September 2001  
  
 _(This article explains why much of the next generation of software may be
server-based, what that will mean for programmers, and why this new kind of
software is a great opportunity for startups. It's derived from a talk at BBN
Labs.)_  
  
In the summer of 1995, my friend Robert Morris and I decided to start a
startup. The PR campaign leading up to Netscape's IPO was running full blast
then, and there was a lot of talk in the press about online commerce. At the
time there might have been thirty actual stores on the Web, all made by hand.
If there were going to be a lot of online stores, there would need to be
software for making them, so we decided to write some.  
  
For the first week or so we intended to make this an ordinary desktop
application. Then one day we had the idea of making the software run on our
Web server, using the browser as an interface. We tried rewriting the software
to work over the Web, and it was clear that this was the way to go. If we
wrote our software to run on the server, it would be a lot easier for the
users and for us as well.  
  
This turned out to be a good plan. Now, as [Yahoo
Store](http://store.yahoo.com), this software is the most popular online store
builder, with about 14,000 users.  
  
When we started Viaweb, hardly anyone understood what we meant when we said
that the software ran on the server. It was not until Hotmail was launched a
year later that people started to get it. Now everyone knows that this is a
valid approach. There is a name now for what we were: an Application Service
Provider, or ASP.  
  
I think that a lot of the next generation of software will be written on this
model. Even Microsoft, who have the most to lose, seem to see the inevitablity
of moving some things off the desktop. If software moves off the desktop and
onto servers, it will mean a very different world for developers. This article
describes the surprising things we saw, as some of the first visitors to this
new world. To the extent software does move onto servers, what I'm describing
here is the future.  
  
**The Next Thing?**  
  
When we look back on the desktop software era, I think we'll marvel at the
inconveniences people put up with, just as we marvel now at what early car
owners put up with. For the first twenty or thirty years, you had to be a car
expert to own a car. But cars were such a big win that lots of people who
weren't car experts wanted to have them as well.  
  
Computers are in this phase now. When you own a desktop computer, you end up
learning a lot more than you wanted to know about what's happening inside it.
But more than half the households in the US own one. My mother has a computer
that she uses for email and for keeping accounts. About a year ago she was
alarmed to receive a letter from Apple, offering her a discount on a new
version of the operating system. There's something wrong when a sixty-five
year old woman who wants to use a computer for email and accounts has to think
about installing new operating systems. Ordinary users shouldn't even know the
words "operating system," much less "device driver" or "patch."  
  
There is now another way to deliver software that will save users from
becoming system administrators. Web-based applications are programs that run
on Web servers and use Web pages as the user interface. For the average user
this new kind of software will be easier, cheaper, more mobile, more reliable,
and often more powerful than desktop software.  
  
With Web-based software, most users won't have to think about anything except
the applications they use. All the messy, changing stuff will be sitting on a
server somewhere, maintained by the kind of people who are good at that kind
of thing. And so you won't ordinarily need a computer, per se, to use
software. All you'll need will be something with a keyboard, a screen, and a
Web browser. Maybe it will have wireless Internet access. Maybe it will also
be your cell phone. Whatever it is, it will be consumer electronics: something
that costs about $200, and that people choose mostly based on how the case
looks. You'll pay more for Internet services than you do for the hardware,
just as you do now with telephones. [1]  
  
It will take about a tenth of a second for a click to get to the server and
back, so users of heavily interactive software, like Photoshop, will still
want to have the computations happening on the desktop. But if you look at the
kind of things most people use computers for, a tenth of a second latency
would not be a problem. My mother doesn't really need a desktop computer, and
there are a lot of people like her.  
  
**The Win for Users**  
  
Near my house there is a car with a bumper sticker that reads "death before
inconvenience." Most people, most of the time, will take whatever choice
requires least work. If Web-based software wins, it will be because it's more
convenient. And it looks as if it will be, for users and developers both.  
  
To use a purely Web-based application, all you need is a browser connected to
the Internet. So you can use a Web-based application anywhere. When you
install software on your desktop computer, you can only use it on that
computer. Worse still, your files are trapped on that computer. The
inconvenience of this model becomes more and more evident as people get used
to networks.  
  
The thin end of the wedge here was Web-based email. Millions of people now
realize that you should have access to email messages no matter where you are.
And if you can see your email, why not your calendar? If you can discuss a
document with your colleagues, why can't you edit it? Why should any of your
data be trapped on some computer sitting on a faraway desk?  
  
The whole idea of "your computer" is going away, and being replaced with "your
data." You should be able to get at your data from any computer. Or rather,
any client, and a client doesn't have to be a computer.  
  
Clients shouldn't store data; they should be like telephones. In fact they may
become telephones, or vice versa. And as clients get smaller, you have another
reason not to keep your data on them: something you carry around with you can
be lost or stolen. Leaving your PDA in a taxi is like a disk crash, except
that your data is handed to [someone
else](http://news.zdnet.co.uk/business/0,39020645,2077931,00.htm) instead of
being vaporized.  
  
With purely Web-based software, neither your data nor the applications are
kept on the client. So you don't have to install anything to use it. And when
there's no installation, you don't have to worry about installation going
wrong. There can't be incompatibilities between the application and your
operating system, because the software doesn't run on your operating system.  
  
Because it needs no installation, it will be easy, and common, to try Web-
based software before you "buy" it. You should expect to be able to test-drive
any Web-based application for free, just by going to the site where it's
offered. At Viaweb our whole site was like a big arrow pointing users to the
test drive.  
  
After trying the demo, signing up for the service should require nothing more
than filling out a brief form (the briefer the better). And that should be the
last work the user has to do. With Web-based software, you should get new
releases without paying extra, or doing any work, or possibly even knowing
about it.  
  
Upgrades won't be the big shocks they are now. Over time applications will
quietly grow more powerful. This will take some effort on the part of the
developers. They will have to design software so that it can be updated
without confusing the users. That's a new problem, but there are ways to solve
it.  
  
With Web-based applications, everyone uses the same version, and bugs can be
fixed as soon as they're discovered. So Web-based software should have far
fewer bugs than desktop software. At Viaweb, I doubt we ever had ten known
bugs at any one time. That's orders of magnitude better than desktop software.  
  
Web-based applications can be used by several people at the same time. This is
an obvious win for collaborative applications, but I bet users will start to
want this in most applications once they realize it's possible. It will often
be useful to let two people edit the same document, for example. Viaweb let
multiple users edit a site simultaneously, more because that was the right way
to write the software than because we expected users to want to, but it turned
out that many did.  
  
