extfieldsofstudy:
Computer Science
Political Science

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Open Access and Discovery Tools: How do Primo Libraries Manage Green Open Access Collections?

Scholarly Open Access repositories contain lots of treasures including rare or otherwise unpublished materials and articles that scholars self-archive, often as part of their institution's mandate. But it can be hard to discover this material unless users know exactly where to look. Since the very beginning, libraries have played a major role in supporting the OA movement. Next to all services they can provide to support the deposit of research output in the repositories, they can make Open Access materials widely discoverable by their patrons through general search engines (Google, Bing...), specialized search engines (like Google Scholar) and library discovery tools, thus expanding their collection to include materials that they would not necessarily pay for. In this paper, we intend to focus on two aspects regarding Open Access and Primo discovery tool. In early 2013, Ex Libris Group started to add institutional repositories to Primo Central Index (PCI), their mega-aggregation of hundreds of millions of scholarly e-resources. After 2 years, it may be interesting to take stock of the current situation of PCI regarding Open Access institutional repositories. On basis of a survey to carry out among the Primo community, the paper also shows how libraries using Primo discovery tool integrate Green Open Access contents in their catalog. Two major ways are possible for them: Firstly, they can directly harvest, index and manage any repository in their Primo and display those free contents next to the more traditional library collections; Secondly, if they are PCI subscribers, they can quickly and easily activate any, if not all, of the Open Access repositories contained PCI, making thus the contents of those directly discoverable to their end users.

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Chapter to be published in: Varnum, Ken (in press). Exploring Discovery: The Front Door to a Library's Licensed and Digitized Content. ALA Editions. bibliography, may have more OA content than smaller repositories with a higher percentage of OA content.
An institutional bibliography aims to offer a web based instrument to capture, proceed, use and disseminate bibliographic information of the output and ongoing research of a university or research institution. One of its goals is to increase the external and internal visibility of the research done. Of the 27 respondents who harvest or plan to harvest an Institutional Repository (IR), 15 have admitted that their repository also acts as an institutional bibliography, at least partially for some departments.

Figure 1: Percentage of records with at least one OA file
Of the 34 respondents, 17 said they also harvest or plan to harvest an additional OA repository in their Primo for their end-users. Examples given are various: it may be other selected traditional OA repositories (2 respondents), or OA repositories with contents of research or regional interest, but not necessary with scholarly research output (e.g., "University's repository of learning objects"; "archival photos, videos of researchers talking about their work, old university publications […] including Creative Commons licenses for all material"; "digitized manuscripts and rare books, pictures, videos, sound recordings… 22% 22% 15% 11% 8% 22% Do all records have at least one Open Access file? Yes [n=6] No, more than 75% of the records have at least one OA file (but not all of them) [n=6] No, 50%-75% of the records have at least one OA file [n=4] No, 25%-50% of the records have at least one OA file [n=3] No, less than 25% of the records have at least one OA file [n=2] Don't know [n=6]  which belong to our institution or to partner institutions within the country and are freely available to all").
Survey participants were also asked if they have defined or intend to define any specific configuration in the Primo Back Office administration for their local OA scholarly materials in order to prominently display their OA institutional research output within the results of the discovery tool. Five methods for achieving this goal were suggested to the respondents: 1. Boosting: The Primo discovery tool allows the library to negatively boost records that are not from the institution. In other words, PCI records or records from a partner institution (e.g. in case of consortium) may be placed below records of the institution in the Brief Results page. However, this option does not make any distinction between bibliographic records coming from the ILS and records coming from any harvested repository, both sources being local data.
2. Indexes: Particular indexes for OA local contents can be created in the Simple or Advanced Search interface.
3. Display: Any display configuration like label, logo, specific information in the Details tab. 2 4. Links: Primo allows the library to display additional links in the full bibliographic record description. In case of OA content, such links could, for example, lead to the original record, to the full text, to copyright information, etc. 5. Facets: Facets are links in the Brief Results page that allow users to filter their search results by a specific category, such as creator, language, topic or, in this particular case, for institutional OA materials.
Respondents could also enter text into an "other" option. Figure 2 shows the frequency of these five responses from the 27 respondents who harvest or plan to harvest a scholarly OA repository: Seven answered that they use boosting options so that local data may be displayed before PCI records. Two will use specific indexes. Five use particular display rules, for example by displaying a Creative Commons license where applicable on the Details tab or by adding a line like "Open Research Online -a research publication from the University" to the Brief Results page. Six use links to promote their OA contents ("The associated OA files appear in the links section of detailed view pages"; "Direct 5 Chapter to be published in: Varnum, Ken (in press). Exploring Discovery: The Front Door to a Library's Licensed and Digitized Content. ALA Editions. link to the reference via View It + additional link to the reference in the Details tab"). 3 Finally, 11 respondents answered that they use facets; 2 mentioned that they promote their local OA research output with a top-level institutional facet. 4 Moreover, one respondent has explained they have created a specific search scope containing part of the contents of their OA repository (theses and dissertations), one more intends to create an additional scope for their harvested OA research output.

Figure 2: Specific configuration to prominently display local OA contents in Primo
Finally, one respondent intends to combine four of these promoting options (links, facets, display, indexes), two use three of them (boosting, facets and links), and six use or will use a combination of two means.

Primo Central Index
Primo Central Index (PCI) is the name for Ex Libris' mega-index of "hundreds of millions of scholarly e-resources of global and regional importance. These include journal articles, ebooks, reviews, legal documents and more that are harvested from primary and secondary 3 In Primo, the View Online Tab (or View It) displays items that are available online inside the tab. 4 In Primo, top-level facets are static facets that display in the "Show only" section (first section above) of the Brief Results page. Unlike other kinds of facets, top-level facets always display even if there is only one matched record in the category.   As Figure 3 shows, the number IRs has mainly increased from spring to autumn while it stagnates at the end and the beginning of the year. However, two years after the new registration service had been launched, the service link is surprisingly not available anymore and has disappeared from the Ex Libris website. 6 The 74 IRs come from 19 countries: United Kingdom (17), United States (14), Spain (7)   Among those resource types, "Text Resource" is a particular one. Ex Libris relies on the metadata given to them by the provider. Some providers supply appropriate resource types like "article" or "book chapter" while some providers simply state that the resources are "text." Therefore, depending on the quality of the provided metadata, many books, articles, reports, reviews, etc., may be hidden behind a generic and unclear "Text Resource" which represents 29% of all materials coming from IRs ( Figure 4).

Figure 4: Main resource types and number of records (March 31, 2015)
After text resources, dissertations and articles are the most two frequent materials provided by IRs. In some cases, those contents represent the entire harvested content of repositories These soft and very basic requirements from the beginning may partially explain why some content provided by repositories may be without any OA file.

Usage and perception of PCI
Institutions that have an institutional repository whose content is harvested in PCI and also the other side, directly harvesting its own repository allows more flexibility, but requires more investment from the library staff. For example, specific configuration in order to prominently display local OA contents in Primo is possible (see above). The institution has also the possibility to include repository items with restricted access (campus only) and to make them searchable via Primo for end users, and more frequent updates can be scheduled. On the other hand, that flexibility requires from local Primo administrators to carry on and monitor the whole harvesting and indexing process.
All survey participants (34)  until you tried to access them and then you get a "no full text available" message or it turns out to be just a record with no full text."  "When it appears that a record is only accessible when logged in, we deactivate the collection. This happens quite regularly." The second most frequent reason, given by 5 respondents (15%), is that some IRs might be deactivated if their content is considered to be not relevant or out of scope for the end-users:  "To prevent from noise, lack of interest for some contents" 9 However, this is configurable in the Primo admin interface with a slight adaptation of the Real-Time Availability (RTA) rules. By default, the RTA feature allows Primo sites to get real-time availability statuses for physical items directly from the source system, but local Primo administrators can also use them to display a particular availability text for repository records with no OA full text.
14 Chapter to be published in: Varnum, Ken (in press). Exploring Discovery: The Front Door to a Library's Licensed and Digitized Content. ALA Editions.
 "Some repositories which do not content real scholarly production -like images related to the history of a particular institution-or whose content is for a very local usage, and of very few interest for our users." Two respondents mentioned both reasons.
Survey participants were also asked if they applied a specific selection policy before activating new resources added to the PCI "Institutional Repositories" section ( Figure 8).
Four main policies (direct activation, analysis based on the content, on the availability of open access content, and on the metadata quality) and their combinations were proposed.

