Inspire the Leadership Potential: Leadership Promotion of Chinese Women under the Background of Social Gender Mainstreaming

Looking at the political practice of women in the world, today with the constant development of the feminist movement and the feminist consciousness, women participate in competitive election and parliamentary vote, and make decisions in policies like men. They manage state affairs and share political tasks with men. The female leadership is gradually emerging. However, during the efforts under the background from the social gender perspective, in the process of their growth and development Chinese female leaders have their special difficulties, which shall be solved and improved, in order to inspire the advantages of women in leadership and allow them to manage the society more effectively.

both sexes is no longer just limited to the independence of economy and the marriage equality. Women began to demand for higher social status and political identity, and their political participation also became increasingly active. "Without the full participation and the full power of women all over the world, the most threatening social, economic and political problems of the human society will not be able to be solved permanently". The UN Fourth World Conference on Women commented on the female movement lasting for a century. The world reached a new consensus. Women can also participate in politics, and the practical significance is extraordinary. Since then, women's participation in politics reached a new stage. The social gender consciousness mainstreaming has become the global strategy of gender equality, which provides a new path for the political participation of women.

The Feminist Movements Are in the Ascendant
In the 14 th century at the beginning of the Renaissance, with the call of the times of tracing back to the light of reason and highlighting people-oriented, the feminist consciousness gradually began to spread on the continent of Europe. Until the 17 th century, the enlightenment era with the theme of natural rights and "all men are created equal" started women's revitalization. Since then women's actions of maintaining their own rights really began. After the baptism of bourgeois revolution, the concept of "liberty, equality and philanthropism" enjoyed popular support. Feminism Proclamation, the first declaration of women's rights showing the complete feminist thought in human history, appeared. Since the second half of the eighteenth century, "the main line of action was the fight for rights, and the main line of theory was reflection and criticism of the traditional mainstream theories" [2]. There were a series of women's liberation movements with the belief consciousness of "equality between men and women". The first wave of feminist movements demanded the equality of labor rights, the second wave of feminist movements strived for equality of political and legal status of both sexes, and the third wave tried to break from the patriarchal environment and was committed to explore gender differences and diversity. So far the feminist movements never stopped. At the same time, different theoretical schools appeared in the academic circle, including liberal feminism, radical feminism, modern socialist feminism and postmodern feminism, which analyzed women's effect and significance for political civilization from different historical background and characteristics of different stages. Women's fight for their rights always affects the process of human development.
The rise of the feminist consciousness is the enlightenment and premise of women's participation in politics. Women's movement is the strong support of women's participation in politics. Such self awakening from the western democratic liberalism spirit containing the sense of equity from the humanism not only provides possibility for women's rejudgment of self being and self values, but also is the necessary way for the nation and the state to realize citizens' political rights and promote the democratic process, and the important basis for women with potential to be effectively involved in the public affairs and management.

Efforts from the Perspective of Social Gender
The social gender theory continuously gives the new realistic explanation significance to women's participation in politics in academic theory. As an analysis tool, it rejects the idea of binary opposition, advocates and encourages multiple coexistence, and advocates treating different genders in a just and equal manner in gender difference. Thus, feminism maintainers and advocates gradually changed their consciousness, and improved from the will neglecting gender differences and striving for "absolute equality between men and women" to the pursuit of "shared governance of both sexes". The goal of women's participation in politics is not just to change the existing social status of woman, but also to realize the harmonious shared governance of both sexes in the process of the pursuit of gender equity" [3]. Thus, Gender Mainstreaming advocated by the United Nations has become the new strategy of gender equality in the world. In the decision making process of different countries in the world, such a national responsibility is gradually formed. The new trend focuses on weighing the equal benefits of both sexes, uses the method of promoting social fairness and justice, and aims at eliminating the social sex discrimination.
The concept of social gender was originated from the second wave of women's movements in the 1960s, and proposed by American anthropologist Gail Rubin for the first time. Different from biological sex, social gender is standardized and constrained by social culture, and can change along with the social change. Some scholars summarize it as "the behavioral pattern and group characteristics of men or women formed in the social culture" [4]. Although the relevant social gender theory is controversial, it reflects a kind of practical trend. In the male-dominated gender politics and the western dualism ideology, the change of subordinate and service role of women needs the premise of the change of the whole mainstream culture. As Anders Johansson, Secretary General of Inter-parliamentary Union, said, women could bring a lot of things different from men to politics, such as social consciousness, and could deal with and resolve conflicts in their own way.
On the one hand, women can use their gender characteristics and advantages when they participate in politics, and bring the unique scenery line different from traditional power politics from the perspective of men; on the other hand, women's participation in politics also has profound social significance. It can realize social harmony and social justice brought by the expectation of social gender equality.

Women's Political Opportunities for Themselves
In 1869 American feminists proposed "women's will of participation in politics".
At the beginning of the 20 th century, the western feminist movement and the li-beralism thought of "equality of men and women" constantly influenced countries and areas all over the world. Women from different countries also gradually participated in the political field. Women's participation in politics has a lot of modern significance and connotation. "It refers to activities in which the female citizens try to influence and promote the decision-making process of the political system." [5]. It means that women enter the organs of authority, serve as leaders and managers and exercise certain political and management powers.  Table 1  women, so they are likely to promote women to participate in politics." [7].
These female leaders' political career and performance in the process of role performance will resonate women who expect the same experience, thus raising such women's political consciousness and arousing their enthusiasm of participation in politics.

The Challenges of International Women's Participation in Politics
However, there are some unavoidable realistic challenges in the growing political participation of international women. In the process of international women's participation in politics, apart from the challenges of the existing financial and material limitations, cultural differences and traditional concepts are also the biggest challenges of women's leadership career. In this study, the following two typical challenges are the main findings.

Dilemma and Future-Inspiration of the Leadership Potential of Chinese Women
Today social gender mainstreaming is advocated. Looking at the growth and development process of the international female leaders, those outstanding female leaders not only benefit from external support in the objective environment. Their individual charm also shows the quality and potential of leaders, which shall be studied and referred to by Chinese female leaders.

Basic Conditions of Women's Participation in Politics and the Development of Female Leaders in China
In  Table 2).  Table   3). Seen from the position setting, they mainly work in administrative organs,

The Main Reasons Restricting the Inspiration of Leadership of Women in China
The main reasons restricting the inspiration of leadership of women include the objective environment and subjective factors.  First, the deeply rooted traditional gender idea environment still exists, which hinders the role definition of female leaders from the body and mind in their growth. According to traditional ideas, women are not as strong as women, have richer emotional feelings than men, and are naturally vulnerable. If they cannot control empathy and sympathy well, their work will be influenced by emotional factors and they may act impetuously. Due to these psychological and emotional factors, female leaders and cadres are limited in their growth.
Second, the promotion and safeguard environment of the personnel selection mechanism and the legal mechanism needs to be improved. Under the same conditions, female cadres cannot be treated in a relatively just and fair manner.
The national or local regulations on political participation or right representative of women are not clear. There is also a lack of corresponding guarantee on the system. For example, in terms of the proportion of men and women, it is expressly stipulated in the policy that "at least one woman" means that there are few or only one female cadre. At the same time, in the process of selection and promotion, women often cannot get the selection and training opportunities due to their gender identity. Female superiors may exert a certain pressure on promotion and selection of female cadres. Female cadres may also be stifled by male superiors to avoid arousing suspicion. The lack of relevant legal protection is also the main obstacle of female leaders in the process of growth for selection and training. For example, in the working process when they encounter problems and disputes or discrimination, because the related legal system is not sound, the female leaders and cadres cannot find the corresponding right protection department for relief and responsibility investigation.
Finally, due to family factors it is difficult for female leaders to coordinate work and family, so marriage and career of most of the female leaders and cadres are relatively not harmonious. This is because female leaders and cadres' care of marriage and family is more than career advancement and the commitment to work tasks. Due to this phenomenon, some female leaders and cadres' political participation is not enough, they are not anxious for career promotion, and they lack certain courage and execution force of leadership; due to special physiological conditions, especially the child-bearing and lactation period, relative to men women lack consistency of overall arrangement or leadership tasks, and they have less time and energy than men with the same age and identity. Due to the concept of weak body and mind of women, female leaders lack independent consciousness and competitive consciousness in the selection or promotion, so that some female leaders and cadres call themselves vulnerable groups and content with the current situation;

