, Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armories open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees. The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a U.N. peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered Albania with two goals: to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police. Contemporary was the strongest to hit Albania in more than four decades]] After its communist system disintegrated, Albania embarked on an active path towards Westernisation with the ambition to obtain membership in the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). A notable milestone was reached in 2009, when the country attained membership in NATO, marking a pioneering achievement among the nations of Southeast Europe. In adherence to its vision for further integration into the EU, it formally applied for membership on 28 April 2009. Another milestone was reached on 24 June 2014, when the country was granted official candidate status. Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections. As prime minister, he implemented numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy, as well as democratising state institutions, including the judiciary and law enforcement. Unemployment has steadily declined, with Albania achieving the 4th-lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. Rama has also placed gender equality at the centre of his agenda; since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers have been female, the largest number of women serving in the country's history. During the 2021 parliamentary elections, the ruling Socialist Party led by Rama secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone. On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania, with the epicentre about southwest of the town of Mamurras. The tremor was felt in Tirana and in places as far away as Taranto, Italy, and Belgrade, Serbia, while the most affected areas were the coastal city of Durrës and the village of Kodër-Thumanë. Comprehensive response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid from the Albanian diaspora and various countries around the world. On 9 March 2020, COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June 2020, the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the virus's spread. The country's COVID-19 vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021, but as of 11 August 2021, the total number of vaccines administered in Albania was 1,280,239 doses. On 21 September 2024, it was reported that Prime Minister Rama was planning to create the Sovereign State of the Bektashi Order, a sovereign microstate for the Order within Tirana. Environment Geography are an extension and simultaneously the highest section of the Dinaric Alps.]] Albania lies along the Mediterranean Sea on the Balkan Peninsula in South and Southeast Europe, and has an area of . It is bordered by the Adriatic Sea to the west, Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east, Greece to the south, and the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is between latitudes 42° and 39° N and longitudes 21° and 19° E. Geographic coordinates include Vërmosh at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude as the northernmost point, Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude as the southernmost, Sazan at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude as the westernmost, and Vërnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude as the easternmost. Mount Korab, rising at above the Adriatic, is the highest point, while the Mediterranean Sea, at , is the lowest. The country extends from east to west and around from north to south. Albania has a diverse and varied landscape with mountains and hills that traverse its territory in various directions. The country is home to extensive mountain ranges, including the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest, and the Skanderbeg Mountains in the centre. In the northwest is the Lake of Shkodër, Southern Europe's largest lake. Towards the southeast emerges the Lake of Ohrid, one of the world's oldest continuously existing lakes. Farther south, the expanse includes the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, some of the Balkans' highest lakes. Rivers rise mostly in the east and discharge into the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The country's longest river, measured from mouth to source, is the Drin, which starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin. Of particular concern is the Vjosë, one of Europe's last intact large river systems. In Albania forest cover is around 29.% of the total land area, equivalent to 788,900 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 788,800 hectares (ha) in 1990. Of the naturally regenerating forest 11% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 97% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 3% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown. Climate is located on the confluence of the Adriatic and Ionian Sea, on the Albanian Riviera]] The climate of Albania exhibits a distinguished level of variability and diversity due to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences a Mediterranean and Continental climate, characterised by the presence of four distinct seasons. According to the Köppen classification, Albania encompasses five primary climatic types, spanning from Mediterranean and subtropical in the western half to oceanic, continental and subarctic in the eastern half of the country. The coastal regions along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas in Albania are acknowledged as the warmest areas, while the northern and eastern regions encompassing the Albanian Alps and the Korab Mountains are recognised as the coldest areas in the country. Albania receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least of rain annually. Biodiversity is the national symbol and animal of Albania]] A biodiversity hotspot, Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of its geographical location at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and the great diversity in its climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most endangered species of the country, the lynx and brown bear, as well as the wildcat, grey wolf, red fox, golden jackal, Egyptian vulture and golden eagle, the latter constituting the national animal of the country. The estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo, pygmy cormorant and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the dalmatian pelican. Of particular importance are the Mediterranean monk seal, loggerhead sea turtle and green sea turtle that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores. In terms of phytogeography, Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom and stretches specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal and Mediterranean Region. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm namely within the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests. Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a Mediterranean and Eurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily fir, oak, beech and pine. Conservation lie in the Butrint National Park]] Albania has been an active participant in numerous international agreements and conventions aimed at strengthing its commitment to the preservation and sustainable management of biological diversity. Since 1994, the country is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its associated Cartagena and Nagoya Protocols. To uphold these commitments, it has developed and implemented a comprehensive National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP). As a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, Albania has granted special recognition upon four wetlands, designating them as Wetlands of International Importance, including Buna-Shkodër, Butrint, Karavasta and Prespa. The country's dedication to protection extends further into the sphere of UNESCO's World Network of Biosphere Reserves, operating within the framework of the Man and the Biosphere Programme, evidenced by its engagement in the Ohrid-Prespa Transboundary Biosphere Reserve. Furthermore, Albania is host to two natural World Heritage Sites, which encompass the Ohrid region and both the Gashi River and Rrajca as part of Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe. Protected areas within the Divjakë-Karavasta National Park]] The protected areas of Albania are areas designated and managed by the Albanian government. There are 12 national parks, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of conservation reserves in Albania. Located in the north, the Albanian Alps National Park, comprising the former Theth National Park and Valbonë Valley National Park, is surrounded amidst the towering peaks of the Albanian Alps. In the east, portions of the rugged Korab, Nemërçka and Shebenik Mountains are conserved within the boundaries of Fir of Hotovë-Dangëlli National Park, Shebenik National Park and Prespa National Park, with the latter encompassing Albania's share of the Great and Small Lakes of Prespa. To the south, the Ceraunian Mountains define the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, shaping the landscape of Llogara National Park, which extends into the Karaburun Peninsula, forming the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park. Further southward lies Butrint National Park, occupying a peninsula surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and the Channel of Vivari. In the west, stretching along the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast, the Divjakë-Karavasta National Park boasts the extensive Lagoon of Karavasta, one of the largest lagoon systems in the Mediterranean Sea. Notably, Europe's first wild river national park, Vjosa National Park, safeguards the Vjosa River and its primary tributaries, which originates in the Pindus Mountains and flows to the Adriatic Sea. Dajti Mountain National Park, Lurë-Dejë Mountain National Park and Tomorr Mountain National Park protect the mountainous terrain of the centre of Albania, including the Tomorr and Skanderbeg Mountains. Environmental issues Environmental issues in Albania notably encompass air and water pollution, climate change impacts, waste management shortcomings, biodiversity loss and imperative for nature conservation. Climate change is predicted to exert significant impacts on the quality of life in Albania. Albania is one of the European countries most at risk and vulnerable to natural disasters. Natural disasters, such as floods, forest fires, and landslides, are increasing in Albania due to climate change, causing significant damage. Rising sea levels are anticipated to negatively impact coastal communities and the tourism industry. In 2023 Albania emitted 7.67 million tonnes of greenhouse gases, equivalent to 2.73 tonnes per person, making it a relatively low emitting country. Albania has pledged a 20.9% reduction in GHG emissions by 2030, and net zero by 2050. The country has a moderate and improving performance in the Environmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2022. However, Albania's ranking has decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012. }} Politics {\| class"wikitable" style"text-align:left; float:right; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;" \|- \| style="text-align:left;" \| \| style="text-align:left;" \| \|- \| style="text-align:center;" \| Bajram Begaj<br/> \| style="text-align:center;" \| Edi Rama<br/> \|} Since declaring independence in 1912, Albania has experienced a significant political transformation, traversing through distinct periods that included a monarchical rule, a communist regime and the eventual establishment of a democratic order. In 1998, Albania transitioned into a sovereign parliamentary constitutional republic, marking a fundamental milestone in its political evolution. Its governance structure operates under a constitution that serves as the principal document of the country. The constitution is grounded in the principle of the separation of powers, with three arms of government that encompass the legislative embodied in the Parliament, the executive led by the President as the ceremonial head of state and the Prime Minister as the functional head of government, and the judiciary with a hierarchy of courts, including the constitutional and supreme courts as well as multiple appeal and administrative courts. Despite these principles, there are significant human rights concerns in Albania that demand attention. These concerns include issues related to the independence of the judiciary, the absence of a free media sector and the enduring problem of corruption within various governmental bodies, law enforcement agencies and other institutions.]] Emerging from decades of isolation during the communism, Albania has adopted a foreign policy orientation centred on active cooperation and engagement in international affairs. At the core of Albania's foreign policies lie a set of objectives, which encompass the commitment to protect its sovereignty and territorial integrity, the cultivation of diplomatic ties with other countries, advocating for international recognition of Kosovo, addressing the concerns related to the expulsion of Cham Albanians, pursuing Euro-Atlantic integration and protecting the rights of the Albanians in Kosovo, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Serbia and the diaspora. The external affairs of Albania underscore the country's dedication to regional stability and integration into major international institutions. Albania became a member of the United Nations (UN) in 1955, shortly after emerging from a period of isolation during the communist era. The country reached a major achievement in its foreign policy by securing NATO membership in 2009. Since obtaining candidate status in 2014, the country has also embarked on a comprehensive reform agenda to align itself with European Union (EU) accession standards, with the objective of becoming an EU member state. Both countries foster enduring diplomatic ties, with Albania actively supporting Kosovo's development and international integration efforts. Furthermore, both governments hold annual joint meetings, displayed by the inaugural meeting in 2014, which serves as an official platform to enhance bilateral cooperation and reinforce their joint commitment to policies that promote the stability and prosperity of the broader Albanian region. The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the sovereignty and the territorial integrity of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but only one United Nations mission in Georgia, where it sent three military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%. Administrative divisions \|captionThe counties of Albania are the first-level administrative units in Albania.}} Albania is defined within a territorial area of in the Balkan Peninsula. It is informally divided into three regions, the Northern, Central and Southern Regions. Since its Declaration of Independence in 1912, Albania has reformed its internal organisation 21 times. Presently, the primary administrative units are the twelve constituent counties (/}}), which hold equal status under the law. Counties had previously been used in the 1950s and were recreated on 31 July 2000 to unify the 36 districts (/}}) of that time. The largest county in Albania by population is Tirana County with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is Gjirokastër County with over 70,000 people. The largest county, by area, is Korçë County encompassing of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is Durrës County with an area of in the west of Albania. The counties are made up of 61 second-level divisions known as municipalities (/}}). The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and law enforcement. They unified and simplified the previous system of urban and rural municipalities or communes (/}}) in 2015. For smaller issues of local government, the municipalities are organised into 373 administrative units (/). There are also 2980 villages (/}}), neighborhoods or wards (/}}), and localities (/}}) previously used as administrative units. {\| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align:left; font-size:85%; margin:1em auto;" \|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;" ! style"width:25px;" \| Emblem !! style"width:100px;"\| County !! style"width:87px;"\| Capital !! style"width:75px;" \| Area <br/>(km<sup>2</sup>) !! style"width:70px;"\| Population (2020) !! style"width:70px;" \| HDI (2019) \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Berat \|\| Berat \|\| styletext-align:right \| 1,798 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 122,003 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.782 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Dibër \|\| Peshkopi \|\| styletext-align:right \| 2,586 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 115,857 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.754 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Durrës \|\| Durrës \|\| styletext-align:right \| 766 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 290,697 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.802 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Elbasan \|\| Elbasan \|\| styletext-align:right \| 3,199 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 270,074 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.784 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Fier \|\| Fier \|\| styletext-align:right \| 1,890 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 289,889 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.767 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Gjirokastër \|\| Gjirokastër \|\| styletext-align:right \| 2,884 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 59,381 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.794 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Korçë \|\| Korçë \|\| styletext-align:right \| 3,711 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 204,831 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.790 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Kukës \|\| Kukës \|\| styletext-align:right \| 2,374 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 75,428 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.749 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Lezhë \|\| Lezhë \|\| styletext-align:right \| 1,620 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 122,700 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.769 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Shkodër \|\| Shkodër \|\| styletext-align:right \| 3,562 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 200,007 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.784 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Tirana \|\| Tirana \|\| styletext-align:right \| 1,652 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 906,166 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.820 \|- ! scope"row" styletext-align:center \| \| Vlorë \|\| Vlorë \|\| styletext-align:right \| 2,706 \|\| styletext-align:right \| 188,922 \|\| style=text-align:right \| 0.802 \|- \|-class="sortbottom" \| colspan20 align"left" \|References: \|} Economy is the economic hub of the country. It is home to major domestic and foreign companies operating in the country.]] Albania's transition from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist mixed economy has been largely successful. The country has a developing mixed economy classified by the World Bank as an upper-middle income economy. In 2016, it had the fourth-lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The lek (ALL) is the country's currency and is pegged at approximately 132.51 lek per euro. The cities of Tirana and Durrës constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest companies are the energy distribution public company OSHEE, steel producer Kurum, oil cdompanies like Kastrati, Albpetrol, and ARMO, the mineral AlbChrome, the investment BALFIN Group and the telecommunications companies One Albania and Vodafone. In 2012, Albania's GDP per capita stood at 30% of the European Union average, while GDP (PPP) per capita was 35%. In the first quarter of 2010, after the Great Recession, Albania was one of three countries in Europe to record economic growth. The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to Forbes, , the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was growing at 2.8%. The country had a trade balance of −9.7% and unemployment rate of 14.7%. Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious programme to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. Primary sector . Due to the Mediterranean climate, wine, olives and citrus fruits are mostly produced in Southern Albania.]] Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the economy of Albania. It employs 41% of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the European Union, farmers are being aided through IPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards. Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, cherries, figs, sour cherries, plums, and strawberries), vegetables (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), sugar beets, tobacco, meat, honey, dairy products, traditional medicine and aromatic plants. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian. The country's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The World Bank and European Community economists report that, Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels and crustaceans. Albania has one of Europe's longest histories of viticulture. Today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. Secondary sector factory in Fushë-Krujë]] Albania's secondary sector has undergone many changes and diversification since the communist regime collapsed. It is very diversified, from electronics, manufacturing, textiles, to food, cement, mining, and energy. The Antea Cement plant in Fushë-Krujë is considered one of the nation's largest industrial greenfield investments. Albanian oil and gas is one of the most promising, albeit strictly regulated, sectors of its economy. Albania has the second-largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula after Romania, and the largest oil reserves in Europe. The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the European Union (EU) in Albania. According to the Instituti i Statistikës (INSTAT), , textile production had an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros. Albania is a significant minerals producer and ranks among the world's leading chromium producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel, and coal. The Batra mine, Bulqizë mine, and Thekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines still in operation. Tertiary sector , in the south of the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]] The tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the banking industry is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to privatisation and the commendable monetary policy. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well. The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, and an estimated 4.2 million in 2012, an increase of 740 percent. In 2015, summer tourism increased by 25 percent from 2014, according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, Lonely Planet named Albania as a top travel destination, while The New York Times placed Albania as number 4 global tourist destination in 2014. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in the west of the country. But the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches; its coastline has a considerable length of . The coast has a distinctive character, rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves, and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, including unexplored areas, which are very rare within the Mediterranean. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the Albanian Alps, Ceraunian Mountains and Korab Mountains but also the historical cities of Berat, Durrës, Gjirokastër, Sarandë, Shkodër and Korçë. Transport connects the Adriatic Sea across the Western Lowlands with the Albanian Alps.]] Transportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and entities such as the Albanian Road Authority (ARRSH), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the highways and motorways in Albania, as well as the Albanian Aviation Authority (AAC), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country. The international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's national flag carrier airline, Air Albania. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around Europe, Africa and Asia. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in Sarandë, Gjirokastër and Vlorë. The highways and motorways in Albania are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The Autostrada 1 (A1) is an integral transportation corridor and the country's longest motorway. It is planned to link Durrës on the Adriatic Sea across Pristina in Kosovo with the Pan-European Corridor X in Serbia. The Autostrada 2 (A2) is part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor as well as the Pan-European Corridor VIII and connects Fier with Vlorë. Infrastructure Education is the largest higher education institute dedicated to the study of arts]] In Albania, education is secular, free, compulsory, and based on three levels. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters, beginning in September or October and ending in June or July. Albanian is the primary language of instruction in the country's academic institutions. Languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively.]] The constitution of Albania guarantees its citizens equal, free, and universal health care. The health care system is organised into primary, secondary, and tertiary healthcare, and is in a process of modernisation and development. The life expectancy at birth in Albania is 77.8 years, ranking 37th in the world and surpassing several developed countries. The average healthy life expectancy is 68.8 years, ranking 37th in the world. The country's infant mortality rate was estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. In 2000, the country had the world's 55th-best healthcare performance, as defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Cardiovascular disease is the principal cause of death in Albania, accounting for 52% of deaths. Compared to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity, probably thanks to the Mediterranean diet. According to 2016 WHO data, 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically overweight, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 25 or more. Energy Due to its location and natural resources, Albania has a wide variety of energy resources, ranging from gas, oil, and coal to wind, solar, water, and other renewable sources. According to the World Economic Forum's 2023 Energy Transition Index (ETI), the country ranked 21st globally, highlighting the progress in its energy transition agenda. Currently, Albania's electricity generation sector depends on hydroelectricity, ranking fifth in the world in percentage terms. Increasing risks of river floods and droughts due to climate change is expected to put electricity generation at risk. The Drin, in the north, hosts four hydroelectric power stations, including Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejës. Two other power stations, such as the Banjë and Moglicë, are along the Devoll in the south. Albania has considerable oil deposits. It has the 10th-largest oil reserves in Europe and the 58th in the world. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Myzeqe Plain within the Western Lowlands, where the country's largest reserve is located. Patos-Marinza, also located within the area, is the largest onshore oil field in Europe. The Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), part of the planned Southern Gas Corridor, runs for across Albania's territory before entering the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast approximately northwest of Fier. Albania's water resources are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and comprise lakes, rivers, springs, and groundwater aquifers. The country's available average quantity of fresh water is estimated at per inhabitant per year, one of the highest rates in Europe. According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access to improved sanitation. Media in the capital of Tirana. (RTSH) was initially inaugurated as Radio Tirana in 1938 prior to the World War II]] The freedom of press and speech, and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution of Albania. Albania was ranked 84th on the Press Freedom Index of 2020 compiled by the Reporters Without Borders, with its score steadily declining since 2003. Nevertheless, in the 2020 report of Freedom in the World, the Freedom House classified the freedoms of press and speech in Albania as partly free from political interference and manipulation. (RTSH) is the national broadcaster corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations in the country. The three major private broadcaster corporations are Top Channel, Televizioni Klan and Vizion Plus whose content are distributed throughout Albania and beyond its territory in Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking territories. Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's declaration of independence. The first movie theater exclusively devoted to showing motion pictures was built in 1912 in Shkodër. In 2009, the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015. It aims to triple public spending on research and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of GDE from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of the European Union, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Albania was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania. Vodafone Albania, Telekom Albania and Albtelecom are the three large providers of mobile and internet in Albania. Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931,000 mobile users, Telekom Albania had about 605,000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272,000 users. Albanian-American engineer Mira Murati, the Chief Technology Officer of research organisation OpenAI, played a substantial role in the development and launch of artificial intelligence services such as ChatGPT, Codex and DALL-E. In December 2023, Prime Minister Edi Rama announced plans for collaboration between the Albanian government and ChatGPT, facilitated by discussions with Murati. Rama emphasised the intention to streamline the alignment of Albanian laws with the regulations of the European Union, aiming to reduce costs associated with translation and legal services. Currently, the population density of Albania is measured at 83.6 inhabitants per square kilometer with a varied distribution of inhabitants across different regions. The counties of Tirana and Durrës showcase substantial concentrations of people, accounting for about 41% of the overall demographic of Albania, with 32% residing in Tirana and 9% in Durrës. Conversely, more peripheral and rural counties such as Gjirokastër and Kukës present significantly lower population densities, with each aiding 3% to the overall population. Historically, the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. The Albanian diaspora has been formed since the late Middle Ages, when they emigrated to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of Albania. Following the fall of communism, large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia, Canada, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of North Macedonia, the southeast of Montenegro, Kosovo in its entirety and parts of southern Serbia. Altogether, the number of ethnic Albanians living abroad is estimated to be higher than the total population inside Albania. As much as a third of those born in the country's borders now live outside of it, making Albania one of the countries with the highest rate of outmigration relative to its population in the world. In 2022 the birth rate was 20% lower than in 2021, largely due to emigration of people of childbearing age. Urbanisation Subsequent to the collapse of communism in 1991, Albania has undergone a remarkable transformation in its urban landscape, emerging as one of the fastest urbanising countries in Europe. At the forefront of this transformation is the Tirana-Durrës agglomeration, a densely populated urban corridor situated along the western coast of Albania. This corridor has become the primary locus of population growth and settlement development, attracting a significant influx of internal migrants from the country's peripheral areas. This sustained increase, coupled with the concentration in the Tirana-Durrës region, has led to a spread of regional imbalances, with the peripheral areas, particularly Dibër and Kukës, experiencing severe depopulation. Language was the first secular school to provide education in the Albanian during the Ottoman Empire.]] The official language of the country is Albanian which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk, though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Among minority languages, Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, mainly in the country's south where its speakers are concentrated. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Serbian, Macedonian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Gorani, and Roma. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.8% of the population declared Albanian as their mother tongue. Because of large migration flows from Albania, over half of Albanians during their life learn a second language. The main foreign language known is English with 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. The English speakers were mostly young people, the knowledge of Italian is stable in every age group, while there is a decrease of the speakers of Greek in the youngest group. Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors. Young people have shown a growing interest in the German language in recent years. Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better. Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis. Minorities Designated national and cultural minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples, as well as Gorani and Jews as other minority groups. The 2023 census recorded the ethnic composition as Albanians 2,186,917 (91,04% of the total), Greeks 23,485 (0,98%), Macedonians 2,281 (0,09%), Montenegrins 511 (0,02%), Aromanians 2,459 (0,1%), Roma 9,813 (0.4%), Balkan Egyptians 12,375 (0,5%), Bosnians 2,963 (0,12%), Serbians 584 (0,02%), Bulgarians 7,057 (0,29%), mixed ethnicities 770 (0.03%), other ethnicities 3,798 (0.15%), and 134,451 (5.60%) with unspecified ethnicity, out of a total population of 2,402,113. Contrary to official statistics that show an Albanian majority, the minority groups have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. The Greek government claimed there were an estimation of 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania. The CIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9% of the population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17%, and other minorities 0.23%, of the population. The latter questioned the validity of the 2011 census data about the Greek minority, as measurements had allegedly been affected by boycott. Religion \|label1 = Sunni Islam \|value1 = 45.86 \|color1 = DarkGreen \|label2 = Roman Catholicism \|value2 = 8.38 \|color2 = Gold \|label3 = Eastern Orthodoxy \|value3 = 7.22 \|color3 = Red \|label4 = Evangelical Christians \|value4 = 0.4 \|color4 = Skyblue \|label5 = Bektashi \|value5 = 4.81 \|color5 = Yellowgreen \|label6 = Non-affiliated believers \|value6 = 13.82 \|color6 = Grey \|label7 = Atheism \|value7 = 3.55 \|color7 = Lightgrey \|label8 = Undeclared \|value8 = 15.76 \|color8 = black \|label9 = Other \|value9 = 0.15 \|color9 = Pink }} Albania is a secular and religiously diverse country with no official religion. Freedom of religion, belief and conscience are guaranteed under the country's constitution. As of the 2023 Census, there were 1,101,718 (45.86%) Sunni Muslims, 201,530 (8.38%) Catholics, 173,645 (7.22%) Eastern Orthodox, 115,644 (4.81%) Bektashi Muslims, 9,658 (0.4%) Evangelicals, 3,670 (0.15%) of other religions, 332,155 (13.82%) believers without denomination, 85,311 (3.55%) Atheists and 378,782 (15.76%) did not provide an answer. Albania is nevertheless ranked among the least religious countries in the world. Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population. In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God. The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country. Orthodox and Bektashis are mostly found in the south, whereas Catholics mainly live in the north. In 2008, there were 694 Catholic churches and 425 orthodox churches, 568 mosques and 70 bektashi takyas in the country. ]] During modern times, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had an official religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion. The country was then officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom has returned, however, since the end of communism. Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania. Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals and several Protestant communities including Seventh-day Adventist Church, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned to Tirana in 1853, where he preached Protestantism. The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 Albanian Jews left in the country. Culture Symbols of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg stands as an emblem of Albanian independence]] The red and black national colours are displayed on the flag of Albania that is adorned with a double-headed eagle as the foremost recognised national symbol of Albania. With the black eagle portraying bravery and strength, the red field symbolises the fortitude and sacrifices of the Albanian people. Amid the Albanian Renaissance, marking the resurgence of Albanian national identity and aspirations for independence, the Albanian eagle regained its prominence. Gheg men wear a light-colored shirt paired with wide loose-fitting trousers referred to as the Tirq. These trousers are securely fastened by a wide woven belt, the Brez. An integral component of their costume is the Xhamadan, a woolen red velvet vest adorned with folkloric motifs and gold patterns. They also wear a distinctive dome-shaped hat known as the Qeleshe, crafted from wool, with its origins tracing back to the Illyrians. Conversely, Tosk men opt for the Fustanella, a knee-length garment designated as the national costume, typically white with pleats, accompanied by a white shirt. They also wear a beige or dark blue Xhamadan reminiscent of the Gheg attire. To complete their attire, men wear knee-high socks referred to as Çorape and leather shoes known as Opinga. The attire of Gheg and Tosk women is renowned for its rich palette of colors and intricate filigree detailing, displayed across various components including ear ornaments, finger rings, necklaces, belt buckles and buttons. Key components include a long, light-toned shirt paired with an apron, often accompanied by a woolen or felt mantle referred to as the Xhoka. Additional upper garments, such as the Dollama or Mintan, may be layered, along with a headscarf known as Kapica or Shall. A distinctive variation incorporates a pair of aprons, including the Pështjellak at the rear and the Paranik at the front. Integral to the traditional attire of Gheg women is the ancient Xhubleta. As a testament to its importance, the Xhubleta has been inscribed on the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List. Centuries later, the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. However, Onufri, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to the classical antiquity. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays, the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of various architectural styles. In the 20th century, many historical as well as sacred buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during the communist era. Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania and most visible in Byllis, Amantia, Phoenice, Apollonia, Butrint, Antigonia, Shkodër and Durrës. Considering the long period of rule of the Byzantine Empire, they introduced castles, citadels, churches and monasteries with spectacular wealth of visible murals and frescos. Perhaps the best known examples can be found in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of Korçë, Berat, Voskopojë and Gjirokastër. Involving the introduction of Ottoman architecture there was a development of mosques and other Islamic buildings, particularly seen in Berat and Gjirokastër. .]] A productive period of Historicism, Art Nouveau and Neoclassicism merged into the 19th century, best exemplified in Korçë. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern Italian style, which is present in Tirana such as the Skanderbeg Square and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodër, Vlorë, Sarandë and Durrës. Moreover, other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences. Socialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Albania after the Second World War. At this period many socialist-styled complexes, wide roads and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished. Notable examples of that style include the Mother Teresa Square, Pyramid of Tirana, Palace of Congresses and so on. Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These include the ancient remains of Butrint, the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër, and Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region site shared with North Macedonia since 2019. Furthermore, the royal Illyrian tombs, the remains of Apollonia, the ancient Amphitheatre of Durrës and the Fortress of Bashtovë has been included on the tentative list of Albania. Cuisine ) is a staple on the Albanian table]] Throughout the centuries, Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by Albanian culture, geography and history, and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specific regional cuisines. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south, owing to differing topography and climate that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs, and most notably, olives, which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary, and thyme are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, as well as legumes of all types. With a coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian in the Mediterranean Sea, fish, crustaceans, and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise, lamb is the traditional meat for different holidays and religious festivals for both Christians and Muslims, although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply. s) served with pite, a traditional and prominent layered Albanian pie]] Tavë kosi ("soured milk casserole") is the national dish of Albania, consisting of lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yoghurt. Fërgesë is another national dish, made up of peppers, tomatoes, and cottage cheese. Pite is also popular, a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë (curd) or mish (ground meat). Petulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served with powdered sugar or feta cheese and different sorts of fruit jams. Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream. Krofne, similar to Berliner doughnuts, are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during winter. Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world. Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafés, bars, or restaurants. Çaj Mali (Sideritis tea) is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties. Black tea is also popular. Albanian wine is also common throughout the country, and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production, and belongs to the Old World of wine producing countries. Music is designated as an UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.]] Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overall Albanian music. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northern Gheg varieties, and southern Lab and Tosk varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music. Many songs concern events from Albanian history and culture, including traditional themes of honour, hospitality, treachery, and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians, Neço Muka and Koço Çakali, in Paris, during their work with Albanian soprano Tefta Tashko-Koço. Several gramophone compilations were recorded at the time by the three artists, which eventually led to the recognition of Albanian iso-polyphony as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster (RTSH). The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including Vaçe Zela and Parashqevi Simaku. It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere, composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public. Contemporary artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Era Istrefi, Dua Lipa, Ava Max, Bleona, Elvana Gjata, Ermonela Jaho, and Inva Mula have achieved international recognition for their music, while soprano Ermonela Jaho has been described by some as the "world's most acclaimed soprano". Albanian opera singer Saimir Pirgu was nominated for the 2017 Grammy Award. Literature (The Missal) written by Gjon Buzuku <small>(1555)</small>]] The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric Gjon Buzuku translated the Catholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian what Martin Luther had done for German. Meshari (The Missal) written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century. – teacher and feminist (1880–1970)]] Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who in his book Siege of Shkodër (Rrethimi i Shkodrës) from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (in vernacula lingua) as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (History of Skanderbeg) from 1508. The History of Skanderbeg is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness. During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the catechism (E mbësuame krishterë) (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written by Lekë Matrënga, (Doktrina e krishterë) (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (Rituale romanum) 1621 by Pjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry, an apology for George Castriot (1636) by Frang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary and folklore creations, the theological-philosophical treaty Cuneus Prophetarum (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by Pjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages, were published in Albanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Ismail Kadare. Sports Albania participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games since the games of 1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from 1987 to 2013. in central Tirana]] Popular sports in Albania include football, weightlifting, basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming, rugby union and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the Football Association of Albania (, F.SH.F.), which has membership in FIFA and UEFA. The Albania national football team, ranking 51st in the World in 2017 (highest 22nd on 22 August 2015) have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000, but had never participated in any major UEFA or FIFA tournament, until UEFA Euro 2016, Albania's first ever appearance at the continental tournament and at a major men's football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat Romania by 1–0 in a UEFA Euro 2016 match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs are Skënderbeu, KF Tirana, Dinamo Tirana, Partizani and Vllaznia. Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the European Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the World Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in 1972 a gold in 2002 a silver and in 2011 a bronze medal. Human rights .]] Nearly 60% of women in rural areas suffer physical or psychological violence and nearly 8% are victims of sexual violence. Protection orders are often violated. In 2014 the Albanian Helsinki Committee (AHC) reported that the number of female murder victims is still high. The Commissioner for Protection from Discrimination has raised concerns regarding the family registration law that discriminates against women. As a result, heads of households, who are overwhelmingly men, have the right to change family residency without their partners' permission. Meanwhile, on the latest report in 2022, lack of progress caused Albania to be ranked the 28th country in Europe, among 49 countries observed. See also * Outline of Albania * Bibliography of Albania Notes References Sources 1912 \|isbn978-0-230-11908-6 \|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idca3IAAAAQBAJ&pgPA19 \|access-date23 September 2023 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230923161456/https://books.google.de/books?idca3IAAAAQBAJ&pgPA19&redir_escy \|archive-date23 September 2023 \|url-statuslive}} * }} Albania Population and Housing Census 2011: Main Results \|urlhttps://www.instat.gov.al/media/3058/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf \|access-date4 September 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200826201945/https://www.instat.gov.al/media/3058/main_results__population_and_housing_census_2011.pdf \|archive-date26 August 2020 \|languageen \|date2012 \|url-statuslive \|ref}} }} }} }} Albania Population and Housing Census 2023: Main Results \|urlhttps://www.instat.gov.al/media/13626/cens-2023-census-botim.pdf \|access-date4 September 2024 \|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240814174433/https://www.instat.gov.al/media/13626/cens-2023-census-botim.pdf \|archive-date14 August 2024 \|date2024 \|url-statuslive \|ref=}} Further reading * History of the Party of Labor of Albania. Tirana: Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, 1971. 691 p. * External links <!-- \| PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia \| \| is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. \| \| \| \| Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. \| \| See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. \| \| \| \| If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or \| \| replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link \| \| to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) \| \| and link back to that category using the template. \| --> [https://albania.al/ albania.al] [https://president.al/ president.al] [https://kryeministria.al/ kryeministria.al] [https://parlament.al/ parlament.al] *[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/albania/ Albania] at The World Factbook by Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) }} <!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Countries and territories where Albanian is an official language Category:Balkan countries Category:Countries in Europe Category:Member states of NATO Category:Member states of the Council of Europe Category:Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Category:Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:Republics Category:States and territories established in 1912	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania	2025-04-05T18:25:21.232675