Figure 8: Specific selection policy before activating new IRs in PCI
While 21% of respondents complained that there is not systematically OA content in records from IRs -and this in contradiction with Ex Libris' policythat same percentage is reflected in the selection workflow that libraries have set up. Surprisingly, more than 1 in 5 respondents concede they rarely or never activate resources from the "Institutional Repositories" section. Two respondents explain they had not considered such OA collections carefully yet and that it is a project that is underway, in conjunction with an analysis and revision of their entire collection of subscriptions (periodicals and databases). Another argues that library policy prevents activating those collections, while a second explains they "have an ongoing debate on displaying OA resources in [their] discovery system." Finally, one last respondent explains it is a content and access issue ("Content often not relevant to our specialist institution. Percentage of OA material would also need testing -don't want something coming up as full text access and then users clicking through and finding it's not full text after all").
Among those who have another workflow, one respondent explains they have set up an internal decision making process, in association with other librarians, since in their opinion the Primo administrator should not be alone in activation decision. For another, they directly activate in their production environment any new repository that has appropriate content, without checking on the staging server before. Finally, one respondent specifies that since they are part of a consortium, their PCI is centrally managed by the consortium office.
Among the respondents who regularly activate OA resources in PCI's "Institutional Repositories" section, 5 do not see any repository that should be removed from PCI. On the other hand, 5 respondents are not against that possibility. The reason that is put forward by 4 of them is related to those IRs whose harvested results do not always contain an OA file: "Some resources have too many false-positives (online access without any full text Survey participants were also asked to give their opinion about the necessary efforts that Ex Libris should make to improve the "Institutional Repositories" section of PCI. Seventeen respondents made different suggestions which can be spread into 6 categories. Many enhancement requests concern repository records where OA availability is incorrectly indicated (false positives) and that should normally not be made available through PCI:

Establishing a better collaboration between Ex Libris and the host of the metadata to
ensure that the content can quickly and correctly be integrated into PCI (for example the final result could be approved by the metadata provider before the new OA repository is available in PCI for other customers) (pointed out twice).
6. Allowing richer and more extended record formats for harvesting purposes (DIDL,

MODS…) (pointed out twice)
When asked about the general efforts that could be deployed to bring together OA content so that it is not so laborious to add and make it easily and quickly visible for end-users, 5 respondents suggested improving the way OA collections are displayed in the front end.
Respondents suggested the use of consistent facets for OA content or specific OA flags (for example in the Brief Results) like the <free_to_read> XML element "to indicate that content can be read or viewed at its current location by any user without payment or authentication" (NISO 2015). Improvement can also be made in the back-end interface by getting more information about the various collections which are regularly added in PCI (e.g. number of records, types of documents included, thematic coverage, etc.) so that it becomes easier for local Primo administrators to determine which collections should be activated or not. Those expectations are confirmed by a recent survey (Bulock 2015): "Another common theme […] involved frustration with inaccurate information in OA management systems affecting patron discovery and staff workflows.
Chapter to be published in: Varnum, Ken (in press). Exploring Discovery: The Front Door to a Library's Licensed and Digitized Content. ALA Editions.
Hosburgh noted that databases and discovery services often include facets designed to limit result sets to OA items. Librarians praised knowledgebases for helping them provide more OA resources, and appreciated link resolvers that clearly labeled OA items as "FREE" on the result screen." One respondent suggested the possibility of choosing a rank of boosting (of results) for each resource, and not only for local contents vs PCI records. One respondent also pointed out that smart grouping of records is "very important, and even more for green OA where different versions of the same document can be offered from various sources (publisher platform, one or more institutional repository/ies or subject repository...) with varying metadata quality." 10 Finally, two respondents recommended also that Ex Libris harvest first and foremost national or global repositories instead of smaller repositories with less content.

Conclusions
The survey shows that most of the respondents (59%) harvest a local institutional OA repository in their Primo instance. Several have defined specific configurations in their Primo in order to put forward their institutional OA research output within the results of the discovery tool; facets and boosting local data being the two most popular ways. All survey participants belong to an institution that subscribes to PCI, and for 14 of them their local IR is directly harvested by PCI. Some respondents have admitted that in addition to directly harvesting their repository they have also activated their own IR in PCI.
All survey participants are also PCI subscribers. 56% of them admitted that there are in PCI some IRs they decided not to activate, or to deactivate. The two main reasons are related to potential negative effects that those collections could have on their end-users: materials of some IRs are considered to be not relevant for the end-users and, for some IRs collections, there is not always an OA full text available, contrary to what Ex Libris requires from repository content providers. One in 5 respondents confessed they always check the availability of announced OA contents before activating them in the production environment. 10 In PCI, grouping is based on an existing FRBR workflow that is used to prevent duplicate records in the results list. In the Primo front end, the system displays the preferred record in the brief results list. Preference is always given to the original publisher's record over an aggregator record, a pre-print or a record coming from an institutional repository. Users can easily access to additional versions by clicking the "View all versions" link. In terms of number of records, the "Institutional Repositories" section of PCI theoretically allows subscribers to display more than 1,600,000 OA records, of which about 350,000 are scholarly articles and 380,000 are dissertations. Even if 21% of the respondents concede they rarely or never activate resources from the "Institutional Repositories" section in PCI, many participants stress that improvement is necessary for those materials, notably by providing only OA contents in the "Institutional Repositories" section, by providing more detailed information about each OA repository, and by adding more OA repositories. Improving the way OA collections are displayed in the front-end is also encouraged. By improving quality and quantity of the "Institutional Repositories" section in PCI, Ex Libris can certainly hope to gain gratitude from their customers. However, with the used search terms ("Manchester eScholar", "Online Publications Store" AND "University of Bath", "VŠKP", and "Dokumentenserver der FU Berlin") and their results, there was no room for uncertainty.
In some cases, the total number of records is lower than the sum of all resource types. The reason is that when multiple records from different sources (IRs or not), with a different resource type, are FRBRized, facets take the different values into account (for instance, if an item that is an article is grouped with an item which is a review, both of them will have both facet values).


Awareness of consequence of high school students on loss of bio-diversity

The aim of this study is to assess the egoistic, altruistic and biospheric awareness of the consequence of high school students regarding the loss of bio-diversity, then comparing the results on the basis of some independent variables (gender, class and family income). The research data were collected from 884 ninth and tenth grade high school students through the survey on the consequence of awareness of the loss of bio-diversity. According to the outcome of the research, students believed in biospheric, egoistic and altruistic results at the similar levels. While the impact of gender and family income on biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence is not so significant, the impact of class is significant on biospheric and altruistic awareness of consequence. Finally, class level and school variables may lead to the prediction of awareness of consequence on loss of bio-diversity; school type-family income, parent education levels not.