Inspiration of Potential of Chinese Leaders under the Enlightenment from Female Leaders in the World
The of leaders also helps to make the unconventional relevant decision, which is female leaders and cadres' gender advantage compared to male leaders. So women get additional resources in the process of political participation, thus improving their political ability and execution level, and accumulating enough political knowledge, experience and qualifications, so that in the operation and management subordinates and people tend to be more convincing with authority and complying with the task. Therefore, female leaders must be good at using their advantages to analyze available resources, actively cultivate innovative thinking ability and enhance the political sensitivity in work, improve self-cultivation and quality in life, and show the beauty of women's leadership with hardness and softness, so as to create the charming personality.
Finally, for the growth and development of female leaders and cadres, the favorable economic and political environment needs to be created. Joining a political party organization, establishing a power maintenance system and establishing the good and effective social capital is the necessary premise of improving women's political participation and promoting the development and playing of leadership. An important feature of contemporary politics is party politics. The personal power shall depend on the party's political power to grow, draw attention and maintain the corresponding leadership rights and interests. By attending a party or a political organization, female leaders and cadres practice and improve in the organization, strive for the leader status in the organization like male cadres, set up the prestige and reputation in the process, and build a solid maintaining system, so as to consolidate and strengthen the leading foundation.
At the same time, the necessary social resource is another factor for the success of female leaders. Dealing with the balance between marriage and family and job promotion can be regarded as an important social capital of female leaders. This is an important factor which determines whether female leaders can have smooth promotion and development. In addition, actively joining the social circle of different classes and building a relationship with the power group is one of the social capital for women to take advantages. Libby Sartain, the former President of Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM), said: "Establishing a good relationship with groups higher than, equal to or lower than you is the key to success". [8]. So in addition to the strength and ability of female leaders, the effective capital and resources inside and outside the organization is also an indispensable element for the growth and development of female leaders.
In a word, the deepening of the global women's movement and the liberal democratic thought influenced different countries and regions. At the same time, the process of political decision democratization also realized the power and democratic participation in politics of today's women. More outstanding women will be engaged in politics. The history of the development of human society changed from being controlled and dominated by a few people gradually to participation in decision making and sharing of rights by most of the people [9].
Taking gender advantages has become the future development trend of leadership. Female leaders need to continuously regenerate and grow in this trend, and inspire their own leadership potential, so as to realize their values and give full play to the gender advantages, so as to cooperate with men together and work out a good blueprint.


Reflections on Teaching Periodic Table Concepts: A Case Study of Selected Schools in South Africa

The Periodic Table of Elements is central to the study of modern Physics and Chemistry. It is however, considered by teachers as difficult to teach. This paper reports on a case study exploring reflections on teaching periodic table concepts in five secondary schools from South Africa. Qualitative methodology of interviews and document analysis were used to collect data from five participants that were purposively selected. One specific research question was addressed: what practices inform Physical Sciences teachers when teaching periodic table of elements? Results showed that all participants were able to describe specific teaching and learning difficulties, such as relating the properties of substances to characteristics of the constituent particles. They further, recognised the importance of using models of atoms and molecules to promote understanding. These findings have implications for science teaching, learning and teacher education.

INTRODUCTION
The Periodic Table of Elements (PTE) forms part of high school and tertiary level chemistry hence, central to the study of modern science. It has influenced the development of quantum theory and continues to influence the quantum-mechanical calculations on molecules (Nelson, 2015).
The periodic table which was originally developed as a list of elements and later the Russian inventor and chemist, Dimitri Mendeleev, developed it into a list of atoms of the elements in the 1860s (Brooks, 2002). Mendeleev was able to use physical and chemical properties of elements to predict or recall the particles that constitute atoms: the number of protons and the arrangement of electrons (particle level). Since then, the PTE has been influencing theories in Physics and Chemistry. Today, any element symbol in the PTE refers to an atom of an element (Schmidt, 1998). The modern periodic table shows the arrangement of elements in order of their increasing atomic number. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. An atom comprises a nucleus, shells of inner or core electrons, and a shell of outer or valence electrons (Nelson, 2015). Though a shift of meaning occurred from a periodic table listing substances to a periodic table of atoms of the elements, the current interpretation of the PTE has not completely replaced the original one. Both interpretations are used in parallel (Schmidt, 1998).
In South Africa, the PTE is a topic to which students are introduced at the secondary level. However, for many Physical Sciences teachers, this topic is considered difficult to teach where several studies reported that the majority of teachers experience difficulties when teaching science content at secondary school level (Mokiwa 2014a;2014b;Mudau, 2013;Ejiwale, 2013;Jita & Ndlalane, 2009). In the South African context, Physical Sciences is a subject that investigate physical and chemical phenomenon and it is taught from grades 9 to 12. The newly introduced Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS) asserts that the teaching of Physical Sciences should be done through inquiry, application of scientific models, theories and laws in order to explain and predict events in the physical environment. The specific aims of Physical Sciences as described in the CAPS document include three outcomes. Outcome number one focuses on the development of practical scientific inquiry and problem solving skills. Constructing and applying scientific knowledge is learning outcomes two; whereas outcome three focuses on the Nature of Science (NOS) and its relationship to technology, society and the environment (DBE, 2011).
Physical Sciences has four strands; namely, matter and materials; life and living; energy and change; earth and beyond (DBE, 2011). The topic PTE is introduced superficially to students in grade 9 under the strand of energy and change where the focus is on the first twenty elements (see Table 1), and can be used as such in atomic structure. It displays the elements in increasing atomic number and shows how periodicity of the physical and chemical properties of the elements relates to atomic structure.

State of the literature
 Most teachers experience difficulties when teaching science content at secondary school level, despite its practicality as a conceptual tool for organization of the chemical elements and understanding their properties.  Successful teaching is influenced by sufficient expertise and content knowledge in the subject matter with a conducive teaching and learning environment.  Insufficient facilities in schools that hinders the development of conceptual understanding of the MST subjects.

Contribution of this paper to the literature
 This paper provides a critical review on the teaching of a periodic table concepts.  It highlights challenges faced by teachers of science to develop conceptual knowledge for the MST subjects.  The paper makes a significant contribution to the literature and debate in the science education reform. However, in grade 10 the PTE is taught under the theme Chemical change focusing more on the position of the elements, similarities in chemical properties in groups, and electron configuration in groups (DBE, 2011). The time allocated for the teaching of the whole PTE section is 4 hours. Students are expected to develop an understanding about the importance of the periodic table in Chemistry. This of course is not an automatic pursuit. Teachers of Physical Sciences are expected to possess a sound knowledge of concepts about the periodic trends of physical properties of elements. From a constructivist perspective, teachers facilitate the learning process and guide students in their meaning making (Luera & Otto, 2005).
Despite its practicality as a conceptual tool for organization of the chemical elements and understanding their properties, most teachers experience difficulties when teaching science content at secondary school level (Mokiwa 2014a;2014b;Mudau, 2013;Ejiwale, 2013;Jita & Ndlalane, 2009). The issues of what kind of knowledge is adequate for making effective instructional decisions or designing appropriate learning environments are on the agenda of current research world-wide (Malcolm & Alant, 2004). For South Africa, the unsatisfactory teaching competencies of the majority of science teachers is attributed to weak content knowledge arising from poor teacher education programmes offered in the former colleges of education prior to 1999. In 2014 the Mpumalanga Department of Basic Education (MDBE) established a mathematics, science and technology (MST) academy so as to address this problem. The academy is mandated to provide environment for innovation and change in the MST education through creative research and teaching by teachers and students. The academy has one school (also known as an MST school) in the each of the four districts of the Province that enrol MSTE students only from grades 8-12. The specific challenges to be addressed by the academy includes:  inadequate capacity of teachers to develop conceptual knowledge for the MST subjects,  insufficient facilities in schools that hinders the development of conceptual understanding of the MST subjects.
The argument here is that successful teaching is influenced by sufficient expertise and content knowledge in the subject matter with a conducive teaching and learning environment. Focusing on classroom practice of participants, teacher knowledge and the kinds of instructional strategies they use while teaching the PTE, this paper reports on a qualitative case study that was carried out in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. The main research question was what practices inform Physical Sciences teachers when teaching the periodic table of elements? In essence, I wanted to know how these teachers teach the periodic table concepts. The purpose of the study was for the participants to reflect on their teaching, hence create an awareness of their perspectives about their teaching of the PTE.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
This study is underpinned by the social constructivism theory (Vygotsky, 1978). As a theory of knowledge and learning, social constructivism views the teaching and learning context, students' prior knowledge and the interaction between student and the context as vital in informing teacher practice (Luera & Otto, 2005). Social constructivists believe that knowledge is a human product, and is socially and culturally constructed (Gredler, 2008). Members of a society create meaning through their interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. The emphasis is on the collaborative nature of learning. In school, students interact with teachers, peers, technology and the environment. Students in a social constructivist classroom are considered active agents, responsible for their own learning, enhanced by their interactions with peers, family, and their environment. Classrooms and have less teacher autonomy and are more student centred (Christensen, 2003). Students are also encouraged to use their prior knowledge and experiences, answer questions formulated by them or posed to them for learning to occur. A student, therefore, requires deliberate effort to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts he/she already possess (Luera & Otto, 2005). To achieve this, students work collaboratively to ask questions, explore and assess what they already know. On the side of the teacher, Leach and Scott (2003) posit that teachers' role is "to introduce and support the use of new knowledge on the social plane" (p.102).
Within social constructivism theory, I adopted a Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) model that would enable me focus on specific classroom practice aspects of participants especially content knowledge (CK) and Pedagogical knowledge (PK) they use while teaching the PTE. Shulman (1987) defined PCK as the knowledge that includes "an understanding of what makes the learning of a specific topic easy or difficult" (p.9). This is the knowledge that encompasses teachers' knowledge of representations and instructional strategies in relation to knowledge of student learning, with respect to a specified content area.
Various scholars (e.g. Grossman, 1990;Magnusson, Krajcik, & Borko, 1999;Mulholland & Wallace, 2005;Park & Oliver, 2008;Rollnick et al., 2008) have proposed different conceptualizations of PCK, in terms of the features they include or integrate. So far, two elements are central in any conceptualization of PCK, i.e. knowledge of representations of subject matter and instructional strategies incorporating these representations; and understanding of specific student conceptions and learning difficulties with respect to a specified content area. Other scholars (e.g. Mudau, 2013;Roohan, Taconis & Jochems, 2011) contends that PCK is not only about the knowledge of various domains which amalgamate to result in the PCK, but the teacher's craft is the ultimate variable in the classroom practice for students' learning.
There seems to be consensus amongst researchers regarding the nature of PCK. Firstly, since PCK is topic based, in general sense it is to be distinguished from knowledge of pedagogy, of educational purposes, and of student characteristics. Secondly, since PCK has a focus on the teaching of a particular topic, it is likely to differ considerably from subject matter knowledge as such.

