Paper—An Emerging Technology: Augmented Reality to Promote Learning An Emerging Technology: Augmented Reality to Promote Learning

This study aims to determine the benefits and limitations of AR applications in computer hardware education, when used as a supplementary technology, as well as examining their impact on reflective thinking skills. The study was designed according to pre-test post-test research model with experimental and control groups. The teacher candidates studied the 3D visuals both in and out of the classroom by scanning the markers in their books. In addition, they watched educational animations and videos on required subjects. As a result, in this study where Augmented Reality applications assisted with reflective learning skills were implemented in a computer hardware course, teacher candidates generally reported positive views and suggestions regarding AR applications. Keywords—Augmented reality, reflective learning, hardware course, teacher

Introduction
Although traditional teaching methods have produced many successful outcomes, nowadays educational institutions are in search of methods which will improve students' intellectual capacities and their learning experiences [1]. Nincarean, Alia, Halim, & Rahman [2] state that even though existing methods work, there is an increasing interest among both educators and researchers to examine more practical methods, particularly since the proliferation of technology and its integration into education gained significance. The manifestation of digital technology has resulted in an escalation in the use of e-learning in higher education. Mayer [3], a supporter of the multimedia theory, states that presenting texts together with visuals enables students to form both verbal and cognitive models and also a connection between the two. Emerging tools, social media and virtual environments are providing both students and educators with the opportunity to create new learning environments [4]. The current developments in technology have had a positive impact on the interaction of media content and the quality of learning platforms; thus, there has been an immense increase in the usage of e-learning tools. In fact, technology has become integrated into education and the results have a positive impact on the teaching-learning process [5]. Moreover, previous studies show that technology-assisted learning creates a more innovative teaching and learning styles [6]. The richness of the digital learning resources and communication tools in e-learning promotes reflective engagement in the learning process [7;8]. Mobile devices, in particular, have become a part of daily lives and their applications in education have been discovered by educators and researchers. Mobile applications which can be used in education, learning management systems (LMS) compatible with mobiles and mobile Augmented Reality applications are all examples of these discoveries. Augmented Reality is a developing technology which has the potential to influence the teaching-learning process [2]. Developments in Augmented Reality for mobile devices are rapidly increasing and this is reflected the increase in the usage of laptops worldwide. As mentioned by Horizon Report: Higher Education Edition, [9] Augmented Reality was one of the most developed emerging technologies in 2016. Bal and Bicen [10] state that the integration of QR codes into augmented reality technologies promotes learning in a shorter period of time via the usage of visuals. An analysis of Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department student grades reveals that the success rate in the computer hardware courses is low. With the integration of computers into every field, hardware knowledge has increasingly become significant. Hardware and software knowledge are regarded as the minimum knowledge any Computer Education and Instructional Technology Department graduate should have. Kehagias [11] states that students should think of computers as a magical black box which runs programmes automatically. Hence, computer hardware and software courses are regarded as an important part of undergraduate syllabi. The IEEE Computer Society and Association approve that these courses are a significant part of the curriculum in departments related to computer science. Zhoua [12] states that computer hardware courses include microcomputer principle, assembly language and interface technology, which are all difficult for students to apply. Liu [13] in his study claims that the role of basic hardware courses and the teaching models implemented are not sufficient enough to develop students' skills. Additionally, Chen [14] emphasizes the importance of implementing a learner-centered approach in applied courses in computer technologies departments. Moreover, there are many other studies which claim that the implementation of a student-centered approach to the teaching of computer science courses would lead to a higher success rate. Tok [15] states that reflective thinking has been identified as a general skill that teachers need to be proficient in; and thus, to enable a satisfactory proficiency level in this skill, it is important that teacher training courses include information on reflective thinking and there is an improved attitude towards it. Bosque, Martinez, & Torres, [16] indicated that in their study the application of augmented reality as a strategy to increase the percentage of achievement of the students in the structured programming subject is consistent with the learning outcomes. However, a literature review of augmented reality in hardware courses revealed no study with a concrete conclusion.
This study aims to determine the benefits and limitations of AR applications in computer hardware education, when used as a supplementary technology, as well as examining their impact on reflective thinking skills. It is believed that Computer Education and Instructional Technologies students' reflective learning skills and their views on using AR applications in hardware courses are important because these students, who are receiving an education to ensure the integration of technology into learning environments and ensure its effective use, will one day become teachers themselves.

2
Theoretical Background

Augmented reality
Mehler-Bicher et al. [17] state that despite the continual increase of AR applications and the rapid advancement of the existing technology, a consistent definition of AR does not exist. In a most general term, augmented reality (AR) is defined as "a real world context that is dynamically overlaid with coherent location or context sensitive virtual information" [19]. Nincarean et al. [2] define augmented reality applications as the integration of virtual objects into real scenes.
Augmented reality applications must have three basic characteristics: (1) the combination of virtual and real objects in a real environment (2) an interactive study in a real-time environment (3) a consistency between the real and virtual objects [18]. In a study [20] it is emphasized that augmented reality is studied under two categories which are: optical and video-based technologies. The difference between the two technologies is the way the scene integrating the real and the virtual world is viewed. While in optical systems the scene is shown in the real world via glasses, in videobased technologies the scene is showed on a monitor or mobile device screen. Alkhattabi [5] states that it is more accurate to think of AR applications as a concept rather than a type of technology. Furthermore, Alkhattabi indicates that AR does not substitute real objects by placing them into a real environment; instead, it has a supportive role in students' experiences and enables them to benefit from the real-life opportunities it provides. Similarly, Nincarean et al. [2] claim that augmented reality environments increase student-student and student-teacher interaction and enable cooperative learning; hence, they increase student motivation. With the increase of mobile device usage so has the potential to use Augmented Reality applications on these devices. In some studies, Augmented Reality applications have been used with mobile devices by being integrated with QR codes. According to Wang et. al. [4], the utilization of AR applications in different fields of computer science has supported the increase in student motivation to learn the course content and also in the increase in their pedagogical strategies. Furthermore, researchers claim that augmented reality environments supported by mobile devices, where learning takes place with students involving their emotions and prior knowledge, can create more effective learning environments. According to Schrier [21] by using augmented reality applications, students can gain many 21 st century skills, such as interpretation, critical thinking, problem-solving, information management, group work and flexibility. Students should use Augmented Reality applications both at home and during lessons and give feedback to stimulate future studies. QR codes enable Scavenger hunts to be used on smartphones too, for example, learn mathematics or library categorization. Students can help AR technology developers by sharing their experiences with them. While learning the digestive system, students could use AR applications on their mobile phones and achieve their learning goals easily [22].
Currently there are some limitations to the use of Augment Reality; these are as follows: student mobile phones may not be compatible with augmented reality applications, lessons may not be able to be conducted effectively if teachers do not have the necessary technological skills [23]; both teachers and students can be trained to integrate these technologies into education.

Reflective Thinking
Reflective thinking, which is an approach that has been profoundly studied by researchers [24] enables the integration of theory and application, thought and practice and is defined as a process of reaching new values by the combination of past experiences, practices and theories [25]. Similarly, another researcher [26] explains reflection in education as students concentrating on a subject and the conscious analysis of it. On the other hand, a researcher [27] describes reflection as the whole of examination methods and problem solution activities. Some researchers [28] state that reflective learning encourages learners to gain a deeper understanding of the course content and that it provides them with the opportunity to comprehend their own learning process. Moreover, reflective learning aims to develop life-long learning skills by using learners' prior knowledge and enabling them to gain new experiences. Within the last 20 years, the literature on reflection abounds with examples of discussions on reflection developing learners' skills and promoting a deeper understanding [29]; a researcher [30] draws attention to teacher training, claiming that reflective tasks are a prominent paradigm in teacher training. Along similar lines, a researcher [31] explains that with this model of teaching, teachers are also able to discover their own methods and restructure their own knowledge. In addition to this, some researchers [32] report that the reflective teaching method will enable teachers to be analytical of their own teaching methods, and thus, will help them gain the experience of improving their teaching methods. It is supported by a researcher [30] who states reflective methods raise teachers' awareness of teaching, and therefore, have a positive influence on teaching methods. Authors in an article [33] point out that it is highly important for students that teachers use reflective methods in the classroom; yet, add that reflective thinking is a challenging skill for students to achieve. In short, teachers knowing strategies to implement reflective activities in class has a positive impact on students' reflective thinking skills. Reflective teaching, which has brought a new perspective to the learning-teaching process, enables teachers to improve their own teaching activities in-line with student needs [34]. Reflective teaching, which is considered to be a significant factor in improving students' learning habits and in the cooperation among teachers [35], also plays an important role in training teacher candidates. Reflection, which is particularly useful in helping teacher candidates to think like a teacher, is viewed as an inseparable component of teacher training [36]. In the same study authors emphasize that there are a very limited number of studies conducted to answer the query: "how to teach reflection". Harford and MacRuairc [43] state that although most teachers are aware of the origins and the development of the implementation of reflection and its significance, they are inexperienced in implementing it themselves. In this regard, it is believed that this study, which presents reflective implementations, will benefit teacher candidates and will contribute to the teaching profession.

