LEGAL BASIS OF SCHOOL SPORTS IN POLAND IN THE YEARS 1947–1997 – SELECTED ASPECTS

After almost six years of a consumptive Poland, World War II, the Polish society began to rebuild the basic, destroyed structures of the country. Deep political transformations have undergone fundamental state structures, including education and sport. The National Council was involved in issues of Physical Education was already involved in 1945. At its 9th session, proposals about protection of health and physical education were presented. They were at a time when the Temporary Government of National Unity had already introduced decrees: the creation of offices and boards of physical education and military adoption, and the universal obligation of physical education and military adoption. The establishment of the Seym in early 1947 resulted in further changes in organizational structures of physical culture. The Act on the Universal Obligation of Vocational Enrollment, Physical Education and Youth Adoption, and the Organization of Physical Culture and Sports, was the impetus for major changes. In 1949, another resolution dissolved all the hitherto centralized institutions of physical culture by appointing the Main Committee of Physical Culture in their place. The aim of this article is to discuss issues related to the statutes adopted during that period and the ordinances which regulated all matters related to the development of widely understood school sport in Poland since 1947 to 1997.

Reconstruction of State Organizational Structures in Physical Culture
. Shortly after the nearly six-year-long devastation of Poland's Second World War and the complicated socio-political situation between the allies of the anti-Nazi coalition, attempts were made to rebuild damaged state structures, including education and sport.
During this period the development of physical culture and sport was a result of the erosion of various political orientations, mainly the Polish Workers' Party and the Polish Socialist Party. The dispute between the two parties, which was exclusively political, was mainly concerned with the organizational structure of physical education and sport, the future and the role of workers' sport, and the development of competitive sport called bourgeois. Since mid-1947, the dominant direction in the development of physical education and sport has already been given by the PPR, which has been preparing radical ideological and political changes, modeled on Soviet experiences. After the unification of both parties, PZPR had a decisive influence on the development of physical culture in Poland. From the place where physical education, sports, tourism and recreation were concerned, the social rank, the level of material expenditure and the attitude of the state administration, trade unions, youth and social organizations in these areas were concerned 1 .
The Temporary Parliament -the National Council-took into consideration issues ofphysical education and sports already in 1945. It should be pointed out that this authority did not, in fact, function as the supreme authority of the state, but was used by the ruling party to shape the legal basis of the system, transmission of the party's program to society and the appearance of parliamentary democracy in Poland 2 . At its ninth session, proposals for health protection and physical education were presented. These conclusions were important enough that the Provisional Government of National Unity had already introduced decrees: the creation of offices and boards of physical education and training, and the universal obligation of physical education and military adoption. On the basis of the above decrees in 1946 the Ministry of National Defense created the State Office for Physical Education and Military Training, traditionally referring to the analogous pre-war institution, operating through provincial, district and city delegations 3 .At the same time the National Council of Physical Education and Military Training was established with the Minister of National Defense, whose mission was to establish the essential Guidelines for the conduct of the PUWFiPW and control over the entire activity of the Office and the implementation of established guideline 4 .
Undoubtedly, a great influence on the physical education and youth sporthad number of terms. They stated that: Today in their own country under the government in the hierarchy of the most urgent tasks, the issue of young people's education occupy one of the first places. Solving it strictly on the level of satisfying spiritual needs would be unilateral and would not correspond to its true desires. Polish youth, having suffered such heavy sacrifices, have the full right not only to return to school and lecture hall but to playgrounds and sports stadiums in order to forget about the most traumatic past 5 .
The impetus introducing significant changes turned out to be the Act of the Seym of 25 February 1948 establishing the Council for Youth and Physical Culture, the General Organization of the «Service of Poland» and the General Office of Physical Culture, which resulted in the necessity of applying a new phraseology. Three terms were introduced: physical education, physical culture, sports. The intention of the legislator was to give physical culture the broadest possible meaning 6 . Suchformed system did not last long, however, as in 1949 another law dissolved all the hitherto physical institutions of physical culture, calling in their place the Chief Committee of Physical Culture.
At the end of September 1949appeared a resolution of the Political Office of the PZPR Central Committee regarding to physical culture and sport, which gave high rank to a physical culture.Strengthened the control of the party over sport, establishing the post of sports instructor of the Department of Mass Propaganda of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers Party and the departments of the regional committees. The leadership role of the party in the management of sport resulted in the loss of national identity, the break with the traditions and democratic rules established in the life of sports associations formed during the interwar years. At the same time, the Soviet model began to be introduced 7 . The system was fixed by the Act of December 30, 1949 about the organization of physical culture and sport, which in the apogee of Stalinism became the basis of sport organization in Poland. Since then the sport in Poland has been managed by the bureaucratized, centralized administration created by the Soviet Central Committee of Physical Culture. When the monopoly of communist rule was taken over by sport, the road to full sovietization of the sport movement in Poland was open 8 .