740	Allah	calligraphy]] Allah ( ; , ) is an Arabic word for God, particularly the God of Abraham. Outside of the Middle East, it is principally associated with Islam (in which it is also considered the proper name), although the term was used in pre-Islamic Arabia and continues to be used today by Arabic-speaking adherents of any of the Abrahamic religions, including Judaism and Christianity. It is thought to be derived by contraction from al-ilāh (, ) and is linguistically related to God's names in other Semitic languages, such as Aramaic ( ) and Hebrew ( ). The word "Allah" now implies the superiority or sole existence of one God, but among the pre-Islamic Arabs, Allah was a supreme deity and was worshipped alongside lesser deities in a pantheon. Many Jews, Christians, and early Muslims used "Allah" and "al-ilah" interchangeably in Classical Arabic. The word is also frequently, albeit not exclusively, used by Bábists, Baháʼís, Mandaeans, Indonesian Christians, Maltese Christians, and Sephardic Jews, as well as by the Gagauz people. Etymology \|hamzat waṣl () \|lām \|lām \|shadda () \|alif khunjāriyah () \|hāʾ}}]] The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists. Most consider it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- and "deity, god" to meaning "the deity, the God". The majority of scholars accept this hypothesis. A minority hypothesis, seen with more skepticism, is that the term is a loanword from Syriac Alāhā. Grammarians of the Basra school regarded it as either formed "spontaneously" (murtajal) or as the definite form of lāh (from the verbal root lyh with the meaning of "lofty" or "hidden"). The use of Allah as the name of a deity appears as early as the first century. An inscription using the Ancient South Arabian script in Old Arabic from Qaryat al-Fāw reads, "to Kahl and and ʿAththar ()". Cognates of the name "Allāh" exist in other Semitic languages, including Hebrew and Aramaic. The corresponding Aramaic form is ʼElāh (), but its emphatic state is (). It is written as () in Biblical Aramaic and () in Syriac, both meaning simply "God". The unusual Syriac form is likely an imitation of the Arabic. History of usage Pre-Islamic Arabia Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions. According to Marshall Hodgson, it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba, a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator. The Syriac word () can be found in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia, as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to al-ilah () can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic. The inscription starts with the statement "By the Help of al-ilah". Archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre-Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el-Jimal in Northern Jordan, which initially, according to Enno Littmann (1949), contained references to Allah as the proper name of God. However, on a second revision by Bellamy et al. (1985 & 1988) the five-verse inscription was retranslated: "(1)This [inscription] was set up by colleagues of ʿUlayh, (2) son of ʿUbaydah, secretary (3) of the cohort Augusta Secunda (4) Philadelphiana; may he go mad who (5) effaces it." Irfan Shahîd quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection Kitab al-Aghani notes that pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry "Ya La Ibad Allah" (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle. According to Shahid, on the authority of 10th-century Muslim scholar Al-Marzubani, "Allah" was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic polytheistic cults. According to the Quran exegete Ibn Kathir, Arab pagans considered Allah as an unseen God who created and controlled the Universe. Pagans believed worship of humans or animals who had lucky events in their life brought them closer to God. Pre-Islamic Meccans worshiped Allah alongside a host of lesser gods and those whom they called the "daughters of Allah." Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon. The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion. According to one hypothesis, which goes back to Julius Wellhausen, Allah (the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal (the supreme deity of Quraysh) over the other gods. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed. Muhammad's father's name was meaning "the slave of Allāh". Islamic period In contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian polytheism, as stated by Gerhard Böwering, God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and jinn. Since the first centuries of Islam, Arabic-speaking commentators of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic faith used the term Allah as a generic term for the supreme being. Saadia Gaon used the term Allah interchangeably with the term ʾĔlōhīm. While other names of God in Islam denote attributes or adjectives, the term Allah specifically refers to his essence as his real name (). All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Merciful" (ar-Raḥmān) and "the Compassionate" (), and humble submission to his will, divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith. The Qur'an declares "the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures." Allah is not considered a part of the Christian Trinity. God has no parents and no children. The attributes of Allah Almighty are described in this way in the Ayat al-Kursi of Surah al-Baqarah in the Holy Quran. ٱللَّهُ لَآ إِلَـٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ ٱلْحَىُّ ٱلْقَيُّومُ ۚ لَا تَأْخُذُهُۥ سِنَةٌۭ وَلَا نَوْمٌۭ ۚ لَّهُۥ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَمَا فِى ٱلْأَرْضِ ۗ مَن ذَا ٱلَّذِى يَشْفَعُ عِندَهُۥٓ إِلَّا بِإِذْنِهِۦ ۚ يَعْلَمُ مَا بَيْنَ أَيْدِيهِمْ وَمَا خَلْفَهُمْ ۖ وَلَا يُحِيطُونَ بِشَىْءٍۢ مِّنْ عِلْمِهِۦٓ إِلَّا بِمَا شَآءَ ۚ وَسِعَ كُرْسِيُّهُ ٱلسَّمَـٰوَٰتِ وَٱلْأَرْضَ ۖ وَلَا يَـُٔودُهُۥ حِفْظُهُمَا ۚ وَهُوَ ٱلْعَلِىُّ ٱلْعَظِيمُ ٢٥٥ "Allah! There is no god ˹worthy of worship˺ except Him, the Ever-Living, All-Sustaining. Neither drowsiness nor sleep overtakes Him. To Him belongs whatever is in the heavens and whatever is on the earth. Who could possibly intercede with Him without His permission? He ˹fully˺ knows what is ahead of them and what is behind them, but no one can grasp any of His knowledge—except what He wills ˹to reveal˺. His Seat encompasses the heavens and the earth, and the preservation of both does not tire Him. For He is the Most High, the Greatest." The concept correlates to the Tawhid, where chapter 112 of the Qur'an (''Al-'Ikhlās, The Sincerity) reads:<blockquote>قُلْ هُوَ ٱللَّهُ أَحَدٌ ۝ ٱللَّهُ ٱلصَّمَدُ۝ لَمْ يَلِدْ وَلَمْ يُولَدْ ۝ وَلَمْ يَكُن لَّهُۥ كُفُوًا أَحَدٌۢ ۝١ :۝ Say, God is one God; :۝ the eternal God: :۝ He begetteth not, neither is He begotten: :۝ and there is not any one like unto Him.</blockquote> In a Sufi practice known as (Arabic: <big>ذِكر الله</big>, lit. "Remembrance of God"), the Sufi repeats and contemplates the name Allah or other associated divine names to Him while controlling his or her breath. Present day Islam " in the Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey]] in Edirne, Turkey]] The Islamic tradition to use Allah as the personal name of God became disputed in contemporary scholarship, including the question, whether or not the word Allah should be translated as God. Umar Faruq Abd-Allah urged English-speaking Muslims to use God instead of Allah for the sake of finding "extensive middle ground we share with other Abrahamic and universal traditions". Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of (meaning 'In the name of God'). There are certain other phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims and left untranslated, including "" (Glory be to God), "" (Praise be to God), "" (There is no deity but God) or sometimes "" (There is no deity but You/ Him) and "" (God is the Most Great) as a devotional exercise of remembering God (dhikr). Christianity The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for "God" than "Allah". Similarly, the Aramaic word for "God" in the language of Assyrian Christians is , or . (Even the Arabic-descended Maltese language of Malta, whose population is almost entirely Catholic, uses Alla for "God".) Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim , and also created their own Trinitized as early as the 8th century. Pronunciation The word Allāh is generally pronounced , exhibiting a heavy , , a velarized alveolar lateral approximant, a marginal phoneme in Modern Standard Arabic. Since the initial alef has no hamza, the initial is elided when a preceding word ends in a vowel. If the preceding vowel is , the is light, , as in, for instance, the Basmala.As a loanwordEnglish and other European languagesThe history of the name Allāh in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century; for example, Thomas Carlyle (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muḥammad (1934), Tor Andræ always used the term Allah, though he allows that this "conception of God" seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies. Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula, the word in the Spanish language and in the Portuguese language exist today, borrowed from Andalusi Arabic similar to (). This phrase literally means 'if God wills'. The German poet Mahlmann used the form "Allah" as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey. Some Muslims leave the name "Allāh" untranslated in English, rather than using the English translation "God". The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept.Malaysian and Indonesian language , Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 recorded as the translation of the Dutch word .\|linkFile:Vocabularium,_ofte_Woordenboek,_in_'t_Duytsch_en_Maleys_(IA_vocabulariumoft00dancgoog).djvu%3Fpage77]] . is the word for "God" in the Indonesian language - even in (Christian Bible, from = the book) translations, while is the word for "Lord".]] also use the word for "God".]] Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages (both of them standardized forms of the Malay language). Mainstream Bible translations in the language use as the translation of Hebrew (translated in English Bibles as "God"). This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century. The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin edition) recorded " as the translation of the Dutch word . Ruyl also translated the Gospel of Matthew in 1612 into the Malay language (an early Bible translation into a non-European language, made a year after the publication of the King James Version), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated the Gospel of Mark, published in 1638. For a time it became illegal for non-Muslims to use "Allah" after the country experienced a social and political upheaval in the face of the word being used by Malaysian Christians and Sikhs. The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term in any other but Muslim contexts, but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law, ruling it unconstitutional. While had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries, the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of by the Roman Catholic newspaper The Herald. The government appealed the court ruling, and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the hearing of the appeal. In October 2013 the court ruled in favor of the government's ban. In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the use of is not prohibited in the two Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak. The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab (Bibles) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years. The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20-point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah. National flags with "Allah" written on them <gallery widths"200" heights"140"> File:Flag of Iraq.svg\|Flag of Iraq with the Takbir written on it File:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg\|Flag of Saudi Arabia with the Shahada written on it File:Flag of the Taliban.svg\|Flag of Afghanistan with the Shahada written on it File:Flag of Iran.svg\|Flag of Iran with "Allah" written on it </gallery> Typography s]] The word is always written without an to spell the vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using to spell . However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic is added on top of the to indicate the pronunciation. In the pre-Islamic Zabad inscription, God is referred to by the term , that is, alif-lam-alif-lam-ha. Since Arabic script is used to write other texts rather than Koran only, rendering + + as the previous ligature is considered faulty which is the case with most common Arabic typefaces. Unicode Unicode has a code point reserved for , , in the Arabic Presentation Forms-A block, which exists solely for "compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly"; this is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature. The calligraphic variant of the word used as the emblem of Iran is encoded in Unicode, in the Miscellaneous Symbols range, at code point U+262B (☫). The flags that include the word are also present in the regional indicator symbols of Unicode: 🇮🇶, 🇸🇦, 🇦🇫, 🇮🇷, 🇺🇿. See also * Abdullah (name) * Allah as a lunar deity * Emblem of Iran * Ismul Azam * Names of God References General and cited references * * The Unicode Consortium, Unicode Standard 5.0'', Addison-Wesley, 2006, , [https://web.archive.org/web/20080304160907/http://www.unicode.org/book/aboutbook.html About the Unicode Standard Version 5.0 Book] Further reading Online * [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Allah Allah Qur'ān], in Encyclopædia Britannica Online, by Asma Afsaruddin, Brian Duignan, Thinley External links * [http://www.searchtruth.com/Allah/99Names.php Names of Allah with Meaning on Website, Flash, and Mobile Phone Software] * [http://www.sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God (Allah) in Islam] * [http://www.islam-info.ch/en/Who_is_Allah.htm The Concept of Allāh According to the Qur'an] by Abdul Mannan Omar * [http://www.muslim.org/islam/allah.htm Allah, the Unique Name of God] ; Typography * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080310022047/http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicFonts.html Arabic Fonts and Mac OS X] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131006005022/http://www.smi.uib.no/ksv/ArabicProgsx.html Programs for Arabic in Mac OS X] Category:Arabian deities Category:Arabian gods Category:Islamic terminology Category:Middle Eastern gods Category:Names of God	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allah	2025-04-05T18:25:21.264561
742	Algorithms (journal)	Algorithms is a monthly peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal of mathematics, covering design, analysis, and experiments on algorithms. The journal is published by MDPI and was established in 2008. The founding editor-in-chief was Kazuo Iwama (Kyoto University). From May 2014 to September 2019, the editor-in-chief was Henning Fernau (Universität Trier). The current editor-in-chief is Frank Werner (Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg).Abstracting and indexingAccording to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 2.3. The journal is abstracted and indexed in: See also Journals with similar scope include: ACM Transactions on Algorithms Algorithmica Journal of Algorithms (Elsevier) References External links Category:Theoretical computer science journals Category:Creative Commons Attribution-licensed journals Category:MDPI academic journals Category:English-language journals Category:Academic journals established in 2008 Category:Monthly journals	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms_(journal)	2025-04-05T18:25:21.269092
746	Azerbaijan	\| image_flag = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg \| alt_flag = Three equally sized horizontal bands of blue, red, and green, with a white crescent and an eight-pointed star centered in the red band \| image_coat = Emblem of Azerbaijan.svg \| symbol_type = Emblem \| national_anthem = <br />"March of Azerbaijan" \| image_map \| map_caption \| capital Baku \| largest_city = capital \| coordinates = \| official_languages Azerbaijani \| ethnic_groups_year 2019 \| ethnic_groups \| languages_type = Minority languages \| languages = See full list \| religion * 97.3% Islam 60–65% Shia 35–40% Sunni \|2.6% Christianity \|<0.1% other religion \|<0.1% unaffiliated }} \| religion_ref \| demonym = \| government_type Unitary semi-presidential republic under a hereditary dictatorship \| leader_title1 = President \| leader_name1 = Ilham Aliyev \| leader_title2 = Vice President \| leader_name2 = Mehriban Aliyeva \| leader_title3 = Prime Minister \| leader_name3 = Ali Asadov \| legislature = National Assembly \| sovereignty_type = Formation \| established_event1 = People's Republic \| established_date1 = 28 May 1918 \| established_event2 = Soviet Socialist Republic \| established_date2 = 28 April 1920 \| established_event3 = Independence from Soviet Union \| established_date3 = \| established_event4 = \| established_date4 = 12 November 1995 \| area_km2 = 86600 \| area_rank = 112th \| area_sq_mi = 33436 <!-- Do not remove WP:MOSNUM --> \| percent_water = 1.6 \| population_estimate 10,353,296 \| population_estimate_year = 2022 \| population_estimate_rank = 90th \| population_density_km2 = 117 \| population_density_sq_mi = 293 <!-- Do not remove WP:MOSNUM --> \| population_density_rank = 99th \| GDP_PPP $199.195 billion \| GDP_PPP_year = 2024 \| GDP_PPP_rank = 78th \| GDP_PPP_per_capita $19,328 \| HDI = 0.760 \| HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year --> \| HDI_change = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady --> \| HDI_ref \| HDI_rank = 89th \| currency = Manat (₼) \| currency_code = AZN \| time_zone = AZT \| utc_offset = +4 \| calling_code = +994 \| cctld = .az \| religion_year = 2020 }} Azerbaijan, , ; }} officially the Republic of Azerbaijan, ; Azerbaijan Republic is sometimes used in an official capacity.}} is a transcontinental and landlocked country at the boundary of West Asia and Eastern Europe. It is a part of the South Caucasus region and is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia's republic of Dagestan to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia and Turkey to the west, and Iran to the south. Baku is the capital and largest city. The territory of what is now Azerbaijan was ruled first by Caucasian Albania and later by various Persian empires. Until the 19th century, it remained part of Qajar Iran, but the Russo-Persian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 forced the Qajar Empire to cede its Caucasian territories to the Russian Empire; the treaties of Gulistan in 1813 and Turkmenchay in 1828 defined the border between Russia and Iran. The region north of the Aras was part of Iran until it was conquered by Russia in the 19th century, where it was administered as part of the Caucasus Viceroyalty. By the late 19th century, an Azerbaijani national identity emerged when the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic proclaimed its independence from the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in 1918, a year after the Russian Empire collapsed, and became the first secular democratic Muslim-majority state. In 1920, the country was conquered and incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan SSR. The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, shortly before the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In September 1991, the ethnic Armenian majority of the Nagorno-Karabakh region formed the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh, which became de facto independent with the end of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in 1994, although the region and seven surrounding districts remained internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan. Following the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020, the seven districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh were returned to Azerbaijani control. An Azerbaijani offensive in 2023 ended the Republic of Artsakh and resulted in the flight of Nagorno-Karabakh Armenians. Azerbaijan is a unitary semi-presidential republic. including the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Non-Aligned Movement, the OSCE, and the NATO PfP program. It is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the OPCW. Azerbaijan is an observer state of the World Trade Organization. The vast majority of the country's population (97%) is nominally The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion, and all major political forces in the country are secular. Azerbaijan is a developing country and ranks 89th on the Human Development Index. The ruling New Azerbaijan Party, in power since 1993, has been accused of authoritarianism under presidents Heydar Aliyev and his son Ilham Aliyev, and worsening the country's human rights record, including increasing restrictions on civil liberties, particularly on press freedom, and political repression. Etymology The term Azerbaijan derives from Atropates, a Persian satrap under the Achaemenid Empire who was reinstated as the satrap of Media under Alexander the Great. The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrianism. In the Avesta's Frawardin Yasht ("Hymn to the Guardian Angels"), there is a mention of , which translates from Avestan as "we worship the fravashi of the holy Atropatene". The name "Atropates" is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning "Protected by the (Holy) Fire" or "The Land of the (Holy) Fire". The Greek name was mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo. Over the span of millennia, the name evolved to (Middle Persian), then to , , (New Persian) and present-day Azerbaijan. The name Azerbaijan was first adopted by the government of Musavat in 1918 after the collapse of the Russian Empire, when the independent Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was established. Until then, the designation had been used exclusively to identify the adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran, while the area of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was formerly referred to as Arran and Shirvan. On that basis Iran protested the newly adopted country name.