Method
This study is a mixed method in which qualitative and quantitative data are used together. The study was designed according to pre-test post-test research model with experimental and control groups. Table 1 illustrates the design of the study. 62 students studying at the Computer Education and Instructional Technology department and taking the hardware course participated in the study. Students were assigned to experimental and control groups by looking at the last two digits of their student numbers; students' whose student number ended in an even number were assigned to the control group and students who had an odd number were assigned to the experimental group. Thus, there were 30 teacher candidates in the experimental group and 32 in the control group. 32% of the study participants were female and 68% were male. The teacher candidates, who were on average 22 years of age, will work at secondary school level institutions after they graduate. In order to identify the impact of reflective teaching methods, assisted with Augmented Reality, on the teacher candidates' reflective thinking skills, a "Reflective Thinking" scale and "Online Journals" were used, and an "interview form" was used to identify the teacher candidates' feelings and views regarding the execution of the hardware course using AR.

Reflective thinking scale
This study, which AR applications were implemented, aimed to identify the influence of AR activities on teacher candidates' reflective thinking skills. In the study, the "reflective thinking scale" developed in the year 2000 by Kember and friends [37], was used. The scale consists of 4 dimensions and 16 statements; the dimensions are as follows: "habitual action (1-5-9-13)", "understanding (2-6-10-14)", "reflection (3-7-11-15)" and "critical reflection (4-8-12-16)". Perkowska-Klejman [38] reflection levels have been explained in the following table. In addition, the whole scale's Cronbach's alpha value was calculated as (0.89). These item features are on a 5-point response scale (1 = definitely disagree; 5 = definitely agree). Some of the statements in the scale are as follows: Habitual actions: "In this course, we do things so many times that I have started doing them without thinking", Understanding: "I need to understand the material taught by the teacher in order to perform practical tasks." Reflection: "I like to think over what I have been doing and consider alternative ways of doing it", Critical Reflection: "During this course, I discovered flaws in what I had previously believed to be right". The scale was used to determine both groups' reflective thinking skills prior to and also after the study. The Repeated Measures ANOVA technique was used in the analysis of the data obtained from the scale. The values obtained from the analysis were interpreted with a significance level of 0.05. Table 2. Description levels of reflections [38] Level of student's reflexivity

Habitual action
Activity that is learnt through frequent, automatically use. "In professional practice, habitual action occurs when a procedure is followed without significant thought about it." [37] Understanding Thoughtful activity of individuals in which they use their existing knowledge and achieve comprehension of different subjects or phenomena. In this case, there is an attempt to understand the topic or concept. Most students begin at this level. In their writing they rely heavily on what the textbook or teacher has said.

Reflection
The critique and appraisal of assumptions about the content or process of problem solving. At this level, students not only have accurate understanding, they reflect on that understanding and are able to relate it to personal experiences, or they make practical applications.

Critical reflection
This highest level of reflection implies the transformation of a perspective. Teachers should not expect this level of reflection early or often while students are developing their reflective skills. Students start by recognizing their beliefs and accompanying assumptions. Something (new information, new experiences) disrupts that belief system, thereby forcing students to reconstruct or reform it.

Interview form
At the end of the process, in order to determine teacher candidates' views on the application, a semi-structured interview form prepared by the researchers was used with the candidates who took the Augmented Reality assisted hardware course. On the form, there are questions to identify the effectiveness and difficulties of Augmented Reality applications. To ensure content validity, the questions in the form were prepared by referring to the related literature. In order to ensure clarity and suitability of the interview questions, five experts were consulted and necessary adjustments were made in light of their feedback. Interviews were carried out with 15 volunteer teacher candidates. To ensure that there was no loss of data during the interviews, they were recorded and later transcribed. The data obtained was analyzed using the in-depth content analysis method with the Nvivo 10 programme. To ensure the reliability of the qualitative data obtained the critical friends approach was used. One of the researchers analyzed the texts and the other one double-checked them. Yet, another researcher who was not involved in the study was requested to perform triangulation.

Preparation of Augmented Reality activities and online journals
Küçük et al. [39] in their study, state that there are two types of AR which are: marker based and Global Positioning System-based (GPS). While GPS based systems have three components consisting of area and image descriptor devices, marker-based applications consist of 3 fundamental components which are: a book in which the markers are located, a device that converts the information in the markers into a digital domain and a screen showing a digital data in 3D or 2D. In this study, video and marker based AR technologies were used. A free application, Aurasma, was used as the augmented reality application. Aurasma enables 3D models and animations to be loaded on trackers like shapes and photos. An Aurasma-equipped mobile device, using the camera, scans and reads surroundings and presents the user with 3D videos and animations. Some of the three-dimensional hardware models were found on the net and downloaded and ones that could not be found were developed by the researchers. In the development of these 3D models Photoshop, Flash Mx and 3Ds Max were used.
These 3D models were integrated into previously prepared animations and videos using Aurasma. Markers related to specified topics were used. The 3D visuals which were downloaded from the net and later improved by the researchers can be turned around to be perceived from different angles and their dimensions can be changed. The course notes containing the markers were put into course handbooks which were prepared using Cliptomize, which can be accessed via the net for free of charge. The markers to be read were integrated into the handbooks. Figure 1 shows an example of the book which was prepared and the 3D visuals. In the study as well as Augmented Reality applications, reflective learning tasks were implemented. For the reflective learning tasks, the "journal plug-in" application was integrated into Moodle. Journal plug-in allows teachers to ask students to reflect on the course content. Students can edit and refine their replies and comments whenever they want.

Implementation
At the beginning of the study, the "reflective learning" scale was administered to both groups as a pre-test to determine whether both groups' learning skills were equal or not. The data obtained from reflective learning scale was analyzed and it was identified that both groups were similar in this sense. In order to ensure reliability, in both groups, the process was conducted by only one of the researchers. In the study which extended over an 8-week period, Moodle was used in both groups and the lessons were supplemented with reflective learning tasks. At the end of each lesson, the teacher candidates reported their experiences and queries related to the subject. Likewise, before starting to write their reflective diaries the teacher candidates were required to ask themselves questions similar to the following ones: "What did I see?, what did I learn?, what did I hear?, what can I do about …?".Moreover, the instructor asked the teacher candidates to answer the following questions in the order that they appear: "Can you explain what you learned in the lesson?", "Could you write how you learnt?" and "Can you evaluate your learning style and strategies?" Hence, the teacher candidates recorded what they had learnt and simultaneously reflected on their own learning. Furthermore, the researcher shared questions related to the subject studied in class via Moodle ensuring that the teacher candidates thought about these questions and wrote a report including their learning reflections.
Similarly, during the class hours, not only the researcher but also the teacher candidates asked each other and the researcher's questions. The researcher gave constant feedback, both positive and negative, on the reports on reflective learning in the online journals. The teacher candidates were not given any training on using Moodle. As the department's regulations enforce the use of Moodle in all course students were familiar with the system. The online journal, which was added to the system via a plug-in, was introduced during the first lesson. Deadlines were announced to teacher candidates in both groups via Moodle. Moreover, the researcher set the homework tasks via Moodle and collected them from the teacher candidates, on the submission date.
Teacher Candidates' Roles and Tasks in Experimental Group: The course book that was designed by the researchers and the Aurasma application were downloaded by the teacher candidates. Throughout the term, the teacher candidates were required to watch 3D visuals and educational animations by read the markers on books with Aurasma. Throughout 8 weeks, the teacher candidates with their cooperative groups of 3-4 persons watched videos that were integrated into books where differently equipped solutions present. At the end of the 8-week, the teacher candidates were asked differently equipped problems and required to find solutions. The teacher candidates produced solutions and presented their reports in the classroom environment by working with the cooperative learning groups. Doing this enabled targeted activities to be more effective.
Teacher Candidates' Roles and Tasks in Control Group: The teacher candidates in the control group attended the courses in a lab setting throughout 8 weeks. At the end of this 8 week duration, the teacher candidates were asked differently equipped problems and required to find solutions. The teacher candidates produced solutions and presented their reports in the classroom environment by working with the cooperative learning groups.
At the end of the study, the "reflective learning" scale was administered once again, as a post-test, in order to determine if there had been a rise in both groups' reflective learning skills.