METHODOLOGICAL ORIENTATION
This is a qualitative case study. The choice of qualitative approach has been influenced by orientation that I needed to immerse myself into the data in the pursuit to understand what participants see as being significant and important (Creswell, 2014).
The participants' reflections of teaching PTE was informed by data from five teachers, it can be thought as a collective case study (Stake, 2013). The rationale for using a multiple participant design was to inform the case by generating contrasting results for predicable reasons (Yin, 2015). A purposive sample of five teachers from five MST schools in Mpumalanga Province was used. Of these, two were from urban, two from rural and the remaining one from semi-urban school. These schools were selected purposively to the extent that they were regarded as rich sources of information I intended to gather (Punch, 2013).
All the participants teach Physical Sciences at the Further Education and Training (FET) Band. Within the context of South African education the FET Band includes grades 10 to 12. It also include career-oriented education and training offered in other FET institutions i.e. technical colleges; Vocational, Education and Training (VET) and private colleges. Table  2 illustrates the characteristics of the participants. I was aware that this sample could not be regarded as a representative of all the Physical Sciences teachers in Mpumalanga Province.
The findings may nevertheless be substantively applicable to other teachers in similar settings.

Data collection
The collection of data was done in two phases. Phase one comprised of individual interviews with participants. These interviews took place in participants' respective schools as it was deemed a convenient point for researchers and participants. The interviews sought to elicit information on participants' instructional practices with a specific focus on the teaching of the PTE. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The duration of the interviews was between 45-60 minutes. Phase two entailed the analysis of documents specifically, the lesson plans, scheme of work and text books used. Document analysis sought to elicit data on participants' readiness to teach the PTE.

Data analysis
The analysis of data was subjected to open, axial and selective coding (De Vos et al., 2011) Open coding was done line by line, followed by axial coding where paragraphs were compared to give precision to a category. Lastly, core categories were selected during selective coding. The analysis was done in two phases. The first phase involved, transcribing the audio-recorded data i.e. individual interviews. Then the transcripts were coded, after having been read several times to get familiar with them. This being a case study of the reflections of five teachers, my emphasis was on the discussion and classification of their views rather than on the teachers themselves. In the second phase data from the document analysis were grouped into categories.

Management of teaching and learning
The analysis of data revealed that teachers use the scheme of work from the Department of Basic Education (DBE). They get scheme of work through their respective school heads of science department who get it from the senior education specialist in their respective districts. Although most teachers are able to breakdown these schemes of work to suite their planning, they all tend to recycle them each year with minimal or no change at all.
Regarding lesson plans, the majority of teachers in the study plan their lessons weekly with the exception of T1 who indicated that she plans her lessons in a cycle system. T1's school has eight days in a cycle that enables her to see her two grade 9 classes six times in eight days. More interestingly, she uses two different languages i.e. English and Afrikaans; to teach the two classes. The Language of Learning and Teaching (LoLT) in T1's school is both English and Afrikaans. She basically uses one lesson plan that is in English and Afrikaans. When asked about how she manages to balance between the two LoLTs, T1 expressed her dilemma with the science register which sometimes pose threats to teaching and learning of the PTE concepts. She said: "Aaagh... Sometimes I can't find equivalent terminology in Afrikaans, so I use English. To help my students I ask them to make a rhyme using first letters of elements in the periodic table. In this way they are able to remember the elements".
Like schemes of work, lesson plans are also being recycled from one academic year to another. Regarding text books used to teach the PTE, teachers in the study indicated that they use a combination of at least two text books. The rationale behind this choice is that the two books complement each other. Interestingly, all five teachers in the study used at least one similar text book in spite the fact that the choice of which text book to be used is entirely on a teacher in consultation with the head of science department in the school. All participants indicated that their students have at least a copy of the text book used in class. This was possible because the management of teaching and learning i.e. learning programmes, lesson plans, assessment, moderation, examination etc. in the participating schools is under the MST academy.

The abstract nature of the topic
The Majority of the teachers in the study consider teaching the PTE concepts as difficult since the teachers themselves have never seen number of elements in real life. They pointed out that many students struggle to understand the relationship between the numbers of particles in the nuclei. Hydrogen nucleus for example, contains only one proton. However, in the nuclei of all other atoms both, neutrons and protons are present. This abstract nature of the topic poses a threat to teachers' confidence hence they opt for rote learning. Teachers simply ask their students to memorize the periodic table trends and expectations. For instance, some teachers said: "In most cases students assume that nuclei contain as many protons as neutrons, and they memorize this but they get confused when realizing that the nuclei of standard Chlorine atoms cannot have equal numbers of protons and neutrons…they [students] connect neutrons with neutralization and they conclude that neutrons have neutralized protons" (T5).
This teacher admit that he finds it difficult to clear this misconception on his students. One could question his content knowledge considering his 13 years of teaching experience. He does not know that the nuclei of atoms with lower atomic numbers such as carbon are composed of equal numbers of protons and neutrons; and that as the atomic number increases; the number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons.

"The majority of them have difficult with the periods and groups in the table [PTE]; even if you tell them that the groups explain the number of electrons in the outer shell…the period determines the number of shells, they don't understand. Then I have to either use division or use some concrete items [models] to explain which is not easy because we don't have a lab and resources (T3).
When asked about measures he takes to respond to the situation, T3 said:

"I sometime improvise though it is not easy. I bring my laptop and let them watch online documents and videos to support the teaching and learning of these concepts. I use my own internet facilities even for other school activities…I also use PhET interactive simulations… a white board or interactive board in my teaching".
"I don't have many problems in teaching Periodic table. Only some lazy students they don't by heart remember symbols of elements (T2).
When asked about measures he takes to respond to the situation, T2 said: "I use that chart [pointing at it on the class wall] as you can see everything is coloured so they can see metals, non-metals and gases. I sometimes give them the names and I ask them to write the symbols or the other way round. Then slowly I introduce them to balancing equations and writing formulas".
The extracts above show that translating abstract concepts into understandable ideas is one of the major challenges for these teachers of science. Their responses raise questions of their PCK, and of relevance of science learning. The strategies used by these teachers to enhance students' conceptual understanding as well as their skill of transforming the subject content in order to make it teachable, is also in question. Though teacher T3's school is rural, he indicated the use of models and the Physics Educational Technology (PhET) simulations to enhance understanding of the PTE concepts. Other teachers regardless of their school locations being urban or semi-urban emphasized memorization. This finding does not support Deal and Peterson's (1999) study which found students from rural communities lack academic ability and that this negative discourse exists among rural school teachers.
All the five participating schools were MST schools equipped with white boards and internet connection, but teachers T1, T2, T4 and T5 were not competent enough in teaching the PTE concepts using either PhET simulations, white board technology or any model in their teaching. They are technologically challenged. In fact, their teaching relied heavily on the text books and sometimes on the PTE charts that were too old and untidy. Such practices may pose threats to the current notion of reform science teaching.
Furthermore, participants' teaching of PTE concepts was not linked with students' everyday life. Although students interact with many elements (e.g. Aluminium, copper, iron, carbon, silver, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, etc.) in their everyday life, none of the participants spoke of linking school science and everyday life. It is like the elements in the PTE exist in a different planet. This failure of the teachers to link school science with students' everyday life may hinder students from developing interest in studying the topic and science in general. This teaching approach raise questions on teacher education, their PCK and teacher readiness to embrace change.