When you use a Web-based application, your data will be safer. Disk crashes
won't be a thing of the past, but users won't hear about them anymore. They'll
happen within server farms. And companies offering Web-based applications will
actually do backups-- not only because they'll have real system administrators
worrying about such things, but because an ASP that does lose people's data
will be in big, big trouble. When people lose their own data in a disk crash,
they can't get that mad, because they only have themselves to be mad at. When
a company loses their data for them, they'll get a lot madder.  
  
Finally, Web-based software should be less vulnerable to viruses. If the
client doesn't run anything except a browser, there's less chance of running
viruses, and no data locally to damage. And a program that attacked the
servers themselves should find them very well defended. [2]  
  
For users, Web-based software will be _less stressful._ I think if you looked
inside the average Windows user you'd find a huge and pretty much untapped
desire for software meeting that description. Unleashed, it could be a
powerful force.  
  
**City of Code**  
  
To developers, the most conspicuous difference between Web-based and desktop
software is that a Web-based application is not a single piece of code. It
will be a collection of programs of different types rather than a single big
binary. And so designing Web-based software is like desiging a city rather
than a building: as well as buildings you need roads, street signs, utilities,
police and fire departments, and plans for both growth and various kinds of
disasters.  
  
At Viaweb, software included fairly big applications that users talked to
directly, programs that those programs used, programs that ran constantly in
the background looking for problems, programs that tried to restart things if
they broke, programs that ran occasionally to compile statistics or build
indexes for searches, programs we ran explicitly to garbage-collect resources
or to move or restore data, programs that pretended to be users (to measure
performance or expose bugs), programs for diagnosing network troubles,
programs for doing backups, interfaces to outside services, software that
drove an impressive collection of dials displaying real-time server statistics
(a hit with visitors, but indispensable for us too), modifications (including
bug fixes) to open-source software, and a great many configuration files and
settings. Trevor Blackwell wrote a spectacular program for moving stores to
new servers across the country, without shutting them down, after we were
bought by Yahoo. Programs paged us, sent faxes and email to users, conducted
transactions with credit card processors, and talked to one another through
sockets, pipes, http requests, ssh, udp packets, shared memory, and files.
Some of Viaweb even consisted of the absence of programs, since one of the
keys to Unix security is not to run unnecessary utilities that people might
use to break into your servers.  
  
It did not end with software. We spent a lot of time thinking about server
configurations. We built the servers ourselves, from components-- partly to
save money, and partly to get exactly what we wanted. We had to think about
whether our upstream ISP had fast enough connections to all the backbones. We
serially
[dated](http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=6hdipo%243o0%241%40FreeBSD.csie.NCTU.edu.tw)
RAID suppliers.  
  
But hardware is not just something to worry about. When you control it you can
do more for users. With a desktop application, you can specify certain minimum
hardware, but you can't add more. If you administer the servers, you can in
one step enable all your users to page people, or send faxes, or send commands
by phone, or process credit cards, etc, just by installing the relevant
hardware. We always looked for new ways to add features with hardware, not
just because it pleased users, but also as a way to distinguish ourselves from
competitors who (either because they sold desktop software, or resold Web-
based applications through ISPs) didn't have direct control over the hardware.  
  
Because the software in a Web-based application will be a collection of
programs rather than a single binary, it can be written in any number of
different languages. When you're writing desktop software, you're practically
forced to write the application in the same language as the underlying
operating system-- meaning C and C++. And so these languages (especially among
nontechnical people like managers and VCs) got to be considered as the
languages for "serious" software development. But that was just an artifact of
the way desktop software had to be delivered. For server-based software you
can use any language you want. [3] Today a lot of the top hackers are using
languages far removed from C and C++: Perl, Python, and even Lisp.  
  
With server-based software, no one can tell you what language to use, because
you control the whole system, right down to the hardware. Different languages
are good for different tasks. You can use whichever is best for each. And when
you have competitors, "you can" means "you must" (we'll return to this later),
because if you don't take advantage of this possibility, your competitors
will.  
  
Most of our competitors used C and C++, and this made their software visibly
inferior because (among other things), they had no way around the
statelessness of CGI scripts. If you were going to change something, all the
changes had to happen on one page, with an Update button at the bottom. As
I've written elsewhere, by using [Lisp](avg.html), which many people still
consider a research language, we could make the Viaweb editor behave more like
desktop software.  
  
**Releases**  
  
One of the most important changes in this new world is the way you do
releases. In the desktop software business, doing a release is a huge trauma,
in which the whole company sweats and strains to push out a single, giant
piece of code. Obvious comparisons suggest themselves, both to the process and
the resulting product.  
  
With server-based software, you can make changes almost as you would in a
program you were writing for yourself. You release software as a series of
incremental changes instead of an occasional big explosion. A typical desktop
software company might do one or two releases a year. At Viaweb we often did
three to five releases a day.  
  
When you switch to this new model, you realize how much software development
is affected by the way it is released. Many of the nastiest problems you see
in the desktop software business are due to catastrophic nature of releases.  
  
When you release only one new version a year, you tend to deal with bugs
wholesale. Some time before the release date you assemble a new version in
which half the code has been torn out and replaced, introducing countless
bugs. Then a squad of QA people step in and start counting them, and the
programmers work down the list, fixing them. They do not generally get to the
end of the list, and indeed, no one is sure where the end is. It's like
fishing rubble out of a pond. You never really know what's happening inside
the software. At best you end up with a statistical sort of correctness.  
  
With server-based software, most of the change is small and incremental. That
in itself is less likely to introduce bugs. It also means you know what to
test most carefully when you're about to release software: the last thing you
changed. You end up with a much firmer grip on the code. As a general rule,
you do know what's happening inside it. You don't have the source code
memorized, of course, but when you read the source you do it like a pilot
scanning the instrument panel, not like a detective trying to unravel some
mystery.  
  
Desktop software breeds a certain fatalism about bugs. You know that you're
shipping something loaded with bugs, and you've even set up mechanisms to
compensate for it (e.g. patch releases). So why worry about a few more? Soon
you're releasing whole features you know are broken.
[Apple](http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1006-200-5195914.html) did this earlier
this year. They felt under pressure to release their new OS, whose release
date had already slipped four times, but some of the software (support for CDs
and DVDs) wasn't ready. The solution? They released the OS without the
unfinished parts, and users will have to install them later.  
  
With Web-based software, you never have to release software before it works,
and you can release it as soon as it does work.  
  
The industry veteran may be thinking, it's a fine-sounding idea to say that
you never have to release software before it works, but what happens when
you've promised to deliver a new version of your software by a certain date?
With Web-based software, you wouldn't make such a promise, because there are
no versions. Your software changes gradually and continuously. Some changes
might be bigger than others, but the idea of versions just doesn't naturally
fit onto Web-based software.  
  