Results
The findings of this study, which aimed to identify the impact of augmented reality applications on students' reflective learning skills and determine student opinions regarding augmented reality, are as presented below. The data analysis findings obtained from the reflective learning skills scale administered to the experimental and control groups, both before and after the implementation of the Augmented Reality and reflective learning tasks, were analyzed in the table below. As it can be seen from the table above, prior to the study the two groups' scores obtained from the four dimensions were close to one another. It was identified that, prior to implementing Augmented Reality and reflective learning tasks, students obtained the highest score from the habitual actions dimension. According to this, it can be said that students act on the habitual actions step, and while demonstrating learning, they repeat behaviors they have already acquired. Moreover, it can be said that while students assessed the problem-solving process, they were able to decide on the best solution; however, they did not acknowledge the hypotheses. After the implementation of Augmented Reality and reflective learning tasks to the students in both groups, it was observed that there was an increase in all of the dimensions except for in the habitual actions dimension. This was an expected outcome as reflective learning tasks were implemented in both groups. However, in order to determine whether Augmented Reality applications have an influence on reflective learning, Repeated Measures analysis was employed to the obtained data. It was determined that there was no difference between the groups' pre-test-post-test scores in the Habitual actions (F =13.997, p<0.05) levels. According to these findings, it can be said that supplementing reflective learning tasks with Augmented Reality applications have a positive impact on Reflective and Critical Reflective skills. It was also determined that at the end of the course, students experience a change in the way they viewed themselves and that they were able to give up behaviors which they adhered to. Furthermore, according to the findings, students who had claimed that their class notes were sufficient to study for a subject after the study expressed that their notes alone were not adequate enough. In short, it can be said that Augmented Reality applications do not increase habitual actions but higher level skills: reflective and critical reflective learning.
Descriptive analysis was employed to the online journal contents in order to identify which reflective thinking dimensions the teacher candidates were using while completing the tasks in the online journals. The teacher candidates' statements were categorized according to the reflective teaching scale, to identify which dimension they were related to. When the online journals were analyzed in depth, it was seen that all of the teacher candidates receiving an augmented reality assisted education, had entered the system. There were a total 180 entries. On average, the teacher candidates had each uploaded 6 entries during the 8 weeks. While in the first week there were only a few entries, the number of entries increased in the following weeks. Due to two participants' online journals not being in line with the study's intended target, they were disregarded; and thus, 165 entries were analyzed as part of the study. As it can be seen from the table above, the teacher candidates reflected on all dimensions of reflective thinking. It can be said that the teacher candidates mainly exhibited the reflective thinking manner. When the findings attained from the online journals are examined, it can be said that they correspond to the data obtained from the reflective learning scale. The difference is that according to the findings attained from the scale the teacher candidates' reflective and critical reflective skills were more or less at the same level; whereas, based on the descriptive analysis it can be said that the teacher candidates used critical reflective skills more often than reflective thinking. Below are some samples of teacher candidates' entries according to the different dimensions: St2: "I studied the hardware book given to us this week via my mobile phone as instructed by my instructor".
St8: "This week, as every other week, we scanned the markers on the pages our instructor specified with our mobile devices and watched the videos and 3Ds".
These comments made by St2 and St8 were evaluated under the habitual actions dimension. As it can be seen the teacher candidates progressed according to instructions given by the instructor. However, as seen in the table there were not many habitual actions comments, moreover, statements which fell into the habitual actions dimension were mainly given in the first two weeks.
St12: "To watch the 3D models and videos you need to understand the applications the instructor is talking about…".
St20: "Today in the lesson our instructor used the demonstration method. Later on, our instructor asked us to read the books that were specially compiled for us on our phones and watch some videos, at the end of the lesson there was a question-answer session." St12 and St20's reflective writings from the online journals were analyzed under the understanding dimension because as seen in the samples above St12 stated the need to understand the applications the instructor talks about and St20 explained the methods and strategies used in the class.
St14: "Today we learnt about Serial, USB and Parallel ports. The instructor asked about the differences between these ports. We tried to answer from what we knew. Because of our responses, the instructor asked us to read the markers on the relevant page and study the 3D view of the ports. Thus, we found out what the difference was by inquisitively studying the 3D models and the required information. We engaged in the lesson because of the question and answer method".
St4: "In the lesson today we learnt how to place RAMs into the slots on the mainboard. The instructor taking into account the different learning styles in class, first, asked us to watch the videos and then explained the subject using the demonstration method. She explained the types of RAMs in detail and how they are placed into slots and to ensure that we all understood what she explained, she made all students follow the steps. Thus, we actively participated in the lesson".
These statements, where the teacher candidates explain and interpret the instructor's actions to ensure active participation and which they state the outcome as well as justifying the use of the instructor's methods and teaching strategies, were associated with the reflective dimension.
St26: "In order to learn how to assemble the hardware parts as a group we put together the system unit which was disassembled. I maintained an effective communication flow within my group. The instructor asked us some questions now and then. Yet, I realized that I didn't exactly know the differences between the types of RAMs". These reflective statements were evaluated under the critical reflection dimension because the teacher candidate, reflected on an experience and explained what happened with justifications and realized he made some mistakes and included selfcriticism.
The findings from the interviews, which aimed to determine the advantages and challenges regarding AR applications carried out with students who took the computer hardware course for 8 weeks, were categorized according to their themes and presented in a table. The teacher candidates who took the computer hardware course with Augmented Reality technologies stated that they were extremely satisfied with the tasks implemented. Furthermore, the teacher candidates, who mainly gave positive feedback on the reflective learning tasks assisted with augmented reality, stated that Augmented Reality applications were intriguing and they had fun while learning.
St2: "I can say that in this course, where we had books specially designed for augmented reality and which in activities were carried out via our phones, was much more enjoyable than other courses. Moreover, the diaries which in we explained what we did in the course and where we shared our opinions improved our writing experience". St17: "We had a really dense timetable, so we really looked forward to courses which used different applications; we had fun and learnt at the same time." When we analyze student comments, we can say that they regard Augmented Reality applications as fun and interesting. Moreover, most of the students stated that using Augmented Reality applications in the hardware course increased their motivation and made the course easier to follow.
St22: "After our instructor gave us the theory of the content of the lesson, she supplemented it with 3Ds and animations with AR; this made learning a lot easier. I believe that we will make fewer mistakes when we put this knowledge into practice".
St3: "AR applications increased student motivation. By using animations with AR applications we watched how to assemble a main card before actually doing it and this made learning easy and we were able to do the necessary additions to the main cards without making any mistakes. Completing a flawless assembly is an important skill as mistakes can damage computer parts." When the teacher candidates were asked about the challenges they experienced while using Augmented Reality applications in their Computer Hardware course, they stated that they did not face many difficulties and the difficulties they did experience were technical. They also stated that AR applications were expensive.
St11: "We did not really experience many difficulties while using AR applications, sometimes we had to use our own 3Gs as we could not connect to the internet in the labs".
St9: "In this application, which we enjoyed using, our phones were not sufficient or when we were out of the classroom we had difficulty scanning the markers because of the reflection of light".
St5: "Although Augmented Reality applications are useful, they are an expensive technology. We needed phones with a good camera and screen and we needed to have 3G when we were working out of school; apart from these, the application was easy to use. We only experienced some difficulties while scanning the markers." As it can be seen from the explanations it can be said that the implementation of Augmented Reality applications in the Computer Hardware course was fun, interesting, motivating and it also made learning the subjects simpler and lessened the chance of making a mistake. When the challenges of Augmented Reality applications are analyzed, it can be said that internet connection, technical difficulties in scanning the markers due to light reflections and the expense are the main ones.

Discussion and Conclusion
A total of 62 Computer Education and Instructional Technology students participated in this study in experimental and control groups, for 8 weeks using AR applications in their Computer Hardware course. The study aims to determine teacher candidates' views and the effect of Augmented Reality -a technology which enables objects from the real world to merge with virtual ones interacting synchronously -on reflective learning when implemented with reflective learning tasks.
The results of the study indicate that AR applications have a positive impact on reflective learning skills and are proven useful when implemented in a computer hardware course. It was observed that teacher candidates' whose reflective learning skills were studied in the experimental and control groups Reflective and Critical Reflective skills improved. The findings suggest that in both the experimental and in the control group, reflective thinking was the most frequently used way of thinking. In their study Kember et. al. [37] revealed that critical reflective emerges when the reasons for a particular action or when assumptions are being explored; thus reflection is the stage which occurs the most while not being observed much. In this study, it can be said that the experimental groups' Reflective and Critical Reflective skills, which were supplemented with AR applications, were significantly higher. There was an increase in both groups skills because the reflective learning tasks were implemented in both, however, it can be said that AR applications have a greater impact on reflective learning skills. In a study conducted in the year 2008 [15], it is claimed that reflective learning tasks also have a positive impact on the teacher candidates' performances. Çi!dem and Kurt [40] in their study on blogs reached similar results. As a result, both AR applications and reflective learning tasks are effective in teacher training and education.
Another finding is teacher candidates were satisfied with the Augmented Reality applications. The results suggest that the Augmented Reality applications developed for the hardware course were extremely enjoyable, motivating and intriguing. Bicen and Bal [10] in their study regarding AR applications' effects on student success in hardware courses, came to the conclusion that the AR group achieved higher. As it can be seen from this study, even though achievement rates were not considered, AR applications had a positive impact on teacher candidates' views. Another author [41] states that implementing different types of materials affects student roles positively. Another result derived from the study is that students who took the hardware course supplemented by Augmented Reality applications learnt the subject easier and made no mistakes while assembling the hardware. In a similar study revealed that students using AR technologies spent less time while assembling a main card and made fewer mistakes when compared to students who had not [42].
When the findings regarding the challenges experienced while implementing Augmented Reality applications in the hardware course are analyzed, it is revealed that these are internet connection, camera quality and the requirement of a fee. In further studies, the markers used in the AR applications can be simpler, thus, they will be able to be scanned with lower quality cameras and the expenses will be reduced. It is foreseen that any technical errors that occur during the process of the study will be caused by the usage of different types of devices. In a study [18] indicated that using different types of devices for AR applications can cause more technical problems.
As a result, in this study where Augmented Reality applications assisted with reflective learning skills were implemented in a computer hardware course, teacher candidates generally reported positive views and suggestions regarding AR applications. AR has a great potential as a means of highlighting interesting features via multimedia content on mobile devices. However, as in all studies, this study had its limitations. The most important limitation was implementing AR applications only in a computer hardware course. Further studies could be conducted to determine its effect in other courses. Moreover, areas of AR applications which have not been researched at secondary school level can be identified and studied and the teacher as-pect can be included. Furthermore, it is recommended that in further studies in this field, researchers can take this study's findings into account.


