An Australian Case Study of Delivering a Higher Education Program through Innovative Instructional Technologies

Sign bilingual education, as an approach to the education of deaf children, has been recognised in Australia for many years. The effective implementation of this approach requires teachers to have a sound linguistic knowledge and communicative competence in Australian Sign Language (Auslan), as well as an understanding of current theory and research in pedagogical practices. This paper reports findings of a case study that utilised design-based research to deliver a specialised program in Australian Sign Language Studies to a group of teachers and teaching assistants working with deaf students throughout the state of Queensland, Australia. The findings recognise that the use of technology was a facilitating factor in the student’s learning outcomes rather than an objective of learning. The approach utilised highlights the pedagogical possibilities that innovative instructional technologies for learning offer through the evolution of collaborative use and not simply through revolutionary practice.

Introduction
In Australia and worldwide, higher education institutions are increasingly recognising the effect of quality teaching on student engagement and learning outcomes. Quality teaching involves the intensive use of pedagogy to produce positive student learning outcomes. Dimensions of quality teaching include the effective design of curriculum and course content, a variety of learning environments (e.g., guided independent study, project-based learning, collaborative learning, experimentation), soliciting and using feedback, and effective assessment of learning outcomes. Well-adapted learning environments and student support services have particularly been recognised as contributing to quality teaching and quality learning [5]. The influence of quality teaching has the potential to bring clarity of expectations for student performance, and open new possibilities for increased student satisfaction [11].
The deployment of quality teaching is occurring simultaneously to the call by industry to offer relevant courses by means of innovative instructional technologies. The undertaking by higher education institutions is to recognise and respond to, not just the technology, but also the veracity of change. Higher education institutions can ill afford to miscalculate the rapidity of change and need to make sure no opportunity passes without the exploration and consideration to improve student learning outcomes. Collectively these changes in how learning and teaching occurs in higher education transpires in a period in which students' needs are becoming increasingly more diverse, teaching staff are under growing pressure to provide high quality educational experiences with fewer resources, and employers' expectations of graduates are not diminishing. However, the underlying assumption that instructional delivery technologies can better cater for the learning needs of today's student population does often not take into account the motivation and expertise of the academics and the context in which they operate. For instance, Australian universities and their academic staff are predominately measured on their research status, which places pressure on staff to invest more time in research outputs over teaching innovation. Under these conditions, the uptake of instructional delivery technologies is, in the authors' experience, patchy and varied. This claim is supported by research reports highlighting that not all university faculties are equally responsive to (a) implementing the range of available learning technologies in their courses [7] and (b) investing monies to build staff capacity in online delivery [5].
In common with many universities across Australia and the globe, Griffith University, the higher education institution where the authors of this article teach, utilises virtual learning platforms or learning management systems (LMS) that provide a web-based framework to handle all online aspects of the teaching and learning process. Blackboard and WebCT are well-known examples of LMS that provide additional functionality beyond providing instructional content because they are also the portal for interactive technologies such as virtual classrooms, facilitation of assessment processes, integration of databases across the entire system and they can track and personalise individual student learning. These systems provide access to a range of instructional delivery technologies such as discussion boards, mail systems, live chat, lecture recordings and podcasting along with other course resources [8]. A major goal of utilising these systems is to cater to a more diverse student population and enhance the quality of their university experience while simultaneously aiming to reduce the costs associated with delivering a high standard of tertiary education.
The research project reported in this paper grew out of the need for the Queensland Department of Education and Training (DET) to upskill more staff (teachers and teaching assistants) in Australian Sign Language (Auslan) in order to meet the growing demands for educating deaf students across the state, particularly in rural areas. DET had previously contracted Griffith University to deliver an Auslan program to staff performing similar roles on two previous occasions. Since the last offering in 2010, online course development and learning has advanced substantially [9].
The project adopted a design-based research (DBR) approach with the aim to analyse student learning through the systematic design and study of delivery technologies by "developing, enacting, and sustaining innovative learning environments" [4]. The Design-Based Research Collective argues that designbased research can assist in the creation and extension of knowledge "about developing, enacting, and sustaining innovative learning environments" (p. 5). This Collective group argues the value of attending to the educational context claiming it "is not simple but it produces a better understanding of an intervention, and it can lead to improved theoretical accounts of teaching and learning" p. 7. DBR does not subscribe to any single method, but rather to an explicit overarching concern for using methods that link the processes of enactment to learning outcomes. This approach, therefore, has the potential to generate knowledge that directly applies to efficacy of educational practice. Problematising the context as well as the intervention sets this research method apart from traditional evaluation in which the intervention is normally evaluated against a set of pre-determined standards [15]. Further, the intention of DBR in educational settings is to generate models of successful innovation rather than curriculum artefacts or programs [1]. To this end, the authors of this paper went about producing a model of efficacious instructional technologies in the delivery of an Auslan sign bilingual program to a range of students geographically dispersed across the state of Queensland, Australia.

A description of the program: pedagogical possibilities
Sign bilingual education as an approach to the education of deaf children, has been recognised in policy and practice in Australia for many years [6]. The successful implementation of this approach requires staff to have a sound linguistic knowledge and communicative competence in Auslan, as well as an understanding of current theory and pedagogical practices. The purpose of the Auslan program of study was to upskill geographically isolated teachers and teacher assistants around the state of Queensland in relation to instructional proficiency and understanding the role of Auslan as the language of instruction for deaf students. Due to the disparity in entry qualifications of the teachers and teacher assistants, the program had to be designed to accommodate this difference between the two student cohorts. Typically, students enrolling in a Graduate Certificate program of study have a Bachelor's degree as pre-requisite. This was the case for the teachers and a requirement of employment for teachers in Australia is to hold a Bachelor's Degree in Education or a Bachelor's degree in an education related field plus a postgraduate qualification in education. For teacher assistants, the requirement for employment is to hold a certificate or diploma. Under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), these qualifications are recognised as AQF level 4 and 5, and qualify individuals for a broad range of specialised knowledge and skills in varied contexts to undertake skilled work. They can be utilised as a pathway for further learning [see https://www.aqf.edu.au/aqf-levels] while the Bachelor degree (AQF level 7), held by the teachers in the program, is a qualification type that enables individuals to apply a broad and coherent body of knowledge in a range of contexts to undertake professional work and is a recognised pathway for further learning at post-graduate level [see https://www.aqf.edu.au/aqf-levels]. Under section 41 of the TEQSA Act [14], a registered higher education provider may apply to TEQSA for authority to selfaccredit one or more courses of study. TEQSA assesses such applications against matters including the Threshold Standards, particularly the criteria for self-accrediting authority As such, the Auslan program of study needed to differentiate two student cohorts by design and level of assessment requirements. This arrangement was achieved through consultation with all members of the academic teaching team. In keeping with AQF requirements, the program learning outcomes were clustered around two key domains: knowledge and skill acquisition, and the application of knowledge and skills.
Graduating teachers of the Graduate Certificate in Auslan Studies were provided with opportunity to: (a) further develop a range of specialised knowledge and skills, including • knowledge of the linguistics features of Auslan and how the language may impact on the forms of curriculum and pedagogy used in sign bilingual classrooms and in mainstream contexts.
• cognitive skills to review, analyse, consolidate and synthesis knowledge of sign bilingual pedagogy and identify specific teaching strategies to use with students across the Key Learning Areas. • technical and communication skills to identify, analyse and annotate specific linguistic features of Auslan in a range of texts. • cognitive skills to critically evaluate and reflect on knowledge relating to sign language acquisition, sign bilingualism and pedagogy and communication skills to transfer this complex knowledge to a variety of audiences. (b) demonstrate the application of knowledge and skills • by initiating, assessing, planning, implementing and evaluating specific sign bilingual pedagogy and curriculum design for deaf or hard of hearing students using Auslan in varied educational settings. • through expressive and receptive proficiency across a range of Auslan texts for both instructional and social purposes.
By comparison, Graduating teaching assistants of the Continuing Certificate of Auslan Studies were provided with opportunity to: (a) acquire a range of specialised knowledge and skills, including • Knowledge of key grammatical structures unique to sign language with a particular focus on phonology, morphology, and syntax. • cognitive skills to consolidate and synthesis knowledge of Auslan linguistics and the Auslan-English continuum to inform instruction, particularly in the area of reading. • technical and communication skills to identify and compose Auslan texts for conversational and instructional purposes. (b) demonstrate the application of knowledge and skills: • by planning and implementing a professional practice project in the workplace. • through expressive and receptive proficiency across a range of Auslan texts for both instructional and social purposes.
The Auslan program, comprising four courses (Auslan 1 through 4), was executed over two years across four consecutive teaching periods of 13 weeks Course content was sequenced to reflect the progressive nature of language learning, and extended into forms of pedagogy and curriculum design. These elements provided both broad and specific reference points for understanding the applications of Auslan in schools. Participating staff were introduced chronologically to the core design features of the language: grammar, central elements of sign formation, expressive and receptive use of the language, sociolinguistic variations and considerations of situational factors in sign language use. Expressive and receptive practice with the Auslan language was maintained within and across courses. Additionally, procedures for continuous assessment and feedback were included to support and enhance learning and Auslan proficiency. The first three courses afforded participating staff one day per week of release from school duties across the university semester to engage in a combination of lectures, tutorials, and independent study via a mix of face-toface, videoconferencing, and on-line delivery modes. For these courses, the teaching period culminated in a face-to-face intensive week of Auslan language exposure and practice, using language "immersion" techniques as well as explicit teaching of linguistic features and structures.
The final course afforded staff one day per week of release across the university semester to design and implement an action research project in schools as summative assessment. This experienced facilitated participants applying their learning's in a real world situation. They all identified a small intervention which they then undertook, with reporting on their observations on the success of the intervention process. While this task was applied at appropriate levels for the two groups, it did require a shift from a theoretical learning to higher levels of understanding through the real world implementation of change.