Introduction
The loss of bio-diversity happens all around the world. Pursuant to researches, one tenth of bird species, one quarter of mammals and 70% of plant species are now under threat of extinction (Gunes, 2009). An international effort is required to prevent the loss of bio-diversity, which is considered to be the biggest environmental issue. Therefore, a Bio-diversity Convention (BDC) has been prepared in the framework of international organisations. There are three main objectives under the convention as "protection of bio-diversity", "sustainable use of biological resources" and "fair share of benefits from the use of genetic resources" (T.R. Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2007). The aforementioned objectives is comprised of meeting the needs of present generations, protecting inter-regional equality and guaranteeing the rights of future generations (Demirayak, 2002). The loss of bio-diversity includes the loss of habitat, loss of species and decrease of inter-species genetic diversity (Isik, 1998). Sustainable use is vital for the prevention of bio-diversity and the protection of diversity. For sustainable use, the values of production, goods and services should be determined (Demir, 2009). Moreover, mankind should make important decisions on the environment for the prevention of the loss of bio-diversity, protection of diversity and sustainable use (Helldén & Helldén, 2008). In this framework, the decision-making processes of individuals and society regarding environmental behaviours should be understood. One of the models describing the pro-environmental decision-making process and behaviour of individual is the Norm-Activation Model (Onwezen, Bartels & Antonides, 2013). Schwartz (1977) developed the Norm-Activation Model (NAM). Schwartz explained this model in the context of altruistic behaviour and claimed that personal norms constituted the basis of this model. Namely, it is foreseen that altruistic behaviours depend directly on the personal norms. Personal norms "are the own expectations of an individual for specific actions performed by the individual at certain conditions." When being in a close relationship with personal expectations, personal norms differentiate from the social norms. Personal expectations are based on the interiorised values in order. Values, unlike personal norms, have building blocks independent from certain conditions. Each individual has priorities and although main values are universal, each individual may have different values due to his priorities. NAM is foreseen to be horizontally linked with values and personal values (Figure 1).
Values and personal norms affect the review of action considered to be mutual (Menzel, 2007). According to researches, NAM is also successful in explaining pro-environmental behaviour (Dervisoglu, 2007;Menzel, 2007;Thøgersen, 2009;Onwezen et al., 2013). The introduction of the model in terms of the environment assumes that altruistic and proenvironmental behaviours are motivated by the same main values. Therefore, this expression means that a person having the tendency of getting into action for the welfare of others would also have the tendency of doing the same thing for the welfare of environment (Menzel, 2007). In NAM, it is assumed that the impact of personal norms on behaviour is regulated by the awareness of consequence and ascription of responsibility. Responsibility feeling is considered as that which activates the personal norms and such norms affect the individual behaviour (Onwezen et al., 2013). In other words, NAM should include awareness of consequences and the ascription of responsibility as the way to activate the personal norm regarding the performance of behavioural traits. The determinants of intention for the realisation of pro-environmental behaviours should also include the awareness of consequence (Garling, Fujiib, Garling & Jacobssona, 2003). The awareness of consequence is the belief regarding the environmental unwanted outcomes.
At the same time, the model argues that the beliefs on the egoistic, altruistic and biospheric consequences regarding the environment are related with the value orientations. There is a difference between egoistic, altruistic and biospheric awareness of consequence that are the basis for three different main value orientation: egoistic value orientation is related with focusing on individual outcomes; altruistic value orientation with an interest in the welfare of others; and biospheric value orientation indicating the importance of the environment and biosphere. Value orientation is about the process. In this process, when information is in coherence with values, it is believed, and when not, it is rejected (De Groot & Steeg, 2008;Hansla, 2011). Therefore, values have an indirect impact on environmental behaviour through belief, attitude and norms. Values, at the same time, affect the level of awareness of people in terms of environmental problems. When significant environmental values are under threat and people judge their own behaviour for the minimisation of this threat, the awareness/consciousness of consequences on the part of people increases (De Groot & Steg, 2007). In other words, NAM represents a complex model attempting to make an appropriate decision in accordance with the ethical status of an individual.
According to research studies, the Norm-Activation Model may be used to explain proenvironment behaviour and behavioural intent (e.g. Harland et al., 2007), while two situational activator, those acting as awareness of consequence and awareness of responsibility focused of NAM and personal norms, were used to explain pro-environment behaviour. Former research projects, such as that of Dervisoglu (2007), had used NAM in one part of her study to indicate that high school students in Turkey were the most aware of the consequences regarding the biosphere in terms of loss of bio-diversity. Menzel's study (2007) states that there is a significant difference between the egoist and biospheric awareness of consequence about the loss of biodiversity among German and Chilean students. In the study of Olbrich, Quaas and Baumgärtner (2011) with the sample of cattle breeders in Namibia, they had assessed the personal norm in regard to ecological-economic sustainability. The related researcher noted that personal norms among farmers are heterogeneic in terms of sustainability, while such norms change with the social demographical characteristics. Brekke, Kipperberg and Nyborg (2010) have reviewed the relation between household recycling and the ascription of responsibility, and the ascription of responsibility has an impact on beliefs regarding the behaviour of others. Here, the researchers had used the Norm-Activation Model for the determination of pro-environment behaviours like the loss of bio-diversity, sustainability, and household recycling. Some of the research studies have also assessed the relations between the Norm Activation Model and social demographical characteristics (e.g. Olbrich et al., 2011).
This study concentrates on the biospheric, egoistic and altruistic awareness of consequences in accordance with the Norm Activation Model. Therefore, the study discusses the beliefs of participants on the loss of bio-diversity and damage to nature, while the protection of diversity would be beneficial to nature. Meanwhile, the medical materials acquired from the nondiscovered species would disappear, while the next generations would get harmed and there would be less natural products due to increasing species loss. It also examines the impact of demographical characteristics on awareness of consequence about the loss of bio-diversity. This study is significant for providing an insight into explaining the pro-environmental behaviour of Turkish Cypriot high school students. Thus, the outcomes from this study are expected to contribute to raising the awareness of students regarding the loss of bio-diversity and restricting the lessons and programmes on bio-diversity in order to provide protection.
The aim of this study is to evaluate the egoist, altruistic and biospheric awareness of consequences in regard to bio-diversity among high school students in TRNC For this purpose, the following questions were asked:  What are the beliefs of students regarding the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic consequences regarding bio-diversity?
 Is the impact of gender on the biospheric, altruistic and egoist consequences regarding bio-diversity significant?
 Is the impact of class level on the biospheric, altruistic and egoist consequences regarding bio-diversity significant?
 Is the impact of monthly family income on the biospheric, altruistic and egoist consequences regarding bio-diversity significant?
 Is the common impact of some independent variables (class level, gender, family type, family income and parent education) on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic consequences regarding bio-diversity significant?
 Is the awareness of consequence on loss of bio-diversity predicted through the individual variables?

Working Group
Ninth and tenth grade students from the high schools of North Cyprus are the working group of this study. Sampling has not been used in this research and the aim was to reach the whole population. Since it was a voluntary process, 884 ninth and tenth grade students had attended to the research.

Study Method
The questionnaire used in this research is structured by Menzel (2007) on the basis of a study by Stern, Dietz, Kalof and Guagnano (1995) and adapted to the Turkish language by Dervisoglu (2007). There are 15 items in the questionnaire, rated with a four point Likert scale. The validity of this questionnaire with three dimensions is .685 for Turkish Cypriot students.

Analysis of Data
The data acquired from the Turkish Cypriot students was analysed through a SPSS 20 program. Descriptive analysis (X, Sd, % and f), t-test, ANOVA, MANOVA and multiple regression techniques were used in the assessment. Since t-test, ANOVA and MANOVA techniques are parametrical statistics techniques, the distribution of data was checked. For the norms, the skewness (.118) and kurtosis (.039) values of data were evaluated and these values showed a distribution between +1 and -1. The MANOVA assumptions were then checked. Dependent and independent variables were identified in MANOVA and controlled for their variance homogeneousness and equality in their co-variance matrixes. Biospheric, egoist and altruistic awareness of consequence are considered as dependent variables for MANOVA while genderclass level, school type-family income and parent education status are assigned as independent variables. According to the Levene test, the variance of biospheric, egoist and altruistic awareness of consequence are homogeneous (p>.05). In order to check whether the co-variance matrix is equal, Box M (12.184) was controlled and matrixes were found to be equal. In MANOVA, the Bonferri (.0017) interval was used as a confidence interval for significance value. For the assessment of overlapping amongst variables in stepwise regression analysis, the torelance and VIF were checked. Since the tolerance values are above .05 and VIF below 10.00, no overlapping was observed in the variables.

Descriptive Findings
The average values for the beliefs of high school students upon the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic consequences regarding the loss of bio-diversity are given in Table 1. According to Table 1, the averages for biospheric, altruistic and egoistic outcomes vary between 2.79±0.55 and 3.06±0.70. The biospheric awareness of consequence has the highest average; the lowest is the egoistic awareness of consequence. At the same time, the students evaluated the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence as "neither agree nor disagree".

2. Impact of Gender on the Awareness of Consequence for the Loss of Bio-Diversity
The analysis results upon the impact of gender on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity are given in Table 2. According to Table 2, the impact of gender on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity is not significant.

Impact of Class on the Awareness of Consequences for the Loss of Bio-Diversity
The analysis results upon the impact of class level on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity are given in Table 3. According to Table 3, the impact of class level on the biospheric and altruistic awareness of consequences is significant; it is not according to the egoistic awareness of consequence. The analysis results show that the significant difference is in favour of 9 th grade students.

4. Impact of Family Income on the Awareness of Consequences for the Loss of Bio-Diversity
The analysis results of the impact of family income on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity are given in Table 4. According to Table 4, the impact of family income on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity is not significant.

Common Impact of Some Variable on the Awareness of Consequence for the Loss of Bio-Diversity
The analysis results upon the common impact of some variables (class level, gender, family type, family income and parent education) on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity are given in Table 5. According to Table 5, the common impact of gender and class level, school type and family income and education level of parents on the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity is not significant.