Capacity Building for Quality Enhancement in Higher Education

Higher education institutions strive to produce quality professionals, who would be intellectually robust, emotionally balanced, and economically productive, socially committed and spiritually satisfied so that they make meaning in their lives and contribute to the society. Teachers have a big role in maintaining this. Teacher quality influences curriculum, provides leadership, and promote student progression. Curriculum delivery and pedagogy should incorporate multitude of learning experiences and innovative learning methodologies. So much so the faculty should be exposed to advance knowledge and skill through a variety of ways which would be mutually complementary for both the teacher and the taught. Their capacities should be developed and all the more periodically recharged for sustained results. This paper discusses capacity building through establishing sustainable mechanisms to improve quality in teaching as reflected in the values and culture of the institution.

Maintaining the profile of students and teachers is a major challenge for higher educational institutions.
Teacher quality influences curriculum, provides leadership, and promote student progression.
With this in view, institutions resort to a lot of ways by which they can attract, motivate and maintain high standards of excellence among teachers. Curriculum design and delivery should take into account the growing needs, changing interests and pace of learners. In order to meet this, pedagogy should incorporate multitude of learning experiences and innovative learning methodologies. So much so the faculty should be exposed to advance knowledge and skill through a variety of ways which would be mutually complementary for the teacher and the taught. Academic improvements and teacher quality up-gradation is best possible if mechanisms are put in place which would monitor the quality of teaching-learning. Side by side, ways and means of enhancing faculty capacity becomes important. A variety of ways could be introduced to build the capacity of the faculty [1-34].

MONITORING QUALITY OF TEACHING-LEARNING:
It is important that the institution has built in mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the quality of teaching-learning.
This practice focuses on ensuring quality and capacity of the faculty. It can be implemented through a variety of means.  Conducting Internal Examinations : Internal examinations conducted at regular intervals as planned in the academic calendar at the beginning of the calendar year/semester will reveal the performance of students which will indicate the extent of preparedness developed, syllabus completion on time through direct involvement of faculty.  Result Analysis : The results of the final examinations could be analysed through segregating students in terms of their achievements as reflected in the marks scored in each examination. The faculty who has been engaging classes for the concerned subjects will own responsibility for the poor performance of the students.  Feedback from Students: Collecting feedback from students in a properly designed format at the end of every semester and reviewed by the Head of the institution is shared with the concerned faculty for rectification and improvement. This serves the function of exit interview.  Class Visits : A direct and first hand appraisal of the classes is obtained during surprise visits to the classes in progress by competent authority.  IQAC: IQAC plays a great role in closely monitoring and evaluating the quality of teaching-learning processes.  CCD Monitoring of the Classes : Use of modern technology such as closed circuit camera help to maintain discipline and regularity of classes which is conducive to effective learning.  Suggestion Box : There are students who hesitate to open-up in free forums. Such students can make use of the suggestion box. Suggestions, among other things could include quality of teaching of the various subjects.  End User Benefit Documentation :This is a practice of monitoring the classes while in progress, by visiting the classes and recording the signature of faculty. This ensures that the end users are benefitted.

CAPCITY BUILDING OF FACULTY :
Although teaching-learning is a mutually complementary process, it is presumed that quality teaching contributes to quality learning. Therefore ways and means of enhancing faculty capacity becomes important. In general training programmes serve to build the capacity of the faculty in the entire range of curriculum handling, knowledge management and student evaluation.

International Journal of Management, Technology, and Social Sciences (IJMTS), ISSN : Applied, Vol. 2, No. 2, November 2017 SRINIVAS PUBLICATION
(1) Technology based data analysis: The faculty members acquire competence in technology based data analysis through use of SPSS, simulation etc. during Faculty Development programmes.
(2) Counselling and Mentoring: Training programmes conducted to train the faculty in counselling, serve to improve their capacity to handle student problems arising out of stress, neglect, loneliness and domestic difficulties.
(3) Handling new curriculum : Faculty Training Programmes organized by the institution shall discuss weightage of each topic relevant references, approaches and methods, pattern of questions, background knowledge required to be created to learn etc. Teaching plans are required to be prepared and study material to be developed by individual faculty. Before taking a new subject during a particular year by a faculty, discussion is generated in the training programme. The depth and framework of the subject form the content of the discussion.

MEASURES OF RECHARGING :
1. Providing Opportunity to teach new Subjects : Teachers are encouraged to teach new subjects every year so that they enjoy the freedom of choosing the subjects liked and avoid monotony in teaching same subject continuously for many years. This also helps in enhancing their knowledge capacities widely and makes them competent. 2. Providing support for technology based information collection : Based on various trainings provided to acquire new knowledge through technology based information collection, the obsolete methods/techniques of faculty members are replaced. 3. Incorporation of Value added Chapter in each subject: Over and above the prescribed syllabus teachers choose to add a few sessions of value addition in each subject. This helps to enrich their job through discovering recent developments in the subject.

Encouragement for innovative teaching
Practices: Teachers should be encouraged to bring in creativity and innovation in teaching practices. Such for example, are 'Entry test and Summarization' by students during each class, new and relevant business cases and business games aimed at increased participation of students etc. 5. Curriculum development : Providing opportunity for participating in curriculum development, serves to recharge the teachers.

Research Grants :
Through promoting the efforts to obtain funded projects and research grants from appropriate funding agencies the institute can build capacity and profile of the faculty. A policy to provide seed money for research is also encouraging.

Institutions/ specialized Programmes :
Appointing experienced teachers who have qualified from National Institutions and encouragement to gain exposure by participating in various programmes held in National Institutions are ways to overcome redundancy.

12.
Industrial Engagement: Appointing teachers who have experience in industry/related fields and promoting consultancy services by the teachers provide advantage to gain experience without being away from the job.

VALUES IN INSTITUTIONS CULTURE OF DEVELOPING FACULTY POTENTIAL:
The institution grooms leadership at different levels. Such for example are individual level, job related level and career orientation level. This is intended to bring about desired outcome in consonance with the values in the institution's culture (Table 1). The following six values with corresponding practices are to be embedded in the Institute's culture of developing the full potential of its faculty members and students.

Trust:
Individuals feel safe enough to try out new behaviors and take risks without fear.

Personal and group process skills:
Individuals and Institutions have established protocols and developed skills which are regularly deployed to resolve interpersonal issues that come across and are resolved quickly and clearly. 5. Learning and Growing: Individuals are encouraged and rewarded to work on the real growth issues necessary for professional and personal development within the framework of the organization. Individuals are never mutually challenging, but supporting each other to develop and grow. Table  6.
Caring: The organizational leadership demonstrate in tangible ways concern for individual employees well being. Employees feel valued and are inspired to put in their best effort.

INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISM FOR FACULTY IMPROVEMENT:
The institution should have mechanisms to continuously review the teaching-learning process as given in table 2. Such for example are as follows : Faculty develops increased accountability.

CONCLUSION:
Institutional commitment to build capacity of its faculty is embedded in its culture as reflected in the values they uphold. Punctuality, adhering to schedules, accountability in achieving results and responding to feedback through positive changes are the outcome of various mechanisms adopted. These mechanisms trigger certain processes which promote the academic ambience and work culture. The plethora of measures to build the capacity of the faculty and recharge them suggested here are indicative of the enormous scope and its contribution to quality enhancement through capacity building in higher education.


Bone tissue, blood lipids and inflammatory profiles in adolescent male athletes from sports contrasting in mechanical load

Exploring the effect of non-impact and impact sports is particular relevant to understand the interaction between skeletal muscle and bone health during growth. The current study aimed to compare total and regional bone and soft-tissue composition, in parallel to measurements of blood lipid and inflammatory profiles between adolescent athletes and non-athletes. Anthropometry, biological maturity, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans, training load and lipid and inflammatory profiles were assessed in a cross-sectional sample of 53 male adolescents (20 non-athletes, 15 swimmers and 18 basketball players) aged 12–19 years. Multiple comparisons between groups were performed using analysis of variance, covariance and magnitude effects (ES-r and Cohen’s d). The comparisons of controls with other groups were very large for high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (d range: 2.17–2.92). The differences between sports disciplines, regarding tissue outputs obtained from DXA scan were moderate for all variables except fat tissue (d = 0.4). It was possible to determine small differences (ES-r = 0.17) between controls and swimmers for bone area at the lower limbs (13.0%). In parallel, between swimmers and basketball players, the gradient of the differences was small (ES-r range: 0.15–0.23) for bone mineral content (24.6%), bone area (11.3%) and bone mineral density (11.1%) at the lower limbs, favoring the basketball players. These observations highlight that youth male athletes presented better blood and soft tissues profiles with respect to controls. Furthermore, sport-specific differences emerged for the lower limbs, with basketball players presenting higher bone mineral content, area and density than swimmers.