If anyone remembers Viaweb this might sound odd, because we were always
announcing new versions. This was done entirely for PR purposes. The trade
press, we learned, thinks in version numbers. They will give you major
coverage for a major release, meaning a new first digit on the version number,
and generally a paragraph at most for a point release, meaning a new digit
after the decimal point.  
  
Some of our competitors were offering desktop software and actually had
version numbers. And for these releases, the mere fact of which seemed to us
evidence of their backwardness, they would get all kinds of publicity. We
didn't want to miss out, so we started giving version numbers to our software
too. When we wanted some publicity, we'd make a list of all the features we'd
added since the last "release," stick a new version number on the software,
and issue a press release saying that the new version was available
immediately. Amazingly, no one ever called us on it.  
  
By the time we were bought, we had done this three times, so we were on
Version 4. Version 4.1 if I remember correctly. After Viaweb became Yahoo
Store, there was no longer such a desperate need for publicity, so although
the software continued to evolve, the whole idea of version numbers was
quietly dropped.  
  
**Bugs**  
  
The other major technical advantage of Web-based software is that you can
reproduce most bugs. You have the users' data right there on your disk. If
someone breaks your software, you don't have to try to guess what's going on,
as you would with desktop software: you should be able to reproduce the error
while they're on the phone with you. You might even know about it already, if
you have code for noticing errors built into your application.  
  
Web-based software gets used round the clock, so everything you do is
immediately put through the wringer. Bugs turn up quickly.  
  
Software companies are sometimes accused of letting the users debug their
software. And that is just what I'm advocating. For Web-based software it's
actually a good plan, because the bugs are fewer and transient. When you
release software gradually you get far fewer bugs to start with. And when you
can reproduce errors and release changes instantly, you can find and fix most
bugs as soon as they appear. We never had enough bugs at any one time to
bother with a formal bug-tracking system.  
  
You should test changes before you release them, of course, so no major bugs
should get released. Those few that inevitably slip through will involve
borderline cases and will only affect the few users that encounter them before
someone calls in to complain. As long as you fix bugs right away, the net
effect, for the average user, is far fewer bugs. I doubt the average Viaweb
user ever saw a bug.  
  
Fixing fresh bugs is easier than fixing old ones. It's usually fairly quick to
find a bug in code you just wrote. When it turns up you often know what's
wrong before you even look at the source, because you were already worrying
about it subconsciously. Fixing a bug in something you wrote six months ago
(the average case if you release once a year) is a lot more work. And since
you don't understand the code as well, you're more likely to fix it in an ugly
way, or even introduce more bugs. [4]  
  
When you catch bugs early, you also get fewer compound bugs. Compound bugs are
two separate bugs that interact: you trip going downstairs, and when you reach
for the handrail it comes off in your hand. In software this kind of bug is
the hardest to find, and also tends to have the worst consequences. [5] The
traditional "break everything and then filter out the bugs" approach
inherently yields a lot of compound bugs. And software that's released in a
series of small changes inherently tends not to. The floors are constantly
being swept clean of any loose objects that might later get stuck in
something.  
  
It helps if you use a technique called functional programming. Functional
programming means avoiding side-effects. It's something you're more likely to
see in research papers than commercial software, but for Web-based
applications it turns out to be really useful. It's hard to write entire
programs as purely functional code, but you can write substantial chunks this
way. It makes those parts of your software easier to test, because they have
no state, and that is very convenient in a situation where you are constantly
making and testing small modifications. I wrote much of Viaweb's editor in
this style, and we made our scripting language,
[RTML](http://store.yahoo.com/rtml.html), a purely functional language.  
  
People from the desktop software business will find this hard to credit, but
at Viaweb bugs became almost a game. Since most released bugs involved
borderline cases, the users who encountered them were likely to be advanced
users, pushing the envelope. Advanced users are more forgiving about bugs,
especially since you probably introduced them in the course of adding some
feature they were asking for. In fact, because bugs were rare and you had to
be doing sophisticated things to see them, advanced users were often proud to
catch one. They would call support in a spirit more of triumph than anger, as
if they had scored points off us.  
  
**Support**  
  
When you can reproduce errors, it changes your approach to customer support.
At most software companies, support is offered as a way to make customers feel
better. They're either calling you about a known bug, or they're just doing
something wrong and you have to figure out what. In either case there's not
much you can learn from them. And so you tend to view support calls as a pain
in the ass that you want to isolate from your developers as much as possible.  
  
This was not how things worked at Viaweb. At Viaweb, support was free, because
we wanted to hear from customers. If someone had a problem, we wanted to know
about it right away so that we could reproduce the error and release a fix.  
  
So at Viaweb the developers were always in close contact with support. The
customer support people were about thirty feet away from the programmers, and
knew that they could always interrupt anything with a report of a genuine bug.
We would leave a board meeting to fix a serious bug.  
  
Our approach to support made everyone happier. The customers were delighted.
Just imagine how it would feel to call a support line and be treated as
someone bringing important news. The customer support people liked it because
it meant they could help the users, instead of reading scripts to them. And
the programmers liked it because they could reproduce bugs instead of just
hearing vague second-hand reports about them.  
  
Our policy of fixing bugs on the fly changed the relationship between customer
support people and hackers. At most software companies, support people are
underpaid human shields, and hackers are little copies of God the Father,
creators of the world. Whatever the procedure for reporting bugs, it is likely
to be one-directional: support people who hear about bugs fill out some form
that eventually gets passed on (possibly via QA) to programmers, who put it on
their list of things to do. It was very different at Viaweb. Within a minute
of hearing about a bug from a customer, the support people could be standing
next to a programmer hearing him say "Shit, you're right, it's a bug." It
delighted the support people to hear that "you're right" from the hackers.
They used to bring us bugs with the same expectant air as a cat bringing you a
mouse it has just killed. It also made them more careful in judging the
seriousness of a bug, because now their honor was on the line.  
  
After we were bought by Yahoo, the customer support people were moved far away
from the programmers. It was only then that we realized that they were
effectively QA and to some extent marketing as well. In addition to catching
bugs, they were the keepers of the knowledge of vaguer, buglike things, like
features that confused users. [6] They were also a kind of proxy focus group;
we could ask them which of two new features users wanted more, and they were
always right.  
  
**Morale**  
  
Being able to release software immediately is a big motivator. Often as I was
walking to work I would think of some change I wanted to make to the software,
and do it that day. This worked for bigger features as well. Even if something
was going to take two weeks to write (few projects took longer), I knew I
could see the effect in the software as soon as it was done.  
  
