Switched-mode power supply
Linear power supply Switching power supply Notes
Size and weight Heatsinks for high power linear regulators add size and weight . Transformers , if used , are large due to low operating frequency ( mains power frequency is at 50 or 60 Hz ) ; otherwise can be compact due to low component count Smaller transformer ( if used ; else inductor ) due to higher operating frequency ( typically 50 kHz - 1 MHz ) . Size and weight of adequate RF shielding may be significant A transformer 's power handling capacity of given size and weight increases with frequency provided that hysteresis losses can be kept down . Therefore , higher operating frequency means either a higher capacity or smaller transformer
Output voltage With transformer used , any voltages available ; if transformerless , limited to what can be achieved with a voltage doubler . If unregulated , voltage varies significantly with load Any voltages available , limited only by transistor breakdown voltages in many circuits . Voltage varies little with load An SMPS can usually cope with wider variation of input before the output voltage changes
Efficiency , heat , and power dissipation If regulated : efficiency largely depends on voltage difference between input and output ; output voltage is regulated by dissipating excess power as heat resulting in a typical efficiency of 30-40% . If unregulated , transformer iron and copper losses may be the only significant sources of inefficiency Output is regulated using duty cycle control ; the transistors are switched fully on or fully off , so very little resistive losses between input and the load . The only heat generated is in the non-ideal aspects of the components and quiescent current in the control circuitry Switching losses in the transistors ( especially in the short part of each cycle when the device is partially on ) , on-resistance of the switching transistors , equivalent series resistance in the inductor and capacitors , and core losses in the inductor , and rectifier voltage drop contribute to a typical efficiency of 60-70% . However , by optimizing SMPS design ( such as choosing the optimal switching frequency , avoiding saturation of inductors , and active rectification ) , the amount of power loss and heat can be minimized ; a good design can have an efficiency of 95%
Complexity Unregulated may be simply a diode and capacitor ; regulated has a voltage-regulating circuit and a noise-filtering capacitor ; usually a simpler circuit ( and simpler feedback loop stability criteria ) than switched-mode circuits Consists of a controller IC , one or several power transistors and diodes as well as a power transformer , inductors , and filter capacitors . Some design complexities present ( reducing noise/interference ; extra limitations on maximum ratings of transistors at high switching speeds ) not found in linear regulator circuits In switched-mode mains ( AC-to-DC ) supplies , multiple voltages can be generated by one transformer core , but that can introduce design/use complications : for example it may place minimum output current restrictions on one output . For this SMPSs have to use duty cycle control . One of the outputs has to be chosen to feed the voltage regulation feedback loop ( usually 3.3 V or 5 V loads are more fussy about their supply voltages than the 12 V loads , so this drives the decision as to which feeds the feedback loop . The other outputs usually track the regulated one pretty well ) . Both need a careful selection of their transformers . Due to the high operating frequencies in SMPSs , the stray inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board traces become important
Radio frequency interference Mild high-frequency interference may be generated by AC rectifier diodes under heavy current loading , while most other supply types produce no high-frequency interference . Some mains hum induction into unshielded cables , problematical for low-signal audio EMI/RFI produced due to the current being switched on and off sharply . Therefore , EMI filters and RF shielding are needed to reduce the disruptive interference Long wires between the components may reduce the high frequency filter efficiency provided by the capacitors at the inlet and outlet . Stable switching frequency may be important
Electronic noise at the output terminals Unregulated PSUs may have a little AC ripple superimposed upon the DC component at twice mains frequency ( 100-120 Hz ) . It can cause audible mains hum in audio equipment , brightness ripples or banded distortions in analog security cameras Noisier due to the switching frequency of the SMPS . An unfiltered output may cause glitches in digital circuits or noise in audio circuits This can be suppressed with capacitors and other filtering circuitry in the output stage . With a switched mode PSU the switching frequency can be chosen to keep the noise out of the circuits working frequency band ( e.g. , for audio systems above the range of human hearing )
Electronic noise at the input terminals Causes harmonic distortion to the input AC , but relatively little or no high frequency noise Very low cost SMPS may couple electrical switching noise back onto the mains power line , causing interference with A/V equipment connected to the same phase . Non power-factor-corrected SMPSs also cause harmonic distortion This can be prevented if a ( properly earthed ) EMI/RFI filter is connected between the input terminals and the bridge rectifier