Introduction
Regular participation in sport is a feature of the daily lives of youth. Evidence based on three day diary records in boys and girls 12-14 years [1], accelerometry in boys 6-12 years [2], questionnaires in U.S. boys and girls 11-12 years [3] and girls 13-18 years [4], and questionnaires in Finnish twins 16-18 years [5] indicate higher levels of physical activity in sport participants compared to non-participants. In fact, regular engagement in physical exercise (e.g., 60 minutes of moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity daily) is recommended for youth to develop healthy musculoskeletal tissues, cardiovascular system, and to maintain healthy blood parameters and body weight [6]. A recent study compared the effects of a 6-month soccer programme and a traditional physical activity programme on changes in body composition, cardiometabolic, inflammatory and oxidative stress markers, in parallel to measurements of cardiorespiratory fitness in obese boys [7]. After the intervention, both groups had significantly lower relative fatness and waist circumference, total cholesterol, and improved cardiorespiratory fitness. The results also suggested that soccer-based intervention was more effective for the reduction of childhood obesity and associated consequences. Given the seemingly central role of competitive sport in the developmental process of youth, a question of relevance is the sport-related long-term benefits of participation.
Adolescence is considered a crucial period for bone formation and the literature suggested that about 90% of bone mass observed in adulthood is acquired during early life stages [8]. By inference, it is expected that children and adolescents with low levels of bone mineral have an increased likelihood of developing osteoporosis [9], which is a chronic disease with a great socio-economic impact [10] and currently considered as the worldwide second cause of disability affecting one third of women and one out of eight men 50 years [11]. Acquisition of bone mineral content during the first two decades of life should be considered a relevant public health strategy and exercise is considered an effective determinant to increase the peak bone mass during early life [12], in addition to genetic, hormonal and nutritional determinants.
Existing recommendations for physical activity focus on the manipulation of frequency, intensity and volume aiming to improve bone health. The tensile and compressive forces associated with muscular contractions during weight-bearing activities and specialized exercises such as strength and resistance training consistently have a favourable influence on skeletal tissue [13][14][15] and comparisons of elite young athletes with less active youth [16,17] indicate a beneficial effect of physical activity on skeletal health. The osteogenic influence of physical activity is generally sites specific and related to local mechanical strains. The benefits are reflected in bone mineral content, bone mineral density, and apparent bone mineral density. A systematic review conducted by Strong et al. [18] concluded that the benefits are not as consistently established for adolescents in later stages of puberty. The literature suggests improvement in health outcomes in association with physical activity in obese and non-obese youth but the dose of physical activity that is necessary to prevent or treat may be specific to each health outcome [18].
In general, recommendations support physical activity to maintain healthy body weight and lipid profiles [19,20] relevant to prevent from childhood obesity and risks of coronary heart diseases and atherosclerosis [21]. However, distinct sport-based programs could lead to different responses. According to Strong et al. [18], youth engaging in !4-month of regular physical exercise encompassing at least 40-min of moderate-to vigorous-intensity activities could have beneficial effects on triglyceride and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c) levels, whereas effects on total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) levels resulted not consistent. Furthermore, high intensity exercise could promote inflammatory cytokines releases, such as the C-reactive protein (CRP), which negatively impacts the somatic growth of children and adolescents [22].
The present study was aimed to compare whole-body and regional indicators of bone tissue, in parallel to measurements of blood lipid and inflammatory profiles in adolescent athletes contrasting in mechanical load (basketball and swimming athletes) and non-athlete counterparts. It is hypothesized that sport-associated variation are specific to health outcomes and when regarding measurements of bone mineral content, differences between athletes and nonathletes are generalized while between swimmers and basketball players groups are more apparent in specific regions (upper arms, trunk, lower limbs).

Ethics statement
All procedures were approved by the ethical board of the Sao Paulo State University (CAAE, 02891112.6.0000.5402) and were conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki for human studies by the World Medical Association. After approval obtained from the Municipal Department of Education and Department of Sports to collect data in schools and sport clubs, respectively, parents or legal guardians completed a written statement of consent. Participants were informed about the objectives and methodology and also that participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the experiment at any time.

Participants
The final sample was composed of 53 male adolescents (S1 File). Twenty adolescents composed the Control Group (recruited in several public and private schools) while 33 adolescents were athletes (Basketball, n = 18; Swimming, n = 15). Swimmers and basketball players were recruited in two clubs registered in the respective national federations.
The inclusion criteria for this study were: (i) chronological age between 10 and 19 years; (ii) male sex; (iii) no use of medication that could affect bone metabolism; (iv) absence of previous or current bone fractures. Furthermore, to be included in the control group, participants had to declare to participate in regular physical education classes (two hours for . week -1 ) with no previous or actual engagement in organized sports.

Biological maturity
The maturity offset was calculated [23]. It corresponds to an algorithm derived from two longitudinal studies of Canadian youth and one of Belgian twins was used to predict the time (years) from/to age peak of height velocity (APHV), labeled maturity offset. Then, predicted APHV (years) was estimated as chronological age minus maturity offset. Dual X-ray energy absorptiometry (DXA) Total tissue (kg), fat tissue (kg), lean soft tissue (kg), bone mineral content (BMC, g), bone mineral density (BMD, g/cm 2 ) and bone area (in cm 2 ) were assessed using DXA (Lunar DPX-NT; General Electric Healthcare, Little Chalfont, Buckinghamshire, UK) and data for head, upper limbs, lower limbs, trunk (ribs, pelvis and column) and whole body were processed by means of a GE Medical System Lunar software (version 4.7). A certified technician calibrated the equipment on a daily basis and performed the scans with the participant wearing light clothes (short and t-shirt) and laying in the supine position on the apparatus (approximately 15 minutes). The precision of the machine in terms of coefficient of variation was 0.66% (n = 30 subjects not involved in this study).

Training routine
The athletes reported their experience in the sports (in years) and the coaches reported the minutes trained per day and sessions trained per week by each athlete (weekly training volume). None of the athletes involved in the study performed another supervised physical exercise.

Training load
Thirty minutes after the end of the training, according literature recommendation [24], athletes were administered the CR-10 rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale [25] adapted by Foster et al. [26] and reported the training duration (min). Thus, training load per day was calculated multiplying the score of the RPE with the total duration of the training section (in minutes) [24,26] and summated to obtain the monthly training load.

Vitamin D intake
The adolescents reported through of a questionnaire (listed with foods rich in vitamin D usually present in a Brazilian diet) the frequency of consumption of foods rich (Likert scale) in vitamin D in a week, considering the previous week of the evaluation. The sums of the values of scale were considered as a vitamin D intake score.

Lipid and inflammatory profiles
Blood samples were collected during a rest day following a training session. A certified technician collected blood samples in the morning after a 12-hour fasting. An autohumalyzer (Dimension RxL Max; Siemens Dade-Behring, Deerfield, Illinois) and an enzymatic colorimetric kit were used to assess total cholesterol, HDL-c, LDL-c, very-low density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL-c) and triacylglycerol. In addition, high-sensitivity (H-S) CRP was assessed through the turbidimetric method (LabMax 240; Chema Diagnostica, Monsano, Italy) using an enzyme kit (Millipore, St. Charles, Missouri) with intra-and inter-assay reliability ranging between 4.6 and 6.0%, respectively.

Statistical analysis
For the descriptive statistic was composed of mean, standard deviation, median, range (minimum and maximum value), mean (and respective standard error of the mean plus 95% confidence interval) and standard deviation. Normal distribution was examined using the test Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to assess the effect of sport participation on anthropometry, maturation, metabolic outputs, obtained from blood samples, and variables derived from the DXA assessments. Additionally, taking into account bone parameters as outcome, multivariate models adjusted by chronological age, maturity offset, score of vitamin D and weekly training volume have been created using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). The associated magnitude effect among independent and dependent variables were determined by means of the effect size correlations (ES-r), which is estimated using the square root of the ratio of the F-value squared and the difference between the F-value squared and degrees of freedom. Coefficients were interpreted as follows: trivial (r > < 0.1), small (0.1 < r < 0.3), moderate (0.3 < r < 0.5), large (0.5 < r < 0.7), very large (0.7 > < r > < 0.9), nearly perfect (r > < 0.9) and perfect (r = 1) [27]. Additionally, multiple comparisons between  [28]. Thresholds were interpreted as follows: 0.2, 0.6, 1.2, 2.0, 4.0 for small, moderate, large, very large and extremely large differences, respectively [27]. Statistical significance was set at p-value <0.05 and all analyses were performed using the statistical software SPSS (version 24.0).