If I'd had to wait a year for the next release, I would have shelved most of
these ideas, for a while at least. The thing about ideas, though, is that they
lead to more ideas. Have you ever noticed that when you sit down to write
something, half the ideas that end up in it are ones you thought of while
writing it? The same thing happens with software. Working to implement one
idea gives you more ideas. So shelving an idea costs you not only that delay
in implementing it, but also all the ideas that implementing it would have led
to. In fact, shelving an idea probably even inhibits new ideas: as you start
to think of some new feature, you catch sight of the shelf and think "but I
already have a lot of new things I want to do for the next release."  
  
What big companies do instead of implementing features is plan them. At Viaweb
we sometimes ran into trouble on this account. Investors and analysts would
ask us what we had planned for the future. The truthful answer would have
been, we didn't have any plans. We had general ideas about things we wanted to
improve, but if we knew how we would have done it already. What were we going
to do in the next six months? Whatever looked like the biggest win. I don't
know if I ever dared give this answer, but that was the truth. Plans are just
another word for ideas on the shelf. When we thought of good ideas, we
implemented them.  
  
At Viaweb, as at many software companies, most code had one definite owner.
But when you owned something you really owned it: no one except the owner of a
piece of software had to approve (or even know about) a release. There was no
protection against breakage except the fear of looking like an idiot to one's
peers, and that was more than enough. I may have given the impression that we
just blithely plowed forward writing code. We did go fast, but we thought very
carefully before we released software onto those servers. And paying attention
is more important to reliability than moving slowly. Because he pays close
attention, a Navy pilot can land a 40,000 lb. aircraft at 140 miles per hour
on a pitching carrier deck, at night, more safely than the average teenager
can cut a bagel.  
  
This way of writing software is a double-edged sword of course. It works a lot
better for a small team of good, trusted programmers than it would for a big
company of mediocre ones, where bad ideas are caught by committees instead of
the people that had them.  
  
**Brooks in Reverse**  
  
Fortunately, Web-based software does require fewer programmers. I once worked
for a medium-sized desktop software company that had over 100 people working
in engineering as a whole. Only 13 of these were in product development. All
the rest were working on releases, ports, and so on. With Web-based software,
all you need (at most) are the 13 people, because there are no releases,
ports, and so on.  
  
Viaweb was written by just three people. [7] I was always under pressure to
hire more, because we wanted to get bought, and we knew that buyers would have
a hard time paying a high price for a company with only three programmers.
(Solution: we hired more, but created new projects for them.)  
  
When you can write software with fewer programmers, it saves you more than
money. As Fred Brooks pointed out in _The Mythical Man-Month,_ adding people
to a project tends to slow it down. The number of possible connections between
developers grows exponentially with the size of the group. The larger the
group, the more time they'll spend in meetings negotiating how their software
will work together, and the more bugs they'll get from unforeseen
interactions. Fortunately, this process also works in reverse: as groups get
smaller, software development gets exponentially more efficient. I can't
remember the programmers at Viaweb ever having an actual meeting. We never had
more to say at any one time than we could say as we were walking to lunch.  
  
If there is a downside here, it is that all the programmers have to be to some
degree system administrators as well. When you're hosting software, someone
has to be watching the servers, and in practice the only people who can do
this properly are the ones who wrote the software. At Viaweb our system had so
many components and changed so frequently that there was no definite border
between software and infrastructure. Arbitrarily declaring such a border would
have constrained our design choices. And so although we were constantly hoping
that one day ("in a couple months") everything would be stable enough that we
could hire someone whose job was just to worry about the servers, it never
happened.  
  
I don't think it could be any other way, as long as you're still actively
developing the product. Web-based software is never going to be something you
write, check in, and go home. It's a live thing, running on your servers right
now. A bad bug might not just crash one user's process; it could crash them
all. If a bug in your code corrupts some data on disk, you have to fix it. And
so on. We found that you don't have to watch the servers every minute (after
the first year or so), but you definitely want to keep an eye on things you've
changed recently. You don't release code late at night and then go home.  
  
**Watching Users**  
  
With server-based software, you're in closer touch with your code. You can
also be in closer touch with your users. Intuit is famous for introducing
themselves to customers at retail stores and asking to follow them home. If
you've ever watched someone use your software for the first time, you know
what surprises must have awaited them.  
  
Software should do what users think it will. But you can't have any idea what
users will be thinking, believe me, until you watch them. And server-based
software gives you unprecedented information about their behavior. You're not
limited to small, artificial focus groups. You can see every click made by
every user. You have to consider carefully what you're going to look at,
because you don't want to violate users' privacy, but even the most general
statistical sampling can be very useful.  
  
When you have the users on your server, you don't have to rely on benchmarks,
for example. Benchmarks are simulated users. With server-based software, you
can watch actual users. To decide what to optimize, just log into a server and
see what's consuming all the CPU. And you know when to stop optimizing too: we
eventually got the Viaweb editor to the point where it was memory-bound rather
than CPU-bound, and since there was nothing we could do to decrease the size
of users' data (well, nothing easy), we knew we might as well stop there.  
  
Efficiency matters for server-based software, because you're paying for the
hardware. The number of users you can support per server is the divisor of
your capital cost, so if you can make your software very efficient you can
undersell competitors and still make a profit. At Viaweb we got the capital
cost per user down to about $5. It would be less now, probably less than the
cost of sending them the first month's bill. Hardware is free now, if your
software is reasonably efficient.  
  
Watching users can guide you in design as well as optimization. Viaweb had a
scripting language called RTML that let advanced users define their own page
styles. We found that RTML became a kind of suggestion box, because users only
used it when the predefined page styles couldn't do what they wanted.
Originally the editor put button bars across the page, for example, but after
a number of users used RTML to put buttons down the left
[side](https://sep.turbifycdn.com/ca/I/paulgraham_1656_3563), we made that an
option (in fact the default) in the predefined page styles.  
  
Finally, by watching users you can often tell when they're in trouble. And
since the customer is always right, that's a sign of something you need to
fix. At Viaweb the key to getting users was the online test drive. It was not
just a series of slides built by marketing people. In our test drive, users
actually used the software. It took about five minutes, and at the end of it
they had built a real, working store.  
  
The test drive was the way we got nearly all our new users. I think it will be
the same for most Web-based applications. If users can get through a test
drive successfully, they'll like the product. If they get confused or bored,
they won't. So anything we could do to get more people through the test drive
would increase our growth rate.  
  
I studied click trails of people taking the test drive and found that at a
certain step they would get confused and click on the browser's Back button.
(If you try writing Web-based applications, you'll find that the Back button
becomes one of your most interesting philosophical problems.) So I added a
message at that point, telling users that they were nearly finished, and
reminding them not to click on the Back button. Another great thing about Web-
based software is that you get instant feedback from changes: the number of
people completing the test drive rose immediately from 60% to 90%. And since
the number of new users was a function of the number of completed test drives,
our revenue growth increased by 50%, just from that change.  
  