Practicalities of innovative instructional pedagogies
The program followed a five-stage iterative process for gathering data from students about their competence and experience of online learning. At the commencement of the program, baseline data was collected and then sequentially at the end of each course. All data was collected by means of online survey.
At collection point one, all participating students [n = 26] were asked to respond to items concerning computer efficacy, attitudes, and technology-related anxieties adopted from The Computer Technology Use Scale (CTUS) [3]. Figure 1 identifies a number of items from initial responses to the CTUS. A notable level of agreement was indicated on the item regarding the need for time and persistence in getting familiar with computer systems (mean 5.55). Students also agreed with the statement that they could use help structures to sort out problems (mean 4.77), which suggested an overall level of basic computer technology competence.  Table 1. Summary of data collection strategies by period, and analytic approaches At collection points two through five, participating staff were asked to respond to routine evaluations at the completion of the courses utilising Griffith Student Evaluation of Courses Survey Data. Griffith is committed to a University-wide approach to gathering feedback from students about teaching and courses, the implementation of which are supported by processes that are effective, efficient, comprehensive, systematic and sustainable. Griffith University uses a wide range of methods to gather data to evaluate teaching and its courses. The data are used routinely as part of Griffith's ongoing quality assurance processes and to support scholarship in teaching. One of the methods of gathering data is to collect feedback on courses and teaching from students using survey instruments. Completion of a feedback instrument or participation in a feedback process by a student is taken as consent to the use of the data provided in the ways indicated. In all cases, the anonymity of the participants who Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 8, Issue 3, September 2017 provide feedback to the University is maintained. Table 2 presents scores assigned by the two cohorts (teachers and teaching assistants) on a 5-point rating scale. Taken together, these positive scores endorse the lecture and tutorial formats, the design of websites and online learning features, and overall satisfaction with the learning outcomes of the program.
Students also responded to an online satisfaction survey with nine Likert-style questions and three open-ended questions related to experienced challenges and benefits that represented items from surveys evaluating web-based professional development programs [2], [12]. Figure 2 summarises the overall patterns from the group. The first two items, the most positive in response, indicate that staff found the course site easy to navigatewith a clear improvement after the first period. Also they agree that there were good opportunities to interact with the instructorthrough various mediums. In line with the comments on Figure 1, there seemed to be no marked change regarding confidence with the internet, with item 8 "this class has made me feel more comfortable using the internet" showing a neutral level across the four semesters of study. While there was a very clear response to item 9 (people learned as well on-line as in a face-to-face class), this is not surprising, but a number of participating staff also recognised that a fully face-to-face learning environment was not an option.
At each data collection point of the Griffith Student Experience of Course Survey, students were invited to provide commentary in open ended question format. All responses were treated as data. Data analysis is the part of qualitative research that most distinctively differentiates from quantitative research methods. It is not a technical exercise as in quantitative methods, but more of a dynamic, intuitive and creative process of inductive reasoning, thinking and theorizing. The process of analysing qualitative data predominantly involved coding or categorising Figure 2. Participant mean scores to satisfaction survey the data. It involved making sense of the data by reducing the volume of raw information, followed by identifying significant patterns or themes, and finally drawing meaning from data and subsequently building a logical chain of evidence. Here follows embedded text from the student responses elaborating and underpinning the key themes identified.

Modes of delivery for learning
At the outset of the delivery of the program, both university staff and participating students were challenged by the technology on hand. Weekly workshop delivery typically involved a lecturer presenting to a group of students in situ communicating via means of an Auslan interpreter and support lecture slides. Three virtual groups attended this same workshop facilitated by video conferencing technology and Collaborate virtual classrooms. A second interpreter was present at the site of the lecturer to watch for any response from the students attending in these remote locations and was on hand to translate. When considering the student learning outcomes of the program, which targeted building specific skill capacity in a group of specialised students, it is important to recognise that the use of technology was a facilitating factor rather than an objective. It became apparent that for both the students and academic teaching staff the combinative and simultaneous deployment of innovative pedagogical techniques improved over time.
Technology issues did not impact as much on the course delivery this time as in previous semesters but it was still a challenge occasionally for people off site (Student A). However, in the 4 th offering, rather than weekly sessions there were two whole day intensive group workshops, firstly focusing on (i) planning the intervention and understanding literature; and (ii) developing the final intervention report. Outside these periods students interacted with the teaching staff individually on their project. While for this last course there were only 2 formal sessions, these did include all students in face to face sessions.
Too often one's frame of reference and prior experiences limit the potential to embrace new or alternative approaches to tried and tested practices. This is most evident in relation to teaching and learning styles. For most of the students in the program, tertiary study was new or felt quite 'new' as many years had transpired since previous study had been undertaking. This posed a great challenge for all in the program as further study was not only new but the approach to the teaching and learning was also identified as being new for the student cohort. Students repeatedly called for more face-to-face teaching and less virtual mediated learning: I would have liked more face to face lectures or alternate online sessions in the weeks there was no face to face to discuss assignments, content, talk with lecturers (Student C) and It was so good to have all classes face to face in the final semester. This method of learning has much more impact. I was also encouraged to believe in myself more -so thank you. As a result of this course I feel much better prepared to work with Auslan users! (Student D).
The first three course offerings culminated in a week long residential teaching period and reported high levels of satisfaction: Block week was an amazing experience. So valuable for all who attended, no matter what their signing level was. The quality of our lecturers has been exceptional (Student N). However, despite the expressed feeling that face-toface should be the preferred mode of delivery, students from geographically isolated areas in Queensland, Australia did express: While video conferencing was challenging at times it was of great benefit not to have to travel long distances to access the course (Student E) and Can see now how effective videoconferencing is (Student C).

Depth of learning
Breadth of learning refers to the full span of knowledge of a subject whereas depth of learning refers to the extent to which specific topics are focused upon, amplified and explored. Griffith University in consultation with the DET representative and subject matter experts designed the Auslan program for delivery based on the identified depth of learning, assumed knowledge and skills of the prospective students. This was affirmed through student feedback: Significant improvement of my professional knowledge and understanding about deaf education. Definite changes to my practice (Student D) and Learning more and improving how I work with deaf students (Student H).
A strength of the program of study was the immersion week held at the culmination of each course offering witnessed by this student comment Even though the days were long, it was the best learning experience to be in the classroom, compared to being a student offsite (Student N). During the immersion week students got to experience first-hand the complexities of teaching Auslan and the joy it unlocks. Great opportunity to improve my signing in a real life context. Good opportunity to talk over classroom teacher issues and share knowledge (Student M), and Time out to focus on improving knowledge and skills with others who have similar passion (Student D).
After each course offering the teaching team took time to reflect on the teaching and learning experiences offered, and where appropriate made adaptations to and for the subsequent delivery of courses. Level of confidence in the depth of learning grew over the duration of the program, and student affirmations reinforced this. The benefits of this course include learning about relevant pedagogy and practice for use in teaching Deaf children how to read as well as learning a lot of Auslan (Student D).