Students' progression
CAPS encourage the incorporation of prior knowledge in science teaching and learning. For the science teachers this requires them to consider the elicitation of prior knowledge and learning preferably when introducing a new lesson to encourage continuity and progression of concepts.
"My students have difficulties with identifying chemical symbols, writing electronic configurations, identifying positions of elements in the PTE. Since they start learning about atoms and symbols in grade 8, but you find that when they come to grade 10 they don't even recognize most of the common symbols taught in grade 8. If you look at the CAPS document it goes back up to primary school, so it makes me wonder what is happening lower grades" (T3) CONCLUSION Reflecting on the teaching of the PTE helped to identify difficulties, deficiencies and gaps on the delivery of Physical Sciences curriculum. It further provided some information regarding measures needed to promote understanding of science concepts more especially the PTE concepts. Teachers in the study generally held positive attitudes about teaching the PTE. However, their positive attitudes are challenged by reforms in the teaching professional. These includes use of technology for teaching science and teaching approaches that are more student-centred. They were also concerned about the level of support from the DBE and that scheme of work given to them not being in line with the pace setter. These are matter of concern not for the teaching of the PTE, but for the teaching and learning of science in general.
I also noted that, teachers are struggling to link PTE concepts with students' everyday life. Mpumalanga Province has a number of mines. One would expect teachers to refer to mines and mining activities in the region as a way to enhance understanding. In contrast, students are forced to cope with the subject by rote memorization of isolated fragments and by carrying out meaningless tasks for the sake of passing tests and examinations. This could be one factor that many students are repelled to take MST subjects.

RECOMMENDATIONS
This study has shown that, despite the fact that most elements in the PTE are common in everyday life; teachers have limited knowledge about them. If South Africa is to make significant advancements in science education, the study recommends new strategies to address the needs of thousands of science teachers. Professional Development Programmes (PDPs) for science teachers have little impact in giving teachers the specific content knowledge they need. Both, facilitators and teachers need a deeper understanding of CAPS content. I argue that, although an understanding of teaching and learning is crucial, teachers cannot teach what they do not know. These PDPs need not to be to be tailor-made; instead they should be structured in such a way to address specific challenges faced by the teachers.


Problems Of Conducting Equal Education Rights For Non-formal Education: Challenges For Batam Local Goverment

In order to comply with education rights as mandated by the 1945 Constitution, a non-formal education has been introduced to Indonesian society. Non-formal education is regulated by Article 26, paragraph 1-7 of Law No. 20 of 2003 on National Education System. Since this provision is mandated by the Law, it is questioned whether the Government of Batam City has efficiently implemented the educational rights for all. Another question is whether the delivery system of equal education conducted by Community Learning Center and Homeschooling in Batam City which aim to assist the Batam City Government are the solutions in providing education rights for all in Batam City. This research finds that Law No.20 of 2003 on National Education has not been effectively implemented by the Batam City Government, particularly the Education Office under the Batam City Government because non-formal educations as one of the solutions of delivering equal education for all remains to face problems. The problems are students in non-formal education programs are not students at the study age and yet they must follow the same curriculums as students in formal schools. This research also finds that the Education Office under the Batam City Government fails to disseminate the requirements under Law No.20 of 2003 to Community Learning Center in Batam City. In addition, it also fails to conduct regular monitoring and auditing in relation to learning process performances of Community Learning Center in Batam City.

I. INTRODUCTION
Batam City is located in the Province of Riau Islands and it is geographically adjacent to two neighboring countries, namely Singapore and Malaysia. Batam City has been established as a Free Trade Zone (FTZ) since April 1, 2009. Due to its strategic location, it has grown and developed into an industrial city. As an industrial city, human resources have become highly significant aspects in attracting foreign investment to Batam City. Education is the one of the most important aspects in producing the quality of human resources. Education is a human right as articulated in the 1945 Constitution, Chapter XIII, Article 31 paragraph (1) (2) and Article 28C paragraph (1). It is also reaffirmed in Article 5 paragraph 1 and 5 of Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System stating that "Every citizen has equal right to receive a good quality education" and "Every citizen shall have the right to enhance his/her educational ability in the process of long-term education". [Unofficial translation] The Indonesian government mandates a 9-year compulsory education program. The problem is that not all school-age children (7-15 years) can obtain educations at elementary and junior high schools. According to the Ministry of Education and Culture (Kemendikbud), there are over 1.8 million children every year in Indonesia who are unable to obtain education. Based on the educational profile of Batam, the dropout rate at elementary and junior high schools in 12 districts of Batam is 840,700 students every year.
To fulfill the right to education as mandated by the 1945 Constitution, nonformal education has been introduced to Indonesian society. Non-formal education is regulated by Article 26 paragraph 1-7 of Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System. Article 26 paragraph 6 provides that "the outcomes of nonformal education programs shall be recognized as being equal to the outcomes of formal education programs after undergoing a process of assessment by an agency appointed by the Government or the local governments based on national education standards". [Unofficial translation] Since this provision is mandated by the Law, this research poses the following questions: 1. Has the Government of Batam City efficiently implemented the right to education for all?
2. What are the problems arising in the application of Law No. 20 of 2003 pertaining to the process of implementing the right to education for all in Batam City? 3. What are the solutions in fulfilling the right to education for all in Batam City?
This research aims to analyze the effectiveness and challenges faced by the Batam City Government in implementing Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System in order to comply with equal education programs. It in particular examines the delivery systems and obstacles experienced by the Community Learning Center and Homeschooling in achieving equal education in Batam City.

A. Conceptual Framework
Equal education is a non-formal education program consisting of PAKET A Program (equivalent of primary school), PAKET B Program (equivalent of junior high school) and PAKET C Program (equivalent of senior high school) with an emphasis on the mastery of science, skills and functional development of professional attitude and personality of students. 2 Participants of non-formal education programs enjoy the same rights and eligibility as those graduating from formal education programs.
This research focuses on Community Learning Center (hereinafter briefly referred to as CLC) and Homeschooling since these two forms of instruction have been relatively recently introduced in the Batam City community as an alternative to obtain nonformal education. The Community Learning Center (CLC) is an established community learning initiative of, by and for the community. Homeschooling is an educational model in which a family chooses to be solely responsible for the education of their children and educate their children by using the house as a base of education.

B. Legal Framework
Everyone has the right to obtain proper education as mandated by the 1945 Constitution under Article 31 (1 & 2) which sets out that: (1) Every citizen shall have the right to obtain education.
(2)Every citizen shall be obligated to follow basic education and the government shall be obligated to finance it. [Unofficial translation] Article 31 of the 1945 Constitution is further articulated in Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System. The right to education is elaborated in the provisions of Article 5 (1) and 6 (1) of Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System. The said provisions emphasize that "Every citizen has equal rights to receive a good quality education" (Article 5(1)) and "Every citizen of the age between seven to fifteen years shall have the right to receive basic education" (Article 6(1)). [Unofficial translation] Education under Article 5 (1) and 6 (1) of Law No. 20 of 2003 is defined as formal, non-formal and informal education (Article 13(1)). Non-formal education is specifically governed by the provisions indicated in Table 1 below.