<!-- BEFORE MODIFYING THIS SENTENCE, PLEASE DISCUSS AT TALK --> During Soviet rule, the country was also spelled in Latin from the Russian transliteration as (). The country's name was also spelled in Cyrillic script from 1940 to 1991 as . History Antiquity s in Gobustan National Park dating back to the 10th millennium BC indicating a thriving culture]] The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates back to the late Stone Age and is related to the Guruchay culture of Azykh Cave. Early settlements included the Scythians during the 9th century BC. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of Zoroastrianism.From the Sasanid period to the Safavid period The Sasanian Empire turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state in 252, while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the 4th century. Despite Sassanid rule, Caucasian Albania remained an entity in the region until the 9th century, while fully subordinate to Sassanid Iran, and retained its monarchy. Despite being one of the chief vassals of the Sasanian emperor, the Albanian king had only a semblance of authority, and the Sasanian marzban (military governor) held most civil, religious, and military authority. In the first half of the 7th century, Caucasian Albania, as a vassal of the Sasanians, came under nominal Muslim rule with the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sasanians and Byzantines from the South Caucasus and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after Christian resistance led by King Juansher was suppressed in 667. The power vacuum left by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids, Sajids, and Shaddadids. At the beginning of the 11th century, the territory was gradually seized by the waves of migrating Oghuz Turks from Central Asia, who adopted a Turkoman ethnonym at the time. The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the Seljuk Empire, which entered the area by 1067. The pre-Turkic population spoke several Indo-European and Caucasian languages, among them Armenian and an Iranian language, Old Azeri, which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language, the early precursor of the Azerbaijani language of today. Some linguists have also stated that the Tati dialects of Iranian Azerbaijan and the Republic of Azerbaijan, like those spoken by the Tats, are descended from Old Azeri. Locally, the possessions of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled by Eldiguzids, technically vassals of the Seljuk sultans, but sometimes de facto rulers themselves. Under the Seljuks, local poets such as Nizami Ganjavi and Khaqani gave rise to a blossoming of Persian literature in the region. Shirvanshahs, the local dynasty of Arabic origin that was later Persianized, became a vassal state of Timurid Empire of Timur and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh. Following Timur's death, two independent and rival Turkoman states emerged: Qara Qoyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining for numerous centuries to come a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals as they had done since 861. In 1501, the Safavid dynasty of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs and gained its possessions. In the course of the next century, the Safavids converted the formerly Sunni population to Shia Islam, as they did with the population in what is modern-day Iran. The Safavids allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power under Safavid suzerainty until 1538, when Safavid King Tahmasp I completely deposed them and made the area into the Safavid province of Shirvan. The Sunni Ottomans briefly managed to occupy present-day Azerbaijan as a result of the Ottoman–Safavid War of 1578–1590; by the early 17th century, they were ousted by Safavid Iranian ruler Abbas I. In the wake of the demise of the Safavid dynasty, Baku and its environs were briefly occupied by the Russians as a consequence of the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723. Remainder of present Azerbaijan was occupied by the Ottomans from 1722 to 1736. Despite brief intermissions such as these by Safavid Iran's neighboring rivals, the land remained under Iranian rule from the earliest advent of the Safavids up to the course of the 19th century.Modern history between 1795 and 1801]] After the Safavids, the area was ruled by the Iranian Afsharid dynasty. After the death of Nader Shah in 1747, many of his former subjects capitalized on the eruption of instability. Numerous khanates with various forms of autonomy emerged. The rulers of these khanates were directly related to the ruling dynasties of Iran and were vassals and subjects of the Iranian shah. The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West. Thereafter, the area was under the successive rule of the Iranian Zands and Qajars. From the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Russia actively tried to gain possession of the Caucasus region which was, for the most part, in the hands of Iran. In 1804, the Russians invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja, sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. The militarily superior Russians ended the war with a victory. Following Qajar Iran's loss, it was forced to concede suzerainty over most of the khanates, along with Georgia and Dagestan to the Russian Empire, per the Treaty of Gulistan. during the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813]]The area to the north of the Aras River was Iranian territory until Russia occupied it in the 19th century. About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's Erivan Khanate. This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two, the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828. The resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay forced Qajar Iran to cede sovereignty over the Erivan Khanate, the Nakhchivan Khanate and the remainder of the Talysh Khanate. Despite the Russian conquest, throughout the entire 19th century, preoccupation with Iranian culture, literature, and language remained widespread among Shia and Sunni intellectuals in the Russian-held cities of Baku, Ganja and Tiflis (Tbilisi, now Georgia). Within the same century, in post-Iranian Russian-held East Caucasia, an Azerbaijani national identity emerged at the end of the 19th century. As a result of the Russian conquest, the Azerbaijanis are nowadays parted between two nations: Iran and Azerbaijan. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic was declared, constituting the present-day republics of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. It was followed by the March Days massacres that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in Baku and adjacent areas of the Baku Governorate. When the republic dissolved in May 1918, the leading Musavat party declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR), adopting the name of "Azerbaijan", a name that prior to the proclamation of the ADR was solely used to refer to the adjacent northwestern region of contemporary Iran. Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making ADR the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men. ]] Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded it, establishing the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had broken out in Karabakh, Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. Within the ensuing early Soviet period, the Azerbaijani national identity was forged. During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of the Soviet Union, with 80 percent of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front being supplied by Baku. By decree of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan were awarded orders and medals. Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy (petroleum) dynamo of the USSR. Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed on the front. More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named heroes of the Soviet Union. Azerbaijani Major-General Azi Aslanov was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union.Independence paratroopers during the Black January tragedy in 1990]] Following the politics of glasnost initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev, civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union, including Nagorno-Karabakh, an autonomous region of the Azerbaijan SSR. The disturbances in Azerbaijan, in response to Moscow's indifference to an already heated conflict, resulted in calls for independence and secession, which culminated in the Black January events in Baku. Later in 1990, the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR dropped the words "Soviet Socialist" from the title, adopted the "Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic" and restored the flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the state flag. As a consequence of the failed 1991 Soviet coup attempt in Moscow, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence on 18 October 1991 which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December, while the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December. The early years of independence were overshadowed by the First Nagorno-Karabakh war with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by Armenia. By the end of the hostilities in 1994, Armenians controlled 14–16 percent of Azerbaijani territory, including Nagorno-Karabakh. During the war many atrocities and pogroms by both sides were committed including the massacres at Malibeyli, Gushchular and Garadaghly and the Khojaly massacre, along with the Baku pogrom, the Maraga massacre and the Kirovabad pogrom. Furthermore, an estimated 30,000 people were killed and more than a million people were displaced (more than 800,000 Azerbaijanis and 300,000 Armenians). Four United Nations Security Council resolutions (822, 853, 874, and 884) demand for "the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan." Many Russians and Armenians fled Azerbaijan as refugees during the 1990s. According to the 1970 census, there were 510,000 ethnic Russians and 484,000 Armenians in Azerbaijan. Aliyev family rule, 1993–present ]] In 1993, democratically elected President Abulfaz Elchibey was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel Surat Huseynov, which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of Soviet Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev.<!----> In 1994, Huseynov, by that time the prime minister, attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev, but he was arrested and charged with treason. In 1995 another coup was attempted against Aliyev, this time by the commander of the Russian OMON special police unit, Rovshan Javadov. The coup was averted, resulting in the death of Javadov and disbanding of Azerbaijan's OMON units. At the same time, the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy. In October 1998, Aliyev was re-elected for a second term. Ilham Aliyev, Heydar Aliyev's son, became chairman of the New Azerbaijan Party as well as President of Azerbaijan when his father died in 2003. He was re-elected to a third term as president in October 2013. In April 2018, Aliyev secured his fourth consecutive term in the election that was boycotted by the main opposition parties as fraudulent. On 27 September 2020, clashes in the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict resumed along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact. Both the armed forces of Azerbaijan and Armenia reported military and civilian casualties. The Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement and the end of the six-week war between Azerbaijan and Armenia was widely celebrated in Azerbaijan, as they made significant territorial gains. Despite the much improved economy, particularly with the exploitation of the Azeri–Chirag–Guneshli oil field and Shah Deniz gas field, the Aliyev family rule has been criticized with election fraud, high levels of economic inequality and domestic corruption. In September 2023, Azerbaijan launched an offensive against the breakaway Republic of Artsakh in Nagorno-Karabakh that resulted in the dissolution and reintegration of Artsakh on 1 January 2024 and the flight of nearly all ethnic Armenians from the region. Geography map for Azerbaijan]] Azerbaijan is located in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia, straddling West Asia and Eastern Europe. It lies between latitudes 38° and 42° N, and longitudes 44° and 51° E. The perimeter of Azerbaijan's land borders is , of which are with Armenia, with Iran, 480 kilometers with Georgia, with Russia and with Turkey. The coastline stretches for , and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is . in northern Azerbaijan]] Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. There are three mountain ranges: the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, and the Talysh Mountains, together covering approximately 40% of the country. The highest peak is Mount Bazardüzü , while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea . Nearly half of all the mud volcanoes on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan, these volcanoes were among nominees for the New 7 Wonders of Nature. The main water sources are surface waters. Only 24 of the 8,350 stream are greater than in length.Landscape , the highest peak of Azerbaijan, as seen from Mount Shahdagh]] Azerbaijan is home to a wide variety of landscapes. Over half of the land consists of mountain ridges, crests, highlands, and plateaus which rise up to levels of 400–1,000 meters (including the middle and lower lowlands), in some places (Talis, Jeyranchol-Ajinohur and Langabiz-Alat foreranges) up to 100–120 meters, and others from 0–50 meters and up (Qobustan, Absheron). The rest of Azerbaijan's terrain consists of plains and lowlands. Elevations within the Caucasus region vary from about −28 meters at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4,466 meters (Bazardüzü peak). The climate is influenced particularly by cold arctic air masses of Scandinavian anticyclone, temperate air masses of Siberian anticyclone, and Central Asian anticyclone. Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country. Nine out of eleven existing climate zones are present in Azerbaijan. Both the absolute minimum temperature (<span style"white-space:nowrap"> </span>) and the absolute maximum temperature were observed in Julfa and Ordubad—regions of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. Yanar Dag, translated as "burning mountain", is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the Absheron Peninsula on the Caspian Sea near Baku, which itself is known as the "land of fire." Flames jet out into the air from a thin, porous sandstone layer. It is a tourist attraction to visitors to the Baku area. Biodiversity is the national animal of Azerbaijan.]] The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks, and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on flora and fauna of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century. Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4,500 species of higher plants. Due to the unique climate in Azerbaijan, the flora is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus. Sixty-six percent of the species growing in the whole Caucasus can be found in Azerbaijan. The country lies within four ecoregions: Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, Caucasus mixed forests, Eastern Anatolian montane steppe, and Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe. Azerbaijan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.55/10, ranking it 72nd globally out of 172 countries. Forest cover is around 14.% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,131,770 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 944,740 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 826,200 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 305,570 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 33% of the forest area was found within protected areas. In 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership, 0% private ownership and 0% with ownership listed as other or unknown. Government and politics Azerbaijan's government functions as an authoritarian regime in practice; although it regularly holds elections, these are marred by electoral fraud and other unfair election practices. The government has been ruled by the Aliyev political family and the New Azerbaijan Party (Yeni Azərbaycan Partiyası, YAP) established by Heydar Aliyev continuously since 1993. It is categorised as "not free" by Freedom House, who ranked it 7/100 on Global Freedom Score in 2024, calling its regime authoritarian. The structural formation of the political system was completed by the adoption of the constitution on 12 November 1995. According to Article 23 of the constitution, the state symbols are the flag, the coat of arms, and the national anthem. The state power is limited only by law for internal issues, but international affairs are also limited by international agreements' provisions. The Constitution of Azerbaijan states that it is a presidential republic with three branches of power – executive, legislative, and judicial. The legislative power is held by the unicameral National Assembly and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The Parliament of Azerbaijan, called Milli Majlis, consists of 125 deputies elected based on majority vote, with a term of five years for each elected member. The elections are held every five years, on the first Sunday of November. The Parliament is not responsible for the formation of the government, but the constitution requires the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers by Milli Majlis. The New Azerbaijan Party, and independents loyal to the ruling government, currently hold almost all of the Parliament's 125 seats. During the 2010 Parliamentary election, the opposition parties, Musavat and Azerbaijani Popular Front Party, failed to win a single seat. European observers found numerous irregularities in the run-up to the election and on election day. , Azerbaijan's fourth and current President, succeeded his father Heydar Aliyev in 2003.]] The executive power is held by the president, who is elected for a seven-year term by direct elections, and the prime minister. The president is authorized to form the Cabinet, a collective executive body accountable to both the president and the National Assembly. The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president, and he organizes it according to the constitution. It was established on 10 April 1997. The administrative department is not a part of the president's office but manages the financial, technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office.Foreign relations receiving the Supreme Order of the Turkic World from Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan during the 8th summit of the Organization of Turkic States in Istanbul, Turkey, November 12, 2021]] The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries, sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland. The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year. The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain, on 6 November 1996. Full diplomatic relations, including mutual exchanges of missions, were first established with Turkey, Pakistan, the United States, Iran Azerbaijan has placed a particular emphasis on its "special relationship" with Turkey. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations. Azerbaijan was first elected as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council in 2011 with the support of 155 countries. and other heads of state hosted by Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev at the Caspian Summit in Aktau, Kazakhstan, August 12, 2018]] Foreign policy priorities include, first of all, the restoration of its territorial integrity; elimination of the consequences of occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven other regions of Azerbaijan surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh; integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structure; contribution to international security; cooperation with international organizations; regional cooperation and bilateral relations; strengthening of defense capability; promotion of security by domestic policy means; strengthening of democracy; preservation of ethnic and religious tolerance; scientific, educational, and cultural policy and preservation of moral values; economic and social development; enhancing internal and border security; and migration, energy, and transportation security policy. Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism, and was one of the first countries to offer support after the September 11 attacks. The country is an active member of NATO's Partnership for Peace program, contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Azerbaijan is also a member of the Council of Europe since 2001 and maintains good relations with the European Union. The country may eventually apply for EU membership. Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized for bribing foreign officials and diplomats to promote its causes abroad and legitimize its elections at home, a practice termed caviar diplomacy. The Azerbaijani laundromat money laundering operation involved the bribery of foreign politicians and journalists to serve the Azerbaijani government's public relations interests. Military ships during the 2022 Teknofest Azerbaijan festival in Baku]] The National Army of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918. When Azerbaijan gained independence after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the law on the armed forces of 9 October 1991. The original date of the establishment of the short-lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day (26 June). As of 2021, Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces. There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and 330,00 reserve personnel. The armed forces have three branches: the Land Forces, the Air Forces and the Navy. Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub-groups that can be involved in state defense when needed. These are the Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the State Border Service, which includes the Coast Guard as well. during the Baku Victory Parade of 2020]] Azerbaijan adheres to the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties. Azerbaijan closely cooperates with NATO in programs such as Partnership for Peace and Individual Partnership Action Plan/pfp and ipa. Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its peacekeeping forces in Iraq and another 184 in Afghanistan. Azerbaijan spent $2.24 billion on its defence budget , which amounted to 5.4% of its total GDP, and some 12.7% of general government expenditure. Azerbaijani defense industry manufactures small arms, artillery systems, tanks, armors and night vision devices, aviation bombs, UAVs/unmanned aerial vehicle, various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters. Human rights and freedom , the co-founder of Nida Civic Movement, was sentenced to eight years of imprisonment on 6 May 2014.]] The constitution claims to guarantee freedom of speech, but this is denied in practice. After several years of decline in press and media freedom, in 2014, the media environment deteriorated rapidly under a governmental campaign to silence any opposition and criticism, even while the country led the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe (May–November 2014). Spurious legal charges and impunity in violence against journalists have remained the norm. All foreign broadcasts are banned in the country. According to the 2013 Freedom House Freedom of the Press report, Azerbaijan's press freedom status is "not free", and Azerbaijan ranks 177th out of 196 countries. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty and Voice of America are banned in Azerbaijan. Discrimination against LGBT people in Azerbaijan is widespread. Christianity is officially recognized. All religious communities are required to register to be allowed to meet, under the risk of imprisonment. This registration is often denied. "Racial discrimination contributes to the country's lack of religious freedom, since many of the Christians are ethnic Armenian or Russian, rather than Azeri Muslim". During the last few years, three journalists were killed and several prosecuted in trials described as unfair by international human rights organizations. Azerbaijan had the largest number of journalists imprisoned in Europe in 2015, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists, and is the 5th most censored country in the world, ahead of Iran and China. Some critical journalists have been arrested for their coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan. A report by an Amnesty International researcher in October 2015 points to "...the severe deterioration of human rights in Azerbaijan over the past few years. Sadly Azerbaijan has been allowed to get away with unprecedented levels of repression and in the process almost wipe out its civil society." Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report on the country stated "... persecution of political dissent continued. Human rights organizations remained unable to resume their work. At least 18 prisoners of conscience remained in detention at the end of the year. Reprisals against independent journalists and activists persisted both in the country and abroad, while their family members also faced harassment and arrests. International human rights monitors were barred and expelled from the country. Reports of torture and other ill-treatment persisted." The Guardian reported in April 2017 that "Azerbaijan's ruling elite operated a secret $2.9bn (£2.2bn) scheme to pay prominent Europeans, buy luxury goods and launder money through a network of opaque British companies .... Leaked data shows that the Azerbaijani leadership, accused of serial human rights abuses, systemic corruption and rigging elections, made more than 16,000 covert payments from 2012 to 2014. Some of this money went to politicians and journalists, as part of an international lobbying operation to deflect criticism of Azerbaijan's president, Ilham Aliyev, and to promote a positive image of his oil-rich country." There was no suggestion that all recipients were aware of the source of the money as it arrived via a disguised route. Administrative divisions There are 14 economic regions; 66 rayons (, singular ) and 11 cities (, singular ) under the direct authority of the republic. Moreover, Azerbaijan includes the Autonomous Republic () of Nakhchivan. The banking system consists of the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, commercial banks, and non-banking credit organizations. The National (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank, an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR. The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank, empowered to issue the national currency, the Azerbaijani manat, and to supervise all commercial banks. Two major commercial banks are UniBank and the state-owned International Bank of Azerbaijan, run by Abbas Ibrahimov. Pushed up by spending and demand growth, the 2007 Q1 inflation rate reached 16.6%. Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29% and 25% respectively against this figure, but price increases in the non-oil industry encouraged inflation. In the early 2000s, chronically high inflation was brought under control. This led to the launch of a new currency, the new Azerbaijani manat, on 1 January 2006, to cement the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy. Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th in the Global Competitiveness Report for 2010–2011, above other CIS countries. By 2012 the GDP of Azerbaijan had increased 20-fold from its 1995 level. Energy and natural resources (Neft Daşları) near Baku]] Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The oil industry dates back to the ancient period. Arabian historian and traveler Ahmad Al-Baladhuri discusses the economy of the Absheron Peninsula in antiquity, mentioning its oil in particular. There are many pipelines in Azerbaijan. The goal of the Southern Gas Corridor, which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe, is to reduce European Union's dependency on Russian gas. The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony. The State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure macroeconomic stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and safeguarding of resources for future generations. bringing natural gas through Turkey to Europe.]] Access to biocapacity is less than world average. In 2016, Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, half the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan contains. As a result, Azerbaijan is running a biocapacity deficit. Azerbaijan was one of the sponsors of the east–west and north–south energy transport corridors. Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway line connects the Caspian region with Turkey. The Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline and Trans Adriatic Pipeline deliver natural gas from Azerbaijan's Shah Deniz gas to Turkey and Europe. Agriculture Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural land. In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m<sup>3</sup>. In some areas it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and spirits are also important farm products. The Caspian fishing industry concentrates on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga. In 2002 the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships.<!----> Some products previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally. Among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD., beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan. Tourism is the country's largest winter resort.]] The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. The fall of the Soviet Union and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1990s damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination. It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism. During winter, the Shahdag Mountain Resort offers skiing with state of the art facilities. The government has set development as an elite tourist destination as a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy. These activities are regulated by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan. There are 63 countries which have a visa-free score. E-visa – for a visit of foreigners of visa-required countries to the Republic of Azerbaijan. According to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 of the World Economic Forum, Azerbaijan holds 84th place. According to a report by the World Travel and Tourism Council, Azerbaijan was among the top ten countries showing the strongest growth in visitor exports between 2010 and 2016, In addition, Azerbaijan placed first (46.1%) among countries with the fastest-developing travel and tourism economies, with strong indicators for inbound international visitor spending in 2016. Transportation The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the Silk Road and the south–north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy. The transport sector includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport. It is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project. In 2002, the government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions. In the same year, the country became a member of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. Priorities are upgrading the transport network and improving transportation services to better facilitate the development of other sectors of the economy. The 2012 construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway was meant to improve transportation between Asia and Europe by connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east to the European railway system in the west via Turkey. In 2010 Broad-gauge railways and electrified railways stretched for and respectively. By 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport. Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector. In 2012, rapid growth was forecast for at least five more years. Azerbaijan was ranked 95th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. The country has been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies and an operator through its role in Aztelekom are both policy-makers and regulators. Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users. There are four GSM providers: Azercell, Bakcell, Azerfon (Nar Mobile), Nakhtel mobile network operators and one CDMA. In the 21st century several prominent Azerbaijani geodynamics and geotectonics scientists, inspired by the fundamental works of Elchin Khalilov and others, designed hundreds of earthquake prediction stations and earthquake-resistant buildings that now constitute the bulk of The Republican Center of Seismic Service. The Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency launched its first satellite AzerSat 1 into orbit on 7 February 2013 from Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana at orbital positions 46° East. The satellite covers Europe and a significant part of Asia and Africa and serves the transmission of TV and radio broadcasting as well as the Internet. The launching of a satellite into orbit is Azerbaijan's first step in realizing its goal of becoming a nation with its own space industry, capable of successfully implementing more projects in the future. Demographics As of March 2022, 52.9% of the population of 10,164,464 is urban, with the remaining 47.1% being rural. In January 2019, the 50.1% of the total population was female. The sex ratio in the same year was 0.99 males per female. The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85%, compared to 1.09% worldwide. and in turn there are many centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan, including the German cultural society "Karelhaus", Slavic cultural center, Azerbaijani-Israeli community, Kurdish cultural center, International Talysh Association, Lezgin national center "Samur", Azerbaijani-Tatar community, Crimean Tatars society, etc. In total, Azerbaijan has 78 cities, 63 city districts, and one special legal status city. 261 urban-type settlements and 4248 villages follow these. Ethnicity The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 population census: 91.6% Azerbaijanis, 2.0% Lezgins, 1.4% Armenians (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh), 1.3% Russians, 1.3% Talysh, 0.6% Avars, 0.4% Turkish people, 0.3% Tatars, 0.3% Tats, 0.2% Ukrainians, 0.1% Tsakhurs, 0.1% Georgians, 0.1% Jews, 0.1% Kurds, other 0.2%.Languages The official language is Azerbaijani, a Turkic language. Approximately 92% of the national population speak it as their mother tongue. Russian and Armenian (only in Nagorno-Karabakh) are still spoken in Azerbaijan. Each is the mother tongue of around 1.5% of the national population. After the first Nagorno-Karabakh war, native speakers of Armenian composed around 95% of the regional population. A dozen other minority languages are spoken natively, including Avar, Budukh, Georgian, Juhuri,Religion in Baku. The mosque is built over the tomb of a descendant of Muhammad]] Azerbaijan is considered the most secular Muslim-majority country. Around 97% of the population are Muslims. Around 55–65% of Muslims are estimated to be Shia, while 35–45% of Muslims are Sunnis. Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups. Under article 48 of its constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom. In a 2006–2008 Gallup poll, only 21% of respondents from Azerbaijan stated that religion is an important part of their daily lives. Of the nation's religious minorities, the estimated 280,000 Christians (3.1%) are mostly Russian and Georgian Orthodox and Armenian Apostolic (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh). Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include Lutherans, Baptists and Molokans. There is also a small Protestant community. Azerbaijan also has an ancient Jewish population with a 2,000-year history; Jewish organizations estimate that 12,000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan, which is home to the only Jewish-majority town outside of Israel and the United States. Azerbaijan also is home to members of the Baháʼí, Hare Krishna and Jehovah's Witnesses communities, as well as adherents of the other religious communities.Education ]] A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained some form of higher education, most notably in scientific and technical subjects. In the Soviet era, literacy and average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point, despite two changes in the standard alphabet, from Perso-Arabic script to Latin in the 1920s and from Roman to Cyrillic in the 1930s. According to Soviet data, 100 percent of males and females (ages nine to forty-nine) were literate in 1970. Since independence, one of the first laws that Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a modified-Latin alphabet to replace Cyrillic. Other than that the Azerbaijani system has undergone little structural change. Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education (banned during the Soviet period) and curriculum changes that have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language and have eliminated ideological content. In addition to elementary schools, the education institutions include thousands of preschools, general secondary schools, and vocational schools, including specialized secondary schools and technical schools. Education through the ninth grade is compulsory. Culture The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences; that is why Azerbaijanis are, in many ways, bi-cultural. National traditions are preserved despite Western influences, including globalized consumer culture. For example, Novruz Bayram is a family holiday derived from the traditional celebration of the New Year in Zoroastrianism. Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the chokha and papakhi. There are radio broadcasts in Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian and Talysh languages, which are financed from the state budget. with heavy influences from Persian architecture. Many ancient architectural treasures are preserved, such as the Maiden Tower and Palace of the Shirvanshahs in the Walled City of Baku. Entries on the UNESCO World Heritage tentative list include the Ateshgah of Baku, Momine Khatun Mausoleum, Hirkan National Park, Binagadi asphalt lake, Lökbatan Mud Volcano, Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve, Baku Stage Mountain, Caspian Shore Defensive Constructions, Ordubad National Reserve and the Palace of Shaki Khans. Among other architectural treasures are Quadrangular Castle in Mardakan, Parigala in Yukhary Chardaglar, several bridges spanning the Aras River, and several mausoleums. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, little monumental architecture was created, but distinctive residences were built in Baku and elsewhere. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the Baku subways are noted for their lavish decor. The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. Major projects such as Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center, Flame Towers, Baku Crystal Hall, Baku White City and SOCAR Tower have transformed the country's skyline and promotes its contemporary identity. Music and dance merged traditional Azerbaijani music with Western styles in the early 20th century.]] Music of Azerbaijan builds on folk traditions that reach back nearly a thousand years, evolving around the badge of monody, producing rhythmically diverse melodies. The music has a branchy mode system, where chromatization of major and minor scales is of great importance. According to The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "in terms of ethnicity, culture and religion the Azerbaijani are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey." performs mugham at Eurovision Song Contest 2012. The Azerbaijani Mugham was inscribed in 2008 as a UNESCO Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage of Humanity.]] Mugham is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes. When performing mugham, the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music. In contrast to the mugham traditions of Central Asian countries, Azerbaijani mugham is more free-form and less rigid; it is often compared to the improvised field of jazz. UNESCO proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azerbaijani distinctive folk unaccompanied song, usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject. Ashiq combines poetry, storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art that stands as a symbol of Azerbaijani culture. It is a mystic troubadour or traveling bard who sings and plays the saz. This tradition has its origin in the shamanistic beliefs of ancient Turkic peoples. Ashiqs' songs are semi-improvised around common bases. Azerbaijan's ashiq art was included in the list of Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO in 2009. Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced Azerbaijani pop music, in its various forms, that has been growing in popularity in Azerbaijan, while genres such as rock and hip hop are widely produced and enjoyed. Azerbaijani pop and Azerbaijani folk music arose with the international popularity of performers like Alim Qasimov, Rashid Behbudov, Vagif Mustafazadeh, Muslim Magomayev, Shovkat Alakbarova and Rubaba Muradova. Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest. Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 Eurovision Song Contest. The country's entry gained third place in 2009 and fifth the following year. Ell and Nikki won the first place at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011 with the song "Running Scared", entitling Azerbaijan to host the contest in 2012, in Baku. They have qualified for every Grand Final up until the 2018 edition of the contest, entering with X My Heart by singer Aisel. There are dozens of Azerbaijani folk dances. They are performed at formal celebrations and the dancers wear national clothes like the chokha, which is well-preserved within the national dances. Most dances have a very fast rhythm. Art Azerbaijani art is represented by a wide range of handicrafts, such as chasing, jeweling, engraving in metal, carving in wood, stone, or bone, carpet-making, lasing, pattern weaving and printing, and knitting and embroidery. Each of these types of decorative art, evidence of the endowments of the Azerbaijan nation, is very much in favor here. Many interesting facts pertaining to the development of arts and crafts in Azerbaijan were reported by numerous merchants, travelers, and diplomats who had visited these places at different times. The Azerbaijani carpet is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes, with a dense texture and a pile or pile-less surface, whose patterns are characteristic of Azerbaijan's many carpet-making regions. In November 2010 the Azerbaijani carpet was proclaimed a Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage by UNESCO. Azerbaijani carpets can be categorized under several large groups and a multitude of subgroups. Scientific research of the Azerbaijani carpet is connected with the name of Latif Karimov, a prominent Soviet-era scientist and artist. ]] Azerbaijan has been since ancient times known as a center of a large variety of crafts. Archeology testifies to the well-developed agriculture, stock raising, metalworking, pottery, ceramics, and carpet-weaving that date as far back as to the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological sites in Dashbulaq, Hasansu, Zayamchai, and Tovuzchai uncovered from the BTC pipeline have revealed early Iron Age artifacts. of a battle scene on the walls of the Palace of Shaki Khans, 18th century, city of Shaki]] The Gamigaya Petroglyphs, which date back to the 1st to 4th millennium BC, are located in Azerbaijan's Ordubad District. They consist of some 1,500 dislodged and carved rock paintings with images of deer, goats, bulls, dogs, snakes, birds, fantastic beings, and people, carriages, and various symbols were found on basalt rocks. Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer Thor Heyerdahl was convinced that people from the area went to Scandinavia in about 100 AD, took their boatbuilding skills with them, and transmuted them into the Viking boats in northern Europe. Over the centuries, Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes. Painting is traditionally characterized by a warmth of colour and light, as exemplified in the works of Azim Azimzade and Bahruz Kangarli, and a preoccupation with religious figures and cultural motifs. Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus for hundreds of years, from the Romanesque and Ottoman periods, and through the Soviet and Baroque periods, the latter two of which saw fruition in Azerbaijan. Notable artists include Sattar Bahlulzade, Togrul Narimanbekov, Tahir Salahov, Alakbar Rezaguliyev, Mirza Gadim Iravani, Mikayil Abdullayev and Boyukagha Mirzazade. <gallery class"center" perrow"7" widths"130px" heights"160px"> File:Shaki khan palace interier.jpg\|Usta Gambar Karabakhi – Tree of Life<br />(Palace of Shaki Khans) File:Portrait of sitting woman by Irevani.jpg\|Mirza Gadim Iravani – Portrait of sitting woman<br />(National Art Museum of Azerbaijan) File:Dağ mənzərəsi – Bəhruz Kəngərli.jpg\|Bahruz Kangarli – Landscape with mountains<br />(National Art Museum of Azerbaijan) File:Ruins of Reichstag.jpg\|Azim Azimzade – Ruins of Reichstag<br />(National Art Museum of Azerbaijan) </gallery> Literature The earliest known figure in written Azerbaijani literature was Izzeddin Hasanoghlu, who composed a divan consisting of Persian and Azerbaijani ghazals. In Persian ghazals he used a pen-name, while his Azerbaijani ghazals were composed under his own name of Hasanoghlu. Classical literature was formed in the 14th century based on the various Early Middle Ages dialects of Tabriz and Shirvan. Among the poets of this period were Gazi Burhanaddin, Haqiqi (pen-name of Jahan Shah Qara Qoyunlu), and Habibi. The end of the 14th century was the start of literary activity of Imadaddin Nasimi, one of the greatest Azerbaijani Hurufi mystical poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries and one of the most prominent early divan masters in Turkic literary history, and Arabic. and was not written earlier than the 15th century. It is a collection of 12 stories reflecting the oral tradition of Oghuz nomads. which were later published as his Divan. A unique literary style known as qoshma ( for improvisation) was introduced in this period and developed by Shah Ismail and later by his son and successor, Shah Tahmasp I. In the span of the 17th and 18th centuries, Fuzuli's unique genres as well ashik poetry were taken up by prominent poets and writers such as Qovsi of Tabriz, Shah Abbas Sani, , Nishat, Molla Vali Vidadi, Molla Panah Vagif, Amani, Zafar and others. Along with Turks, Turkmens and Uzbeks, Azerbaijanis celebrate the Epic of Koroglu (from for ''blind man's son), a legendary folk hero. Several documented versions of Koroglu epic remain at the Institute for Manuscripts of the National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan. There are three state-owned television channels: AzTV, Idman TV and Medeniyyet TV. There is one public channel and 6 private channels: İctimai Television, Space TV, Lider TV, Azad Azerbaijan TV, Xazar TV, Real TV\|az\|Real TV (Azərbaycan)\|vertical-alignsup}} and ARB.Cinema , 1916]] The film industry in Azerbaijan dates back to 1898. Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved in cinematography, with the apparatus first showing up in Baku. In 1919 a documentary The Celebration of the Anniversary of Azerbaijani Independence was filmed on the first anniversary of Azerbaijan's independence from Russia, 27 May, and premiered in June 1919 at several theatres in Baku. After the Soviet power was established in 1920, Nariman Narimanov, chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of Azerbaijan, signed a decree nationalizing Azerbaijan's cinema. This also influenced the creation of Azerbaijani animation. Azerbaijanis often use traditional armudu (pear-shaped) glass as they have very strong tea culture. Popular traditional dishes include bozbash (lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables), qutab (fried turnover with a filling of greens or minced meat) and dushbara (dumplings filled with ground meat and spices).Sport <!-- If you want to expand this section, please add new info into the main article: "Sport in Azerbaijan" your work will be very appreciated. --> Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally regarded as Azerbaijan's national sport, in which Azerbaijan has won fourteen medals, including four golds, since joining the International Olympic Committee. The most popular sports are football and wrestling. The Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan, with 9,122 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country. The national football team demonstrates relatively low performance in the international arena compared to the nation football clubs. The most successful clubs are Neftçi, Qarabağ, and Gabala. In 2012, Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage of a European competition. In 2014, Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to the group stage of UEFA Europa League. In 2017, after beating Copenhagen 2–2 (a) in the play-off round of the UEFA Champions League, Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to reach the group stage. Futsal is another popular sport in Azerbaijan. The Azerbaijan national futsal team reached fourth place in the 2010 UEFA Futsal Championship, while domestic club Araz Naxçivan clinched bronze medals at the 2009–10 UEFA Futsal Cup and 2013–14 UEFA Futsal Cup. Azerbaijan was the main sponsor of Spanish football club Atlético de Madrid during seasons 2013/2014 and 2014/2015, a partnership that the club described should 'promote the image of Azerbaijan in the world'. Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses of world chess, having hosted many international chess tournaments and competitions and became European Team Chess Championship winners in 2009, 2013 and 2017. Notable chess players include Teimour Radjabov, Shahriyar Mammadyarov, Vladimir Makogonov, Vugar Gashimov and former World Chess Champion Garry Kasparov. , country's home of Shamkir Chess a category 22 event and one of the highest rated tournaments of all time. Backgammon also plays a major role in Azerbaijani culture. The game is very popular in Azerbaijan and is widely played among the local public. There are also different variations of backgammon developed and analyzed by Azerbaijani experts. was used for the first European Games in June 2015]] Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League placed fourth at the 2005 European Championship. Over the last years, clubs like Rabita Baku and Azerrail Baku achieved great success at European cups. Azerbaijani volleyball players include likes of Valeriya Korotenko, Oksana Parkhomenko, Inessa Korkmaz, Natalya Mammadova, and Alla Hasanova. Other Azerbaijani athletes are Namig Abdullayev, Toghrul Asgarov, Rovshan Bayramov, Sharif Sharifov, Mariya Stadnik and Farid Mansurov in wrestling, Nazim Huseynov, Elnur Mammadli, Elkhan Mammadov and Rustam Orujov in judo, Rafael Aghayev in karate, Magomedrasul Majidov and Aghasi Mammadov in boxing, Nizami Pashayev in Olympic weightlifting, Azad Asgarov in pankration, Eduard Mammadov in kickboxing, and K-1 fighter Zabit Samedov. Azerbaijan has a Formula One racetrack, constructed in 2012, and the country hosted its first Formula One Grand Prix in 2016 and the Azerbaijan Grand Prix since 2017. Other annual sporting events held in the country are the Baku Cup tennis tournament and the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan cycling race. Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions since the late 2000s, including the 2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship, 2012 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, 2011 AIBA World Boxing Championships, 2010 European Wrestling Championships, 2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships, 2014 European Taekwondo Championships, 2014 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships, and 2016 World Chess Olympiad. Baku was selected to host the 2015 European Games. Baku hosted the fourth Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017 and the 2019 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival, and was a host of UEFA Euro 2020. See also }} * Outline of Azerbaijan * Index of Azerbaijan-related articles * List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan * The Defense & Foreign Affairs Handbook on Azerbaijan (2006) Notes --> }} References Further reading * Altstadt, Audrey. Frustrated Democracy in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan (2018) * Broers, Broers Laurence. Armenia and Azerbaijan: Anatomy of a rivalry (Edinburgh University Press, 2019). * Cornell, Svante E. Azerbaijan since independence (Routledge, 2015). * Dragadze, Tamara. "Islam in Azerbaijan: The Position of Women" in ''Muslim Women's Choices (Routledge, 2020) pp. 152–163. * Elliott, Mark. Azerbaijan with Georgia (Trailblazers Publications, 1999). * Ergun, Ayça. "Citizenship, National Identity, and Nation-Building in Azerbaijan: Between the Legacy of the Past and the Spirit of Independence." Nationalities Papers (2021): 1–18. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/B42D38E5F6DA18CDD6FF2A030A851B0D/S0090599220000811a.pdf/citizenship_national_identity_and_nationbuilding_in_azerbaijan_between_the_legacy_of_the_past_and_the_spirit_of_independence.pdf online] * Goltz, Thomas. Azerbaijan Diary : A Rogue Reporter's Adventures in an Oil-Rich, War-Torn, Post-Soviet Republic''. M E Sharpe (1998). * Habibov, Nazim, Betty Jo Barrett, and Elena Chernyak. "Understanding women's empowerment and its determinants in post-communist countries: Results of Azerbaijan national survey." ''Women's Studies International Forum. Vol. 62. Pergamon, 2017. * Olukbasi, Suha. Azerbaijan: A Political History. I.B. Tauris (2011). Focus on post-Soviet era. External links General information * [http://AZER.com Azerbaijan International] * [http://www.azerbaijan.az Heydar Aliyev Foundation] * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/ Azerbaijan]. The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080820164509/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/azerbaijan.htm Azerbaijan] at University of Colorado at Boulder * [https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17043424 Country profile] from BBC * [https://www.ifs.du.edu/IFs/frm_CountryProfile/AZ Key Development Forecasts for Azerbaijan] from International Futures * [http://www.visions.az/en/ Visions of Azerbaijan Journal] of The European Azerbaijan Society * Major government resources * [http://www.president.az/?locale=en President of Azerbaijan website] * [https://www.stat.gov.az/?lang=en Azerbaijan State Statistical Committee] * [https://azerbaijan.un.org/en United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] Major news media * [http://news.net.az/ Network NEWS Azerbaijan] * [http://today.az/ Azerbaijan Today] * [http://en.trend.az/ Trend News Agency] * [http://www.news.az/ News.Az] Tourism * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090816203105/http://azerbaijan.tourism.az/?%2Fen%2F Azerbaijan Tourism Portal] * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170925183154/http://www.visions.az/en/travel_tourism/page/1/ Travel in Azerbaijan] in Visions of Azerbaijan Journal }} Category:Caucasus Category:Countries in Asia Category:Countries in Europe Category:West Asian countries Category:Landlocked countries Category:South Caucasus Category:Republics Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States Category:Member states of the Council of Europe Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:States and territories established in 1991 Category:1991 establishments in Asia Category:1991 establishments in Europe Category:Countries and territories where Azerbaijani is an official language Category:Members of the International Organization of Turkic Culture Category:Member states of the Organization of Turkic States Category:Developing 8 Countries member states	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan	2025-04-05T18:25:21.438426
748	Amateur astronomy	thumb\|right\|250px\|Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the Perseid meteor shower. Amateur astronomy is a hobby where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the sky using the unaided eye, binoculars, or telescopes. Even though scientific research may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions in doing citizen science, such as by monitoring variable stars, double stars, sunspots, or occultations of stars by the Moon or asteroids, galactic novae or supernovae in other galaxies. Amateur astronomers do not use the field of astronomy as their primary source of income or support, and usually have no professional degree in astrophysics or advanced academic training in the subject. Most amateurs are hobbyists, while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and may often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Many astronomers have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework; however, since the beginning of the twentieth century, professional astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from amateur astronomy and associated activities. Amateur astronomers typically view the sky at night, when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible, but others observe during the daytime by viewing the Sun and solar eclipses. Some just look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes or binoculars, but more dedicated amateurs often use portable telescopes or telescopes situated in their private or club observatories. Amateurs also join amateur astronomical societies, which can advise, educate or guide them towards ways of finding and observing celestial objects. They also promote the science of astronomy among the general public. Objectives thumb\|Amateur astronomer recording observations of the sun. Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Sun, the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including, digital cameras, DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality CCD cameras and CMOS cameras. Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose-built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from space by Karl Jansky. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example. Common tools thumb\|Places like Paranal Observatory offer crystal clear skies for observing astronomical objects with or without instruments. Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the sky, depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the naked eye, using binoculars, and using a variety of optical telescopes of varying power and quality, as well as additional sophisticated equipment, such as cameras, to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the spectrum. To further improve studying the visual and non-visual part of the spectrum, amateur astronomers go to rural areas to get away from light pollution. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build (or commission the building of) their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on amateur telescope making as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy. Although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider field of view, which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky. Recent models of iPhones have introduced a "night mode" option when taking pictures as well, that allows you to increase exposure, which is a period of time the picture is being taken for. This optimizes focus on light in the frame which is why it is used primarily at night. Amateur astronomers also use star charts that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple planispheres through to star atlases with detailed charts of the entire night sky. A range of astronomy software is also available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena. Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings. Although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences. The popularity of imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images and equipment. Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists. A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their nightly observing sessions, using tools such as the Clear Sky Chart. Common techniques While a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are variations of a few specific techniques. Star hopping Star hopping is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps (or memory) to locate known landmark stars, and "hopping" between them, often with the aid of a finderscope. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars. More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include telescope mounts with setting circles, which allow pointing to targets in the sky using celestial coordinates, and GOTO telescopes, which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been calibrated). Mobile apps The advent of mobile applications for use in smartphones has led to the creation of many dedicated apps. These apps allow any user to easily locate celestial objects of interest by simply pointing the smartphone device in that direction in the sky. These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware in the phone, such as GPS location and gyroscope. Useful information about the pointed object like celestial coordinates, the name of the object, its constellation, etc. are provided for a quick reference. Some paid versions give more information. These apps are gradually getting into regular use during observing, for the alignment process of telescopes. Setting circles Setting circles are angular measurement scales that can be placed on the two main rotation axes of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles, any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an "analog setting circle" (ASC). By knowing the coordinates of an object (usually given in equatorial coordinates), the telescope user can use the setting circle to align (i.e., point) the telescope in the appropriate direction before looking through its eyepiece. A computerized setting circle is called a "digital setting circle" (DSC). Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's RA and Dec coordinates, they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes, digital setting circle computers (commercial names include Argo Navis, Sky Commander, and NGC Max) contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions. To find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer, one does not need to look up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource, and then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather, the object is chosen from the electronic database, which causes distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values reach zero, indicating that the telescope is properly aligned. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus "zeroed out", the object should be in the eyepiece. Many DSCs, like go-to systems, can also work in conjunction with laptop sky programs. Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the epoch year, which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the "epoch of date" to the exact instant of observation. GoTo telescopes GOTO telescopes have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on research. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars to provide accurate tracking and positioning. However, several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session. Remote-controlled telescopes With the development of fast internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras, "remote telescope" astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a great distance away in a dark location. The observer can image through the telescope using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the Bareket observatory, and there are telescope farms in New Mexico, Australia and Atacama in Chile. Imaging techniques thumb\|An image of the Cat's Paw Nebula created combining the work of professional and amateur astronomers. The image is the combination of the 2.2-metre MPG/ESO telescope of the La Silla Observatory in Chile and a 0.4-meter amateur telescope. Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including film, DSLR, LRGB, and CCD astrophotography. Because CCD imagers are linear, image processing may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution, which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution. Scientific research Scientific research is most often not the main goal for many amateur astronomers, unlike professional astronomers. Work of scientific merit is possible, however, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific annually gives Amateur Achievement Awards for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs. The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the American Association of Variable Star Observers and the British Astronomical Association, exist to help coordinate these contributions. Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of variable stars and supernovae, helping to track asteroids, and observing occultations to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the Moon as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment, but still cheap in comparison to professional setups, amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects, which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g., Kreutz Sungrazers) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet. In the past and present, amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new comets. Recently however, funding of projects such as the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research and Near Earth Asteroid Tracking projects has meant that most comets are now discovered by automated systems long before it is possible for amateurs to see them. Societies thumb\|Amateur astronomy groups are often involved in outreach to introduce astronomy to the general public There are a large number of amateur astronomical societies around the world, that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy. Members range from active observers with their own equipment to "armchair astronomers" who are simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals and activities, which may depend on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size, and membership. For example, a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and star parties, whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by light pollution and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead. Major national or international societies generally publish their own academic journal or newsletter, and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a scientific conference or convention. They may also have sections devoted to particular topics, such as lunar observation or amateur telescope making. Notable contributions by amateur astronomers upright\|thumb\|Sir Patrick Moore was one of the world's leading popularisers of astronomy. There have been many significant scientific, technological, and cultural contributions made by amateur astronomers: George Alcock, one of the most successful visual discoverers comets and novae. John E. Bortle, authored '"Comet Digest" in Sky and Telescope magazine and the monthly AAVSO circular for the American Association of Variable Star Observers. Created the Bortle scale to quantify the darkness of the night sky. Robert Burnham Jr. (1931–1993), author of the Celestial Handbook. Andrew Ainslie Common (1841–1903), built his own very large reflecting telescopes and demonstrated that photography could record astronomical features invisible to the human eye. Robert E. Cox (1917–1989) who conducted the "Gleanings for ATMs" column in Sky & Telescope magazine for 21 years. John Dobson (1915–2014), promoter of astronomy whose name is associated with the Dobsonian telescope. Robert Owen Evans (1937–2022) was an amateur astronomer who currently holds the all-time record for visual discoveries of supernovae. Giuseppe Donatiello, discovered eleven nearby dwarf galaxies in the Local Volume including the first galaxy to be named after its non-professional discoverer. . Will Hay, the famous comedian and actor, who discovered a white spot on Saturn. Walter Scott Houston (1912–1993) who wrote the "Deep-Sky Wonders" column in Sky & Telescope magazine for almost 50 years. Albert G. Ingalls (1888–1958), editor of Amateur Telescope Making, Vols. 1–3 and "The Amateur Scientist". David H. Levy discovered or co-discovered 22 comets including Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, the most for any individual. Sir Patrick Moore (1923–2012), presenter of the BBC's long-running The Sky at Night and author of many books on astronomy. Russell W. Porter (1871–1949) founded Stellafane and has been referred to as a "founder" of amateur telescope making. Grote Reber (1911–2002), pioneer of radio astronomy constructing the first purpose-built radio telescope and conducted the first sky survey in the radio frequency. Citizen science projects Amateur astronomers and other non-professionals make contributions through ongoing citizen science projects: XO Project, an international team of amateur and professional astronomers tasked with identifying extrasolar planets. Many amateur astronomers contribute to scientific discoveries as part of the citizen science Zooniverse project. Prizes recognizing amateur astronomers Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific Chambliss Amateur Achievement Award See also Astronomical object Caldwell catalogue – A list of astronomical objects for observation by amateur astronomers compiled by Sir Patrick Caldwell-Moore. Clear Sky Chart – Weather forecasts designed for amateur astronomers. List of astronomical societies List of telescope parts and construction Messier catalogue – A set of astronomical objects catalogued by the French astronomer Charles Messier in 1771, which is still used by many amateurs as an observing list. Observation Observational astronomy School Astronomical Olympiad by Correspondence Sidewalk astronomy Skygazing Star party References Further reading External links Amateur Astronomy Magazine Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Citizen science	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_astronomy	2025-04-05T18:25:21.460491