Acoustic noise Faint , usually inaudible mains hum , usually due to vibration of windings in the transformer or magnetostriction Usually inaudible to most humans , unless they have a fan or are unloaded/malfunctioning , or use a switching frequency within the audio range , or the laminations of the coil vibrate at a subharmonic of the operating frequency The operating frequency of an unloaded SMPS is sometimes in the audible human range , and may sound subjectively quite loud for people whose hearing is very sensitive to the relevant frequency range
Power factor Low for a regulated supply because current is drawn from the mains at the peaks of the voltage sinusoid , unless a choke-input or resistor-input circuit follows the rectifier ( now rare ) Ranging from very low to medium since a simple SMPS without PFC draws current spikes at the peaks of the AC sinusoid Active/passive power factor correction in the SMPS can offset this problem and are even required by some electric regulation authorities , particularly in the EU . The internal resistance of low-power transformers in linear power supplies usually limits the peak current each cycle and thus gives a better power factor than many switched-mode power supplies that directly rectify the mains with little series resistance
Inrush current Large current when mains-powered linear power supply equipment is switched on until magnetic flux of transformer stabilises and capacitors charge completely , unless a slow-start circuit is used Extremely large peak in-rush surge current limited only by the impedance of the input supply and any series resistance to the filter capacitors Empty filter capacitors initially draw large amounts of current as they charge up , with larger capacitors drawing larger amounts of peak current . Being many times above the normal operating current , this greatly stresses components subject to the surge , complicates fuse selection to avoid nuisance blowing and may cause problems with equipment employing overcurrent protection such as uninterruptible power supplies . Mitigated by use of a suitable soft-start circuit or series resistor
Risk of electric shock Supplies with transformers isolate the incoming power supply from the powered device and so allow metalwork of the enclosure to be grounded safely . Dangerous if primary/secondary insulation breaks down , unlikely with reasonable design . Transformerless mains-operated supply dangerous . In both linear and switch-mode the mains , and possibly the output voltages , are hazardous and must be well-isolated Common rail of equipment ( including casing ) is energized to half the mains voltage , but at high impedance , unless equipment is earthed/grounded or does n't contain EMI/RFI filtering at the input terminals Due to regulations concerning EMI/RFI radiation , many SMPS contain EMI/RFI filtering at the input stage consisting of capacitors and inductors before the bridge rectifier . Two capacitors are connected in series with the Live and Neutral rails with the Earth connection in between the two capacitors . This forms a capacitive divider that energizes the common rail at half mains voltage . Its high impedance current source can provide a tingling or a 'bite ' to the operator or can be exploited to light an Earth Fault LED . However , this current may cause nuisance tripping on the most sensitive residual-current devices . In power supplies without a ground pin ( like USB charger ) there is EMI/RFI capacitor placed between primary and secondary side . It can also provide some very mild tingling sensation but it 's safe to the user
Risk of equipment damage Very low , unless a short occurs between the primary and secondary windings or the regulator fails by shorting internally Can fail so as to make output voltage very high . Stress on capacitors may cause them to explode . Can in some cases destroy input stages in amplifiers if floating voltage exceeds transistor base-emitter breakdown voltage , causing the transistor 's gain to drop and noise levels to increase . Mitigated by good failsafe design . Failure of a component in the SMPS itself can cause further damage to other PSU components ; can be difficult to troubleshoot The floating voltage is caused by capacitors bridging the primary and secondary sides of the power supply . Connection to earthed equipment will cause a momentary ( and potentially destructive ) spike in current at the connector as the voltage at the secondary side of the capacitor equalizes to earth potential
SMPS and linear power supply comparison
There are two main types of regulated power supplies available : SMPS and linear . The following table compares linear regulated and unregulated AC-to-DC supplies with switching regulators in general :
A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently. Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a DC or AC source (often mains power) to DC loads, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. A hypothetical ideal switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time (also known as duty cycles). In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. This higher power conversion efficiency is an important advantage of a switched-mode power supply. Switched-mode power supplies may also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply due to the smaller transformer size and weight. Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight are required. They are, however, more complicated; their switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.