Results
The descriptive characteristics and results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for age, biological maturity, training experience, indicators of lipid and inflammatory profile, anthropometry of the overall body size and outputs of the whole body DXA assessments, for the total sample, are presented in Table 1. Descriptive statistics for DXA regional body composition are summarized in Table 2.
Group-related variation for chronological age, maturation, training experience, indicators of lipid profile plus inflammatory biomarker, anthropometry of the overall body size and outputs of whole body DXA assessments is present in Table 3  ). Finally, 45% of controls were categorized as normal weight, 45% overweight, and 10% as obese. Conversely, athletes of swimmers were categorized as 86.7% normal weight and 13.3% as overweight. The basketball players were categorized 61.1% as normal weight and 38.9% as overweight. The whole body bone variables were similar among the groups.
Concerning the blood parameters, only total cholesterol and LDL-c showed no difference between groups (Table 3). Conversely, controls showed differences with respect to the athletes for triacylglycerol (p = 0.001, ES-r = 0.2) and HS-CRP (p<0.001, ES-r = 0.5), and for HDL (p = 0.04, ES-r = 0.1) with respect to swimmers only. The effect of sport participation on regional soft tissue and bone variables is presented in Table 4. Soft tissue differences emerged mainly between the athletes and controls (p<0.01; ESr range: 0.2-0.6). However, for bone variables differences were manly noted between the sports participation groups at the lower limbs (p<0.05; ES-r range: 0.1-0.2).
Multiple comparisons between groups were presented in Tables 5 and 6 and Figs 2-4. Among blood parameters, only VLDL and triglycerides showed a moderate effect between controls and athletes. The comparisons of controls with other groups were very large for H-S CRP (d range: 2.17-2.92; difference between groups: 185.7-290.4%). Regarding bone mineral density, the differences between controls and the other two groups were moderate when compared to swimmers (d = 1.10) and very large when compared to basketball players (d = 2.19).
The comparisons between swimmers and basketball players presented small to trivial differences for the metabolic parameters, with the exception of HS-CRP (d = 0.8; difference between groups: 36.7%). Regarding tissue outputs obtained from DXA scan, differences between sport disciplines were interpreted as moderate for all variables except fat tissue (d = 0.4). While considering different sites in the assessment of bone variables, it was possible to determine small  differences (ES-r = 0.17) between controls and swimmers for bone area at the lower limbs (103.7 cm 2 , 13.0%). In parallel, between swimmers and basketball players, the gradient of the differences was small (ES-r range: 0.15-0.23) for bone mineral content (247.4 g, 24.6%), bone area (89.9 cm 2 , 11.3%) and bone mineral density (0.141 g/cm 2 , 11.1%) at the lower limbs, favoring the basketball players.

Discussion
The present study presents the opportunity to deepen the knowledge of exercise-related effects on bone and blood health in youth, including participants of different typologies of sports. In particular, basketball is considered to rely predominantly on the anaerobic metabolism to perform short all-out jumping and sprint performances [29], whereas swimming involves cyclic sequences primarily supported by the aerobic metabolism [30,31]. The main findings of the present study were that youth athletes presented a better BMI, blood health with respect to controls. Although swimmers and basketball players showed more lean soft tissue and also an advanced maturity offset, after adjustments for potential confounders (i.e., chronological age, maturity offset, vitamin D and training per week [minutes]) the bone content and density were similar to the observed in control group. Comparing the sport participation groups, differences emerged for the lower limbs, with basketball players presenting higher BMD and BMC compared to swimmers. Sport-specific stimuli could affect bone parameters. In fact, tennis players presented high bone mass at the distal portion of the radius [32], whereas players showed high bone mass mainly in the femur [12]. The present findings provide novel information of youth basketball players and swimmers. In line with the literature [33], basketball players showed the highest stature values, substantiating the knowledge that this sport favours the selection of tall athletes, but also the highest bone area, BMC, and BMD, especially evident for the lower limbs. In fact, basketball can be considered as a "high-impact" sport, which requires high intensity sprints and abrupt decelerations, vertical jump-landings, lay-ups, and shooting [34] resulting in mechanical loads that stimulate the bone remodeling process and an increased bone health of lower limbs [34,35] unlike swimming which is performed in hypogravity and does not promote mechanical stimulation during its practice [36]. However, when comparing with the control group, although basketball athletes tended to higher values of bone variables, the results were not significantly different between the groups. These results can be explained by the fact that sport participation tends to influence bone mass gain during the entire adolescence (until 18-20 years) and the mean age of the basketball players was 14.5 ± 0.9 years. Thus, longer follow-up periods may be able to show a deeper understanding of the impact of sport in bone health [37].
In adults a regular practice of physical exercise is associated to improvements in blood lipid profile [38] and reductions of the risks of non-communicable diseases [39], but in children and adolescents the evidence is still unclear because most studies have been accomplished on single interventions, often focused on youth presenting obesity and/or metabolic disorders [40]. In this study, the lack of differences between groups on total cholesterol and LDL indicates that 2-hour . week -1 school physical education could protect healthy youth, independently of sport practice. Conversely, sport practice can provide additional positive effects on the other blood parameters. In fact, athletes presented better VLDL and triacylglycerol profiles with respect to the control group, probably due to increased requirements of free fatty acids for oxidation and utilization for sustaining training [41][42][43]. Furthermore, sport-specific demands could differentiate other blood parameters. Actually, the highest concentration of HDL in swimmers seems to substantiate that aerobic exercises could be more effective in increasing HDL [44], whereas the highest HS-CRP in basketball players might indicate that this sport induces a pronounced inflammatory response [45].
Despite these findings support the positive effects of swimming and basketball on blood profiles and bone health of youth athletes, the cross-sectional design of this study allows only speculations and limits the possibility to prove causality. Furthermore, the lack of information on nutrition, hormonal status, other inflammatory and anti-inflammatory markers, also should be considered a potential limitation that need further investigations.

Conclusions
In summary, sport participation has been linked to beneficial differences in terms of lipids and bone parameters among male adolescents. Basketball seems more beneficial to bone parameters (mainly in lower limbs) than swimming, while metabolic parameters (lipids) seem more likely to be affected by swimming participation than basketball. Thus, considering that competitive sport is deeply linked to active lifestyles and represents an important opportunity to implement physical activity [46][47][48] and to counteract the secular trends of increasing noncommunicable diseases [49] and of youth inactivity in western countries [50], policy makers should enforce sport practice of youth individuals. Physical education and sport programs should include aerobic and anaerobic activities that enhance the possibility to ameliorate blood profiles of youth but it is necessary caution in the choose of the most appropriated sport when targeting improvements in bone health.


s2fieldsofstudy: Education Psychology

text:
School grade and sex differences in domain-specific sedentary behaviors among Japanese elementary school children: a cross-sectional study

Background It is vital to reduce the proportion of sedentary behavior in children. Understanding the duration and behavioral context is needed. The present study examined school-grade and sex differences in domain-specific sedentary times and concurrence with screen-time guidelines among Japanese elementary school children. Methods A total of 625 children (330 boys) were surveyed in 2010 and 2014. Using a questionnaire, data regarding participants’ grade (first through third grades: lower grades; fourth through six grades: higher grades), sex, weight, and height were collected in addition to the time spent per day engaging in each specific sedentary behavior separately: (1) reading or listening to music, (2) TV or video viewing, (3) TV game use, (4) internet use excluding class, (5) homework, and (6) car travel. Two-way analysis of covariance and logistic regression analyses, adjusted for BMI and moderate to vigorous physical activity, were used to examine school-grade and sex differences in sedentary behaviors and the independent risk of exceeding recommended total daily screen time (< 2 h). Results On 625 children, mean minutes (SD) of sedentary behavior per week in (1) – (6) were 90.3 (123.4), 535.0 (356.6), 167.3 (222.1), 23.9 (70.9), 264.9 (185.3), and 33.4 (61.2) in weekdays and 42.1 (70.0), 323.9 (232.0), 123.0 (96.4), 15.8 (49.9), 74.4 (96.4), and 71.3 (84.9) in weekends, respectively. There were differences in the minutes of sedentary behavior between participants of 2010 and 2014; e.g., TV game use and homework in weekdays and weekdays and car travel in weekends. Boys spent more time in TV game use, and girls spent more time reading, listening to music, doing homework, and car travel. Higher-grade students spent more time reading or listening to music, using a computer, and doing homework. Higher-grade students were 2.09 times (95% CI: 1.32 − 3.30) in whole week, 2.08 times (95% CI: 1.45 − 3.00) in weekday, and 1.88 times (95% CI: 1.29 − 2.74) in weekend more likely to spend ≥2 h per day in domains (2) − (4) (screen-time) than lower-grade students. Conclusions Time spent engaging in each domain-specific sedentary behavior differed according to sex and school grade. Higher-grade students were less likely to meet screen-time guidelines. These findings highlight the need for domain-focused strategies to decrease sedentary behavior in Japanese school-age children.