Article
Provision Contents Article 26 (1) Non-formal education is provided for community members who need education services which functions as a replacement, complement, and/or supplement to formal education in the context of supporting life-long education. Article 26 (3) Non-formal education comprises life-skills education, early childhood education, youth education, women empowerment education, literacy education, vocational training and internship, equivalency program, and other kinds of education aimed at developing learners' ability. Article 26 (4) A non-formal education unit consists of training centers and colleges, study groups, community learning centers, majelis taklim, and other education units of similar type. Article 26 (5) Training centers and colleges are provided for community members who are in need of knowledge, competencies, life-skills, and attitudes to develop their personality, professionalism, working ethics, entrepreneurship, and/or for further education. Article 26 (6) The outcomes of non-formal education programmes shall be recognized as being equal to the outcomes of formal education programmes after undergoing a process of assessment by an agency appointed by the Government or the local governments based on national education standards.

Source: Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System
Non-formal education prescribed by the provisions in Table 1 shall implement curriculums in order to achieve the following competencies established by National Education Minister Regulation No. 23 of 2006. The competencies for each PAKET are as follows respectively: 1. PAKET A Program: Acquiring life skills. 2. PAKET B Program: Acquiring basic skills required for employment.
3. PAKET C Program: Acquiring entrepreneurial skills. In order to ensure that CLCs provide quality education to those who participate in non-formal education, the Government issued National Education Minister Regulation No. 14 of 2007 concerning the Content Standard for PAKET A, PAKET B, PAKET C Programs respectively. The said regulation consists of the principles of Equal Education for PAKET A, B, and C. The following principles must be manifested in the PAKET A, B, and C Programs curricula respectively: 1. The need for development, interest of learners and the environment. 2. Diversity and integration. 3. Responses to the development of science, technology, and arts. 4. Relevancy to the needs of life. 5. Comprehensiveness and sustainability. 6. Balancing between national and regional interests. 7. Thematic. 8. Participatory. The respective learners of PAKET A, B or C Programs must participate in the learning activities either in the form of face-to-face sessions (minimum 20%), tutorials (minimum 30%), and independent study (maximum 50%) in accordance with the number of credits listed in the Standard Content Program for PAKET A, B, and C respectively. Institutions implementing PAKET A, B or C Program respectively are obliged to provide the following 3 : 1. Educators in accordance with the demands of the subjects concerned. 2. Tutorials at least 2 days per week. 3. Learning facilities and infrastructure.

C. Theoretical Framework
This research adopts two legal theories to establish compelling and sound arguments. The first theory is the Theory of Legal System established by Lawrence Meir Friedman. Friedman determines that there are three main components of the legal system, namely "Legal Structure, Substance and Culture". 4 In relation to Legal Structure, Friedman states that "the legal system has the structure of a legal system which consists of elements of this kind: the number and size of courts; their jurisdiction. Structure also means how the legislature is organized, what procedures the police department follow, and so on. Structure, in a way, is a kind of cross section of the legal system, is a kind of still photograph, with freezes the action". Legal Substance is explained by Friedman by stating that "another aspect of the legal system is its substance. By this is meant the actual rules, norm, and behavioral patterns of people inside the system, the stress here is on living law, not just rules in law books". Friedman further states that "the third component of legal system is legal culture. By this we mean people's attitudes toward law and legal system. It is social thought and social force which determines how law is used, avoided, or abused". 5 The second theory adopted by this research is "Integrative Legal Theory" by Romli Atmasasmita. 6 This theory attempts to mediate the approaches of Progressive Legal Theory developed by Satjipto Rahardjo and Law for Development Theory established by Mochtar Kusumaatmadja by emphasizing that legal concepts (law) should be understood as a system of norms, system of behavior and system of values which are part of a certain society at a certain point in time and at a certain place. 7 In short, the Integrative Legal Theory states that the law today (based on the Law for Development Theory) can be changed tomorrow because of society behaviors (based on the Progressive Legal Theory). Since the proponent of this theory is from Indonesia, he specifically emphasizes that the establishment of a new law should be based on basic values and norms of Indonesian society which is integrated in the Indonesian State Ideology (Pancasila). 8

A. Research Design
This research adopts a socio-legal approach which aims to apply law as a social norm in real terms and to associate it with the existing social variables. 9 The nature of the research is descriptive in order to provide a clear and systematic description of various matters regarding the implementation of equal education programs. In this reasearch, the researcher compares and analyzes the law regarding education with facts occurring in society. Therefore, the researcher adopts the social-legal approach to analyze the stated research issues.

B. Data Collection Techniques
Socio-legal research uses secondary data as its initial data; it is then followed by primary data or data obtained from field research. 10 Primary data has been obtained by conducting: 1. Observation at 31 Homeschoolings in Batam City.

Interviews with relevant stakeholders: official of the Non-Formal Education
Department of Batam City, 5 officials, teachers, active students, and alumni of CLCs.
Secondary data includes official documents (laws), books and research reports. Secondary data is collected through library research. 11 Secondary data used by this research consists of the following: 1. Primary legal materials such as legal documents (legislation)

C. Data Analysis Methods
Data analysis in a socio-legal research depends on the nature of the data collected. If the data collected is few in numbers or intangible in nature, it is more appropriate to apply qualitative analysis. 12 This research uses a qualitative analysis because the collected data is few in numbers and it is derived from observation and interviews at the Community Learning Center in Batam City.

A. The Government of Batam City has been facing certain problems in implementing the right to education for all
Education is part of human rights because everyone has the right to obtain proper education. Right to education is mandated by the 1945 Constitution and it is further elaborated in Law No. 20 of 2003 on the National Education System. However, in actual fact many people in Indonesia are still unable to enjoy the right to education in the formal schooling system. Hence, the Indonesian Government has introduced nonformal education which is implemented by the CLC. Batam City has 31 CLCs which offer their learners: PAKET A (equivalent to Elementary School), PAKET B (equivalent to Junior High School) and PAKET C (equivalent to Senior High School) to 1281 learners. Table 2 indicates the number of learners at CLCs in Batam City. Based on the requirement for education processes and learning periods, the CLC should be considered as equivalent to those of formal education institutions. This statement is supported by Article 26 (6) of Law No 20 of 2003 on the National Education System which stipulates that "the outcomes of the non-formal education program shall be recognized as being equal to the outcomes of formal education program after undergoing a process of assessment by an agency appointed by the Government or the local governments based on national education standards".
However, based on the in-depth interview with DS. Sugeng Agung Nugroho, (the Secretary General of the CLC Forum), it was revealed that 29 CLCs out of 31 CLCs have not yet implemented the learning and teaching process in accordance with the provisions of laws, particularly the requirement of tutorials (minimum 2 days per week). Based on the observation of the CLCs in Batam City, similar to the statement of DS. Sugeng Agung Nugroho, it was also found that 29 of 31 CLCs do not conduct their learning and teaching processes properly as indicated in Table 3 below. It is clear from the findings of field research that 29 CLCs of 31 CLCs have not yet implemented the learning and teaching process in accordance with the provisions of laws, particularly the requirement of tutorials (minimum 2 days per week).
In addition, some CLCs have falsified the data of their students/learners in order to be eligible to join the national examination. DS. Sugeng Agung Nugroho revealed during the interview that 30 CLCs have learners who are not within the range of learning age. The CLCs manipulate the data of learners creating the impression as if they had studied for 3 years but then dropped out of formal school, in order for them to be eligible to join the national examination. This is a condition experienced by many workers in Batam City who have dropped out of formal schools a long time ago, but they need to follow the national examination. 13 Many learners of CLCs have never been present in the learning processes, yet the CLCs issued learning certificates to them thus enabling them to join the national examination. Such circumstances were revealed by DS. Sugeng Agung Nugroho as he explained that the CLCs provide facilities for learning processes, but some learners who have registered at the CLCs never attend the learning processes. So, some learners who have not undertaken the learning processes at a CLC are able to obtain CLC learning certificates to join the national examination. They have been able to do so because the CLC falsified their learning report in order to fulfill the requirement for joining the national examination.
A student/learner with initial "AI" in the in-depth interview conducted on November 2, 2014 stated that he had already dropped out of the second grade of junior high school five years earlier. He decided to join the PAKET B program to obtain his junior high school diploma since the diploma is one of the conditions to get a job. "AI" joined a CLC in Batam. "AI" just got a tutorial class once a week only and within one year he was able to join the national examination. The CLC falsified his learning report to meet the requirements for joining the national examination.
A similar experience was expressed by a former student/learner with initial "M" who was interviewed on November 11, 2014. "M" stated that he was able to study at a university even though the level of education which he had undertaken at the CLC was equivalent only to Junior High School Degree. In the interview, "M" also said that he had taken PAKET B Program (equivalent to Junior High School) at a CLC in Batam City and obtained his PAKET B Diploma (equivalent to Junior High School Diploma) from the said CLC in 2014. In the same year, he was admitted as a college student while taking his PAKET C Program at one of the CLCs in Batam City. The said CLC promised him that within a period of four months he would be able to join the national examination and would receive a diploma of PAKET C program (equivalent to Senior High School) only by paying the CLC the amount of Rp4,000,000 (Four Million Rupiah).
The question that may be raised is whether all CLCs in Batam City have taken such an approach. The answer is negative because based on an in-depth observation at Homeschooling Bina Mandiri Batam from February 10 to May 29, 2015 the following was found: 1. Homeschooling Bina Mandiri Batam is a type of non-formal education which is categorized as CLC. 2. Homeschooling was established on July 15, 2008 and it offers PAKET A, B, and C Programs. 3. One class accommodates maximum eight learners. 4. The learning process is conducted three times for one meeting (face to face learning) and five hours tutorial for each meeting.