Barriers to learning
The adult learner has many responsibilities that must be balanced against the demands of and barriers to learning. Some frequently identified barriers include (a) lack of time, (b) lack of confidence, (c) lack of information about opportunities to learn, (d) scheduling problems, (e) lack of motivation, and (f) "red tape" [10]. The participating students in the Auslan program were by no means immune to such barriers.
The educational environment is perhaps the most apparent area of academic influence. It may be understood to encompass the following areas: • teaching styles and educational choices that academic teaching teams make in the design and set up of classroom experiences. In particular, a clash between a teacher's teaching styles and the learner's learning style may be a barrier to student success, and a struggle to make space for learning to occur outside designated program delivery hours. This was felt by many students who had to manage and negotiate multiple agenda: finding time to make the course a priority (Student A) and time commitment taken for postgrad studies (Student C).
• the classroom climate, which includes the nature of teacher-student interaction, the teaching/learning activities and student learning feedback. The classroom climate was challenging with the mix of in-person and virtual attendance. The students felt this and regularly reported their frustration: Having some people in the room and others off site made life difficult for everyone. Balancing a full time teaching load with the assessment was difficult (Student E).
• Students feeling that teachers are unavailable or unapproachable has been shown to impact on their academic confidence and in turn to influence their academic performance [13]. Student F shared: not having regular, face-to-face, contact with lecturers. The geographic dispersion resulted in the dominant mode of contact with the academic teaching team to be via email. For many in the two cohorts this was felt to be impersonal, and understandable as for many it was their first attempt at tertiary education and would have valued positive reaffirmation in person and not via electronic communication. Considering the program of study empowered students to communicate in a hearing world, it's not surprising that students wanted to benefit from an in-person style communication.
• the curriculum, including the design of the program and course and, in particular, the extent to which students can see relationships between courses and across their program. It also relates to the way in which the course is organised, including the time devoted to particular subject areas.
• assessment, which might logically seem to fit with curriculum but is separated here to provide emphasis to the high priority that students put on assessment as a 'driver' of their learning and hence the barrier that it may become.

Collegial learning and sense of connection
Griffith University's principles to promote excellence in learning and teaching practices express the University's values and commitment as a learningcentred, research university. This is coupled with the assurance of quality teaching staff, whether they be full-time academic appointments or contracted sessional staff with relevant industry-experience. The decision to offer learning through a combination of sequenced weekly teaching episodes culminating with an intensive in residence teaching week provided invaluable opportunities for a sense of connection and purpose to establish. Participating staff remarked favourably of the intensive in residence teaching weeks and considered these times as a hallmark of delivery in this program. The crosspollination of ideas between teachers and teacher assistants was an unexpected outcome, providing the opportunity for collegial learning and a sharing of experiences contributing to a rich tapestry of learning episodes.

Expertise of teaching staff
Griffith University's principles to promote excellence in learning and teaching practices express the University's values and commitment as a learningcentred, research university. This is coupled with the assurance of quality teaching staff, whether they be full-time academic appointments or contracted sessional staff with relevant industry-experience. Reinforced by student feedback such as: The lecturers and interpreters for this course have been amazing (Student B) and Great learning opportunity. Thank you to all the tutors and lecturers for a terrific opportunity (Student L).

Lessons learnt
• The whole group sessions across the program, while included for teaching purposes, were also very valuable in developing a strong cohort that were supportive across the entire program.
• More could have been done to develop a Community of Practice between teachers and teaching assistants (e.g., by providing problemsolving co-operative learning activities in tutorials rather than general group discussions).
• The research component, assessing a pedagogical intervention, while seen as valued by participants and contributing to learning by participants, could have been more effective through greater preparation in prior courses.
• Anxiety experienced by some teaching assistants in completing lengthy assignments could have Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ), Volume 8, Issue 3, September 2017 Copyright © 2017, Infonomics Society been reduced through the introduction of short but frequent knowledge-based online quizzes.
• Technology for learning and teaching requires an evolutionary, scaffolded process of learning, and in some cases un-learning, in order for the technology to effectively support learning and teaching.
• The affirmation of face-to-face delivery over innovative instructional techniques might have been cohort specific, but affirms the need for establishing and maintaining strong relationships in learning and teaching built on one-to-one interactions.
• The value and role of the collective through collaborative learning was key in this program, and should be a feature of all curriculum design and delivery models.

Conclusion
When considering the outcomes of the program, which targeted building specific skill capacity in two cohorts of specialised staff, it is important to recognise that the use of technology was a facilitating factor rather than an objective. The inclusion of many geographically isolated teachers and teaching assistants in the program was only possible by the program being completed in mixed-mode delivery. The design included several intensive teaching periods to build a cohesive group and support the use of delivery technologies for learning. At the beginning of the program, participating staff indicated a moderate level of skill and capacity with using computer technologies. At the end of the program, data collection gave a positive picture of outcomes, moderated by a clear preference for the face-to-face environment. Further, a number of graduates demonstrated high quality learning outcomes that would support aspirations for further study. This endorsement by graduates was congruent with the satisfaction expressed by DET (program sponsor) and aligned with the University's expectation of advancing innovations in learning and teaching. Taken together, the approach utilised in this program highlights the pedagogical possibilities that delivery technologies for learning offered in Higher Education.


s2fieldsofstudy: Education Psychology Medicine

text:
Premenstrual symptoms in young students and in their mothers at their ages

1 Department of Reproductive and Menopausal Medicine, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan. 2 Tokushima Red Cross Hospital, Irinokuchi-103 Komatsushimacho, Komatsushima, Tokushima Prefecture 773-8502, Japan. 3 Takamatsu Public Health Center, Kagawa Prefecture, Shikoku, Japan. 4 Kitano Hospital, 2 Chome-4-20 Ogimachi, Kita Ward, Osaka, Osaka Prefecture 530-8480, Japan.

INTRODUCTION
Many women of reproductive age experience physical or emotional symptoms associated with the menstrual cycle.
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) is a cluster of mood, behavioral and physical symptoms occurring during the *Corresponding author. E-mail: fukuoka@medsci.tokushima-u.ac.jp Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle that interfere with daily activities and are relieved by the onset of menstruation (Yonkers et al., 2008). It has been reported that the frequency of premenstrual symptoms is quite high (80-90%) (Angst et al., 2001) and that about 5% of women have severe symptoms that interfere with personal or social relationships or work and may require pharmacological management (Dimmock et al., 2000). In Japan, it has been reported that 95% of women aged 20 to 49 years suffered from premenstrual symptoms (Takeda et al., 2006) and that 64.8% of high school students suffered from premenstrual symptoms (Takeda et al., 2010).
The etiology of PMS has remained unknown, although hormonal changes and serotonin dysregulation have been suggested (Grady-Weliky, 2003). Lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise and sleep are considered to be involved. A potential role of dietary fat in premenstrual symptoms in Japanese women has been proposed (Nagata et al., 2004). Relationships of PMS with calcium intake, caffeine-containing beverages and chocolate or sweets containing refined sugar have also been reported (Tadakawa et al., 2016). Tadakawa et al. (2016) reported that a preference for salty food and a lack of regular exercise were identified in girls aged 15 to 19 years with physical premenstrual symptoms as risk factors for school absenteeism. It has been reported that exercise could be used as treatment for premenstrual disorders, suggesting that there is an association between PMS and lack of exercise (Daley, 2009). Skipping breakfast, insufficient sleeping and insufficient exercise were suggested to be exacerbation factors of PMS (Ogata and Daitou, 2013;Mori et al., 2004). Sakuma et al. (2008) reported that no feeling of fatigue when getting up, sufficient sleeping and appropriate exercise were associated with mild degrees of premenstrual symptoms. Considering the current lifestyles of young women, the prevalence of PMS may gradually increase.
Premenstrual symptoms and PMS had not been recognized as health concerns in Japan. However, premenstrual symptoms have gradually become recognized due to the availability of information regarding premenstrual symptoms. Lifestyle modifications including regular exercise, avoidance of stressful events, adjustment of sleeping habits, cognitive behavior therapy and dietary supplementation as well as pharmacological treatments have been proposed for coping with premenstrual symptoms (Ryu and Kim, 2015). However, the means of coping with premenstrual symptoms may have changed with times. The degree of recognition of symptoms, the physical and emotional symptoms, and coping strategies may be different for young women at present and their mothers at young ages because of differences in life style, background knowledge of symptoms and means for coping.
Premenstrual syndrome experienced by premenopausal women greatly interferes with the quality of life (Rapkin and Winer, 2009). Bertone-Johnson et al. (2015) showed in a prospective study that women who experienced moderate to severe PMS had a 40% higher risk of developing hypertension than did women who experienced few premenstrual symptoms. Symptoms such as hypersomnia and general fatigue in the daytime may increase since it has been reported that the quality of night sleeping deteriorated before menstruation (Baker and Driver, 2004). It has been reported that restriction of sleeping hours and disturbance of deep sleep induce insulin resistance (Tasali et al., 2008), suggesting that sleeping disorder due to premenstrual symptoms may be involved in the occurrence of diabetes mellitus.
The purpose of this study was to determine the differences in degree of recognition in physical and emotional symptoms and in the means for coping with premenstrual symptoms between nursing students and their mothers at the ages of the nursing students.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS
This study was conducted between July and November in 2016. 272 nursing students (66 first grade, 67 second grade, 71 third grade and 68 fourth grade students) and 272 mothers of the nursing students were recruited. The nursing students for whom agreement could be obtained were asked to complete a questionnaire after explanation of the study at the end of a lecture, and questionnaires were collected on the same day. Subsequently, invitation letters and questionnaires were mailed to their mothers through the nursing students for whom agreement had been obtained. The participants were informed of the purposes and procedure of the study in the invitation letter. It was stated in the invitation letter that cooperation in the questionnaire survey is based on free will and that there is no advantage for the subjects who do not cooperate. Agreement for participation in this study was obtained by having the questionnaire form returned by mail. The same connection numbers on the questionnaire forms we used for a nursing student and her mother. Each nursing student was asked to send her mother an envelope containing a questionnaire form with the same connection number as that on the nursing student's questionnaire form. The questionnaire forms from the students and their mothers were anonymous, and questionnaire forms from the mother and her daughter could be identified by same connection numbers. Sufficient considerations were given to private information. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Tokushima University Hospital (2625).
A self-administered questionnaire that took about 15 min to complete was designed. The first part of the questionnaire consisted of questions on age, body height and weight, past history of hypertension, menstrual status including age of menarche, menstrual regularity and menstrual cycle, and degree of dysmenorrhea assessed by using a visual analogue scale (VAS). The second part of the questionnaire consisted of questions on recognition of premenstrual symptoms including PMS and physical symptoms beginning within 5 days before menstruation, including abdominal tension and pain, bloating, breast swelling and tenderness, headache, low back pain, hot flashes, rough skin, fatigue or lack of energy, overeating, food cravings/desire for sweets, hypersomnia, insomnia, constipation and diarrhea, and psychological symptoms including irritability, anger, anxiety, depressed mood, decreased interest in social relationships, and confusion/out of control. Items were rated as "not at all", "mild", "moderate", or "severe". The third part of the questionnaire consisted of questions on coping with premenstrual symptoms: lying down, warming the lower back and lower abdomen, having a massage, visiting a gynecologist, taking medicines, consulting somebody, appropriate exercise, sufficient sleeping, doing something to take one's mind off the symptoms, refraining from favorite food and caffeine, restricting intake of water and salt, and telling somebody that one is now before menstruation. The mothers were asked to answer the questions based on their memory at the same age as their daughters.

Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses for data evaluation were carried out using SPSS version 20 for Windows. All p values are two-tailed and those less than 0.05 were considered to be statistically significant. The significance of differences in the degree of premenstrual symptoms between the students and their mothers was evaluated by the Wilcoxon rank sum test. Physical and emotional symptoms were scored according to the degree of symptoms (severe: 4 points; moderate such as having an impact on daily life: 3 points; a little: 2 points, and no symptom: 1 point) and total points of 14 physical symptoms and 6 emotional symptoms were calculated. Spearman's correlation test was used for the correlation between the students and their mothers in physical and emotional symptoms. Scores of physical and emotional symptoms in the mothers with and those without hypertension were assessed by using the Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS
The response rates of the questionnaire were 93.0% (253 /272) in the students and 59.9% (163/272) in their mothers. Mean (± standard deviation: SD) ages of the students and their mothers were 20.1 ± 1.8 and 49.8 ± 4.1 years old, respectively. Mean body heights, body weights and body mass indices (BMIs) were 157.5 ± 4.9 cm, 50.9 ± 5.9 kg and 20.5 ± 2.1, respectively, in the students and 157.9 ± 4.9 cm, 53.7 ± 7.5 kg and 21.5 ± 2.7, respectively, in their mothers. As is shown in Table 1, age of menarche in the students was significantly younger than that in their mothers. The proportion of students with an irregular menstrual cycle tended to be larger than the proportion of mothers with an irregular menstrual cycle at the same age as the students. The proportion of students who had menstrual pain was significantly larger than that of the mothers who had menstrual pain at the same age as the students. The mean score of VAS in the students was significantly higher than that in their mothers.
Four students had a past history of hypertension. Twenty-five mothers had a past history of hypertension and 15 mothers had taken anti-hypertensive drugs. Scores of physical symptoms and emotional symptoms were not significantly different in the mothers with and those without hypertension (p=0.575 and p=0.876, respectively).

Proportion of women who recognize premenstrual symptoms
The proportion of students who recognize premenstrual symptoms was 98%. The proportion of mothers who had recognized premenstrual symptoms at the same age as the students was 76%, and the proportion of mothers who now recognize premenstrual symptoms was 98%.

Physical and emotional symptoms in the students and the mothers at the same age as the students
The mean (± SD) numbers of moderate to severe physical symptoms and emotional symptoms in the students were 2.6 ± 2.4 and 1.7 ± 1.0, respectively. The mean (± SD) numbers of moderate to severe physical symptoms and emotional symptoms in the mothers at the same age as the students were 1.4 ± 0.85 and 0.75 ± 0.25, respectively. Both the number of physical symptoms and the number of emotional symptoms in the students were significantly larger than those in the mothers at the same age as the students (p<0.001).
As shown in Table 2, the item with the highest  percentage of students who answered moderate to severe in physical symptoms was desire for sweets, followed by overeating and hypersomnia. The item with the highest percentage of mothers who answered moderate to severe symptoms was desire for sweets, followed by overeating. The degrees of physical symptoms including bloating, hot flashes, rough skin, general fatigue, hypersomnia, overeating and desire for sweets in the students were significantly greater than those in the mothers at the same age as the students. As shown in Table 3, the item with the highest percentage of students who answered moderate to severe in emotional symptoms was irritability, followed by depression and anxiety. The item with the highest percentage of mothers who answered moderate to severe in emotional symptoms was irritability. The degrees of emotional symptoms including irritability, anxiety, depression, decreased interest in social relationships and confusion in the students were significantly greater than those in the mothers at the same age as the students.

Correlations between premenstrual symptoms between students and their mothers
Physical symptoms in the students were significantly correlated with those in the mothers at the same age as the students (r=0.199, p=0.012), but emotional symptoms in the students were not correlated with those in their mothers (r=0.093, p=0.240).

Coping with premenstrual symptoms
The proportion of the students who took measures to cope with premenstrual symptoms (54%) was higher than that of the mothers (29%). The measures taken to cope with premenstrual symptoms are shown in Table 4. The measures taken to cope with premenstrual symptoms were diversified in the students. The proportions of both students and mothers who answered "taking medicine" and "lying down" were high. The proportions of students who answered "consulting somebody" and "telling somebody that I am now before menstruation" were high. All of the 22 mothers who had taken medicine had used analgesic agents. Seventy-two students had used medicine, and 65 (90%) of the 72 students had taken analgesic agents as medicine. The students also used Japanese herbal medicines (8%), oral contraceptives (6%) and supplements (3%).