Background
Excessive sedentary behavior in childhood, such as habitual television (TV) viewing or video game play, is associated with weight gain/obesity [1], cardiometabolic disease risk [2], and poor mental health [3], independent of physical activity levels [4]. Despite these risks, the proportion of children who spend excessive time in sedentary behavior is increasing worldwide [4]. Reducing sedentary behavior among children is critical in order to stem the current increase in lifestyle-associated diseases (e.g., type-2 diabetes and hypertension). Current activity guidelines [5,6] recommend no more than 2 h per day of recreational screen time (i.e., watching TV, DVDs, or videos, playing TV games, and computer use), and limiting sedentary transportation and reducing prolonged periods of sitting or time indoors [4]. However, the development of more effective intervention strategies requires a greater understanding of behavioral context, such as the places and social situations associated with inactivity, as well as the individual times spent on specific sedentary behaviors in target populations.
Numerous studies have examined sedentary behavior in school-age children, and many have focused on relationships to diet, obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease [7][8][9][10] or sex differences [11,12]. Others have examined domain-specific sedentary times, particularly time spent in TV viewing [13][14][15][16][17] or total screen time [18][19][20][21][22][23]. Such studies have revealed regional differences in domain-specific sedentary times. For instance, the proportion of children meeting the <2 h/day recreational screen time guideline differed between study populations in Norway [24] and Canada [25]. Other types of sedentary behaviors also vary by country [26], as these behaviors may be heavily dependent on culture, the socioeconomic status, and lifestyle.
While documenting behavior characteristics in target populations is critical for effective targeted interventions [27], few studies have comprehensively assessed differences in domain-specific sedentary behaviors and compliance with activity or screen-time guidelines between sexes and among different age groups in childhood. Descriptive epidemiological studies have suggested that differences in sedentary behavior between boys and girls are domain-specific [28][29][30], and that sedentary behavior increases with age [7,31]. Therefore, the aim of this present study was to examine domain-specific sedentary behaviors and compliance with screen-time guidelines in Japanese school children from 6 to 11 years of age in order to develop targeted interventions according to age (or grade level) and sex.

Participants and data collection
The present stratified sampling cross-sectional study (n = 967) was conducted in 9 public elementary schools, 1 in Okayama in 2010 and 8 in Tokyo in 2014 agreed to participate in the present study. The children ranged in age from 6 − 11 years. In the Okayama school, students were enrolled from 3 first grade, 2 s grade, 3 third grade, 2 fourth grade, 3 fifth grade, and 3 sixth grade classes. All classes enrolled in the 8 Tokyo schools were fifth grade (19 in total, 5 schools with 2 classes, 3 schools with 3 classes). The present study included all students from these grades. Tokyo is an urban area while Okayama is a mid-sized regional suburban city. Permissions were granted by the Boards of Education of each city and prefecture, and by the principals of each school after research goals and methodology were fully explained. They were informed of study goals and importance, and assured that participant confidentially would be maintained. Children received a questionnaire from their teachers and were instructed to complete it at home in April in 2010 and September to October in 2014. The package contained a letter to parents/guardians explaining the ethical considerations of the study and requesting their participation. Returning the questionnaire constituted informed consent. Participation was voluntary, and the confidentiality of the participants was ensured.
A previous study [32] suggested that children younger than 10 years of age are unable to report their activity patterns accurately or reliably. Alternatively, parental reports of physical activity among 6 year olds has shown to have a strong correlation with heart rate measures during physical activity [33]. Therefore, parents or guardians of children in first through third grades (lower grades) were asked to complete the questionnaire with their child. Children in fourth grade and above (over 10 years old, higher grades) were asked to complete the questionnaire without parental or guardian assistance.
The study was approved by the human research ethics committee at Waseda University.

Demographic and anthropometric variables
Data on participant school grade, sex, weight, and height were obtained from school records. Participants were divided into lower-grade (grades 1 − 3) or higher-grade (grades 4 − 6) groups. During normal school medical check-ups in April 2010 and 2014, weight and height were measured by a trained nurse or class teacher using the school's stadiometers and weighing scales. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated from the height and weight data (weight/height 2 ).

Domain-specific sedentary behavior and physical activity
Domain-specific sedentary behaviors were collected using a questionnaire. Sedentary behavior was divided into 6 domains [34]: (1) reading or listening to music, (2) TV or video viewing, (3) TV game use, (4) internet or e-mail (computer or tablet) use outside of class, (5) doing homework or assignments, and (6) car travel for transport. Participants were asked how many days on average per week and how much time (hours and minutes) on average per day they engaged in these sedentary behaviors during weekdays and weekends in each domain, and then the values were multiplied by the frequency per week and minutes per day. Each domainspecific sedentary behavior was examined separately, and we calculated the average total number of minutes for each school week (Monday − Friday) and weekend (days × minutes per day). The data were assessed on a scale currently used for a national survey of Japanese students [34]. Screen time was calculated using the total of domains (2), (3), and (4). For the screen-time cut-off point, the present study used the American Academy of Pediatrics guideline of a maximum of 2 h per day [5]. Physical activity was also measured through the questionnaire. The scale was originally developed to assess children's physical activity by reference to a previous study [35]. Although it is widely agreed that children should have 60 min or more of physical activity daily, no precise assessment scale has been established in Japan. Therefore, participants were asked whether they engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) that induces harder than normal breathing, such as brisk walking, cycling, dancing, or swimming, for at least 60 min per day, and, if so, how many days did they engage in MVPA in the past week.

Statistical analyses
Two-way analysis of covariance, adjusted for BMI z-scores, number of days with MVPA for at least 60 min z-scores, and geographic area, was used to examine school-grade and sex differences in sedentary behaviors. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine independent relationships between risk of exceeding 2 h/day total screen-time and both sex and school grade, adjusted for BMI z-scores, number of days with MVPA for least 60 min z-scores, and geographic area. Participants with any missing data were excluded from the analysis. Missing data were defined as any questions that were unanswered. All statistical analyses were performed using PAWS Statistics 21 and results were considered significant at p < 0.05.  There were no significant main effects of sex and school grade on sedentary behavior, and a significant interaction between sex and school grade was found only for car travel (P = 0.019). However, girls spent significantly more time in the following sedentary behaviors: reading or listening to music on weekdays (P = 0.022), homework or assignments on weekdays (P = 0.013), and car travel on weekends (P = 0.019). Boys spent more time playing TV games than girls on both weekdays and weekends (both P < 0.001) ( Table 2). Higher grades spent significantly more time than lower grades on reading or listening to music, in computer and tablet use, and on homework or assignments on weekdays and weekends (P < 0.001 for all).

Demographics, sedentary behaviors, and physical activity of the participants
Association of non-attainment of screen-time guidelines with sex and school grades