Prediction of Awareness of Consciousness for Loss of Bio-Diversity from Independent Variables
In consideration of the data from high school students, stepwise regression analysis has been used for the identification of whether the class level, school type, family income and educational level of parents has led to predictions of the awareness of consciousness for loss of bio-diversity, and the analysis results are given in Table 6. According to Table 6, at the first phase of stepwise regression analysis, the class level explains the 11% of awareness of consequence regarding bio-diversity. Class level and school type explain together 21% of consequence awareness in stepwise regression. Class level, school type and income level together explain 21% of consequence awareness in the third phase of stepwise regression. On the other hand, independent variables explain 21% of consequence of awareness in the fourth and fifth phases of stepwise regression. In the first phase, class levels are predicted in the awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity; during the other phases, only class level and school type variables are predicted in the awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity.

Discussion and Conclusion
The Norm-Activation Model (Schwartz, 1977) representing the process of structuring the selfexpectations of people in their social behaviour is one of the models explaining proenvironment behaviour (Harland, 2007;Menzel, 2007). In this model, it is vital to explain proenvironment behaviour, the awareness of the individual of the consequences of an action with regard to the welfare of others, and taking responsibility for the performance of this action (Turaga, Howarth & Borsuk, 2010). This research evaluates the beliefs of high school students in North Cyprus regarding egoistic, altruistic and biospheric consequences for the loss of biodiversity. According to the research data, students believe in biospheric, egoistic and altruistic results at the similar levels and students stated this awareness in "neither agree nor disagree". Dervisoglu (2007) indicated in her study that high school students in Turkey have more biospheric awareness of consequence than egoistic and altruistic awareness of consequence. Similarly, Menzel's study (2007) states that Chilean students have a much more significant and higher egoistic and biospheric awareness of consequence than German high school students.
The step to activation starts with awareness. This awareness is composed of needs status and action to meet the needs. The interaction of moral obligation, values and norms are at stake to get into action. The more importance is given to an action, the stronger is the moral obligation for the performance of action (Turaga et al., 2010). Moreover, Turaga et al. (2010) emphasise that people who have a high level of awareness of consequence and feel responsible for the performance of action have also shown pro-environment behaviour. Therefore, in order to form awareness of consequence on the loss of bio-diversity among students, it is important to examine the value that they assign to bio-diversity and evaluate personal norms to protect biodiversity.
Another result of the research is the impact of independent variables on the awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity. The common impacts of gender, the impacts of family income and gender-class levels, school type-family income and education status of parents are not significant in the biospheric, egoistic and altruistic awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity, only class level is significant in biospheric and altruistic consequences. In other words, female and male students believe in the biospheric, egoistic and altruistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity equally. Regardless of family income, their beliefs for the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity are the same. The common impact of school type and family income is not significant in the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity. Similarly, the common impact of the educational status of mother and father is not significant in the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity. On the other hand, the impact of class level is significant in the biospheric, altruistic and egoistic awareness of consequences for the loss of bio-diversity. This significant impact is in favour of 9 th grade students. The subject of "Bio-Diversity" in 9 th grade biology lesson is considered to have an impact on this outcome.
The last outcome from the research is related to the independent variables foreseeing the awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity. While class level and school type predicts the awareness of consequence for the loss of bio-diversity, they cannot do the same for family income and the educational status of parents. According to the study conducted by Harland et al. (2007), needs awareness and state responsibility predict the pro-environment behavioural intention in the first stepwise of multiple regression. In the second stepwise, the variables of efficacy and ability are then predicted.


extfieldsofstudy: Psychology Medicine

s2fieldsofstudy: Education Psychology

text:
Parents’ Participation in the Sexuality Education of Their Children in Namibia: A Framework and an Educational Programme for Enhanced Action

The purpose of the study was to empower rural parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children. The study was designed to be qualitative, explorative, descriptive and contextual in nature. It was performed in three phases. Phase 1 consisted of a situational analysis to explore and describe how parents provide sexuality education. Phase 2 consisted of the development of a conceptual framework that facilitated the development of an educational programme. In phase 3 the programme was implemented and evaluated, recommendations were made and conclusions drawn. The main findings revealed two themes: factors influencing parental participation in their children’s sexuality education, and the need for parental participation in their children’s sexuality education. This article is part of series of three article stems from a study on the topic of sexuality education empowerment programme of rural parents in Namibia. The three articles have the following titles one: parent’s participation in sexuality education of their children: a situational analysis; two: parent’s participation in sexuality education of their children: a conceptual framework and an educational programme to enhance action, and three: parent’s participation in sexuality education of their children: programme implementation and evaluation. The previous paper dealt with parent’s participation in sexuality education of their children: a situational analysis: the results from the in-depth interviews and focus group discussions on sexuality education with children and parents were presented. This paper focuses on describing Phase 2 and 3, namely the process of devising a conceptual framework for the development of an educational programme to empower parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children. Discussions included a description of the conceptual framework, based on the researcher’s paradigmatic assumptions, and the focus group and individual in-depth interviews results. The survey list suggested by Dickoff et al. (1968) consists of various elements which were employed in the conceptual framework, namely the context, agent, recipients, dynamics, procedure and a terminus. These elements were reflected in the “thinking map”.

Introduction
Conceptual framework in general is a real or conceptual structure intended to serve as a support or guide for the building of something that expands the structure into something useful, a framework is often a layered structure indicating what kind of programs can or should be built and how they would interrelate. A framework may be for a set of functions within a system and how they interrelate; the layers of an operating system; the layers of an application subsystem; how communication should be standardized at some level of a network; and so forth. The conceptual framework of the programme in this study was structured according to the survey list suggested by Dickoff, James and Wiedenbach (1968), which facilitates the identification and categorisation of major concepts for further refinement, thus ensuring logical development of the sexuality educational programme

Classifications and Definitions of Central and Associated Concepts
The identification of the central concept was based on the empirical data of the first phase. After analysis it became clear that parents and children feel that parental participation and involvement in sexuality education is inadequate, that the interpersonal relationships between parents and their children are poor, that parental attitudes and behaviour concerning sexuality are negative, that parents lack knowledge about sexuality-related issues and that cultural beliefs can negatively affect parents' participation in their children's sexuality education. The above factors resulted in a lack of confidence, fear, insecurity and uncertainty amongst parents. Furthermore, these factors are known to create resistance to any change, as parents who are to change do not know what to do, how to do it, where to start, what the effect will be and how their children and they themselves will benefit from the change to be introduced.
However, this study has found that change is necessary and a great need for parents to participate in sexuality education of their children were identified. This need can be met through providing proper information, motivation and encouragement, promotion of constructive interpersonal relationships and the discouragement of negative behaviour that may jeopardize the health status of the children such as cultural beliefs.Participation and involvement enhance the feeling of ownership that may allow parents to be responsible for the health of their children and the nation of tomorrow. The experiences reported by parents during this study indicate that parents need to be empowered in order to be able to participate in the sexuality education of their children.
However, empowerment starts with the self (Swanepoel, 1992). Thus the parents (recipient) must first possess the necessary traits (SIECUS, 1999). SIECUS (1999) identifies the following characteristics to be required to enable parents to be both responsive and responsible for constructing the necessary knowledge and skills: responsibility, flexibility, mutual trust and respect, understanding, commitment, strength, ownership, motivation, openness, steadiness, confidence, willingness, constructive interpersonal relationships and communication, patience, supportiveness, safety and security and role modeling. Through an interactive process, children will gain new insights into knowledge of and skills in sexuality-related issues. Children will become independent and autonomous in managing their own health (Wertsch, 1995;Blekinsop, 2004;Cummins et al., 2003).
The concept of empowerment has different meanings in different contexts. For the purposes of this study, empowerment refers to assisting parents to provide sexuality education to their children; making parents capable of rendering sexuality education.