Such position can be testified by words of the chairman of the GKKF, WłodzimierzReczka, who dogma of socialist physical culture described as follows: The study of Marxism-Leninism, which points to the unity of spiritual and physical development of man, the Soviet theory of physical culture, which treats physical culture as an essential part of nationwide culture, as a great matter which is concerned by the State and the Party, Soviet experience in the struggle for mass and high level of sport and physical education, the magnificent achievements of today's worldleading Soviet sport will be a signpost for us, to awake in us zeal and perseverance in battle for the full development of physical culture in our country 9 .
In the years 1950-1953 significant changes were made in the structure of sport, eliminating the statutory clubs and establishing the divisions: the military, the Central Council of Trade Unions, the People's Sports Association, the Federation of Sport Clubs «Gwardia» The «Start» Cooperative Sport Association and the «Zryw» Association 10 , which after many controversies stemming from the pre-war tradition of separating school physical education from competitive sport, have transformed themselves into the School Sports Association 11 .
October 1956 influenced the ferment in physical education and sport, linked to the critique of the past, the restoration of democratic forms in the sport movement, and the creation of new concepts for the development of these fields 12 .
Undoubtedly, the biggest mistake of this period is the takeover by the state administration of a large part of the tasks of social sports movement. As it turned out after many years of experience, these changes did not pass the exam, which was admitted even then mentioned then president of GKKF W. Reczek, who at the national sports council in February 1957 said: we reorganized sports movement, not counting with our traditions and conditions. (...) Without the need to cross the great achievements of sports movement and half a century of the traditions of many clubs and unions 13 .
2. The legal Basics of School Sport in 1957-1989. By liquidating the pre-war three-level school, the Ministry of Education has ordered the implementation of a unified curriculum. This program came in 1947, taking into account the 8-year universal school.
It should be pointed out that in this period the primary goal of school education and sport -in relation to the interwar years -did not change. For the purposes of education, as a matter of course, the motor skills, physical fitness, immunity, structure and attitude of the body were emphasized. For the purposes of education, the need to create characteristic features, social and moral attitudes was stressed and the habit of physical activity, and for cognitive purposes it was about learning by the student about the body and its development and understanding the importance of physical education and sport 14 .
As it turned out, an enormous amount of primary schools was not prepared for the effective implementation of the program. Hence, based on the instructions of the Ministry of Education of 4 V 1948, at the turn of 1948/1949, 7-grade primary school was established as the basis for future education. It was based on a 4-year secondary school, thus forming an 11-year general upper secondary and upper secondary school.
Curricula have proven to be ahead of the schools in this period. They required a solid material and legal basis. Although their subsequent versions were generally prepared in an atmosphere of polemics, and with a great emotional commitment and contributions from numerous professional teams, the effects of this work were always aware of the lack of comprehensive and methodologically validation of the value of previous editions 15 .
On July 15, 1961, the Act on the Development of the Education System was enacted and upbringing. For the first time in new political circumstances, it attached special importance to the physical education of children and adolescents. In the introduction to the law it was raised, among other things, that teaching and education in schools and other educational institutions aims to comprehensively develop pupils and educate them for the conscious and creative citizens of the Polish People's Republic 16 . An important element was also its provision, stating that elementary school aims to harmonize the development of students in terms of mental, moral and physical and preparation for learning, in vocational and general education or further education and qualification in the course of work performed 17 .
An important impetus for the further development of school sports was the order of the Minister of Education and Higher Education of 22 IX 1967 on «School Sports Holidays». This decree states that in order to further develop the physical education of schoolchildren, to show the results obtained in this field and to draw the attention of parents and adults to education and the health benefits of sport, the first physical and physical culture of school youth is established on the first Saturday and Sunday of June each year under the name of School Sport Day 18 . According to the above, on the days of the indicated holidays, the organization of all activities outside the sports activities was suspended, while the Saturdays during school and intercollegiate sports were established as a free day.
The obligation to organize School Sports Holidays was applied to all primary and secondary schools under the direction of the school authorities with the active support of the School Sports Association. At the same time, a circle of people was set up to organize the holiday. This task was assigned to teachers and youth activists of the SZS 19 .