Discussion
The present study describes the weekly time spent in specific sedentary behaviors by Japanese elementary school children. Boys spent more time playing TV games, while girls spent more time reading or listening to music, doing homework or assignments, and car travel. Higher-grade students spent more time reading or listening to music, on computer or Internet use, and doing homework or assignments even after adjusted for the geographic areas or BMI. Moreover, approximately 60% of children spent time ≥ 2 h per day in sedentary behavior, the majority being devoted to screen time (TV watching and gaming). These findings indicate that programs for decreasing sedentary behavior in Japanese school children should be designed specifically for different age groups of boys and girls.
Sedentary behavior was high on both weekdays and weekends in the presented domains, particularly watching TV or videos and TV game use. Moreover, even compared with a previous study that reported a TV viewing time of 1.42 h (426 min/wk) on weekdays and 1.57 h (188.4 min/wk) on weekends among aged 5 years old [36], sedentary behavior was high. According to a national self-reported survey of 3210 children in 10 regions [37], Japanese children spend a substantial amount of time watching TV, playing video games, and using computers when home alone. Therefore, instructing children how to spend time when alone at home might be one effective strategy for decreasing sedentary behavior. However, the total average daily time spent on sedentary activity was even higher on weekends than weekdays. For instance, average TV viewing time was approximately more than 99 min daily on weekdays and 146 min daily on weekends. Alternatively, relatively little time was spent in computer use in this age group. Previous studies [38,39] also found that leisure sedentary behavior time was higher on weekend days than weekdays. Therefore, family-focused weekend activities are a promising way to reduce sedentary behavior in children.
On weekdays, boys were more likely to spend time playing TV games and less likely to spend time reading, listening to music, and doing homework or assignments than girls. On weekends, boys were also more likely to spend time playing TV games and less likely to spend time in car travel than girls. These sex differences by weekday or weekend are consistent with findings from a previous cross-sectional study on a random sample of children aged 12.6-16.7 years from Scottish schools [39]. Several studies have reported that boys spend more time engaged in TV games than girls [12,21,23] and that girls spend more time engaged in reading and homework than boys [6,10,12]. Other studies have also reported greater TV video game play by boys than girls [18,19] and more time spent reading by girls [9], although the differences were not statistically significant. As children's leisure time activities clearly differ by sex [11], domain-focused approaches for reducing sedentary behavior must also be tailored specifically for boys and girls. Car travel on weekends frequently occurs with the family. According to a national self-reported survey of 3000 randomly sampled children [40], girls tend to spend more time on weekends with their families than do boys, which may explain the difference in car travel.
Higher grade students were more likely to spend time reading or listening to music, using a computer, and 11-year-old and 4-to 5-year-old girls, respectively) and computer/video games (1.2 h/ day and 0.7 h/day in 4-5 years in 9-to 11-year-old and 4-to 5-year-old boys, respectively, and 0.8 h/day, 0.6 h/day in 9-to 11-year-old and 4-to 5-year-old girls, respectively) [18]. Increased time spent on computer use with advancing school grade or age is consistent across studies [7,9,17]. In contrast to numerous studies reporting that time spent on TV viewing increased with school grade or age [8,13,15,16,18], the present study found no significant differences. However, the average time spent watching TV in the present population (1.6 to 1.9 h per day on weekdays and 2.4 to 3.1 h per day on weekends) was low compared to previous estimates that ranged from 2.0 to 3.7 h per day in 35 countries and regions [14]. Nonetheless, TV viewing time still accounted by far the largest proportion of total sedentary time in Japanese children. No significant sex and grade differences were observed in the present study, which suggests that changing TV viewing habits should be a focus for reducing sedentary behavior in all Japanese children. Furthermore, sedentary behaviors in childhood are maintained in adolescence and into adulthood [22]; therefore, targeted strategies to reduce excessive screen time in childhood are crucial for encouraging lasting behavioral changes. A national self-reported survey of 53,458 randomly selected Japanese children found that the proportion of time spent in learning activities in sedentary behavior outside of school hours without family increased with school grade [41]. Another self-reported survey of 3210 children from 10 areas of Japan found that lower-grade students spent more time with families on weekends than did higher-grade students [37], suggesting that lower-grade students received more social support from family than higher-grade students. Therefore, the present study showed that lower-grade students engaged in less sedentary behavior than higher-grade students and that family support is vital for reducing these sedentary behaviors, because they frequently occur at the family's discretion, particularly in younger children.
In the present study, only 35.5% of boys and 40.7% of girls met the recommendation that children spend less than 2 h on screen time daily. This trend is comparable to that found in a study from China that asked about time spent watching videos, CDs, and DVDs; playing video games; and using a computer (46.7% and 42.3% of boys and girls, respectively) [42], study from the United States that asked about time spent watching TV and playing video games (26.7% and 35.0% of boys and girls, respectively) [19], and study from Canada that asked about the time spent watching TV and using a computer or playing video games (38.1% and 56.0% of boys and girls, respectively) [43]. Even after adjusted for z-scores of BMI, number of days with moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) for at least 60 min, and geographic area, compared to lower-grade students, higher-grade students in our survey were 2.09 times during the whole week, 2.08 times on the weekday, and 1.88 times on the weekend more likely to spend ≥2 h/day on screen time. A study of Canadian children were asked to report the number of hours per day during the week that they spend watching TV or movies or playing video or computer games; in grades 5 − 8, the authors found that boys were 2.2 times more likely than girls to spend ≥3 h/day on screen time [25]. While the measuring methods of screen time differed among studies, making direct comparison difficult, the proportion of children who attained the 2-h limit was low in the present study group, especially for the higher-grade students. Effective strategies to decrease screen time are needed, especially in higher-grade students, including family-based interventions and removing TVs from children's bedrooms [44,45]. Further studies are required to identify factors that predict meeting or exceeding these guidelines.
The present study has some limitations. First, the study relied on self-reported measures, which have the potential for error due to different interpretations of the questions. However, objective measures such as accelerometers are free of behavioral context [46]. In addition, the present study did not gather data regarding all the  [34]. However, it was used in a national survey of Japanese elementary school children [34]. In a previous study [34], parents/ guardians of children in the first through third grades (6 − 8 years) were asked to complete the questionnaire after consulting with their children. Children in the fourth grade and above (9 − 11 years) were asked to complete the questionnaire without parental/guardian assistance to ensure reliability and validity. Although the present study used a previous representative survey of Japanese school children [34], the self-reported questionnaire was likely to be underappreciated. Second, data from lower-grade school children were collected with the assistance of a parent or guardian, whereas higher-grade children completed the questionnaire independently, which present two distinct sources of bias. Third, the questionnaire asked about each domain-specific sedentary behavior separately. However, when responding about domainspecific sedentary behaviors, the participants may not have reported on only one domain, e.g., they could have reported the time spent using a reading or listening to music while watching TV or video. Thus, it is necessary to consider that the self-reported sedentary time is overestimated. Fourth, there were differences in the grade level, BMI, and sedentary time between participants from Okayama in 2010 and Tokyo in 2014. Moreover, the difference in the period of measurements in 2010 and 2014 may have biased the data. Moreover, it is likely that Japanese children who are largely sedentary also have parents/guardians who are largely sedentary. However, the present study did not include items on parent's/guardian's sedentary behavior to adjust for these effects. Despite these limitations, the present study consider that the present study is meaningful because it is the first study to highlight sex and grade differences in domain-specific sedentary behaviors and attainment of screen-time guidelines in Japanese children. The present results provide an important foundation for the development of interventions to decrease sedentary behavior in Japanese children.

Conclusions
Domain-specific sedentary behaviors differed according to sex and school grade. Higher-grade students were more likely to spend ≥2 h per day on screen time than lower-grade students. These findings highlight the need for strategies targeting specific domains in order to more effectively decrease sedentary behaviors in Japanese school-age children.


Looking back over 40 years in medical education – the continuing challenge of developing professional artistry and personal educational philosophy

Experienced medical educators appear to focus more on their research than developing their professional artistry and personal educational philosophy. This situation has potential major implications for the continuing improvement of teaching and student learning.

knowledge and skills base of the clinical subjects was both liberating and motivating. My examination performance in the clinical subjects was superior to my basic sciences.
My personal educational philosophy was reinforced by my experience as a learner and I had little doubt that the essential role of the teacher was to foster an inquiring mind and self-directed learning. I was also aware of the notion that a teacher cannot make a learner learn -you can only facilitate the learning process. This does not mean that the teacher simply says "find it out for yourself"! The teacher has an essential role to motivate the learner and to facilitate the overall learning process for the learner, with support to identify learning needs and planning to meet these needs, as well as actively supporting the learner to reflect on what they have learned, both in content and the process.
Similar to most medical educators, I initially attended several "train the trainer" courses that were mandatory to teach the increasingly diverse groups of learners that were becoming part of my widening medical educator role, which had a range from medical students and junior doctors to senior doctors attending continuing professional development events. The focus of these training courses was mainly on practical techniques, such as writing learning objectives and constructing assessments. The techniques that I acquired became the basis for my development of professional artistry, where I could begin to skilfully craft my teaching to the needs of the learner and different contexts. I could also begin to appreciate how these techniques might help me to put my personal educational philosophy into daily practice but there was little opportunity to refine and adapt my philosophy.
With an increasing emphasis on delivering and managing medical education in my various educator roles, I decided to enrol in a postgraduate certificate in education. I was the only health professional on this course since its focus was on general adult education. This experience was fantastic, with weekly small group meetings facilitated by tutors who also observed our teaching in practice. The group was expected to read widely and reflect on their practice, with the final assessment being an extensive portfolio of reflections. My professional artistry as a medical educator was developing on an upwards journey and I had the opportunity to grasp the nettle of challenging my deeply held personal educational philosophy, reflecting on how to align my teaching to my beliefs and values.
I was determined to move onto a masters course since my educator role was becoming increasingly academic. The masters course moved the focus of my medical education endeavours in the direction of research. My supervisor, the Professor of Education, was inspirational. I began to read the original sources of the educational theories and philosophies that I had only previously read as a summary in textbooks or review articles, becoming increasingly familiar with the ideas of key educational thinkers, from the learning theories of Bandura and Vygotsky to the pragmatist philosophy of Dewey. The stimulating discussions with my supervisor provided an ideal opportunity to continue the journey of developing my personal educational philosophy but the research project provided little development of my professional artistry as a practical medical educator.
The essential transitional object of a doctoral degree was my next step on the academic pathway and I quickly realised that the focus of my supervision was the academic rigour of my research and dissertation. The research was interesting but I felt that I was no longer on the journey of developing either my professional artistry or my personal educational philosophy. My academic medical educator colleagues rarely discussed how to develop their craft as a teacher and it was even rarer to have vibrant discussions about educational philosophy. The focus of most discussions became increasingly narrowed to "the evidence base" and "quality assurance of teaching". This situation has continued to a major extent for the last twenty years! Sandars J MedEdPublish https://doi.org/10. 15694/mep.2017.000179 Page | 3

Take Home Messages
As I reflect on the current state of medical education, I am struck by what appears to be the detachment of most medical educator continuing professional development activities from the reality of teaching and the essential lifelong development of professional artistry and personal educational philosophy. Most medical educators are active in teaching yet what appears to be valued are publications and conference presentations instead of discussions between colleagues that are directed at what they actually spend their time doing when they teach. This state of affairs is surprising since school teachers frequently direct their attention to the development of professional artistry and personal philosophy through "teaching circles" which become communities of inquiry. These communities foster a high commitment to changing practice and willingness to try new approaches that are associated with an impact on student learning, with enhanced motivation and improvements in performance (Stoll et al 2006).
Looking back over 40 years in medical education has highlighted the continuing challenge of developing professional artistry and personal educational philosophy. This development is not an optional extra but is core to being a medical educator after becoming a medical educator through the initial training courses. Undoubtedly research in medical education has informed practice but I am constantly reminded of the original definition of evidence based medicine that clearly emphasises the importance of integrating the evidence with the expertise of the doctor and the views of the patient (Sackett et al 1996). This definition is often overlooked in medicine and I propose that it is time to revisit it in the era of "evidence based medical education" so that practice is informed by an integration of the findings from research with the teacher's professional artistry and personal educational philosophy -and of course not forgetting the opinions and wishes of the learner. I have a hunch that medical education of the future could be vastly different if we adopted this stance.

Notes On Contributors
John is a Professor of Medical Education and qualified in medicine in 1975.