The Researcher's Reasoning Map
The survey list of Dickoff et al (1968), which includes the ingredients of context, agent, recipient, dynamic, procedure of the activity and terminus, was used as a basis for the formulation of the conceptual framework. The aim of this framework was to identify and categorise major and related concepts for further clarification of and reflection on the programme. The researcher's reasoning map represents the interaction between the agent and recipients, which is contextualised within a specific framework and procedure. The context determines the procedure to be followed whilst acknowledging the dynamics underpinning the interaction and facilitation process, with the intention of attaining a specific outcome or to reach a specific goal (Fucci, 2000).
The researcher's thinking map as developed for this study is outlined in figure 1. The survey list of Dickoff et al (1968) was adopted as a basis for the formulation of the researcher's thinking map. Dickoff indicates the six survey lists as follows:

Agent: Researcher
The term "agent" refers to the person who performs the activity (Dickoff et al., 1968). For the purpose of this study, the agent is the researcher, who has to provide the activity, namely an educational programme for empowering parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children in the Ohangwena region. This requires, firstly, that she possess the personal qualities needed to build constructive interpersonal relationships with the recipients, namely the parents. Each of these attributes is displayed in Figure 2 illustrate the Characteristics of an agent: Knowledgeble "Knowledge" is the theoretical framework, the "what to do" and the "why". Knowledge is generated through the participants' experiences rather than being presented as a product by an expert, the facilitator, to the participants (Rooth, 1995). The facilitator is the resource who promotes the active learning process in which the participants are engaged by providing the structured framework for them to develop, explore, experiment and learn (Meyer, 2004, p. 35).

Rural parents (Mothers and Fathers)
In order for the agent to provide guidance and support to parents, she should be able to incorporate her knowledge in guiding and supporting parents. In providing support and guidance, the facilitator should have certain personal qualities that enable her to carry her role effectively. One of the personal qualities that the agent should have is the ability to build constructive interpersonal relationships, should be able to establish and maintain positive relationships based on mutual trust, to work collaboratively, to accept compromises when appropriate, to communicate effectively and to listen to problems encountered by recipients (parents) (Taris, 2000;Ritchie, 2006;Chin & Kramer, 1995).

Figure 2. Characteristics of an agent
In addition to the knowledge and personal qualities that an agent should have, she also requires a variety of characteristics in order to be able to facilitate the empowerment of parental participation and involvement in sexuality education. These characteristics are: Open-mindedness, knowledge, trust and respect for relationships, objectivity, courage, commitment and confidence, communication skills such as speaking, listening, questioning, paraphrasing, observing, feedback and summarising.
People skills: An effective facilitator must listen well and have a genuine interest for how others think and feel. The facilitator for this programme has a pleasant personality and enjoys interacting with other people. This helped the facilitator to be able to lead the group to achieve its objectives and to show the group direction and inspire them to work together (Byrne, 2007).
Attitudes of facilitator: "Attitude" refers to people's positive or negative evaluation of any aspect of the physical or social world shaped by their experience and interpersonal relationships, and is stored as memory (Harrison, 2004;Whitaker et al., 1999).
Empathy: Involves a deep understanding of the feelings and thoughts that make up the inner experiences of the participants, recognising these as experiences that the facilitator herself may have had (Henry, 1998;Atherton, 2002). This means that the facilitator senses and accepts the experiences of the participants without becoming too emotionally involved. An effective facilitator is also guided by the value of Fairness: All participants should be treated in a fair and consistent manner, and preference should not be shown to any individual or group (Meyer, 2004).

Recipient: Rural Parents in the Ohangwena Region
Meyer, (2004) defines the term "recipient" as a beneficiary of something, an addressee, and receiver. In this study rural parents of children between the ages of 12 to 16 in the Ohangwena region are the recipients of this programme. Parents should possess certain characteristics (Bradley, 2005) in order to benefit from the programme. The following characteristics are required to enable the recipients to be both responsive and responsible for constructing the knowledge and skills needed to be able to participate and be involved in the sexuality education of their children: Responsibility: Parents are responsible for the education of their children, thus they should participate in the provision of sexuality education for their youth.
Motivation: This characteristic is a combination of desires, values, and beliefs that drives parents to do their work (Wood, 2002). Parents need to be motivated, in order to take part in sexuality education of their children (Meyers & Thomas, 1998).
Understanding: Parents need to understand their children's uniqueness and totality as a human being (Meyer, 2004). Every human being has got his/her own need and problem that is the reason why parents need to be aware of the uniqueness of their children and to attend to their needs differently.
Openness: This characteristic includes: freedom of expressing oneself, freedom to discuss and to talk openly with ones child, and being open to ideas from all people no matter how wild or unrealistic these ideas may be seen. Parents must also be accessible so that everyone -no matter what their views -will feel that they can approach them with almost any issue, no matter how serious or sensitive (Meyer, 2004).
Confidence: This characteristic is a combination of believing and trusting.
Willingness: Parents need to exercise willingness to participate in sexuality education of their children.
Mutual trust and respect: Parents must epitomise the value of respect, should build on the principle of respect for other people (Meyer, 2004). Parents should respect themselves and their children.
Effective interpersonal relationships and communication: Good interpersonal relationships provide the basis for effective and open communication between parents and their children (Rae, 1997).

Context: Ohangwena Region
Context is a situation, a framework, a milieu, an environment or a background. For the purpose of this study, the context is defined as an environment or a milieu consisting of parents who have children between the ages of 12 and 16 years living their homes in the Ohangwena region, where the programme is to be implemented. This study is contextual in nature. Data were obtained from both fathers and mothers between the ages of 29 and 59, and children between the ages of 12 and 16, living in the Ohangwena region. The Ohangwena region was selected because the rural areas are most disadvantaged when it comes to the accessibility of health services. Most of the people living in rural areas do not have access to health services, and most of the Namibian youth reside in northern Namibia.

Procedures
For this study, procedures were needed to facilitate active participation of rural parents in the sexuality education of their children. These procedures were identified from the data analysis as the results of the situational analysis namely, to enhance self-awareness and confidence of rural parents, to facilitate constructive interpersonal relationships between parents and their children, to motivate and encourage positive attitudes and behaviours, and to provide information on sexuality. The programme was structured around the experiential approach to learning as suggested by Kolb. Thus, the programme was based on experiential learning and was conducted in the form of a workshop. (Kolb's experiential learning cycle is discussed in Chapter 5). The workshop, which incorporated an orientation phase, a working phase and termination phase, was implemented over three days, and was structured as a helping relationship. The workshop was organised around a particular base, and incorporated a structured and sequenced set of activities and exercises designed to equip parents with knowledge of sexuality and skills to provide sexuality education. The workshop was carefully planned to meet specific goals, which were based on the needs of the participants.

1 Enhancing Self-Awareness
Enhancing self-awareness is crucial to psychological insight and self-understanding (Gouws, 2000), because www.ccsenet.org/gjhs Global Journal of Health Science Vol. 8, No. 4; enhancing self-awareness motivates people to reduce the discrepancy between how they actually behave and how they desire to behave (Moskowitz, 2005). It is crucial for enabling parents to know who they are and why they exist, and helping them to be aware of their responsibility regarding the sexuality education of their children. Dolinsky, 2000) states that before a person can lead or help other people, he/she has to discover himself/herself.

Facilitating Constructive Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal relationships can be defined as a relatively long term association between two or more people. This association may be based on emotions like love and liking, regular interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Constructive interpersonal relationships are the driving force behind parental participation and involvement in the sexuality education of their children (Moskowitz, 2005). A relationship is normally viewed as a connection between two individuals, such as parent and their children (Fisher, 1995;Forsyth, 2006).These relationships usually involve some level of interdependence. People in relationships tend to influence each other, and share their thoughts, feelings and engage in activities together. People may be interdependent if they are sharing mutual and common goals. In this study constructive interpersonal relationship are the driving force behind parental participation and involvement in the sexuality education of their children.

Motivation and Encouragement of Positive Attitudes and Behaviour
Firstly, people must be aware of the importance of attitude. It is important to remember that attitude is everything, whether positive or negative shows in our daily lives. People cannot change the past or how others act, but they can change their reactions and attitudes towards the past or experiences. A positive attitude is a vital asset at any time. People should portray a positive attitude when they present themselves (Yowell, 2004).
Secondly, parents must take responsibility for their attitude as well as their actions. This will give strength and control during time of change. When change occurs, people may experience feelings of fear, anger, sadness, or resistance, as well as relief, hope or excitement (Yarcheski & Mahon, 2009). Parents need a positive attitude, which can help them to shape the future of their children, instead of being held back by allowing negative feelings to affect their attitude and behaviour. They must be positive role models for their children and others, as the future and hope now lies in the hands of children.
The results of this study clearly showed that parents need to change their behaviour and attitudes towards sexuality-related issues. They should talk to their children, because this will improve the sexuality health of children. However, talking openly about sexuality has not always been easy. Meanwhile, Rew (2005) and Taravera (2002) are of the opinion that changing ways of discussing sexuality-related issues does not mean that culture and tradition will be threatened. Individuals' commitment to behaviour change is reinforced by being involved in planning, by doing self-monitoring and by conducting frequent "self-awareness" checks (Quinn, 2000;Schoeberlein, 2004). They further stated that positive reinforcement can help change behaviour, and that it requires an environment that supports activities and the internal motivation to live a long life (Greathead, 2002).