DISCUSSION
In the present study, it was shown that the proportions of students who had moderate to severe physical symptoms and emotional symptoms were higher than those of the mothers at the same age as the students and that the degrees of the symptoms in the students were significantly greater than those in the mothers at the same age as the students. Physical symptoms in the students were significantly correlated with those in the mothers at the same age as the students. The proportion of students who took measures to cope with premenstrual symptoms was higher than that of the mothers at the same age as the students. It was confirmed that the rate of recognition of premenstrual symptoms including PMS was extremely high (98%). Ogata and Daitou (2013) reported that the proportion of nursing students who recognized PMS was only 18.6% in the first grade but increase with advance of grade and reached 69.6% in nursing students in the fourth grade. Recognition of PMS by a high proportion of nursing students might be due to a high level of awareness of health care. Sakuma et al. (2008) reported that not only knowledge of menstrual disorders including premenstrual symptoms but also knowledge of health care was insufficient in non-medical vocational school students. Possible reasons for the relatively high rate of recognition in the nursing students' mothers are that the mothers obtained medical information through their daughters as nursing students and that the proportion of mothers working as medical staff was high.
It was shown that the proportions of nursing students with bloating, general fatigue, desire for sweets, overeating and hypersomnia in physical symptoms and with irritability and depression in emotional symptoms were high. In Iranian university students, the most common symptoms were tiredness, depression and anxiety in emotional symptoms and backache and bloating in physical symptoms (Bakhshani et al., 2009).
Another study showed that mood lability, anger and sadness were the most frequent emotional symptoms and that acne was the most frequent physical symptom (Lajoie and Desindes, 2002). The most frequent symptoms in Turkish medical students were bloating, irritability and breast tenderness (Goker et al., 2015). The frequencies of physical symptoms in the present study were rather low compared to those in a previous study (Czajkowska et al., 2015). The differences in physical symptoms may be due to differences in race and lifestyle.
Compared to the results of a previous study for Japanese high school students, the frequencies of overeating, irritability, depression and decreased interest in social relationships were high in the present study (Takeda et al., 2010). In addition, compared to the results of a previous study for Japanese women whose mean age was 36 years, the frequencies of overeating, depression, decreased interest in social relationships, fatigue and hypersomnia were high in the present study (Takeda et al., 2006). The symptoms may change with advance in age.
The symptoms with significant differences between the students and mothers at the same age as the students were bloating, hot flashes, rough skin, general fatigue, hypersomnia, overeating and desire for sweets in physical symptoms and irritability, anxiety, depression, decreased interest in social relationships and confusion in emotional symptoms. The reasons for the differences are an increase in the general recognition of symptoms and availability of information on premenstrual symptoms. Students nowadays freely talk about premenstrual symptoms with their friends. However, their mothers about 30 years ago did not have opportunities to talk about menstrual disorders with their friends because of a lack of understanding of the symptoms. About 30 years ago Japanese women might have suppressed verbal expression of premenstrual symptoms in order to promote maintenance of social harmony.
According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination survey in 2014, the proportion of women aged 20 to 29 years who skipped breakfast was 23%, which was highest among all age groups, and the proportion of women aged 20 to 29 years who regularly did exercise was 10.1%, which was lowest among all age groups. Otsuka et al. (2015) reported that irregular sleeping was a risk factor for deterioration of premenopausal symptoms. Also, the proportion of women aged 20 to 29 years, whose sleeping time was less than 6 h was 45.1% in 2015, which was higher than the proportion in 2007, and the proportion of women aged 20 to 29 years who could not get adequate rest due to sleep disturbance was 24.5% in 2014, which was higher than that in 2012 (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. National Health and Nutrition Examination survey, 2014). Thus, lifestyle has become irregular compared with that in the past. In addition, the proportion of women in whom psychological stress in daily life affected premenopausal symptoms was significantly higher for women being treated for PMS, suggesting that psychological stress as well as an irregular lifestyle were involved in the occurrence of PMS (Koda et al., 2012). According to the comprehensive survey of living conditions, the proportion of women who were suffering from stress (43.2%) in 1995 increased to 52.2% in 2013 (MHLW, 2013), and the proportion of women aged 20 to 29 years who were suffering from stress was 54.4%. The irregular lifestyle and increase in psychological stress may be involved in the intergenerational differences in degrees and types of premenstrual symptoms between the students and their mothers.
It was shown that measures taken to cope with premenstrual symptoms were diversified. Women can easily obtain information on coping with premenstrual symptoms through the internet. Also, various pharmacological treatments for PMS including treatments with oral contraceptives, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues have become available (Ryu and Kim, 2015). Students can get information on treatments for premenstrual symptoms through the internet, but they might easily believe the information without evidence. Selection of appropriate information regarding health care is needed. Communication with family and friends may also be needed. Exercise may improve emotional and physical premenstrual symptoms by increasing physical well-being (Delara et al., 2012). A previous study revealed beneficial effects of exercise on physical symptoms including breast tenderness and bloating (Daley, 2009). However, it was pointed out in that report that evidence-based recommendation regarding the effectiveness of exercise is needed because of the small sample size and low methodological quality in the study (Daley, 2009).
In the present study, a weak correlation was found between physical symptoms, but not between emotional symptoms, in the students and their mothers. Further study on predisposition of physical symptoms is needed. Ogata and Daitou (2013) reported that lifestyle-related factors such as no exercise habit, skipping breakfast, no mood change and short sleeping time were significantly associated with emotional symptoms. The fact that emotional symptoms are affected by individual lifestyle might be the reason for no correlation being found between emotional symptoms in the students and their mothers. Derman et al. (2004) reported that there was an association between dysmenorrhea and PMS in adolescent girls aged 10 to 17 years and that 71% of the girls with dysmenorrhea had PMS. Kitamura et al. (2012) also reported that the prevalence rate of moderate to severe PMS increased with increase in the severity of dysmenorrhea. The reason for the correlation between PMS and dysmenorrhea has not been clarified. Prostaglandin (PG) may have a role in the biochemical etiologies in both PMS and dysmenorrhea. It has been reported that PGE2 and its receptor mediated elevated anxiety and social avoidance induced by repeated social defeat through attenuating a stress-coping action of the meso-prefrontal dopaminergic pathway (Tanaka et al., 2012). Haack et al. (2009) reported that increase in PGE2 metabolite levels in response to sleep loss was associated with the degree to which participants in their study reported spontaneous pain complaints. Lifestylerelated factors may influence both PMS and dysmenorrhea. It has been reported that the proportions of women with dysmenorrhea who skipped lunch and had a short sleeping time were significantly higher than those in women without dysmenorrhea (Yuasa et al., 2013). In the present study, the proportion of students with dysmenorrhea was higher than that of the mothers who had dysmenorrhea at the same age as the students, and the degree of pain in the students was higher than that in their mothers. Unfortunately, in the study questions regarding lifestyle were not asked so the association of lifestyle with dysmenorrhea could not be clarified.
This study has several limitations. A self-administered questionnaire was used to assess premenstrual symptoms. Therefore, the reliability of answers could not be verified. The recall bias of the mothers is of a serious nature. Retrospective recall regarding premenstrual symptoms at the time when mothers were about 20 years old is a limitation of this study. Since the contexts of behavior during menstruation may be changed by large time gaps, comparison between the nursing students and their mothers may not be valid. The subjects in this study were nursing students, who have basic medical knowledge. Therefore, further study in non-medical students is needed. The reasons for the drop-out were not known for there was no response on that since this study was a questionnaire survey. The results for the mothers who did not return the questionnaire form might be significant.

Conclusion
The degrees of physical symptoms and emotional symptoms in the students were greater than those in the mothers at the same age as the students, and measures taken to cope with these symptoms were diversified. The increasing availability of information on premenstrual symptoms and changes in lifestyle may contribute to the increase in prevalence of premenstrual symptoms.


Determinant Factors of the Squat Jump in Sprinting and Jumping Athletes

Abstract The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between strength variables and maximum velocity (Vmax) in the squat jump (SJ) in sprinting and jumping athletes. Thirty-two sprinting and jumping athletes of national level (25.4 ± 4.5 years; 79.4 ± 6.9 kg and 180.4 ± 6.0 cm) participated in the study. Vmax in the SJ showed significant relationships with peak force 1 (PF1) (r = 0.82, p ≤ 0.001), peak force 2 (PF2) (r = 0.68, p ≤ 0.001), PF2 by controlling for PF1 (r = 0.30, non-significant), the maximum rate of force development at peak force 1 (RFDmax1) (r = 0.62, p ≤ 0.001), mean RFD 1 (RFDmean1) (r = 0.48, p ≤ 0.01), mean RFD 2 (RFDmean2) (r = 0.70, p ≤ 0.001), force at RFDmax1 (r = 0.36, p ≤ 0.05), force at RFDmax2 (r = 0.83, p ≤ 0.001) and force at RFDmax2 by controlling for PF1 (r = 0.40, p ≤ 0.05). However, Vmax in the SJ was associated negatively with the ratio PF2/PF1 (r = -0.54, p ≤ 0.01), time at peak force 2 (Tp2) (r = -0.64, p ≤ 0.001) and maximum rate of force development at peak force 2 (RFDmax2) (r = -0.71, p ≤ 0.001). These findings indicate that the peak force achieved at the beginning of the movement (PF1) is the main predictor of performance in jumping, although the RFDmax values and the ratio PF2/PF1 are also variables to be taken into account when analyzing the determinant factors of vertical jumping.

Introduction
The vertical jump has been utilized in training and as a predictor of athletic performance (Bosco et al., 1983;Cronin and Hansen, 2005;Vandewalle et al., 1987). It has been observed that some vertical jump variables are related to performance in sprinting (Dowson et al., 1998;López-Segovia et al., 2011;Nesser et al., 1996;Wisløff et al., 2004) and the loss in jumping ability has been considered a good indicator of neuromuscular fatigue caused by repeated high intensity efforts (Gorostiaga et al., 2010;Sánchez-Medina and González-Badillo, 2011). The height of a squat jump (SJ) has shown a relationship with 60 m sprint time (Nagahara et al., 2014), acceleration (Nagahara et al., 2014), the Abalakow test, a standing long jump and peak torque (Bosco et al., 1983).
As known by the physics principle, vertical jump height is directly proportional to the takeoff velocity. Several authors have used takeoff velocity to evaluate vertical jump performance (Kollias et al., 2001;Luhtanen and Komi, 1978;Mohir et al., 2008). This variable cannot be modified once the subject is off the ground (Reiser et al., 2006) and is closely related to maximum velocity (Vmax) (González-Badillo and Marques, 2010). Therefore, the vertical jump depends directly on Vmax (González-Badillo and Marques, 2010). Thus, Vmax could be considered as the best indicator of performance in vertical jumping, as this variable determines the jump height and cannot be voluntary or involuntarily manipulated by the subject, especially if the jump is performed in a vertical guidance because, as known, Vmax is reached milliseconds before the take-off. For this reason, determinant factors of vertical jump Journal of Human Kinetics -volume 58/2017 http://www.johk.pl "practical" performance (actual height reached after the takeoff) are the same that determine Vmax in executing the jump. Despite knowing the importance of velocity in jump performance, jump height has traditionally been used as an indicator of vertical jump performance (Dowling and Vamos, 1983;González-Badillo and Marques, 2010;Marques and González-Badillo, 2011;Wirth et al., 2015). It is well known that the measurement of jump height is usually estimated through flight time, but this variable may elicit some error due to particular forms of contact with the ground at the time of landing, as well as other deviations in the execution such as an excessive trunk tilt and displacement relative to the baseline. However, Vmax is not influenced by these execution errors when the jump is performed on a Smith Machine with a guide.
Few studies have analyzed the dynamic and kinematic factors able to explain SJ performance (Mackenzie et al., 2014;Marques and González-Badillo, 2011), and they have also used estimated jump height through flight time as performance standard. There is very scarce literature considering Vmax as a performance indicator of the vertical jump. Vmax would be a good indicator of vertical jump performance as it is directly dependent on the factors that determine the outcome, i.e., the applied force and the rate of force development, and, in addition, it cannot be manipulated by the subject. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between strength variables and maximum velocity (Vmax) in the squat jump in sprinting and jumping athletes. It was hypothesized that Vmax in the SJ, and therefore the reached height, would depend on force peaks and the rate of force development in the two characteristic force slopes of the SJ.