A period of study for PAKET A Program is completed in 6 (six) years, for PAKET B Program in 3 (three) years and for PAKET C Program in 3 (three) years. 6. Upon completion of studies, learners can join the national examination.
Nevertheless, out of 31 CLCs apparently only 1 CLC has properly implemented the provisions of the law concerning non-formal education. Based on these facts, it can be stated that the Batam City Government (namely the Educational Office of Batam City Government) has failed to conduct strict and proper assessment of CLCs as mandated by Article 26 (6) of Law No. 20 of 2003. As a result, CLCs do not provide equal and quality education to their learners. In this regard, it can be deduced that the Batam City Government has failed in properly implementing the right to education for all.
The field research also indicates that learners do not obtain proper education at the CLCs since they are able to join the national examination to obtain a diploma of PAKET C Program (equivalent to Senior High School) after four months of learning at the CLCs. Such circumstance obviously violates Article 31 of the 1945 Constitution and Law No. 20 of 2003. In addition, by virtue of Education Minister Regulation No. 14 of 2007, learners are required to undertake learning process in the PAKET C Program for 3 years.
Based on the Theory of Legal System by Lawrence Meir Friedman, Friedman identifies three main components of the legal system, namely "Legal Structure, Substance and Culture". First, legal structure. Legal structure in this case means the Government and CLSs in Batam City. The government has conducted surveillance and CLCs have also been delivering education to learners. However, there are still certain issues as a result of which the learning process is not working as it it supposed to. Examination at Schools. Based on the said substance, the existing laws already provide for non-formal education which is stated in Article 26, specifically in Article 26 (6) stating that "The outcomes of non-formal education programmes shall be recognized as being equal to the outcomes of formal education programmes after undergoing a process of assessment by an agency appointed by the Government or the local governments based on national education standards". Hosuch laws are still facing certain weeknesses, as for instance in National Education Standards Regulation No. 0022/P/BSNP/XI/2013 on the Standard Operating Procedures Implementation of National Examination Schools. According to the said regulation these rules equate the learners in a non-formal education program to formal learners. Third, legal culture. The culture of Batam society is characterized by learners while working. So, the orientation of the learner is to work.

B. Problems in the application of Law No. 20 of 2003 pertaining to the process of implementing equal education rights in Batam City
Based on the interviews and observations at CLCs, it was found that the majority of CLCs (29 CLCs of 31 CLCs) conduct their learning process less than 2 days a week. Some of CLCs have also issued learning process certificates even though their learners have never been present in the learning process. It was revealed from the interviews and observations that the CLCs have in fact provided facilities to conduct the learning process, yet learners remain be absent. The problem in this regard stems out of the conditions of learners most of whom are workers, so they do not have ample time to attend the learning process. On top of that, learners who are no longer within the study age find it difficult to study the subjects offered by the CLCs. It should be noted here that learners are required to study all subjects that are examined in the national examination.
Based on National Education Standards Regulation No. 0022 / P / BSNP / XI /2013 on the Standard Operating Procedures Implementation of National Examination Schools, the subjects for the national examination are shown in Table 4. During the interview, it was revealed that a student/learner (45 years old) who works as a janitor dropped out of school when he was in high school. Due to the demands of his job that require him to have at least high school diploma, eventually he had to follow the PAKET C Program at a CLC. He had to study all of the subjects under the PAKET C Program. However, with his age and low motivation, he was unable to fully understand the entire learning process. He expressed that "his priority isn't for school but for work".
It is evident that in addition to the time constraints imposed by work, most of the learners have left their formal school for a long time, so their motivation to learn is very low. The learners' main motivation is merely to join the national examination in order to obtain their diplomas. Such condition is triggered by the requirement at the learners' workplace requiring diplomas in order to upgrade the learners' level or in order to get a job in the first place. Since learners' motivation is extremely low, the CLCs turn out to be the sale agents of diplomas. As the field research has proven, by paying only Rp4,000,000 (Four Million Rupiah) learners are able to join the national examination and obtain their diplomas without participating full time in the learning process.
It is also apparent that "age" is a pertinent constraint for the CLCs in providing quality education. This fact was expressed by teachers of CLCs during the interview conducted on June 15, 2015. Since most of CLCs do not impose age limit for taking PAKET A, PAKET B or PAKET C Program, the age of many of the learners may not fall within the school age at formal schools. Some of the interviewees stated they obtained their diplomas well beyond the school age (e.g. above 30 years old).
Mrs. Pur, an officer for the Non-Formal Education Department of Batam City, admitted that a number of difficulties had to be faced in carrying out the learning process at CLCs. She said that 90 percent of students do not fall within the study age and it becomes more difficult for them to follow the learning process because they are also workers with lack of motivation to study. She also pointed out that the national examination does not consider the condition of working learners. Consequently, most of the learners are unable to answer questions in the national examination. Such condition has been worsening because the Non-Formal Education Department has no authority in the national examination. The Department merely adopts the provisions of the national examination from the Ministry of Education.
The second theory adopted in this research is "Integrative Legal Theory" by Romli Atmasasmita. This theory attempts to mediate the approaches of Progressive Legal Theory developed by Satjipto Rahardjo and the Law for Development Theory established by Mochtar Kusumaatmadja by emphasizing that legal concepts (law) should be understood as a system of norms, system of behavior and a system of values which are part of a certain society at a certain point in time and at a certain place. In short, the Integrative Legal Theory states that the law today (based on the Law for Development Theory) can be changed tomorrow due to of societal behaviors (based on the Progressive Legal Theory). In this specific case, Indonesia already has a set of regulations providing for non-fromal education. However, one of such regulations does not bring justice to learners, namely National Education Standards Regulation No. 0022 / P / BSNP / XI / 2013 on the Standard Operating Procedures Implementation of National Examination at Schools. The said regulation provides that learners in non-formal schools should go through the same examination as formal school students. Based on the Law for Development Theory, this law should be amended due to societal behaviors.

C. Solutions for implementing the right to education for all in Batam City
It is clear from the previous discussions that each stakeholder faces problems and challenges of their own in the context of implementing non-formal education in Batam City. The Legal System Theory of Lawrence Meir Friedman which consists of "Legal Structure, Substance and Culture" as provided in Table 5 is used to classify such problems and challenges. Learners are not in the study age and yet they must follow the same curricula as students in formal schools.

Legal Culture
Learners' motivation in non-formal education programs is merely to obtain diplomas as one of their job requirements.

Legal Culture
The learning process in non-formal education programs is not adequate for learners to enable them to join the national examination.  Table 5 shows that the three components of the legal system under the Friedman's Legal System Theory exist in the implementation of non-formal education in Batam City. To respond to these problems and challenges, the "Integrative Legal Theory" of Romli Atmasasmita is adopted. According to the said theory, the legal concepts (law) should be understood as a system of norms, a system of behavior and a system of values which are part of a certain society at a certain point in time and at a certain place. Based on this theory, it is apparent that a number of laws pertaining to nonformal education are not relevant to the current conditions of CLCs, learners, teachers and as well as the Education Offices in Batam City. Hence, it is suggested here that the non-formal education laws should be amended to introduce certain adjustments in order for them to be relevant with the conditions (Legal Structure, Substance and Culture) of non-formal education stakeholders. In this regard, the laws should open up a room for exemptions under specific circumstances. Table 6 shows the proposed solutions to respond to the problems and challenges faced by stakeholders in implementing non-formal education in Batam City. Policies on non-formal education should be customized to suit the conditions of learners.
Change learning behaviors by learning and working with peer groups based on age and interest.
Source: Compiled and analyzed by the authors.