**Money**  
  
In the early 1990s I read an article in which someone said that software was a
subscription business. At first this seemed a very cynical statement. But
later I realized that it reflects reality: software development is an ongoing
process. I think it's cleaner if you openly charge subscription fees, instead
of forcing people to keep buying and installing new versions so that they'll
keep paying you. And fortunately, subscriptions are the natural way to bill
for Web-based applications.  
  
Hosting applications is an area where companies will play a role that is not
likely to be filled by freeware. Hosting applications is a lot of stress, and
has real expenses. No one is going to want to do it for free.  
  
For companies, Web-based applications are an ideal source of revenue. Instead
of starting each quarter with a blank slate, you have a recurring revenue
stream. Because your software evolves gradually, you don't have to worry that
a new model will flop; there never need be a new model, per se, and if you do
something to the software that users hate, you'll know right away. You have no
trouble with uncollectable bills; if someone won't pay you can just turn off
the service. And there is no possibility of piracy.  
  
That last "advantage" may turn out to be a problem. Some amount of piracy is
to the advantage of software companies. If some user really would not have
bought your software at any price, you haven't lost anything if he uses a
pirated copy. In fact you gain, because he is one more user helping to make
your software the standard-- or who might buy a copy later, when he graduates
from high school.  
  
When they can, companies like to do something called price discrimination,
which means charging each customer as much as they can afford. [8] Software is
particularly suitable for price discrimination, because the marginal cost is
close to zero. This is why some software costs more to run on Suns than on
Intel boxes: a company that uses Suns is not interested in saving money and
can safely be charged more. Piracy is effectively the lowest tier of price
discrimination. I think that software companies understand this and
deliberately turn a blind eye to some kinds of piracy. [9] With server-based
software they are going to have to come up with some other solution.  
  
Web-based software sells well, especially in comparison to desktop software,
because it's easy to buy. You might think that people decide to buy something,
and then buy it, as two separate steps. That's what I thought before Viaweb,
to the extent I thought about the question at all. In fact the second step can
propagate back into the first: if something is hard to buy, people will change
their mind about whether they wanted it. And vice versa: you'll sell more of
something when it's easy to buy. I buy more books because Amazon exists. Web-
based software is just about the easiest thing in the world to buy, especially
if you have just done an online demo. Users should not have to do much more
than enter a credit card number. (Make them do more at your peril.)  
  
Sometimes Web-based software is offered through ISPs acting as resellers. This
is a bad idea. You have to be administering the servers, because you need to
be constantly improving both hardware and software. If you give up direct
control of the servers, you give up most of the advantages of developing Web-
based applications.  
  
Several of our competitors shot themselves in the foot this way-- usually, I
think, because they were overrun by suits who were excited about this huge
potential channel, and didn't realize that it would ruin the product they
hoped to sell through it. Selling Web-based software through ISPs is like
selling sushi through vending machines.  
  
**Customers**  
  
Who will the customers be? At Viaweb they were initially individuals and
smaller companies, and I think this will be the rule with Web-based
applications. These are the users who are ready to try new things, partly
because they're more flexible, and partly because they want the lower costs of
new technology.  
  
Web-based applications will often be the best thing for big companies too
(though they'll be slow to realize it). The best intranet is the Internet. If
a company uses true Web-based applications, the software will work better, the
servers will be better administered, and employees will have access to the
system from anywhere.  
  
The argument against this approach usually hinges on security: if access is
easier for employees, it will be for bad guys too. Some larger merchants were
reluctant to use Viaweb because they thought customers' credit card
information would be safer on their own servers. It was not easy to make this
point diplomatically, but in fact the data was almost certainly safer in our
hands than theirs. Who can hire better people to manage security, a technology
startup whose whole business is running servers, or a clothing retailer? Not
only did we have better people worrying about security, we worried more about
it. If someone broke into the clothing retailer's servers, it would affect at
most one merchant, could probably be hushed up, and in the worst case might
get one person fired. If someone broke into ours, it could affect thousands of
merchants, would probably end up as news on CNet, and could put us out of
business.  
  
If you want to keep your money safe, do you keep it under your mattress at
home, or put it in a bank? This argument applies to every aspect of server
administration: not just security, but uptime, bandwidth, load management,
backups, etc. Our existence depended on doing these things right. Server
problems were the big no-no for us, like a dangerous toy would be for a toy
maker, or a salmonella outbreak for a food processor.  
  
A big company that uses Web-based applications is to that extent outsourcing
IT. Drastic as it sounds, I think this is generally a good idea. Companies are
likely to get better service this way than they would from in-house system
administrators. System administrators can become cranky and unresponsive
because they're not directly exposed to competitive pressure: a salesman has
to deal with customers, and a developer has to deal with competitors'
software, but a system administrator, like an old bachelor, has few external
forces to keep him in line. [10] At Viaweb we had external forces in plenty to
keep us in line. The people calling us were customers, not just co-workers. If
a server got wedged, we jumped; just thinking about it gives me a jolt of
adrenaline, years later.  
  
So Web-based applications will ordinarily be the right answer for big
companies too. They will be the last to realize it, however, just as they were
with desktop computers. And partly for the same reason: it will be worth a lot
of money to convince big companies that they need something more expensive.  
  
There is always a tendency for rich customers to buy expensive solutions, even
when cheap solutions are better, because the people offering expensive
solutions can spend more to sell them. At Viaweb we were always up against
this. We lost several high-end merchants to Web consulting firms who convinced
them they'd be better off if they paid half a million dollars for a custom-
made online store on their own server. They were, as a rule, not better off,
as more than one discovered when Christmas shopping season came around and
loads rose on their server. Viaweb was a lot more sophisticated than what most
of these merchants got, but we couldn't afford to tell them. At $300 a month,
we couldn't afford to send a team of well-dressed and authoritative-sounding
people to make presentations to customers.  
  
A large part of what big companies pay extra for is the cost of selling
expensive things to them. (If the Defense Department pays a thousand dollars
for toilet seats, it's partly because it costs a lot to sell toilet seats for
a thousand dollars.) And this is one reason intranet software will continue to
thrive, even though it is probably a bad idea. It's simply more expensive.
There is nothing you can do about this conundrum, so the best plan is to go
for the smaller customers first. The rest will come in time.  
  
**Son of Server**  
  
Running software on the server is nothing new. In fact it's the old model:
mainframe applications are all server-based. If server-based software is such
a good idea, why did it lose last time? Why did desktop computers eclipse
mainframes?  
  
At first desktop computers didn't look like much of a threat. The first users
were all hackers-- or hobbyists, as they were called then. They liked
microcomputers because they were cheap. For the first time, you could have
your own computer. The phrase "personal computer" is part of the language now,
but when it was first used it had a deliberately audacious sound, like the
phrase "personal satellite" would today.  
  