Provision of Information About Sexuality
Parents need to gain knowledge and skills on aspects related to sexuality education. Such knowledge and skills will reduce feelings of fear, incompetency, inadequacy and embarrassment and will enhance constructive interpersonal relationships between parents and their children. Parents will develop a sense of self-confidence, ownership, self-determination and self-control and positive attitudes towards sexuality. Parents need information on child development and the challenges that may occur during adolescence. Such as: • Identity formation Identity formation is the process of developing a distinct personality as an individual regarded as a persisting entity (known as personal continuity) in a particular stage of life in which individual characteristics are attained by which a person is recognised or known (such as the establishment of a reputation). This information will help parents to know that children are unique; that personalities differ from one individual child to the next. This process defines individuals to others and themselves (Erikson, 2007;Goossens, 2008). Parents will be given information on developmental stages, namely, physical, social, emotional and interpersonal identity development. This helped parents to address the different needs of their children.
• Challenges during adolescence Adolescence is full of challenges for any child. The change is fast, everywhere, and hard to keep up with. The body changes in response to increasing hormone levels; thinking processes change as the child is able to think more broadly and in an abstract way; social life changes as new people and peers come into scope. Yet the child needs to deal with every single one of these changes, all at the same time. With their willingness to help, that's www.ccsenet.org/gjhs Global Journal of Health Science Vol. 8, No. 4; where the parents come in, who have "been there", with the life experience, maturity and resources (Ozbayrak, 2006).
Parents will be equiped with knowledge on teenage pregnancies, HIV and AIDS; sexuality transmitted diseases, alcohol and drug abuse, sexuality harassment and discipline. Parents will be given information to enable them to combat those challenges and to be able to deal with them when they occur (Dickson et al, 2002;Steinberg, 2008).

Dynamics
"Dynamics" refers to the energy source or motivation for the activity (Dickoff et al., 1968). The dynamics that emerged from this study are the opposite of the themes discussed in the first article of the study, namely: Challenges influencing parental participation in the sexuality education of their children, focused on: inadequate knowledge on sexuality education, cultural beliefs of parents, negative attitudes and behaviour concerning sexuality, poor interpersonal relationships between parents and their children.
3.5.1 Inadequate Knowledge on Sexuality Issues "Knowledge" refers to a body of facts or ideas acquired through study, investigation, observation or experience. Parents need knowledge of sexuality-related issues. If they do not have adequate knowledge about sexuality, it is difficult for them to talk to their children. This study confirms this point, because it found that many parents do not participate in the sexuality education of their children because they do not know enough, they do not know how to explain what they do know, and they feel incompetent and embarrassed. Bandura (1992) is of the opinion that initiating conversations about the facts of life may be difficult for some parents because they did not grow up in an environment where the subject was discussed. As the challenges faced by today's adolescents have increased, parents must talk to their children in order to prevent and control the dangers that Namibian children are exposed to. HIV and AIDS, Sexual transmitted infections, teenage pregnancies, sexual harassment and more can only been overcome if parents participate in the sexuality education of their children (Erickson, 2007;Wight, 2003;Fitzsimons, 1991).

Cultural Beliefs
"Culture" refers to attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviours that are characteristic of a particular social group. Culture is transmitted from generation to generation and shapes and influences perceptions and behaviours. This study revealed that culture is an obstacle to sexuality education. Most of the parents who participated in this study do not provide sexuality education, because it is culturally a taboo for parents to talk to their children about sexuality-related issues (Wight et al., 2003;Fitzsimons, 1991). The researcher believed that if parents have proper information on sexuality and increase their self-awareness, that change may occur and parents may begin to participate in the sexuality education of their children.

Negative Attitudes and Behaviours Towards Sexuality
Attitudes can be defined as a person's mood and feelings towards things, circumstances or people. A positive attitude is a priceless possession. During this time of societal change, it is sometimes easy to allow circumstances to rob us of this possession. Parents need to change their negative attitudes and behaviours towards sexuality in order to be able to talk to their children (Forrest, 2006;Jemmott & Jemmott, 2002;Kirby et al., 2007;Kirby et al., 1991).

The Need for Parental Participation in Sexuality Education
The goal of the facilitator was to equip parents with the skills and knowledge on sexuality-related issues necessary to overcome factors influencing parental participation in sexuality education, to encourage positive attitudes and behaviour towards sexuality, to enhance self awareness, to motivate interpersonal relationships and open communication between parents and their children and to build up their confidence (Exeter, 2001;Holtzman & Robinson, 1991). They will be discussed as follow:

Figure 3. Dynamics
Interaction is a dynamic process, which entail communication, leadership, reasoning and logical argumentation as well as competence and effectiveness. The researcher should facilitate these qualities, as this will enable parents to see the importance of participation in sexuality education. Addressing the dynamics of challenges that influencing parental participation in sexuality education of their children en able parents to have proper information on sexuality. Parents became aware of the importance and the advantages of participating in sexuality education of their children. Interpersonal relationship enhances effective communication, active participation enhances confidence, continuous interaction and feeling of ownership.

Terminus
"Terminus" refers to the last stop, the end or the finishing point (Dickoff et al., 1968). The terminus of this programme is active participation of parents in the sexuality education of their children. If parents actively participate in providing sexuality education to their children, children will act responsibly in their sexuality activities. They will be able to protect themselves against Sexuality Transmitted Diseases, unwanted pregnancies and HIV and AIDS and children who have discussed sexuality-related issues with their parents are less likely to participate in risky sexuality behaviour and may delay sexuality activity.

Relationship Between Concepts
The relationship between the concepts is graphically represented in Figure 4 and discussed under the haracteristics of an agent. It is clear from the results that parents are not adequately participating in the sexuality education of their children. This is due to fear, lack of knowledge, cultural beliefs, negative attitudes towards sexuality and poor interpersonal relationships between parents and their children. They also expressed the need to acquire the necessary skills to be able to participate in the sexuality education of their children. Figure 4. Graphic representation sexuality educational programme development process related as well as the relationships between concepts "Active participation" refers to taking part, being actively involved, or sharing with others. The end result of this study will be the active participation of parents in the sexuality education of their children. If parents actively participate in providing sexuality education to their children, children will act responsibly in their sexuality activities. They will be able to protect themselves against Sexuality transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies and HIV and AIDS. Authors like Braithwaite and Baxter (2006, p. 56) and Harrison (1998, p. 86);Gagnon, (1997);Hickman-Brown, (2001) are of the opinion that children who have discussed sexuality-related issues with their parents are less likely to participate in risky sexuality behaviour and may delay sexuality activity.

Concluding statement on conceptual phrame work development
The ability to communicate is not unique to humankind, but we have a sophistication that far surpasses all other species. It enables us to move beyond events taking place at the time. Parents can share ideas, knowledge, beliefs and other opinions about happenings in the distance past and possibility for future; about events here or in some other places; about the particular or general; the concrete or the abstract. It also enables us to make meaningful contact with others through establishing, maintaining relationships (Owen, 1994:35 Vol. 8, No. 4; and constructive relationship between parents and their children.
Parental empowerment in participation and involvement in sex education may be resulting in competent parents , skillful parents, possess knowledge and proper information. Interpersonal relationship between parents and their adolescents enhances open communication, they will be able to discuss their problems and share experience openly. This may result in a responsible child.

Sexuality Educational Programme Development
This part of the article focuses on the development of an educational programme to empower rural parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children. After analysing the data and formulating a conceptual framework, it was possible to develop a programme based on the themes identified. The programme development was based on the survey guide suggested by Dickoff et al (1968, p. 423). The development of the educational programme serves as an intervention to empower parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children. The desired outcome of the programme is to ensure that parents actively participate in the sexuality education of their children. The required qualities and skills of the facilitator, the nature of experiential learning as well as the specific characteristics and needs of adult learning had to be accommodated during the development of the programme.