V. CONCLUSION
Based on the above research findings and discussions, the following conclusions can be made: 1. Law No. 20 of 2003 on National Education has not been effectively implemented by the Batam City Government, particularly the Education Office under the Batam City Government because non-formal education as one of the solutions for providing equal education for all remains to face various problems in its implementation. The problems occur because the Education Office has failed to disseminate the requirements under Law No. 20 of 2003 to Community Learning Centers (CLCs) in Batam City. It has also failed to conduct regular monitoring and auditing of the implementation of the learning process by Community Learning Centers in Batam City. Furthermore, neither the Education Office nor CLCs in Batam City have established their performance measures and achievement targets to deliver non-formal education programs as a means to fulfill equal rights to education.
2. Problems in the implementation of non-formal education are experienced both by the CLCs as well as learners. The problems occur because learners in non-formal education programs are not learners at the study age and yet they are required to follow the same curricula as students in formal schools. In addition, learners' motivation in non-formal education programs is merely to obtain diplomas as one of their job requirements. The learning process in non-formal education programs is not adequate for learners who join the national examination. The majority of CLCs in Batam City have not prepared their learners for national examination due to their lack of understanding of the requirements under Law No. 20 of 2003.
3. Solutions for the above described problems in principle consist of the following: (1) Revise laws and policies on the implementation of non-formal education; (2) Improve competencies of CLCs officers, teachers and learners; provide more interactive and fun approaches to learning materials and teaching methods.


extfieldsofstudy:
Computer Science
Sociology

text:
Conceptualizing EDUCATION in Hong Kong and China (1984-2014)

This study aims to provide an account of metaphor usage in Chinese political rhetoric regarding education over the past thirty years and shed light as to how lexical choices underline and reflect underlying conceptual patterns. Our study shows that the degree of metaphorization of “education” is similar among PRC Premiers while it varies among Hong Kong Governors and Chief Executives. Also, the concept of education in policy addresses in China often relies on the domain of BUILDING, with a focus on ‘structure’ and ‘foundation’ and a secondary focus on the concept of education as ENTERPRISE that can be ‘invested’ in. In contrast, Hong Kong Policy Addresses conceptualize education as a PRODUCT that can be ‘advertised’ or whose ‘quality’ and ‘quantity’ can be ‘improved’. In sum, analyzing metaphor variations in political speeches may reveal how politicians with different backgrounds and from different regions use language to present implicit ideologies.

Introduction
The last decade has witnessed a growth of research on conceptual metaphors in political discourse (Ahrens, 2009;Ahrens and Lee 2009;Ahrens, 2011;Lu and Ahrens, 2008;Charteris-Black, 2005, 20062013;Lakoff, 1996Lakoff, , 2004Musolff, 2004Musolff, , 2010Musolff, , 2016. This work may be categorized in terms of authors of the texts and types of source/ target domains being used for analysis. For example, Lu and Ahrens (2008) studied conceptual metaphors with one particular source domain (BUILDING) from Taiwanese presidents, while Charteris-Black (2005) looked at a range of conceptual metaphors from particular British prime ministers and American presidents. In contrast with these examples, this study provides an analysis of the target domain concept of 'EDUCATION' in Chinese to see how a target domain is structured by different political leaders at different points in time. To fulfill this goal, two Mandarin Chinese political corpora will be examined in terms of Chinese metaphors related to the target domain of 教育 jiaoyu 'EDUCATION'.
This question of how EDUCATION is conceptualized will be examined by contrasting the keyword-in-context data for 'education/jiao-yu' as found in two corpora: the Hong Kong Governor's Addresses, the Hong Kong (HKSAR) Chief Executive's Policy Addresses, and the Reports on the Work of the Government by Premiers of the PRC. As Hong Kong has been both a colony of Britain (prior to 1997) and a Special Administrative region of China (since 1997), it has had different education systems. The British system only made education compulsory for those up to the age of 15. While the HKSAR originally followed this scheme, more recently it has moved to make education mandatory until the age of 18, while China continues to make education compulsory for students up until the age of 15. Both the British system and the Chinese system are exam-based beyond the age of 15; that is, students can only continue if they perform well on their exams. The HKSAR has continued with a modified form of this system; however, recent structural changes mean that most students will be able to complete a full 18 years of study. Of note for the purposes of this study is that education is taken seriously by the society in both Hong Kong and China as it is seen as a way for people to advance and better their economic situation. Having an educated workforce is also seen as a desirable social and political goal. Thus, issues related to education are discussed in Hong Kong policy addresses and in speeches by Chinese premiers, which allows us to examine metaphorical uses of the concept of 'education' with an eye to further understanding how education is viewed in these societies.
In this study, we will examine the instances of conceptual metaphor use for the keyword 'education'. Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff, 1993;Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) and associated work within Critical Metaphor Analysis (Lu and Ahrens, 2008;Ahrens, 2009;Ahrens and Lee, 2009;Charteris-Black, 2004, 2005, 2006Musolff, 2004Musolff, , 2010Musolff, , 2016 take as a starting point that more abstract conceptual domains (called target domains) use relatively more concrete conceptual domains (called source domains) in order to get across a particular idea about the target domain. For example, people might say "I spent a lot of time on this project" to indicate that TIME (the target domain) is being understood in terms of MONEY (the source domains). Ahrens (2010) goes on to demonstrate that target domains select source domains for a particular reason; these reasons are known as mapping principles. For example, TIME IS UNDERSTOOD IN TERMS OF MONEY in that MONEY is viewed as a valuable, limited resource and TIME is also viewed as valuable and limited. This is the mapping principle that drives this particular relationship between the source and target domain.
Recent studies have provided insight into how political leaders have used conceptual metaphors, and particularly invoked source domains, to reflect and strengthen their ideological viewpoints. For example, Charteris-Black (2005) argued that Martin Luther King's used conceptual metaphors derived primarily from source domains related to LANDSCAPE and JOURNEY to argue for civil rights, while Winston Churchill focused on source domains relating to LIGHT and DARKNESS as well as JOURNEY to help British citizens boost morale among British citizens in the Second World War. Lu and Ahrens (2008), in another example of presidential speech analysis, found that Kuomintang (KMT) Presidents used BUILDING metaphors to instil a Chinese ideology, while the president from the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) preferred not to use BUILDING metaphors, and instead used FARMING metaphors to emphasize Taiwan's agricultural background and political independence. In addition, KMT Presidents used BUILDING metaphors in ways that differ from U.S Presidents, with the KMT Presidents using retrospective BUILDING metaphors to emphasize the history of China, and U.S. Presidents using BUILDING metaphors to emphasize creating a particular type of structure (i.e., economic, educational, and political) for future generations.
In a more recent study, the emphasis was on how the same viewpoint (the viewpoint of the government of the PRC) is shared with different audiences (Jing-Schmidt & Peng, 2017). The authors ran a keyword-in-context search for 'corruption' in both the People's Daily and the English version of the People's Daily, which are the Chinese and English versions of the media mouthpiece of the PRC government. They found a systematic difference in the conceptual metaphors used Chinese and English newspapers and argued that it is the knowledge base within an epistemic community that invokes particular conceptual domains; in this case, corruption is compared to HARM (DISEASE, VERMIN, WEED, SLOVENRY) in Chinese and to WAR in English.

Hypotheses and Research Questions
The hypotheses under study are: 1) Hong Kong Governors will conceptualize "education" differently from Hong Kong Chief Executives; 2) Hong Kong Chief Executives will conceptualize 'education' more in line with Chinese Premiers, as the Chief Executives are overseeing the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong for China. Three research questions are involved in this study: 1) What types of source domains are used to understand the target domain concept of 教育 jiaoyu 'EDUCATION' in Chinese? 2) Do the metaphor source domains used vary by political group and/or by person or by time period? And 3) What underlying reasons can be postulated regarding the variations of source domain patterns by political group and/or by person? (i.e. Mapping Principles -Ahrens, 2010) 304 2 Methodology

Corpus Creation
In order to examine these issues, two independently compiled Chinese corpora of political speeches were created by: 1) downloading speeches of Chinese premiers (Corpus of Report on the Work of the Government by  After compiling all the speeches as text files, Natural Language Processing Software (Stanford Word Segmenter 3.7 and Stanford POS Tagger 3.7) (SNLPG, 2015) were operated for Chinese words segmentation and part-of-speech tagging.
In order to build a list of expressions in the target domain of EDUCATION, key-word-in-context searches were run using tools on the websites mentioned above. All the instances with the lexeme '教育 jiaoyu education' were extracted and downloaded into excel files for further analyses on both metaphorical tokens and types.