Study design
The present study used a cross-sectional experimental design to examine the relationship between muscle strength variables and Vmax in the squat jump in a group of sprinting and jumping athletes. All the subjects were well conditioned and familiar with testing exercises, which they had been performing regularly as part of training sessions.

Participants
Thirty-two young men (mean ± SD: age 25.4 ± 4.5 years, body mass 79.4 ± 6.9 kg, body height 180.4 ± 6.0 cm) participated voluntarily in this study. They were athletes competing in the 100 m sprint, long jump or triple jump in the Spain Championships. They were familiar with the jumping exercise. The present investigation was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Pablo de Olavide University. The subjects received information about the characteristics and goals of the study, the procedures, free participation, possibility of quitting at any moment, and confidentiality of data. Written informed consent was obtained from the subjects before the beginning of the study.

Procedures
Participants were familiar with the testing procedures since they had been performing the jumping exercise as part of their normal training routine. After a standardized warm-up, participants performed two maximal SJ trials in a Smith Machine while standing on a portable force plate (Isonet, JLML, Madrid, Spain). The bar of the Smith machine had a linear transducer attached (Isocontrol, JLML, Madrid, Spain) which was synchronized with the force plate. The force plate was connected to a portable computer and recorded data at a sample rate of 1000 Hz. The rotary encoder of the linear transducer registered the position of the bar within an accuracy level of 0.0002 m.
Participants stood on the Smith machine and rested the bar (17 kg) on their shoulders. For the performance of the SJ test, subjects were asked to stand on the center of the force plate in a semisquatting position. All athletes performed two SJ attempts without any countermovement after keeping the semi-squatting position for 2-3 seconds to avoid taking advantage of elastic energy storage. The SJ trials were performed with a knee angle of 90 degrees, which was determined using a handheld goniometer (Q-TEC Electronic Co. Ltd., Gyeonggi-do, Korea). Athletes immediately jumped vertically and explosively. Hands remained holding on to the bar for the entire movement in order to maintain contact between the bar and the shoulders. Any countermovement was forbidden and carefully checked after each trial using force-time curves. Three minutes of rest were provided between © Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics each trial to minimize the likelihood of fatigue. Only the best attempt (the highest Vmax) was registered for further analysis.

Variables
The following variables were analyzed in the SJ:  Peak Force (N). In the force-time curve two force peaks were observed ( Figure 1): the first peak was called peak force 1 (PF1) and the second was called peak force 2 (PF2).  Time at peak force (ms). The time at peak force 1 (Tp1) was the time from the initiation of force production (F = 0) until the PF1. The time at peak force 2 (Tp2) was the time from the initiation of force production until the PF2.  Maximum RFD (N·s -1 ). The maximum RFD (RFDmax) or maximum slope was the maximum force production per unit of time throughout the force production measured at time intervals of 50 ms. The RFDmax1 corresponded to the slope of the PF1 and the RFDmax2 corresponded to the slope of the PF2 ( Figure  1).  Force at RFDmax (N). It was the applied force in absolute value at the time to reach maximum RFD. The force at RFDmax1 and RFDmax2 was recorded.  Mean RFD (N·s -1 ). Two values of mean RFD were calculated. Mean RFD until PF1 (RFDmean1) was the relationship between the PF1 and the time from the initiation of force production until the PF1. Mean RFD until PF2 (RFDmean2) was the relationship between the PF2 and the time from the initiation of force production until the PF2.  Distance of flexion (cm). It was the distance that the bar went down vertically when the subject maintained a knee flexion of about 90 degrees.

Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistics are expressed as means ± SD. The interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was used to determine between-subject reliability of jumping tests. The ICC was calculated with the one-way random effects model. The standard error of measurement was calculated as the root mean square of total mean square intra-subject. This standard error was used for the calculation of the coefficient of variation (CV). Correlations were determined using Pearson´s coefficients (r). To isolate the possible effect of body mass, height and distance of flexion on physical performance, these relationships were also adjusted with partial correlations (rw). Statistical significance was accepted at p ≤ 0.05 for all analyses. The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 20.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

Results
Vertical jump measurement showed good stability (reliability). Test-retest reliability for Vmax as measured by the CV was 3% and the ICC (95%CI) was 0.84 [0.67-0.92].
Mean values, SD and range of the different variables assessed are presented in Table  1. PF1 was always less than PF2, however, RFDmax1 was greater than RFDmax2.

Discussion
The aim of the present study was to assess the relationship between strength variables and Vmax in the squat jump in sprinting and jumping athletes. Vmax, considered a jumping performance indicator, showed good inter-subject reliability (ICC = 0.84, CI : 0.67-0.92) despite low variability of the sample in this variable (CV = 6.69%), but it showed very good intra-subject reliability with a CV between measures of only 3%.
Results of this study reveal that the best performance predictor to explain jumping ability is PF1. This peak force occurs at few milliseconds after the initiation of jump displacement, that is to say, immediately after completing the static phase Journal of Human Kinetics -volume 58/2017 http://www.johk.pl of movement (Figure 1). The relationship between Vmax and PF1 is positive (r = 0.82, p ≤ 0.001), so the higher PF1, the higher the Vmax tends to be. If we also note that the maximum RFD, which occurs in the slope of the first peak force (RFDmax1), showed a significantly positive correlation with Vmax (r = 0.62, p ≤ 0.001), and that this value is reached before the initiation of movement (Figure 1) in the static phase of movement (jump), our results suggest that the reached height in the ascending phase of flight time (performance from a practical standpoint) depends mostly and directly on what happened before the initiation of displacement in jumping and in the first milliseconds of displacement.
Other studies have concluded that peak power is the best predictor of vertical jump performance, both the SJ (Ashley and Weiss, 1994) and CMJ (Dowling and Vamos, 1993). In the present study, we did not use this variable (peak power) as a possible predictor, since reaching a greater height with the same load would involve a faster displacement of this load, and therefore, it necessarily would have achieved higher power, thus, the relationship between power and jump height would always be positive and high. Therefore, we understand that peak power should not be considered as a predictor, but as a performance variable. Furthermore, we must consider that the reached power in a jump is a consequence of the rest of dynamic variables that have been previously expressed, and therefore, it will never be the cause of a jump, but, in any case, a dependent indicator variable of the jump performance if the weight was always constant.   Other variable that explains jumping ability is the RFD. Several authors (Kraemer and Newton, 1994;Schmidtbleicher, 1992;Tidow, 1990) claim that the RFD is the determining factor of the activities which require high force production in very little time. In the present study, all analyzed RFD values (RFDmax1, RFDmax2, RFDmean1 and RFDmean2) showed significant correlations with Vmax (Table 2). Although the most relevant analysis of the RFD is the significantly negative relationship between RFDmax2 and Vmax (r = -0.71, p ≤ 0.001). These results indicate that the smaller slope of PF2, the higher the Vmax will tend to be. We had not found any study in which an analysis of this variable was made, nor a study where the relationship between the RFD value and performance was negative. To explain the negative sign of this relationship, it should be noted that the RFDmax value which can be achieved in a concentric action is determined by the velocity of displacement: the lower load and therefore higher velocity, the lower the slope which can be reached (Schmidtbleicher, 1992). Therefore, if the same subject has the opportunity to achieve a greater RFD on the slopes of the second peak force, it means that the subject has become slower at that moment, i.e., achieved a lower Vmax (Vmax is reached in less than 100 ms after the second peak force, Figure 1). Conversely, if the velocity is higher before reaching the second peak force, a lower RFDmax value could be achieved, but Vmax will be higher. Therefore, these relationships between time, force and velocity explain that the lower RFDmax2, the higher Vmax will be. This explains why RFDmax1 is always higher than RFDmax2 (Table 1). The RFDmax1 occurs at the static phase of the movement (jump), in which, naturally, velocity is zero, while the RFDmax2 occurs at a moment near to Vmax.
On the other hand, PF2 is correlated positively with Vmax (r = 0.68, p ≤ 0.001), which would mean that the higher PF2, the higher Vmax will tend to be. However, in this sense, the present study also provides important information which has not been found in other studies. It is a significantly negative relationship between the ratio PF2/PF1 and Vmax (r = -0.54, p ≤ 0.01). It means that the higher difference between PF2 and PF1, the lower the jump performance will tend to be. Therefore, if the force application starts slowly (applying little force at peak force 1), higher force at peak force 2 could be applied, but the result will tend to be negative, considering that applying more force at peak 2 is possible as the subject reaches that point slower (the lower velocity, the higher force may be applied), and the lower velocity at that moment means a lower Vmax. This result is coherent with a negative relationship between RFDmax2 and Vmax that we have discussed previously. Therefore, the relationship between PF2/PF1 and Vmax leads us to question the significantly positive relationship between PF2 and Vmax (r = 0.68, p ≤ 0.001). We should understand that this relationship would be real when the PF1 was also very high, meaning that the difference between PF1 and PF2 was small, but it would not be positive if PF1 was low. Therefore, to test this suggestion, it is necessary to assess the relationship between Vmax and PF2 while controlling for PF1 through a partial correlation. This analysis would allow to determine if the relationship between Vmax and PF2 is independent of PF1. However, as we expected, this did not happen, as when we applied the partial correlation, the relationship between Vmax and PF2 went down clearly, and it went from r = 0.68 to r = 0.30 (non-significant). This means that if all PF1 values were equal, there would be no relationship between Vmax and PF2, and then the isolated correlation between these two variables is spurious. From this it follows that a high second peak force is positive if the first peak force is also high. None previous studies had taken into consideration the influence of PF1 to assess the importance of PF2, and they used the PF2 as a predictor variable of SJ performance, since it is always higher than the PF1, but, as we have just shown, the PF2 does not really present a significant relationship with jump performance.
It is remarkable that the most related variable with Vmax was the force at RFDmax2 (r = 0.83, p ≤ 0.001), and even this relationship was not modified practically by controlling for weight, height or distance of knee flexion across a partial correlation, which could indicate that this relationship was independent of any other variable, and therefore, it would be the variable that in major measure explained the jump performance. However, naturally, the applied force to achieve RFDmax2 presents a high © Editorial Committee of Journal of Human Kinetics relationship with the PF2 (r = 0.89, p ≤ 0.001), and therefore, this suggests that probably the relationship between the force at RFDmax2 and Vmax could be determined by PF1, as it was the PF2. Indeed, when we calculated the relationship between the force at RFDmax2 and Vmax while controlling for PF1, this relationship went down from r = 0.83 (p ≤ 0.001) to r = 0.40 (p = 0.025). Therefore, again we observed that the correlation between any possible determinant variables of vertical jump performance could lead to erroneous conclusions if we do not control other variables.
In relation to temporary variables, Tp1 showed no significant correlation with Vmax. This could be because all subjects used practically the same time to reach the PF1. However, the difference in the performance could be the force that the subject was able to apply. This was corroborated by the correlation between Vmax and RFDmean1 (r = 0.48, p ≤ 0.01). On the other hand, Tp2 showed a significantly negative correlation with Vmax (r = -0.64, p ≤ 0.001), therefore, the higher the Tp2, the slower the Vmax, and therefore, the smaller the vertical jump performance will be. Similar results were shown by González-Badillo and Marques (2010) who also found a significantly negative relationship between time of the concentric phase and CMJ height (r =-0.57 to -0.87, p < 0.05).
In summary, the results of the present study suggest that the best predictor of SJ performance is the applied force at the first peak force. We also observed as a relevant result that the smaller the RFDmax2, the higher the jump performance tends to be. The relationship between the force at RFDmax2 and Vmax is conditioned by the PF1. The smaller the difference between PF1 and PF2, the higher jump performance tends to be.