751	Aikido	) with standing attacker () and seated defender () \| imagesize = 300px \| imagealt = A man kneeling throws another man from a standing position; both are wearing robes \| name = Aikido \| aka \| focus Grappling and softness<!-- see the many discussions at Talk:Aikido --> \| hardness = Full contact \| country = Japan \| creator = Morihei Ueshiba \| famous pract = Kisshomaru Ueshiba, Moriteru Ueshiba, Koichi Tohei, Christian Tissier, Morihiro Saito, Yoshimitsu Yamada, Mitsunari Kanai, Gozo Shioda, Mitsugi Saotome, Steven Seagal, Takashi Kushida, Kyoichi Inoue, Robert Mustard \| parenthood \| ancestor arts Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu \| descendant arts = Jieitaikakutojutsu \| olympic \| website }} Aikido ( , , , ) is a modern Japanese martial art which is split into many different styles including Iwama Ryu, Iwama Shin Shin Aiki Shuren Kai, Shodokan Aikido, Yoshinkan, Renshinkai, Aikikai, and Ki Aikido. Aikido is now practiced in around 140 countries. It was originally developed by Morihei Ueshiba, as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy and religious beliefs. Ueshiba's goal was to create an art which practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attackers from injury. Aikido is often translated as "the way of unifying (with) life energy" or as "the way of harmonious spirit". According to the founder's philosophy, the primary goal in the practice of aikido is to overcome oneself instead of cultivating violence or aggressiveness. Morihei Ueshiba used the phrase to refer to this principle. at the 55th All Japan Aikido Demonstration held at the Nippon Budokan (May 2017)]] Aikido's fundamental principles include: (entering), , (breathing control), (triangular principle), and (turning) movements which redirect the opponent's attack momentum. Its curriculum comprises various techniques, primarily throws and joint locks. It includes a weapons system encompassing the , , and . Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the Ōmoto-kyō religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term . Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today, aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker. Etymology and basic philosophy " in its old character form]] The word "aikido" is formed of three kanji: * – – harmony, unifying * – – energy, spirit * – – way, path The term does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of budō. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word. () is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine, unite, join, meet', examples being (combined/united), (composition), (unite/combine/join), (union/alliance/association), (combine/unify), and (mutual agreement). There is an idea of reciprocity, (to get to know one another), (talk/discussion/negotiation), and (meet by appointment). () is often used to describe a feeling or emotive action, as in ('I feel X', as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning), and (feeling/sensation); it is used to mean energy or force, as in (electricity) and (magnetism); it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things, as in (spirit/trait/temperament). The term in Aikido is found in many other Japanese martial arts such as, judo and kendo, and in various non-martial arts, such as Japanese calligraphy (), flower arranging () and tea ceremony ( or ). Therefore, from a purely literal interpretation, aikido is the "Way of combining forces" or "Way of unifying energy", in which the term refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique. History Aikido was created by (1883–1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as (Great Teacher). The term aikido was coined in the 20th century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world. The core martial art from which aikido derives is Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, which Ueshiba studied directly with Takeda Sōkaku, the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū with Tozawa Tokusaburō in Tokyo in 1901, Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū under Nakai Masakatsu in Sakai from 1903 to 1908, and judo with (1894–1972) in Tanabe in 1911. The art of is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the spear (), short staff (), and possibly the . Aikido also derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (). Ueshiba moved to Hokkaido in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915; His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of utopia during one's life. The idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker. In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of the exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of the students went on to begin their own styles of aikido. International dissemination Aikido was first introduced to the rest of the world in 1951 by Minoru Mochizuki with a visit to France, where he demonstrated aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by Tadashi Abe in 1952, who came as the official Aikikai Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. Kenji Tomiki toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953. Later in the same year, Koichi Tohei was sent by Aikikai Hombu to Hawaii for a full year, where he set up several dōjō. The trip was followed by several visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by Hiroshi Tada; and Germany in 1965 by Katsuaki Asai. Designated the "Official Delegate for Europe and Africa" by Morihei Ueshiba, Masamichi Noro arrived in France in September 1961. Seiichi Sugano was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dōjō throughout the world. Steven Seagal's film debut Above the Law (1988) is regarded as the first American film to feature aikido in fight sequences. Proliferation of independent organizations The largest aikido organization is the Aikikai Foundation, which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has developed into many styles, most of which were formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students. and Shodokan Aikido, founded by Kenji Tomiki in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido. A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in Iwama, Ibaraki and the teaching methodology of long term student Morihiro Saito. It is unofficially referred to as the "Iwama style", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called Iwama Ryu. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups. One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent Shinshin Aikishuren Kai in 2004 around Saito's son Hitohiro Saito. Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and are taught throughout the world.Training Keiko). () is very important for safe practice.]] In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese martial arts, there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and conditioning, as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of throws, beginners learn how to safely fall or roll.Roles of and (France, 2002)]] Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms () rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique () to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the , or (depending on aikido style), also referred to as (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique. continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while uses position and timing to keep off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw . refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good involves attention to the technique, the partner, and the immediate environment—it is considered an active part of the process of learning aikido. The method of falling itself is also important, and is a way for the practitioner to receive an aikido technique safely and minimize risk of injury. Initial attacks Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, attacks with intent (such as a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. * , a control technique using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which leverages to the ground. This grip applies pressure into the ulnar nerve at the wrist. * is a pronating wristlock that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an adductive wristlock or Z-lock in the version.) * is a rotational wristlock that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder. * is a shoulder control technique similar to , but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's radial nerve against the periosteum of the forearm bone. * is a technique that is visually similar to , but with an inverted grip of the wrist, medial rotation of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in knife and other weapon take-aways. * is a throw during which 's hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint. * is a supinating wristlock-throw that stretches the extensor digitorum. * is a loosely used umbrella term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques; generally do not use joint locks like other techniques. * , throws in which moves through the space occupied by . The classic form superficially resembles a "clothesline" technique. * , a throw in which, beginning with , moving forward, sweeps one hand low ("earth") and the other high ("heaven"), which unbalances so that they easily topple over. * , aikido's version of the hip throw; drops their hips lower than those of , then flips over the resultant fulcrum. * , a throw that locks the arms against each other (the kanji for "10" is a cross-shape: ). * is a throw in which sweeps 's arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw them. Implementations Aikido makes use of body movement ( or ) to blend the movement of with the movement of . For example, an "entering" () technique consists of movements inward towards , while a technique uses a pivoting motion. Additionally, an technique takes place in front of , whereas an technique takes place to their side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of , and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of , usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (). Techniques where both and are standing are called , techniques where both start off in are called , and techniques performed with standing and sitting are called (). Others consider , especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques; a strike, even if it is blocked, can startle the target and break their concentration. Additionally, the target may also become unbalanced while attempting to avoid a strike (by jerking the head back, for example) which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique. Weapons Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff () (these techniques closely resemble the use of the bayonet, or Jūkendō), the wooden sword (), and the knife (). Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques, where either weapon-taking and/or weapon-retention may be taught. Some schools, such as the Iwama style of Morihiro Saito, usually spend substantial time practicing with both and , under the names of , and , respectively. The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword, spear and bayonet movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s). Multiple attackers and One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called , or . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher-level ranks. exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Injuries In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of to prevent injury to by employing a speed and force of application that is appropriate with their partner's proficiency in . A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido, This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the 'enter-and-blend' movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one "must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners. Uniforms and ranking {\| class"wikitable" style"float:right; margin-right:10px" \|- ! rank !! belt !! color !! type \|- \| \|\| \|\| white \|\| / \|- \| \|\| \|\| black \|\| \|} Aikido practitioners (commonly called outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (), followed by a series of "degrees" (), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and black belts to distinguish and grades, although some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. The uniform worn for practicing aikido () is similar to the training uniform () used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick ("judo-style"), and thin ("karate-style") cotton tops are used. Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or indigo trousers known as (used also in Naginatajutsu, kendo, and iaido). In many schools, the wearing of is reserved for practitioners with ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a regardless of rank. To counteract that some styles allow students to become less compliant over time, however in keeping with the core philosophies, that is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. Shodokan Aikido addresses the issue by practicing in a competitive format. Reasons for the difference and diversity of teachings, intention, and forms of aikido can be traced to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by , entering () and initiation of techniques by , the distinction between (front side) and (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Conversely, some styles of aikido place less importance on the spiritual practices which were emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of Aikido Journal: <blockquote>O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts.</blockquote> In other words, aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional or are said to be diverging from what Ueshiba taught, as some critics urge practitioners: <blockquote>[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals of the paradigm that he demonstrated.<ref name"Shibata-Dilemma"/></blockquote>References External links <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dōjō clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> * [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] site on aikido, with essays, forums, gallery, reviews, columns, wiki and other information. <!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dōjō clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --> }} Category:Japanese martial arts Category:Dō Category:Articles containing video clips	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aikido	2025-04-05T18:25:21.494352
752	Art	s: (clockwise from upper left) an 1887 self-portrait by Vincent van Gogh; a female ancestor figure by a Chokwe artist; detail from The Birth of Venus (–1486) by Sandro Botticelli; and an Okinawan Shisa lion]] Art is a diverse range of cultural activity centered around works utilizing creative or imaginative talents, which are expected to evoke a worthwhile experience, generally through an expression of emotional power, conceptual ideas, technical proficiency, and/or beauty. There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art, and its interpretation has varied greatly throughout history and across cultures. In the Western tradition, the three classical branches of visual art are painting, sculpture, and architecture. Theatre, dance, and other performing arts, as well as literature, music, film and other media such as interactive media, are included in a broader definition of "the arts". Until the 17th century, art referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from crafts or sciences. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the fine arts are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the decorative or applied arts. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and interpretation, are explored in a branch of philosophy known as aesthetics. The resulting artworks are studied in the professional fields of art criticism and the history of art. Overview In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early prehistoric art to contemporary art; however, some theorists think that the typical concept of "artistic works" does not fit well outside modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of art is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to "skill" or "craft", as associated with words such as "artisan". English words derived from this meaning include artifact, artificial, artifice, medical arts, and military arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its etymology. peoples, Rwanda. Artistic works may serve practical functions, in addition to their decorative value.]] Over time, philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, Socrates and Immanuel Kant, among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art, while Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the muses and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the Phaedrus (265a–c), and yet in the 'Republic' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In Ion, Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the Republic. The dialogue Ion suggests that Homer's Iliad functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, Dithyrambic poetry and music to be mimetic or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals. The more recent and specific sense of the word art as an abbreviation for creative art or fine art emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or finer works of art. Within this latter sense, the word art may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (art as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce artworks (art as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as Kant, the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression. ]] Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered commercial art instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered applied art. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see aesthetics); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong emotions. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent. The nature of art has been described by philosopher Richard Wollheim as "one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating formal elements for their own sake, and as mimesis or representation. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of Aristotle. Benedetto Croce and R. G. Collingwood advanced the idealist view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of Kant, and was developed in the early 20th century by Roger Fry and Clive Bell. More recently, thinkers influenced by Martin Heidegger have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. George Dickie has offered an institutional theory of art that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as "the art world" has conferred "the status of candidate for appreciation". Larry Shiner has described fine art as "not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old." Art may be characterized in terms of mimesis (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the Romantic period, art came to be seen as "a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science". History }} figurine, Germany, between 35,000 and 41,000 years old. One of the oldest-known examples of an artistic representation and the oldest confirmed statue ever discovered.]] A shell engraved by Homo erectus'' was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years. The oldest piece of art found in Europe is the Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle, dating back 51,000 years and made by Neanderthals. Sculptures, cave paintings, rock paintings and petroglyphs from the Upper Paleolithic dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. The first undisputed sculptures and similar art pieces, like the Venus of Hohle Fels, are the numerous objects found at the Caves and Ice Age Art in the Swabian Jura UNESCO World Heritage Site, where the oldest non-stationary works of human art yet discovered were found, in the form of carved animal and humanoid figurines, in addition to the oldest musical instruments unearthed so far, with the artifacts dating between 43,000 and 35,000 BC, so being the first centre of human art. , Lascaux, France, c. 17,000 BCE]] Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as Inca, Maya, and Olmec. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions. In Byzantine and Medieval art of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of Catholic Europe. Renaissance art had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of graphical perspective to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space. Mahmud II of the Ottoman Empire was written in Islamic calligraphy. It reads "Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious".]] in Tunisia, also called the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the most significant and best preserved artistic and architectural examples of early great mosques. Dated in its present state from the 9th century, it is the ancestor and model of all the mosques in the western Islamic lands.]] In the east, Islamic art's rejection of iconography led to emphasis on geometric patterns, calligraphy, and architecture. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning Terracotta Army of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, Tang dynasty paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but Ming dynasty paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. Woodblock printing became important in Japan after the 17th century. artist Ma Lin, . 24.8 × 25.2 cm]] The western Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as Blake's portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or David's propagandistic paintings. This led to Romantic rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of Goethe. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as academic art, Symbolism, impressionism and fauvism among others. The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing global interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, African sculptures were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by Matisse. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like Communism and Post-Modernism exerting a powerful influence. Modernism, the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. Theodor W. Adorno said in 1970, "It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist." Relativism was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of contemporary art and postmodern criticism, where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with skepticism and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones. In The Origin of the Work of Art, Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which "that which is" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed. Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the Silk Road, where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of Trieste at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of New York City as a cultural melting pot.Forms, genres, media, and styles by Ingres (French, 1806), oil on canvas]] The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as media, genre, styles, and form. Art form'' refers to the elements of art that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical composition of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., figurae), such as color, contour, dimension, medium, melody, space, texture, and value. Form may also include Design principles, such as arrangement, balance, contrast, emphasis, harmony, proportion, proximity, and rhythm. In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content—i.e., denotations and connotations—while others prefer terms like meaning and significance. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist's experience of that subject. For example, the composition of Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne is partly borrowed from the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. As evidenced by the title, the subject is Napoleon, and the content is Ingres's representation of Napoleon as "Emperor-God beyond time and space". The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. Art criticism continues to grow and develop alongside art. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the epithet art, particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for Leonardo da Vinci, art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. Rembrandt's work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of John Singer Sargent were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, Pablo Picasso, was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled. 's Mona Lisa, –1506, showing the painting technique of sfumato]] A common contemporary criticism of some modern art occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects ("ready-made") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. Tracey Emin's My Bed, or Damien Hirst's The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living follow this example. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating hands-on works of art. Purpose made ]] Beatus miniature. Spain, late 10th century]] Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of art is "vague", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss). Non-motivated functions The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility.</blockquote> # Experience of the mysterious. Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.<blockquote>The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein</blockquote> # Expression of the imagination. Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.<blockquote>Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant</blockquote> # Ritualistic and symbolic functions. In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.<blockquote>Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova</blockquote> Motivated functions Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or used as a form of communication. # Communication. Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.<blockquote>[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen</blockquote> # Art as entertainment. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of motion pictures and video games. # The Avant-Garde. Art for political change. One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—Dadaism, Surrealism, Russian constructivism, and Abstract Expressionism, among others—are collectively referred to as the avant-garde arts.<blockquote>By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism)</blockquote> # Art as a "free zone", removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the avant-garde movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, contemporary art has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction, etc.), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation. # Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy. While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be used to criticize some aspect of society. Graffiti art and other types of street art are graphics and images that are spray-painted or stencilled on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism). # Art for social causes. Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of autism, cancer, human trafficking, and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in Darfur, murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. Trashion, using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as Marina DeBris is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution. # Art for psychological and healing purposes. Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as art therapy. The Diagnostic Drawing Series, for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. # Art for propaganda, or commercialism. Art is often used as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object. # Art as a fitness indicator. It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the peacock's tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also Fisherian runaway and handicap principle). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates. The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game. Steps Art can be divided into any number of steps one can make an argument for. This section divides the creative process into broad three steps, but there is no consensus on an exact number. Preparation at the Musée Rodin ]] In the first step, the artist envisions the art in their mind. By imagining what their art would look like, the artist begins the process of bringing the art into existence. Preparation of art may involve approaching and researching the subject matter. Artistic inspiration is one of the main drivers of art, and may be considered to stem from instinct, impressions, and feelings. The Beatles stated drugs such as LSD and cannabis influenced some of their greatest hits, such as Revolver. Trial and error are considered an integral part of the creation process. However an important aspect of art is that others may view and appreciate it as well. While many focus on whether those viewing/listening/etc. believe the art to be good/successful or not, art has profound value beyond its commercial success as a provider of information and health in society. Art enjoyment can bring about a wide spectrum of emotion due to beauty. Some art is meant to be practical, with its analysis studious, meant to stimulate discourse. Public access in Manhattan. Museums are important forums for the display of visual art.]] Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society. Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a social elite, though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as moulds made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality Ancient Roman pottery and Greek Tanagra figurines to a very wide market. Cylinder seals were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the Ancient Near East. Once coins were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society. Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when printmaking began with small woodcuts, mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by peasants who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. Popular prints of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries. , the Museum of Art in Basel, Switzerland, is the oldest public museum of art in the world.]] In 1661, the city of Basel, in Switzerland, opened the first public museum of art in the world, the Kunstmuseum Basel. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries. Public buildings and monuments, secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. Egyptian temples are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the Palace of Versailles, where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside. Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the Orleans Collection mostly housed in a wing of the Palais Royal in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the Grand Tour became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British Royal Collection remains distinct, but large donations such as the Old Royal Library were made from it to the British Museum, established in 1753. The Uffizi in Florence opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the Prado in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in Vienna, Munich and other capitals. The opening of the Musée du Louvre during the French Revolution (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. However, museums do not only provide availability to art, but do also influence the way art is being perceived by the audience, as studies found. Thus, the museum itself is not only a blunt stage for the presentation of art, but plays an active and vital role in the overall perception of art in modern society. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. (The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, for example, was created by John Taylor Johnston, a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status. There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is "necessary to present something more than mere objects" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, video art, and conceptual art. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was an idea, it could not be bought and sold. "Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object." opened up the interior court to create the expansive entrance ''cour d'honneur, later copied all over Europe.]]In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. "With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors." Controversies 's Raft of the Medusa, ]] Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. Iconoclasm is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. Aniconism is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of Islamic art, where depictions of Muhammad remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by art critics, though often much less so by a wider public. The iconographic content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the Swoon of the Virgin in scenes of the Crucifixion of Jesus. The Last Judgment by Michelangelo was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of decorum through nudity and the Apollo-like pose of Christ. The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of Romanticism, and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. Théodore Géricault's Raft of the Medusa (), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. Édouard Manet's ''Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe'' (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. John Singer Sargent's Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X) (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation. The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. , 1978: Everyone an artist – On the way to the libertarian form of the social organism]] In the 20th century, Pablo Picasso's Guernica (1937) used arresting cubist techniques and stark monochromatic oils, to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. Leon Golub's Interrogation III (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. Andres Serrano's Piss Christ (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing Christ's sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.Theory Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of realism or truth to nature and the ideal; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist John Ruskin, who championed what he saw as the naturalism of J. M. W. Turner, saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature. The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. Richard Wollheim distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the Realist, whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the Objectivist, whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the Relativist position, whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans. Arrival of Modernism (1930) by Piet Mondrian (Dutch, 1872–1944)]] The arrival of Modernism in the late 19th century led to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of postmodernism. Clement Greenberg's 1960 article "Modernist Painting" defines modern art as "the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting: <blockquote>Realistic, naturalistic art had dissembled the medium, using art to conceal art; modernism used art to call attention to art. The limitations that constitute the medium of painting—the flat surface, the shape of the support, the properties of the pigment—were treated by the Old Masters as negative factors that could be acknowledged only implicitly or indirectly. Under Modernism these same limitations came to be regarded as positive factors, and were acknowledged openly. Pop artists like Andy Warhol became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly critiquing popular culture, as well as the art world. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond high art to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography. Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In The Invention of Art: A Cultural History, Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art, but techne. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and craft are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, horsemanship, geometry, carpentry, prophecy, and farming, etc.New Criticism and the "intentional fallacy"Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist. In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy", which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay "Literature in the Reader". As summarized by Berys Gaut and Paisley Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic." These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work." Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself." Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the structuralism of Ferdinand de Saussure and the ensuing movement of poststructuralism. In 1981, the artist Mark Tansey created a work of art titled The Innocent Eye as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include Judith Butler, Luce Irigaray, Julia Kristeva, Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by Hayden White. The fact that language is a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of philosophy of language which originated in the works of Johann Georg Hamann and Wilhelm von Humboldt. Ernst Gombrich and Nelson Goodman in his book Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist Roger Sperry who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as Nick Zangwill strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives. Classification disputes by Marcel Duchamp, 1917, photographed by Alfred Stieglitz at the 291 after the 1917 Society of Independent Artists exhibit. Stieglitz used a backdrop of The Warriors by Marsden Hartley to photograph the urinal. The exhibition entry tag can be clearly seen.]] Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included cubist and impressionist paintings, Duchamp's Fountain, the movies, J. S. G. Boggs' superlative imitations of banknotes, conceptual art, and video games. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, "the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life" are "so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art." According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the Daily Mail criticized Hirst's and Emin's work by arguing "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, Arthur Danto, suggested a thought experiment showing that "the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood." Anti-art is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; when he was making art from found objects. the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the Young British Artists, Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the decorative arts, or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example. Value judgment , Australia.]] Somewhat in relation to the above, the word art is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as "that meal was a work of art" (the cook is an artist), or "the art of deception" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered art is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, "good" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, Francisco Goya's painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the zeitgeist. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse aesthetic or moral feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the human condition; that is, what it is to be human. By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of generative artificial intelligence, especially in regard to artificial intelligence art and its uses with images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity. Music and artificial intelligence has taken a similar path.Art and law An essential legal issue are art forgeries, plagiarism, replicas and works that are strongly based on other works of art. Intellectual property law plays a significant role in the art world. Copyright protection is granted to artists for their original works, providing them with exclusive rights to reproduce, distribute, and display their creations. This safeguard empowers artists to govern the usage of their work and safeguard against unauthorized copying or infringement. The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The UN, UNESCO and Blue Shield International try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, Karl von Habsburg, explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: "Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland." In order to preserve the diversity of cultural identity, UNESCO protects the living human treasure through the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.See also <!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order and add a short description WP:SEEALSO --> * Artist-in-residence * Artistic freedom * Cultural tourism * Craftivism * List of art media * List of art techniques * Mathematics and art * Outline of the visual arts, a guide to the subject of art presented as a tree structured list of its subtopics. * Visual impairment in art <!-- please keep entries in alphabetical order --> References Works cited * * Bibliography * [https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/887 Intentions by Oscar Wilde] * Katharine Everett Gilbert and Helmut Kuhn, A History of Esthetics. Edition 2, revised. Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1953. * Stephen Davies, Definitions of Art, 1991 * Nina Felshin, ed. But is it Art?, 1995 * Catherine de Zegher (ed.). Inside the Visible. MIT Press, 1996 * Evelyn Hatcher, ed. Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art, 1999 * Noel Carroll, Theories of Art Today, 2000 * John Whitehead. Grasping for the Wind, 2001 * Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.) Art History Aesthetics Visual Studies. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002. * Shiner, Larry. The Invention of Art: A Cultural History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003. * Arthur Danto, The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art. 2003 * Dana Arnold and Margaret Iversen, eds. Art and Thought. London: Blackwell, 2003. * Jean Robertson and Craig McDaniel, Themes of Contemporary Art, Visual Art after 1980, 2005 Further reading * Antony Briant and Griselda Pollock, eds. Digital and Other Virtualities: Renegotiating the image. London and NY: I.B. Tauris, 2010. * Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N. The New Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway, 1984. (this book has significant material on art and science) * Benedetto Croce. Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 2002 * Botar, Oliver A.I. Technical Detours: The Early Moholy-Nagy Reconsidered. Art Gallery of The Graduate Center, The City University of New York and The Salgo Trust for Education, 2006. * Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds. (2011). Arts: A Science Matter. World Scientific: Singapore. * Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher, eds. Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts: October Books/The MIT Press, 2006. * * Carl Jung, Man and His Symbols. London: Pan Books, 1978. * E.H. Gombrich, The Story of Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1995. * Florian Dombois, Ute Meta Bauer, Claudia Mareis and Michael Schwab, eds. Intellectual Birdhouse. Artistic Practice as Research. London: Koening Books, 2012. * Kristine Stiles and Peter Selz, eds. Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986 * Kleiner, Gardner, Mamiya and Tansey. Art Through the Ages, Twelfth Edition (2 volumes) Wadsworth, 2004. (vol 1) and (vol 2) * Richard Wollheim, Art and its Objects: An introduction to aesthetics. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. * Will Gompertz. What Are You Looking At?: 150 Years of Modern Art in the Blink of an Eye. New York: Viking, 2012. * Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980 External links <!-- Do not place advertisements here. COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED. See this article's Talk page, WP:EL, and WP:SPAM for more information. Wikipedia is not a link directory. Consider submitting your link to DMOZ instead. --> * [https://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docIdDicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.iddv1-17;toc.depth1;toc.iddv1-17;branddefault;queryDictionary%20of%20the%20History%20of%20Ideas#1 Art and Play from the Dictionary of the History of ideas] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160306190600/https://witcombe.sbc.edu/arthlinks.html In-depth directory of art] * [https://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/art-design/artandartistfiles/ Art and Artist Files in the Smithsonian Libraries Collection] (2005) Smithsonian Digital Libraries * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120716205617/https://www.ahds.ac.uk/ Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)] – online collections from UK museums, galleries, universities * [https://www.RevolutionArtMagazine.com/ RevolutionArt – Art magazines with worldwide exhibitions, callings and competitions] * <!-- Do not place advertisements here. COMMERCIAL LINKS WILL BE REMOVED. See this article's Talk page, WP:EL, and WP:SPAM for more information. Wikipedia is not a link directory. Consider submitting your link to DMOZ instead. --> Category:Concepts in aesthetics Category:The arts Category:Visual arts	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art	2025-04-05T18:25:21.548784
764	Agnostida	\| image = Itagnostus interstrictus (White, 1874) - 8 mm 1.JPG \| image_caption = Itagnostus interstrictus \| display_parents = 3 \| authority = Salter, 1864 \| synonyms = Isopygia Gürich, 1907<br /> Miomera Jækel, 1909 \| subdivision_ranks = Families \| subdivision = Suborder Agnostina * Superfamily Agnostoidea Agnostidae Ammagnostidae Clavagnostidae Diplagnostidae Doryagnostidae Glyptagnostidae Metagnostidae Peronopsidae Ptychagnostidae Spinagnostidae * Superfamily Condylopygoidea ** Condylopygidae Suborder Eodiscina * Superfamily Eodiscoidea Calodiscidae Eodiscidae Hebediscidae Tsunyidiscidae Weymouthiidae Yukoniidae }} Agnostida are an order of extinct arthropods which have classically been seen as a group of highly modified trilobites, though some recent research has doubted this placement. Regardless, they appear to be close relatives as part of the Artiopoda. They are present in the Lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from the Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida orders, and were highly diverse throughout the Cambrian. Agnostidan diversity severely declined during the Cambrian-Ordovician transition, and the last agnostidans went extinct in the Late Ordovician. Systematics The Agnostida are divided into two suborders — Agnostina and Eodiscina — which are then subdivided into a number of families. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning their pygidium is similar in size and shape to their cephalon. Most agnostid species were eyeless. The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a stem group. The challenge to the status has focused on Agnostina partly due to the juveniles of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are not members of the lamellipedian clade, of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the proximal endite, which defines that group. The study suggested that they were likely the sister taxon to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade, Crustaceomorpha. Other researchers have suggested, based on a cladistic analyses of dorsal exoskeletal features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order Ptychopariida. A 2019 study of adult specimens with preserved soft tissue from the Burgess Shale found that agnostidans shared morphological similarities to trilobites and other related artiopodans like nektaspids, and their placement as stem-crustaceans was unsupported. The study recovered agnostidans as the sister group to other trilobites within the Artiopoda. They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty hyolith conchs, within sponges, worm tubes and under the carapaces of bivalved arthropods, presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food.<ref nameChatterton_2003/> In the case of the tapering worm tubes Selkirkia, trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter.<ref nameChatterton_2003/> References External links * [http://www.trilobites.info/ordagnostida.htm Order Agnostida] by Sam Gon III. * [http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Fossil_Galleries/Trilobites-Agnostida.htm The Virtual Fossil Museum – Trilobite Order Agnostida] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040407030239/http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm Agnostida fact sheet] by Sam Gon III. * [http://news.discovery.com/animals/early-animals-cannibals.html "Earth's Early Cannibals Caught in the Act"], by Larry O'Hanlon, news.discovery.com. Category:Trilobite orders Category:Cambrian trilobites Category:Ordovician trilobites Category:Cambrian first appearances Category:Late Ordovician extinctions Category:Taxa named by John William Salter	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnostida	2025-04-05T18:25:21.555818

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