Purpose of the Educational Programme
The purpose of this programme is to empower rural parents to participate in the sexuality education of their children. After meticulous evaluation of the data collected in Phase 1 of this study, four areas to be addressed in the programme were identified. The areas included activities, such as facilitating constructive interpersonal relationships between parents and their children, enhancing parents' self-awareness and confidence regarding sexuality education, identity formation and challenges faced by adolescents in Ohangwena region in Namibia. Swanepoel (1992, p. 2) is of the opinion that a programme is always developed with concrete purposes in mind, and that the researcher also subconsciously arrives at "abstract goals", which refer to the stable and permanent outcome of the programme. The long term goal of this programme is active parental participation in the sexuality education of their children (Fawcett, 1995).

Context for the Implementation of the Programme
The "context" refers to the frame of reference in which the activity takes place. The context of the implementation of this programme is the Ohangwena region. However, facilitation will take place within institutional settings in the region, such as health centers, churches or schools. The facilitator possesses the values, skills and knowledge necessary to educate rural parents about sexuality-related issues.

Description of the Educational Programme Process
The educational programme involves a three-phase process, consisting of an orientation phase, a working phase and a terminal phase. See Figure 5. This is a cyclical process typical of each workshop contained in the broader implementation of the programme. The programme consists of three day workshops, which are also contained in a framework of an orientation phase, a working and a termination phase.

Orientation Phase
In the orientation phase the facilitator and rural parents met in a selected venue in the Ohangwena region to be able to attend an introductory meeting where aspects related to the purpose, goals and logistical arrangements of the implementation of the programme were discussed. The meeting was held in the morning on the day before the commencement of the workshop. Participants were informed about the purpose of the programme and were asked to consent to participation in the development of the programme. The logistical arrangements, including broad outline and expectations of the programme, were reviewed. The ground rules and expectations were discussed and repeated at the beginning of each session. The facilitator used ice breaker activities in each of the sessions in order to afford participants the opportunity to settle down and get comfortable with each other. The programme is based on the experiential learning approach within the paradigm of adult learning, and structured as a three day workshop. The programme addresses the needs identified from an analysis of Phase 1 of the study. The working phase is centered on teaching rural parents skills to enable them to provide sexuality education. Parents acquired skills through active participation in group discussions and presentations, as suggested in the experiential learning cycle. The programme addresses the following aspects: • Session 1 focused on an introduction and orientation of the programme content, the establishment and maintenance of healthy interpersonal relationships and communication skills.
• Session 2 dealt with activities to enhance self-awareness, motivation and encouragement of parents to participate in their children's sexuality education.
• Session 3 emphasised identity formation, which helped parents to gain knowledge of the different stages of development during childhood.
• Session 4 deliberated on challenges faced during adolescence, evaluation of the programme and closure of the workshop.
The facilitation was done within the framework of the experiential learning approach, in acknowledgement of the fact that ensuring freedom within the pre-planned structure of the programme is important (Hobbs, 1992, pp. 93-94;Lamberski, 2002, p. 23).

Termination Phase
During the termination phase, all the issues around parents' experiences during the implementation of the programme were summarised and reflected upon. As part of reflection process, the programme was evaluated. This phase was conducted in line with the nature of the experiential learning process, in which group input helps the facilitator to stay on track and allows participants to come to terms with the process (Hobbs, 1992, p. 101;Meyer, 2004, p.30). Rae (1997, pp. 7-9) states that evaluation provides first-hand information about how participants experience what you as facilitator and/or programme developer have to offer.

Educational Approach
The educational programme took cognizance of the experiential approach to learning within the paradigm of adult learning, as suggested by Smith, 2002, p. 28). Experiential learning refers to learning opportunities where participants learn from and through personal and group experience and by reflecting on what has been learned (Rooth, 1995, p. 3;Smith, 2002, p. 22). The focus in experiential learning is on building on existing strengths and on the life experiences of the participants.

Experiential Learning Approach
Experiential learning is a learning theory and philosophy, which facilitates learning from direct experience through active participation in the learning process, and by reflecting on what has been learnt in the context of group work and sharing ideas on the learning process (Hobbs, 1992;Kirby, 2000;Joplin, 1981;Gass, 2002). Kolb's learning theory sets out four distinct learning styles (or preferences), which are based on a four-stage learning cycle (which might also be interpreted as a "training cycle". Kolb andKolb (2001) andKolb, (1984) proposed that the four interdependent series of steps essential for effective learning include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active participation.
In this respect, Kolb's model of experiential learning is particularly elegant, since it offers both a way to understand individuals' different learning styles, and also an explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to us all. Kolb includes this "cycle of learning" as a central principle of his experiential learning theory, typically expressed as a four-stage cycle of learning, in which "immediate or concrete experiences" provide a basis for "observations and reflections". These "observations and reflections" are assimilated and distilled into "abstract concepts", producing new implications for action which can be "actively tested", in turn creating new experiences (Wight et al., 2003;Kolb & Kolb, 2001;Lamberski, 2005;Kelly, 1997).
by direct experience of "apprehension" "denotation" "connotation" by "comprehension" (knowing about) Figure 6. Kolb's (2006) experiential learning cycle Kolb and Kolb (2001) says that ideally (and by inference) this process represents a learning cycle or spiral where the learner "touches all the bases", for example, a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. Immediate or concrete experiences lead to observations and reflections. These reflections are then assimilated (absorbed and translated) into abstract concepts with implications for action, which the person can actively test and experiment with, which in turn enable the creation of new experiences (Hobbs,1992, p. 56;Smith, 2002, p. 32).
The approach was implemented by the facilitator, who maintained a favourable and conducive environment, provided the structure, recourses, and activities and asked appropriate questions that allowed parents to reflect on their experiences and to make sense of their personal learning. The components of the experiential cycle will now be discussed in detail.

Concrete Experience
The process of experiential learning uses the existing knowledge (concrete experience) and competencies of group members. It refers to persons' planned or unplanned actual experiences. Concrete experience corresponds with "knowledge by acquaintance", direct experience (or "apprehension" in Kolb's terms), as opposed to "knowledge about something", which is theoretical, but perhaps more comprehensive (hence "comprehension") and represented by abstract conceptualization (Hobbs, 1992, pp. 1-2;Willis & Ricketts, 2004).
This type of learning acknowledges and welcomes values and uses the existing knowledge and competence of every parent in the group. The value of experiential learning lies in the fact that the participants place more belief in the knowledge they have discovered for themselves than in the knowledge presented by experts (Rooth, 1999, p. 75;George, 1990).
This approach suggests that rural parents have concrete experiences. During the workshop parents generated knowledge through other participants' experiences. They learned from one another's experiences so that all learning processes became a shared learning experience for the whole group. The parents shared experiences of different aspects relating to sexuality with the group, and so came to understand what sexuality education entails.

Abstract Conceptualization
Abstract conceptualization emerges out of reflection and can be tested actively in the fourth stage. Abstract conceptualization "is the effort to make sense of experiences by trying to theorize, to generalize, to look forwards for and construct alternatives" (Smith, 2004;Greenway, 2006b). Rural parents were able to gain insight as they were given the freedom to express how they provide sexuality education and made suggestions for possible changes.

Reflective Observation
Through reflection, parents were empowered to plan, manage and evaluate their own learning and actively assimilate external knowledge into their own internal frame of references, thus learning to accept full responsibility for their own learning. Reflection was valuable in this programme because in an atmosphere of reciprocal sharing parents learnt to explore and express their feelings, focused on what they had learnt and what insights they had gained. Reflection enabled rural parents to make sense of past experiences and developed them for the future by making it possible for them to consider changing inappropriate behaviour. Parents consolidated and internalised the learning experience, thus ensuring lasting and meaningful learning (Rooth, 1999, p. 98;Dolinsky, 2000, p. 73). Reflective learning is based on the assumption that learning as an activity involves the whole person as a thinking, feeling, active being (Whitaker et al., 1999, p. 107).

Active Experimentation
Active experimentation transforms the theory of abstract conceptualization by testing it in practice and relates to its denotations. The abstract conceptual analysis is tested actively. Active experimentation includes doing things in the real world, deciding what works and what does not, making plans and implementing those plans (Kolb & Kolb, 2001). Participants reflected on their own experience by demonstrating on how they communicate with their children. By demonstrating this within the group, members reflected on how they might manage better by using the programme strategies, which include communication skills. Kirby et al. (1994, p. 129) are of the opinion that consistent exposure to activities related to life experience clarifies and personalises these concepts so that they become part of the (personal) knowledge base. Rural parents increase their understanding of the self and their external world (Hobbs, 1992, p. 3).
This may generate enduring provides a model and a language through which participants reflect on the experience and participate in the learning process together in an environment of mutual support (Hobbs, p. 2-3). It is the researcher's hope that the knowledge about sexuality which rural parents gained from this programme will lead to changes in their lives.