Practical implications
A practical application of this study is that the PF1 should be considered as a primary independent variable to explain SJ performance and not the jump maximum peak force (PF2). To determine the predictor variables of the SJ or CMJ, it is necessary to control potential factors that could increase or decrease the real predictive value of each variable. As a future line of research, it would be interesting to assess the evolution of the different variables analyzed and their relationships after a training period.


Somatotyping and Physical Fitness of Pakistani National Rower

Rowing is a popular sport across the globe which involves both skill and strength. The aim of the present investigation is to examine the somatotype and physical fitness of the Pakistani rowers. Data was collected from (n = 08) lightweight, and (n = 14) heavyweight Pakistani national rowers. Age, height, body mass, skinfold of triceps, subscapular, supraspinal, and calf, breadths of elbow and knee were measurement for somatotype as guided by (Norton & Old’s, 1996). Push up, anaerobic, 2000 meter of maximal rowing ergometer, and set and reach for flexibility. Pearson product of correlation and t-test was applied for statistical analysis. The result showed there was a slight difference among light and heavyweight rowers in their somatotype measurements. On the other hand, the vertical jump was significantly correlated with rowing performance. It was concluded the leg power is associated with the performance of rower. It is proposed that rowers would improve their leg strength through training that enhances rowing performance.

Introduction
Rowing is a physically demanding event, which required strong anthropomorphic characteristics of rowers (Bourgois et al., 2000). The performance of rowers depends on their physical traits and physical fitness (Carter & Heath, 1991;Bourgois et al., 2001;Kaloupsis, Bogdanis, Dimakopoulou & Maridaki, 2008;Akca, 2014). Thus, the anthropometric profiling and of athletes as stature, body mass and limb size (Karaba-Jakovljević, Jovanović, Erić, Klašnja, Slavić, & Lukač, 2016), and somatotype assist the coaches to identify the impact of body shape on the rowing performance (Massidda, Toselli, Brasili, & Calò., 2013). Previous, studies reported that the tall heightened rowers were significantly in the performance of rowers in elite competitions (Hahn, 1990). Therefore, it is essential to select appropriate rowers by considering their limb lengths, breadth and girths to attain optimal performance in the elite competition (Mikulić, 2008). No doubt, rowing is a sport where anthropometric characteristics of the rower as stature, body mass and segmental lengths play a significant role in the successful performance (Piotrowski et al., 1992;Shephard, 1998). Various studies have inspected the anthropometric characteristics and physical fitness of rowers (Jurimae, Maestu, Purge, & Jurimae, 2004;Arazi, Faraji, & Mohammadi, 2011). There is a lack of study in Pakistan where rowing has not been focused like cricket and hockey. Therefore, this research was design to examine the anthropometric measures and physical fitness of the Pakistani rowers. Whether, the profiling of Pakistani rower's match with international rowers. This study will also help to determine the anthropometric and physiological profiles of Pakistani rowers.

Participants
Purposively, (n = 08) lightweight, and (n = 14) heavyweight national rowers were selected for the study. The selected participants were physically fit without any medical illness records. The willingness was obtained from all participating after briefing the procedure of the study. The selected participants were in age (24.4 ± 3.2 years), stature (183.6 ± 7.9 cm); body mass (79.6 ± 8.0 kg); rowing training (2.9 ± 2.5 years); 2000 m ergometer time (399.3 ± 21.1). The selected players took part in the 2015 Quaid-e-Azam National Championship. Participants were informed of food intake three hours before the data collection, as well as avoid the intake caffeine, alcohol and strenuous exercise 48 hours before tests.
The selected anthropometry dimension has been measured according to ISAK standards. Four physical performance was recorded by considering their specificity to rowing game. These tests were push-ups for upper body muscular power, standing vertical jump for lower muscular power, 30 seconds modified Wingate test for anaerobic power, and sit and reach test for lumbar flexibility.

The Procedure of Data Collection
The physical performance of each test was obtained twice from each player. Participants visited the laboratory on three different occasions with the interval least three days. Participants completed anthropometric and strength measurements at the first and second visits. The anaerobic power and an all-out 2000m rowing ergometer test readings were taken at National Championship 2015 at Islamabad. These measurements are comprised of 8 skinfolds sites (Triceps, biceps, Subscapular, Abdominal, Supraspinale, Iliac Crest, Front thigh, Mid-calf) Global Regional Review (GRR) 6 girths (Arm, chest, Forearm, Gluteal, mid-thigh, calf) 3 length measurements (arm, leg, arm span) 4 breadths (Biacromial, A-P chest, Biepicondylar humerus, epicondylar femur) and additionally stature, body mass, sitting height.

Physical and Physiological Performance Tests
Sit and reach was obtained for flexibility, vertical jump and push-ups test was taken on the same day as anthropometry measurements. Though the Wingate anaerobic test was taken with an interval of 72 hours. The order of measurements was as follow, standing vertical jump, sit and reach flexibility and push-ups. Every subject was required to perform the movements properly. Each subject was tested twice, and the best effort was recorded.