Why did desktop computers take over? I think it was because they had better
software. And I think the reason microcomputer software was better was that it
could be written by small companies.  
  
I don't think many people realize how fragile and tentative startups are in
the earliest stage. Many startups begin almost by accident-- as a couple guys,
either with day jobs or in school, writing a prototype of something that
might, if it looks promising, turn into a company. At this larval stage, any
significant obstacle will stop the startup dead in its tracks. Writing
mainframe software required too much commitment up front. Development machines
were expensive, and because the customers would be big companies, you'd need
an impressive-looking sales force to sell it to them. Starting a startup to
write mainframe software would be a much more serious undertaking than just
hacking something together on your Apple II in the evenings. And so you didn't
get a lot of startups writing mainframe applications.  
  
The arrival of desktop computers inspired a lot of new software, because
writing applications for them seemed an attainable goal to larval startups.
Development was cheap, and the customers would be individual people that you
could reach through computer stores or even by mail-order.  
  
The application that pushed desktop computers out into the mainstream was
[VisiCalc](http://www.bricklin.com/visicalc.htm), the first spreadsheet. It
was written by two guys working in an attic, and yet did things no mainframe
software could do. [11] VisiCalc was such an advance, in its time, that people
bought Apple IIs just to run it. And this was the beginning of a trend:
desktop computers won because startups wrote software for them.  
  
It looks as if server-based software will be good this time around, because
startups will write it. Computers are so cheap now that you can get started,
as we did, using a desktop computer as a server. Inexpensive processors have
eaten the workstation market (you rarely even hear the word now) and are most
of the way through the server market; Yahoo's servers, which deal with loads
as high as any on the Internet, all have the same inexpensive Intel processors
that you have in your desktop machine. And once you've written the software,
all you need to sell it is a Web site. Nearly all our users came direct to our
site through word of mouth and references in the press. [12]  
  
Viaweb was a typical larval startup. We were terrified of starting a company,
and for the first few months comforted ourselves by treating the whole thing
as an experiment that we might call off at any moment. Fortunately, there were
few obstacles except technical ones. While we were writing the software, our
Web server was the same desktop machine we used for development, connected to
the outside world by a dialup line. Our only expenses in that phase were food
and rent.  
  
There is all the more reason for startups to write Web-based software now,
because writing desktop software has become a lot less fun. If you want to
write desktop software now you do it on Microsoft's terms, calling their APIs
and working around their buggy OS. And if you manage to write something that
takes off, you may find that you were merely doing market research for
Microsoft.  
  
If a company wants to make a platform that startups will build on, they have
to make it something that hackers themselves will want to use. That means it
has to be inexpensive and well-designed. The Mac was popular with hackers when
it first came out, and a lot of them wrote software for it. [13] You see this
less with Windows, because hackers don't use it. The kind of people who are
good at writing software tend to be running Linux or FreeBSD now.  
  
I don't think we would have started a startup to write desktop software,
because desktop software has to run on Windows, and before we could write
software for Windows we'd have to use it. The Web let us do an end-run around
Windows, and deliver software running on Unix direct to users through the
browser. That is a liberating prospect, a lot like the arrival of PCs twenty-
five years ago.  
  
**Microsoft**  
  
Back when desktop computers arrived, IBM was the giant that everyone was
afraid of. It's hard to imagine now, but I remember the feeling very well. Now
the frightening giant is Microsoft, and I don't think they are as blind to the
threat facing them as IBM was. After all, Microsoft deliberately built their
business in IBM's blind spot.  
  
I mentioned earlier that my mother doesn't really need a desktop computer.
Most users probably don't. That's a problem for Microsoft, and they know it.
If applications run on remote servers, no one needs Windows. What will
Microsoft do? Will they be able to use their control of the desktop to
prevent, or constrain, this new generation of software?  
  
My guess is that Microsoft will develop some kind of server/desktop hybrid,
where the operating system works together with servers they control. At a
minimum, files will be centrally available for users who want that. I don't
expect Microsoft to go all the way to the extreme of doing the computations on
the server, with only a browser for a client, if they can avoid it. If you
only need a browser for a client, you don't need Microsoft on the client, and
if Microsoft doesn't control the client, they can't push users towards their
server-based applications.  
  
I think Microsoft will have a hard time keeping the genie in the bottle. There
will be too many different types of clients for them to control them all. And
if Microsoft's applications only work with some clients, competitors will be
able to trump them by offering applications that work from any client. [14]  
  
In a world of Web-based applications, there is no automatic place for
Microsoft. They may succeed in making themselves a place, but I don't think
they'll dominate this new world as they did the world of desktop applications.  
  
It's not so much that a competitor will trip them up as that they will trip
over themselves. With the rise of Web-based software, they will be facing not
just technical problems but their own wishful thinking. What they need to do
is cannibalize their existing business, and I can't see them facing that. The
same single-mindedness that has brought them this far will now be working
against them. IBM was in exactly the same situation, and they could not master
it. IBM made a late and half-hearted entry into the microcomputer business
because they were ambivalent about threatening their cash cow, mainframe
computing. Microsoft will likewise be hampered by wanting to save the desktop.
A cash cow can be a damned heavy monkey on your back.  
  
I'm not saying that no one will dominate server-based applications. Someone
probably will eventually. But I think that there will be a good long period of
cheerful chaos, just as there was in the early days of microcomputers. That
was a good time for startups. Lots of small companies flourished, and did it
by making cool things.  
  
**Startups but More So**  
  
The classic startup is fast and informal, with few people and little money.
Those few people work very hard, and technology magnifies the effect of the
decisions they make. If they win, they win big.  
  
In a startup writing Web-based applications, everything you associate with
startups is taken to an extreme. You can write and launch a product with even
fewer people and even less money. You have to be even faster, and you can get
away with being more informal. You can literally launch your product as three
guys sitting in the living room of an apartment, and a server collocated at an
ISP. We did.  
  
Over time the teams have gotten smaller, faster, and more informal. In 1960,
software development meant a roomful of men with horn rimmed glasses and
narrow black neckties, industriously writing ten lines of code a day on IBM
coding forms. In 1980, it was a team of eight to ten people wearing jeans to
the office and typing into vt100s. Now it's a couple of guys sitting in a
living room with laptops. (And jeans turn out not to be the last word in
informality.)  
  
Startups are stressful, and this, unfortunately, is also taken to an extreme
with Web-based applications. Many software companies, especially at the
beginning, have periods where the developers slept under their desks and so
on. The alarming thing about Web-based software is that there is nothing to
prevent this becoming the default. The stories about sleeping under desks
usually end: then at last we shipped it and we all went home and slept for a
week. Web-based software never ships. You can work 16-hour days for as long as
you want to. And because you can, and your competitors can, you tend to be
forced to. You can, so you must. It's Parkinson's Law running in reverse.  
  