Parents as Adult Learners
According to Knowles ( in Atherton, 2002, p. 12) two key differences in the ways that adults and children approach learning are that adults desire to be self-directed and want to take responsibility for decisions. Courses for adult learners are sensitive to these desires and designed to permit some autonomy in how participants approach and schedule their learning activities. Knowles' lists the following assumptions on adult learning: adults need to know why they need to learn something, adults need to learn experientially, adults approach learning as problem-solving and adults learn best when (they believe that) the topic is of immediate value.
According to Meyer (2004, p. 35) adults learn better in the following conditions: • Adults need to be respected and treated as people who have knowledge and experience.
• Adults need information that is useful to them, in other words, information they can use in their personal lives or at work.
• Adults need to be allowed to relate their own experiences and situations.
• Adults need to be allowed to listen to suggestions and decide what is useful to them.
• Adults need to contribute to the learning process, i.e. to give input and ideas to add value to the learning process.
• Adults need to cover information that will help them achieve their future objectives, such as career goals or other personal life challenges.
The facilitator of this programme was sensitive to the needs and styles of adults in order to get maximum results on the objectives. The facilitator made use of teaching strategies, such as role play (autonomy, experience) group work, feedback and self-evaluation to ensure active participation and effectiveness of the programme.

Conclusion
In this paper the researcher described the development of conceptual framework and an educational programme to empower parents in the Ohangwena region to participate in the sexuality education of their children. The discussion included a description of the conceptual framework based on the researcher's paradigmatic assumptions and the focus group and individual in-depth interviews. The survey list suggested by Dickoff et al (1968, p. 435) encompasses various elements that were employed in the conceptual framework, namely the context, agent, recipients, dynamics, procedure and terminus. These elements were reflected in the "thinking map".
The researcher defined and described the educational programme and concluded with a discussion of the experiential learning approach. The learning characteristics of adult learners were described in detail, so as to ensure that the facilitator is aware and sensitive to the requirements, as set out in the development of the conceptual framework of the programme.The next paper deals with the implementation and evaluation of an educational programme.


Development of Professional Competences in Russia and Lithuania: An Example of Successful International Cooperation in the Field of Adult Education

The article presents one of the directions of international cooperation in the field of adult education. It is review of a monographic book on professional competences, prepared jointly by andragogy researchers in Russia (Pushkin Leningrad State University in St. Petersburg) and Lithuania (Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas). The authors put the Russian-Lithuanian publication on the background of the significant in modern European andragogy achievements of St. Petersburg’s research community, and adult education conferences organized there annually for more than a decade.

INTRODUCTION
As generally known, adult education has for many decades been an important area of international cooperation. It is appreciated not only by the theorists and practitioners working in the field of social sciences and humanities or politicians involved in education, but also by individual societies, who by observing the solutions adopted in other countries can (and do) profit from valuable guidance on how to build their educational offer and/or modernize their informal educational projects addressed to members of their own community [1]. It is enough to recall such institutional solutions recognized worldwide as open universities, self-education circles, folk high schools or universities of the third age to see that curricular and organizational forms of adult education that worked well in one of the countries, were almost immediately "taken over" -after a certain adaptation to local conditions -by other countries, reaffirming their transnational universality and effectiveness. It was similar with theoretical categories distinguished over the years for the analysis of the phenomena occurring within adult education, although these -let us addoften (too often?) bore a certain stigma of a currently valid political "fashion". Such categories as literacy, participation in culture or in-service training took their strong part in the history of adult education of the second half of the twentieth century in different countries. In the last quarter, largely under the influence of the interaction between science and politics, these categories were supplemented by the following: civic education, multiculturalism, social inclusion, social capital, sustainable development, lifelong education, education for the job market, etc. [2,3].
Nowadays the category of competence has also become extremely important and cognitively plausible for the analysis of educational phenomena. This resulted in a visible development of theoretical thinking in this area in the studies of European and North American representatives of the humanities and social studies, as well as in the emergence of a series of reports on educational practice analyzing the development of competences (professional, social, civic, political, cultural, educational, religious, ethical, emotional, linguistic, etc.).

DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION
The monograph prepared in cooperation of Russian and Lithuanian authors entitled "Continuous education as a prerequisite of the development of professional competences", published at the end of 2013, became a noteworthy example of a study on the competences of adults. It was prepared in cooperation of Pushkin Leningrad State University in Saint-Petersburg (PLSU) and Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas (VMU). It was written by a team of 26 authors from both countries. On the Lithuanian side the project was coordinated by prof. Natalija Mažeikienė (Vice-Rector for VMU Development, Kaunas) in collaboration with assoc. Aušra Rutkienė (VMU) and prof. Margarita Teresevičienė (also VMU), and on the Russian side -by prof. Nikolai A. Lobanov (Director of the Research Institute for Social-Economic and Pedagogical Problems of Continuous Education) and prof. Vyacheslav N. Skvortsov (PLSU Rector, Saint-Petersburg).
The entire study was published by Scientific Publishing House of Pushkin Leningrad State University in two languages: Russian -as Непрерывное образование как условие развития профессиональных компетенций..., (335 pages, ISBN 978-5-8290-1271-7; 978-5-8290-1273-1/рус./) [4] and English -as Continuous education as a prerequisite of the development of professional competences..., (280 pages, ISBN 978-5-8290-1271-7; 978-5-8290-1275-5/eng./) [5]. Thus, the publication is available in two main conference languages, which is worth emphasizing, because this allows a broader reception of the research findings of individual authors and analysis and some generalization. Reviewers of the document -one from each country -are a guarantee of a high substantive level of the texts. Prof. Semen G. Verslovski, a prominent Russian andragogue, with major achievements in the world was the reviewer on the Russian side of the project. On the Lithuanian side the publication was reviewed by prof. V. Vaičiūnienė.
The monograph presented in this discussion consists of 18 articles prepared by the authors from both countries. Among the papers included in the publication there are 9 prepared by Russian scientists and 9 by researchers from Lithuania. Therefore, the partnership character of the publication is clear also from the quantitative point of view -the same number of texts written by both nations.
The publication was divided in seven parts, covering the following topics: Is not the place to discuss in detail the substantive content of the monograph. Let us therefore focus only on a few more general remarks. As outside observers of Russian and Lithuanian field of adult education and andragogy achievements we found particularly interesting that in both countries there seems to be -despite different political, social and cultural experiences 2 Volume 51 of Russia and Lithuania -the same affinity for both directions of exploration research on development of professional competences and for processes for formulating generalizations or constructing theories about the role of continuous education. On one the hand, it is an expression of the fact that the overview of the challenges associated with the practice of adult vocational education and the development of andragogy (and pedagogy of work) that contemporary societies of all European countries are facing is sometimes similar, so it determines the direction of the national (in this case, Russian and Lithuanian) research and practical measures for the field discussed in the monograph described here. On the other hand -this clearly shows that the penetration of ideas and concepts, as well as organizational forms that we indicated at the beginning, are also corroborated in theorists and practitioners of adult education circles in Lithuania and Russia. This is all the more interesting that one could get a similar impression by analyzing the effects of the twin scientific publishing project entitled Непрерывное образование как социальный факт implemented jointly by the PLSU in Saint-Petersburg and The Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce in 2011 [6][7][8].

CONCLUSION
Congratulating therefore both the scientific circles of Pushkin Leningrad State University in St. Petersburg and Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas on a new publication, we expect that the scientific cooperation established between the centers in the field of andragogy will soon bring further interesting effects in the form of joint research projects and publications.
It is also worth noticing that the Pushkin LSU in St. Petersburg, which released the discussed Russian-Lithuanian publication (like a similar Russian-Polish publication three years ago), grew into an important center of European andragogic thought during the last decade. This is undoubtedly thanks to the conference on adult education held there annually since 2002 in collaboration with UNESCO and other bodies under the main idea of: Lifelong learning: continuous education for sustainable development (cf. e.g. [9][10][11]) published yearly under the same title, in the form of papers created on the basis of the speeches delivered during the conference (cf. e.g. [12][13][14]).