Vertical jump
A common test to evaluate leg power (Leger, & Lambert, 1982). Huang and colleagues (2007) investigated some strength and power determinants including vertical jump, inverted row, leg press and back extension. Vertical jump was one of the significant variables with correlation to a 2 km ergometer performance. Study of Changela and Bhatt (2012) also supported the idea that vertical jump is a widely accepted test for muscular power. According to the protocol, as defined by (Thomas, Fahey, Paul, Insel, Walton, & Roth, 2005), the participant was in an upright stationary position with free movements of upper limbs and freedom in joint flexion of the lower and upper limbs to produce maximal impulsive force for jump and touch as high as possible. Three trials were given, and the highest performance was recorded as a final score in centimeter (Thomas et al., 2005). The vertical jump height was calculated, from the standing height, at the vertical pasted chart on the mounted board. Participants have to put some chalk powder on the middle finger to make a mark on board. The researcher stood on the table to record the height of the jump.

Sit and reach flexibility test
sit and reach test was obtained for flexibility according to YMCA guidelines. The participants were asked to sit barefoot, feet against 26 cm box. Then the participants were required to gradually flex forward as far as possible. Care was taken to the subject's hand must be in a parallel position and does not approach with one hand. The best of three trials was recorded.

Push-ups test
The participants were instructed to be in position as both hands pointing forward under shoulders, back straight head up, toes touching the ground as a pivot. The subjects raised the body by straightening the elbows and return to the initial position. A helper pointed out his thump under the chest and one push-up was calculated when the subject's chest made contact with the thumb. The maximal number of push-ups performed in one-minute time consecutively without rest was recorded on the score sheet.

Anaerobic Power Test
Wingate anaerobic and VO2 max test based on assumption rather than clearly quantifying the energy profile based on three pathway metabolisms (phosphagens, lactic and aerobic metabolism). This is because of the lack of blood sample handling or non-availability of expertise and lactate analyzer to measure the blood lactate concentration following exercise. A modified Wingate test, using a Concept II Model D rowing ergometer (Concept 2) was used to estimate anaerobic capacity (Riechman, Zoeller, Balasekaran, Goss, & Robertson, 2002). Participants were asked to warm-up on the ergometer for 3 minutes at moderate intensity (approximately 60%). Following the warm-up, the ergometer programmed for a 30s effort at maximum drag factor. The maximum drag factor was set according to the previous study (Mandic, Quinney, & Bell, 2004). The participants completed an "all-out" 30s trial with verbal encouragement. The screen was set to display Power/stroke and recorded by the researcher with the help of a video camera. Mean power was used to estimate the average stroke power of an individual over a trial of the 30s. Best power output from five highest consecutive strokes and the mean of the five lowest consecutive strokes was considered as the final score.

2000m maximal rowing ergometer test
Assessing on-water rowing performance is difficult. Therefore, Concept II rowing ergometer was used as it provides accurate estimates of a rower's physiological ability of power output and some submaximal and brief maximal ergometer performance. However, some argued that a 2000 m time trial on an ergometer might not reflect the metabolic demands of on-water rowing especially in smaller boats where it takes significantly less time to complete the effort on an ergometer than on the water.
The all-out 2000 m performance was obtained during the national championship organized by Pakistan Rowing Federation in December, on a stationary ergometer (Concept II, Model D2 global with performance monitor 4).

Global Regional Review(GRR)
The participants were asked to perform an all-out 2000 m test on a rowing ergometer. The screen of an ergometer set to display remaining meters, average 500m time and accumulated time. Verbal encouragement was given during the last 250 meters of the test. Participants viewed the performance feedback on the ergometer screen at every 500m average time, total time and the distance remaining. The completion time of the average power outputs was recorded immediately after the test and each 500m splits were recorded separately.

Statistical Analysis
The mean and standard deviation of all variables was obtained. The comparison between Light Weight and Heavy Weight rowers was made by using the independent t-test. On the other hand, Pearson Product Moment of correlation was applied to examine the correlation between anthropometric characteristics and rowing performance. The α value of 0.05 was set for significance.

Results
The anthropometric, somatotype, physical fitness data consists of the minimum, maximum, mean values, standard error, standard deviation and coefficient of variation, independent t-test, and Pearson Product Moment of correlation. The anthropometric profile of rowers of the lightweight and heavyweight category was assessed as length, breadth, body mass, body height, and somatotype. Table 1 presents the statistics of variables of physical tests and Pearson Correlation values with relation to 2 km ergometer performance. Negative values indicate an increase in a specified physique trait (per unit) for example, anaerobic power (W) will result in a decrease in 2 km time (Slater et al., 2005). Pearson Correlation (r) shows interpretation with each variable. According to the results, push-ups and anaerobic power were found significantly correlated (p < 0.01). Figure 1 demonstrates the mean somatotype of rowers, showed slight differences in somatotype values. The non-significant difference observed in mesomorphic indices and slight change was observed in endomorphic indices of lightweight and heavyweight rowers.

Figure 2. Description of the somatotype 2-D chart of Pakistani Rowers
Figure 2 demonstrated the greater variability of endomorphic and mesomorphic indices. Results indicate the average physique of Pakistani lightweight and heavyweight rowers as 2.8-3.7-2.6 shows the endomorphic and mesomorph percentage were higher.

Discussion And Conclusion
The somatotype average of the Olympian rowers of 30 countries was "1.4-4.4-3.4", and the somatotype average of the present study is "2.8-3.7-2.6". This comparison shows the similarity in the endomorph score, in contrast, the mesomorph and ectomorph scores of Olympians were higher than the Pakistan rowers. It is concluded that the Pakistani rowers were lesser in muscle mass, and bone density than the Olympian Rowers. It is also concluded that Pakistani rowers higher in body fats. Secher and colleagues (1983) reported that tall heightened rowers perform significantly longer and better stroke than small heightened (Ingham et al., 2007). The present study confirmed the finding of (Bourgois et al., 2000). On the other hand, it contradicted that the stature of Pakistani heavyweight rowers is 1.2 cm higher than the Olympian of 1968, but 5 cm shorter than the 1976 Olympian (Carter, 1982). The heavyweight and lightweight seem to have (9 cm), (5.1 cm) less sitting height and (2.9 cm), (3.4 cm) higher leg length respectively. A short sitting height and long limbs are the key physical appearance of HW and LW rowers which associated with biomechanically benefits to the rowers (Hahn, 1990). The previous study reported the stature and body mass of elite oarsmen were 189 to 195 cm and 90 to 93 kg respectively (Bourdin et al., 2009). The results of the current study are stature 183.6 cm and body mass 79.6 kg. Bourgois and colleagues (2001) believe that small body sizes can negatively affect the performance of rowers because body segments produce lesser power that the large body parts.
In comparison, the HW rowers of present study were higher than the Olympic rowers in the measures of total leg length (2.9 cm), bi-acromial breadth (0.2 cm), triceps skinfold, (1.8 mm), subscapular skinfold (3.5), thigh skinfold (2.7 mm) and calf skinfold (2.2 mm), but lower in forearm girth (1.3 cm) and humerus breadth (0.4 cm). The results of the current study showed the body mass was strongly correlated (r =0.90**) with the performance of 2000 m ergometer. Morris and Payne (1996) find out the percentage of body fat has been decreased in lightweight rowers. As a result, the fat-free body mass has a significant correlation (r = -0.64), (-0.58) with a 2 km ergometer, which has been reported in previous studies (Riechman et al, 2002). It is concluded, the fat-free mass would be considered as a stronger factor to enhance the performance of rowers.
The mean somatotype of heavyweight and lightweight rowers is 2.9-3.5-2.4 and 1.9-3.7-3.1, respectively. This evidence that Pakistani heavyweight rowers have more fat. On the other hand, Pakistani lightweight rowers have a mesomorphic-ectomorph tendency which is similar to literature. The results of the current study, support the findings of , that low-rank rowers were higher in ectomorphic characteristics which negatively effects the performance.
The anthropometric profiles of heavyweight and lightweight rowers were assessed as stature, body mass, skinfolds, girth, length, and breadths. The HW rowers were (7.5 cm) larger in stature than the LW rowers, which indicate as a key factor in the successful performance in the stroke length . Arm span and leg length distinguished the heavyweight from lightweight rowers, results of the present study have accordance with previous studies (Cosgrove et al., 1999;Yoshiga & Higuchi, 2003) indicate that oarsmen's height and length would be proportional for rowing performance. It was confirmed, the finalist of the 1997 World Rowing Championship was significantly taller in stature than the nonfinalist (Bourgois et al., 2000). The study showed that lightweight medalists were (0.6 kg) lighter than non-finalist. Therefore, anthropometric indices should be a considerable factor in recruiting potential athletes.
The aerobic capacity would be explained as long hours of training and a large body size (Mikulic, 2008). According to Secher and colleagues (1983), VO2 max plays a significant role to perform well in international competitions. The current VO2 estimation of Pakistani rowers was estimated with an equation that was developed by Hagerman (1984) by using the spirometer. Moreover, a high correlation has been observed between the VO2 max and the 2 km ergometer test (Cosgrove, et al., 1999). While the average aerobic capacity of this study is 4.9 min -1 was considerably low from the international elite standard. It is proposed that the Pakistani rowers should focus to enhance aerobic capacity by adopting specific training.