Domain Determination
In this study, we first read through all the instances extracted to determine if 'education' was used metaphorically, literally or as a proper noun. If it was hypothesized to be used metaphorically, we then identified the keyword that drove this decision (i.e. a word such as '投资 touzi invest'). We then checked Chinese WordNet to see if this keyword had a meaning unrelated to education as determined by the definition in Sinica Bow at http://bow.ling.sinica.edu.tw/ (Chung & Ahrens, 2006). This is similar to step 3 in MIP (Praggeljaz Group, 2007) and step 2 to 4 in MIPVU (Steen, 2010) in which they checked for the possibility of a cross-domain mapping. Next, we verified the source domain of the keyword by checking the categories and definitions of the keywords provided in WordNet-SUMO (Suggested Upper Merged Ontology) as facilitated by the Sinica Bow interface. WordNet is a large lexical database of English with words being interlinked by means of conceptual-sematic and lexical relations and SUMO is the only formal ontology that has been mapped to all of the WordNet lexicon. Collocation searches of the keywords by using Chinese Sketch Engine (Kilgarriff, Huang, Rychly et al., 2005) at http://wordsketch.ling.sinica.edu.tw/ were also used as a complementary method to WordNet-SUMO method (Gong, Ahrens & Huang, 2008).
For instance, following the procedures below, ' 投資 touzi invest' is ascertained to be a metaphorical keyword under the source domain of ' 事業 shiye ENTERPRISE' metaphor: First, by searching definitions of ' 投資 touzi invest' in WordNet-SUMO in Sinica Bow using the Chinese-English look-up search engine, we locate a list of senses of the word and the concrete sense 'enterprise' is chosen as the suggested source domain for ' 投資 touzi invest'. Table 3 is the selected sense information from WordNet-SUMO definition.  Figure 1 shows the frequency of ' 投資 touzi invest' is 355,182. The second column is the frequency of the collocate at a grammatical relation to the keyword searched. The third column is the saliency value for that collocation pair. Referring to the saliency values, ' 事業 shiye ENTERPRISE' is verified as one of the top collocations of the keyword '投資 touzi invest'.

Figure 1. Collocation Search of ' 投資 touzi invest'
Chinese_giga_trd freg = 355,182 Based on results from WordNet-SUMO and collocation, we ascertain that the source domain of '投資 touzi invest' is suggested to be under the source domain of '事業 shiye ENTERPRISE'.
The following step is the quantification and comparison of relative frequencies (number of metaphorical instances/corpus size multiplied by 100,000) of metaphors with different types or tokens in different regions and/or speakers.

Analysis
Our analyses show that a relatively similar ratio of metaphorization of 'education' can be found between PRC premiers in pre-1999 and post-1999 (see Table 4). By contrast, it is clear the metaphorization ratio varies significantly between Hong Kong Governors and Chief Executives with Chief Executive conceptualizing 'education' metaphorically more frequently than Governors (see Table 5).

Source Domains Analysis
Analysis of the metaphor source domains patterns shows that in PRC corpus, the target domain concept of 'education' primarily involves the source domain of BUILDING, secondarily focuses on the concept of education as ENTERPRISE, following with the use of SYSTEM, OBJECT and PRODUCT source domains (see Table 6).  Source domain variations can also be found between different speakers. For example, PRC premiers use SDs consistently among themselves while Hong Kong Chief Executives have conceptualized education more as an BUSINESS ENTERPRISE and SYSTEM in comparison with Hong Kong Governors.
Results in Table 8 show that CEs not only have a similar degree of metaphorization with Premiers who also are consistent within themselves (See Table 6

Metaphorical Keywords Analysis
After discussing and comparing the source domain categories among different speakers in different regions, we looked further into specific metaphorical keywords they applied under different source domains. As we can see in  Table 9 & 10). The OBJECT source domain interprets education as a physical object that can be ' 推动 tuidong pushed', ' 提升 tisheng lifted' or ' 推进 tuijin carried forward', e.g. '推进义务教育 tuijin yiwu jiaoyu carry forward compulsory education'; the source domain of SYSTEM highlights a concept that education can be '普及 puji popularized', '施行 shixing implemented' and '改革 gaige reformed', e.g. '实施教育改革 shishi jiaoyu gaige implement education reform'; the JOURNEY source domain conceptualizes education as a journey with reference to the keywords of ' 定位 dingwei location', '方向 fangxiang direction', and '步伐 bufa pace', e.g. '教育改革迈出新的步伐 jiaoyu gaige maichu xin de bufa education reform makes new steps' (see Table 11 & 12). Results of the use of metaphorical words by PRC Premiers in comparison with Hong Kong Chief Executives show variations on keywords under BUILDING and JOURNEY source domains. We found that when talking about education as a BUILDING, both PRC premiers and Hong Kong Chief Executives highlight the concepts of 'strengthening' and 'supporting' education while Chief Executives have added the concept of 'extending' education in Hong Kong, e.g. '擴展高 等 教 育 kuozhan gaodeng jiaoyu extend higher education'. Also, keyword patterns applied from the JOURNEY source domain show that PRC Premiers emphasize more on the 'pace' of education development, with an emphasis on the 'steady' development of PRC education, e.g. '教育 稳步发展 jiaoyu wenbu fazhan education develops with steady steps', while Hong Kong Chief Executive referring more to the 'direction' and 'location' of the education development, e.g. '香港 高等教育的定位和發展方向 xianggang gaodeng jiaoyu de dingwei he fazhan fangxiang the location and development direction of Hong Kong higher education'. These subtle differences are interesting in that they retain aspects of the main mapping principle associated with the Source-Target domain pairing, and also show that there can be variation among different groups of speakers within the broader mapping principles. This may be similar in some respects to the notion of sense and meaning facets as discussed in (Ahrens et al., 2003).

Modifiers of Education Analysis
By categorizing the modifiers of metaphorical education ('education' used as 'head nouns') in Hong Kong and PRC corpora, we found variations on the conceptualizations of education in certain fields between the Hong Kong corpus and PRC corpus.
The top five frequent education fields mentioned in Hong Kong policy addresses from 1984 to 2014 are categorized as ' 优质 youzhi good quality' education (NR=10.69) which is primarily conceptualized as PRODUCT; ' 高等 gaodeng higher' education (NR=10.48) which is mainly understood as BUILDING; 国民 guomin national' education (NR=8.22) which is mostly with the source domain of OBJECT; ' 小学 xiaoxue primary' education (NR=7.15) and '学前 xueqian pre-school' education (NR=6.44) which both are conceptualized as PRODUCT. By comparison, in the PRC corpus, '义务 yiwu compulsory' education (NR=19.17), ' 职业 zhiye vocational' education (NR=13.77), ' 高等 gaodeng higher' education (NR=13.49), ' 农村 nongcun rural' education (NR=11.5) and '思想品德 sixiang pinde moral' & '政治 zhengzhi political' education (NR=8.00) are found being the top five education fields discussed in speeches of PRC premiers in the past thirty years. Apart from the concept of compulsory education which is mainly interpreted with the source domain of SYSTEM, the other four types of education (vocational/higher/rural/moral education) are all conceptualized with the concept of BUILDING.
The underlying reasons for these variations may be able to be traced back to the influence in the history of Hong Kong and PRC's educational development, the backgrounds of different speakers and the interplay of political, economic and social factors in these two regions. Metaphor analyses may thus reveal certain viewpoints of political or social issues by political speakers from different areas.

Conclusion
In conclusion, this paper provides empirical data and applies a corpus-based approach to analyze metaphor patterns in political speeches by PRC Premiers and Hong Kong Governors and Chief Executives in the past thirty years. The results present different degrees for the metaphorization of 'education' in the PRC and Hong Kong corpora. PRC Premiers in both Pre-1999 and Post-1999 use similar metaphors consistently while Hong Kong Chief Executives applied more metaphors than Governors when conceptualizing the concept of education. In addition, source domains and metaphorical keyword patterns have been examined, revealing the mapping principles underlying the metaphor usage. PRC premiers primarily apply the BUILDING source domain with a focus on 'structure' and 'foundation' and secondarily focus on the concept of education as ENTERPRISE that can be 'invested' in. In contrast, Hong Kong politicians emphasize education as a PRODUCT that can be 'advertised' and its 'quality' and 'quantity' should be 'improved'. Hence, the results discussed show that examinations on metaphor variations in empirical corpus can contribute to revealing the ways lexical choices underline and reflect underlying conceptual patterns and associated ideologies.