The worst thing is not the hours but the responsibility. Programmers and
system administrators traditionally each have their own separate worries.
Programmers have to worry about bugs, and system administrators have to worry
about infrastructure. Programmers may spend a long day up to their elbows in
source code, but at some point they get to go home and forget about it. System
administrators never quite leave the job behind, but when they do get paged at
4:00 AM, they don't usually have to do anything very complicated. With Web-
based applications, these two kinds of stress get combined. The programmers
become system administrators, but without the sharply defined limits that
ordinarily make the job bearable.  
  
At Viaweb we spent the first six months just writing software. We worked the
usual long hours of an early startup. In a desktop software company, this
would have been the part where we were working hard, but it felt like a
vacation compared to the next phase, when we took users onto our server. The
second biggest benefit of selling Viaweb to Yahoo (after the money) was to be
able to dump ultimate responsibility for the whole thing onto the shoulders of
a big company.  
  
Desktop software forces users to become system administrators. Web-based
software forces programmers to. There is less stress in total, but more for
the programmers. That's not necessarily bad news. If you're a startup
competing with a big company, it's good news. [15] Web-based applications
offer a straightforward way to outwork your competitors. No startup asks for
more.  
  
**Just Good Enough**  
  
One thing that might deter you from writing Web-based applications is the
lameness of Web pages as a UI. That is a problem, I admit. There were a few
things we would have _really_ liked to add to HTML and HTTP. What matters,
though, is that Web pages are just good enough.  
  
There is a parallel here with the first microcomputers. The processors in
those machines weren't actually intended to be the CPUs of computers. They
were designed to be used in things like traffic lights. But guys like Ed
Roberts, who designed the [Altair](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altair_8800),
realized that they were just good enough. You could combine one of these chips
with some memory (256 bytes in the first Altair), and front panel switches,
and you'd have a working computer. Being able to have your own computer was so
exciting that there were plenty of people who wanted to buy them, however
limited.  
  
Web pages weren't designed to be a UI for applications, but they're just good
enough. And for a significant number of users, software that you can use from
any browser will be enough of a win in itself to outweigh any awkwardness in
the UI. Maybe you can't write the best-looking spreadsheet using HTML, but you
can write a spreadsheet that several people can use simultaneously from
different locations without special client software, or that can incorporate
live data feeds, or that can page you when certain conditions are triggered.
More importantly, you can write new kinds of applications that don't even have
names yet. VisiCalc was not merely a microcomputer version of a mainframe
application, after all-- it was a new type of application.  
  
Of course, server-based applications don't have to be Web-based. You could
have some other kind of client. But I'm pretty sure that's a bad idea. It
would be very convenient if you could assume that everyone would install your
client-- so convenient that you could easily convince yourself that they all
would-- but if they don't, you're hosed. Because Web-based software assumes
nothing about the client, it will work anywhere the Web works. That's a big
advantage already, and the advantage will grow as new Web devices proliferate.
Users will like you because your software just works, and your life will be
easier because you won't have to tweak it for every new client.  [16]  
  
I feel like I've watched the evolution of the Web as closely as anyone, and I
can't predict what's going to happen with clients. Convergence is probably
coming, but where? I can't pick a winner. One thing I can predict is conflict
between AOL and Microsoft. Whatever Microsoft's .NET turns out to be, it will
probably involve connecting the desktop to servers. Unless AOL fights back,
they will either be pushed aside or turned into a pipe between Microsoft
client and server software. If Microsoft and AOL get into a client war, the
only thing sure to work on both will be browsing the Web, meaning Web-based
applications will be the only kind that work everywhere.  
  
How will it all play out? I don't know. And you don't have to know if you bet
on Web-based applications. No one can break that without breaking browsing.
The Web may not be the only way to deliver software, but it's one that works
now and will continue to work for a long time. Web-based applications are
cheap to develop, and easy for even the smallest startup to deliver. They're a
lot of work, and of a particularly stressful kind, but that only makes the
odds better for startups.  
  
**Why Not?**  
  
E. B. White was amused to learn from a farmer friend that many electrified
fences don't have any current running through them. The cows apparently learn
to stay away from them, and after that you don't need the current. "Rise up,
cows!" he wrote, "Take your liberty while despots snore!"  
  
If you're a hacker who has thought of one day starting a startup, there are
probably two things keeping you from doing it. One is that you don't know
anything about business. The other is that you're afraid of competition.
Neither of these fences have any current in them.  
  
There are only two things you have to know about business: build something
users love, and make more than you spend. If you get these two right, you'll
be ahead of most startups. You can figure out the rest as you go.  
  
You may not at first make more than you spend, but as long as the gap is
closing fast enough you'll be ok. If you start out underfunded, it will at
least encourage a habit of frugality. The less you spend, the easier it is to
make more than you spend. Fortunately, it can be very cheap to launch a Web-
based application. We launched on under $10,000, and it would be even cheaper
today. We had to spend thousands on a server, and thousands more to get SSL.
(The only company selling SSL software at the time was Netscape.) Now you can
rent a much more powerful server, with SSL included, for less than we paid for
bandwidth alone. You could launch a Web-based application now for less than
the cost of a fancy office chair.  
  
As for building something users love, here are some general tips. Start by
making something clean and simple that you would want to use yourself. Get a
version 1.0 out fast, then continue to improve the software, listening closely
to the users as you do. The customer is always right, but different customers
are right about different things; the least sophisticated users show you what
you need to simplify and clarify, and the most sophisticated tell you what
features you need to add. The best thing software can be is easy, but the way
to do this is to get the defaults right, not to limit users' choices. Don't
get complacent if your competitors' software is lame; the standard to compare
your software to is what it could be, not what your current competitors happen
to have. Use your software yourself, all the time. Viaweb was supposed to be
an online store builder, but we used it to make our own site too. Don't listen
to marketing people or designers or product managers just because of their job
titles. If they have good ideas, use them, but it's up to you to decide;
software has to be designed by hackers who understand design, not designers
who know a little about software. If you can't design software as well as
implement it, don't start a startup.  
  
Now let's talk about competition. What you're afraid of is not presumably
groups of hackers like you, but actual companies, with offices and business
plans and salesmen and so on, right? Well, they are more afraid of you than
you are of them, and they're right. It's a lot easier for a couple of hackers
to figure out how to rent office space or hire sales people than it is for a
company of any size to get software written. I've been on both sides, and I
know. When Viaweb was bought by Yahoo, I suddenly found myself working for a
big company, and it was like trying to run through waist-deep water.  
  
I don't mean to disparage Yahoo. They had some good hackers, and the top
management were real butt-kickers. For a big company, they were exceptional.
But they were still only about a tenth as productive as a small startup. No
big company can do much better than that. What's scary about Microsoft is that
a company so big can develop software at all. They're like a mountain that can
walk.  
  
Don't be intimidated. You can do as much that Microsoft can't as they can do
that you can't. And no one can stop you. You don't have to ask anyone's
permission to develop Web-based applications. You don't have to do licensing
deals, or get shelf space in retail stores, or grovel to have your application
bundled with the OS. You can deliver software right to the browser, and no one
can get between you and potential users without preventing them from browsing
the Web.  
  
You may not believe it, but I promise you, Microsoft is scared of you. The
complacent middle managers may not be, but Bill is, because he was you once,
back in 1975, the last time a new way of delivering software appeared.  
  
  
  
  
  
**Notes**  
  
[1] Realizing that much of the money is in the services, companies building
lightweight clients have usually tried to combine the hardware with an [online
service](http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1006-200-3622600.html). This approach has
not worked well, partly because you need two different kinds of companies to
build consumer electronics and to run an online service, and partly because
users hate the idea. Giving away the razor and making money on the blades may
work for Gillette, but a razor is much smaller commitment than a Web terminal.
Cell phone handset makers are satisfied to sell hardware without trying to
capture the service revenue as well. That should probably be the model for
Internet clients too. If someone just sold a nice-looking little box with a
Web browser that you could use to connect through any ISP, every technophobe
in the country would buy one.  
  
[2] Security always depends more on not screwing up than any design decision,
but the nature of server-based software will make developers pay more
attention to not screwing up. Compromising a server could cause such damage
that ASPs (that want to stay in business) are likely to be careful about
security.  
  
[3] In 1995, when we started Viaweb, Java applets were supposed to be the
technology everyone was going to use to develop server-based applications.
Applets seemed to us an old-fashioned idea. Download programs to run on the
client? Simpler just to go all the way and run the programs on the server. We
wasted little time on applets, but countless other startups must have been
lured into this tar pit. Few can have escaped alive, or Microsoft could not
have gotten away with dropping Java in the most recent version of Explorer.  
  
[4] This point is due to Trevor Blackwell, who adds "the cost of writing
software goes up more than linearly with its size. Perhaps this is mainly due
to fixing old bugs, and the cost can be more linear if all bugs are found
quickly."  
  
[5] The hardest kind of bug to find may be a variant of compound bug where one
bug happens to compensate for another. When you fix one bug, the other becomes
visible. But it will seem as if the fix is at fault, since that was the last
thing you changed.  
  
[6] Within Viaweb we once had a contest to describe the worst thing about our
software. Two customer support people tied for first prize with entries I
still shiver to recall. We fixed both problems immediately.  
  
[7] Robert Morris wrote the ordering system, which shoppers used to place
orders. Trevor Blackwell wrote the image generator and the manager, which
merchants used to retrieve orders, view statistics, and configure domain names
etc. I wrote the editor, which merchants used to build their sites. The
ordering system and image generator were written in C and C++, the manager
mostly in Perl, and the editor in [Lisp](avg.html).  
  
[8] Price discrimination is so pervasive (how often have you heard a retailer
claim that their buying power meant lower prices for you?) that I was
surprised to find it was outlawed in the U.S. by the Robinson-Patman Act of
1936. This law does not appear to be vigorously enforced.  
  
[9] In _No Logo,_ Naomi Klein says that clothing brands favored by "urban
youth" do not try too hard to prevent shoplifting because in their target
market the shoplifters are also the fashion leaders.  
  
[10] Companies often wonder what to outsource and what not to. One possible
answer: outsource any job that's not directly exposed to competitive pressure,
because outsourcing it will thereby expose it to competitive pressure.  
  
[11] The two guys were Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston. Dan wrote a prototype
in Basic in a couple days, then over the course of the next year they worked
together (mostly at night) to make a more powerful version written in 6502
machine language. Dan was at Harvard Business School at the time and Bob
nominally had a day job writing software. "There was no great risk in doing a
business," Bob wrote, "If it failed it failed. No big deal."  
  
[12] It's not quite as easy as I make it sound. It took a painfully long time
for word of mouth to get going, and we did not start to get a lot of press
coverage until we hired a [PR firm](http://www.schwartz-pr.com) (admittedly
the best in the business) for $16,000 per month. However, it was true that the
only significant channel was our own Web site.  
  
[13] If the Mac was so great, why did it lose? Cost, again. Microsoft
concentrated on the software business, and unleashed a swarm of cheap
component suppliers on Apple hardware. It did not help, either, that suits
took over during a critical period.  
  
[14] One thing that would help Web-based applications, and help keep the next
generation of software from being overshadowed by Microsoft, would be a good
open-source browser. Mozilla is open-source but seems to have suffered from
having been corporate software for so long. A small, fast browser that was
actively maintained would be a great thing in itself, and would probably also
encourage companies to build little Web appliances.  
  
Among other things, a proper open-source browser would cause HTTP and HTML to
continue to evolve (as e.g. Perl has). It would help Web-based applications
greatly to be able to distinguish between selecting a link and following it;
all you'd need to do this would be a trivial enhancement of HTTP, to allow
multiple urls in a request. Cascading menus would also be good.  
  
If you want to change the world, write a new Mosaic. Think it's too late? In
1998 a lot of people thought it was too late to launch a new search engine,
but Google proved them wrong. There is always room for something new if the
current options suck enough. Make sure it works on all the free OSes first--
new things start with their users.  
  
[15] Trevor Blackwell, who probably knows more about this from personal
experience than anyone, writes:  
  
"I would go farther in saying that because server-based software is so hard on
the programmers, it causes a fundamental economic shift away from large
companies. It requires the kind of intensity and dedication from programmers
that they will only be willing to provide when it's their own company.
Software companies can hire skilled people to work in a not-too-demanding
environment, and can hire unskilled people to endure hardships, but they can't
hire highly skilled people to bust their asses. Since capital is no longer
needed, big companies have little to bring to the table."  
  
[16] In the original version of this essay, I advised avoiding Javascript.
That was a good plan in 2001, but Javascript now works.  
  
**Thanks** to Sarah Harlin, Trevor Blackwell, Robert Morris, Eric Raymond, Ken
Anderson, and Dan Giffin for reading drafts of this paper; to Dan Bricklin and
Bob Frankston for information about VisiCalc; and again to Ken Anderson for
inviting me to speak at BBN.  
  
You'll find this essay and 14 others in [**_Hackers &
Painters_**](hackpaint.html).  
  
  