The program also includes the school sports program, which consists of: 1) school and intercollegiate events, competitions, sports tournaments, 2) mass sports games and games combined with competitions; 3) sports and tourism trips; 4) mass sports and gym shows; 5) sports competitions and exhibitions.
An According to § 1 of the cited regulation, the School Sports Association (...) works with the school in physical development and sports for school youth 22 . The scope of interoperability was defined here very precisely and included: programming and organizing mass sports activities with all school youth; Organizing youth sports organizers' training and incorporating them into school activities; Taking active part in the extension and construction of school facilities and sports facilities; coordinating out-of-school sports activities conducted with school children; developing other forms of activities for the promotion of physical education and sport among school youth. At the same time, in order to provide the Union with conditions for the implementation of youth program tasks, school administrators were obliged to provide free of charge the facilities and sport equipment of school. The impetus for the development of school sport was also a further regulation of the Minister of Education and Higher Education of 25 November 1971 on compulsory courses with physical education and sports in schools 23 . In the mentioned order we read, among others «... extra-curricular physical education and sports are part of the educational and educational process of the school and are aimed at improving health and fitness, developing the interests and sports talents of children and young people ...». This provision precisely defined the specific role of physical education in the development of youth. Depending on the number of students, the following compulsory physical education and sport activities are provided: up to 200 studentsup to 6 hours per week; from 201 to 320 studentsup to 8 hours per week; from 321 to 600 students -up to 12 hours per week; Over 600 studentsup to 18 hours per week. The aforementioned regulation obliged the compulsory physical education and sport school activities in the SZS sports school sports wheel. These classes were conducted according to a program established by the Board of Directors of the Association, approved by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education.
The management undoubtedly supporting the development of school sports in schools was the Ordinance of the Minister of Education and Training of 4 VIII 1972 on the introduction in all types of schools of medial exercises and the organization of large intervals 24 . It imposed on the school management the obligation to organize intergenerational breaks, organizations that had to pay attention to the use of all opportunities for students to spend them on the runway, school pitch, etc. It was emphasized that depending on the conditions of the material base and the seasons, the nature of physical exercises, ie games and sport games, sports exercises or dance.
The turn of the sixties and seventies of the last century is a period of further efforts to fully adapt the dimension and forms of physical education classes to the needs of school children. The prospective goal of this period was to obtain at least 5 hours of organized physical education classes per week in the student's 18 schedule. In reference to the above, on April 6, 1973, Resolution No. 85 of the Council of Ministers about the further development of physical culture was adopted 25 . It stated that, a new system of physical education, sport and recreation should aim to achieve a high level of fitness for students, as well as to develop habits and skills in recreation and sports. It has also been suggested that the size of the physical education, sport and recreation activities per student be successively increased to reach 6 hours per week in 1985. The outgoing for these expectations was the provision of § 2 Ministers (...) will provide conditions for the implementation of the new system of physical education, sport and recreation for children and young people as well as the intensification of the activities of the School Sports Association. This meant that the SZS was the main guide in the development of school sport. This assumption was, in a sense, right. It was primarily the SZS who was the protagonist of the spartakiadamovement in which the school youth participated. The first Polish Youth Spartakiada was held in Wrocław in 1969 on the occasion of the XXV anniversary of the People's Republic of Poland. The next Games organized in 1979 was awarded the title of the Polish Youth Championships. The Organized Athletes' Cup for the «World Youth» Cup was also very popular. His sports competitions became the basis for the 1973 Sports Illustrated badge called «Universal Sports Badge». Many positive effects have brought numerous actions popularizing sports among school youth, such as «sports holiday» or «sports winter».
At the beginning of the political transformation, ie in 1989, the «Report about physical culture in Poland «prepared under the auspices of the Committee on Physical Culture of the Polish Academy of Sciences. According to this study, at the end of the 1980s, the level of physical education and sport was very diverse, from high to almost zero. The level of influence was affected by the overall condition of schools, among others. Poor base facilities, equipment and hygiene, besides focusing on emergency purposes rather than prospective goals, retargeting the educational process, treating pupils objectively, and accepting as the main criterion of the level of physical education in a sports school of a narrow group of pupils 26 . This phenomenon was accompanied by a decrease in the interest of young people in the compulsory physical activity (sports), in schools and out-of-school sports clubs 27 . (1989-1997). Introduction of the transformation of the entire state system in the early 1990s resulted in the change of the legal basis of school sport.On September 7, 1991 the Seym passed a new law on the education system. According to its preamble: Education in the Republic of Poland is a common good of the whole of society; It is guided by the principles contained in the Constitution of the Republic of Poland (...) The school should provide every pupil with the necessary conditions for its development, prepare him to fulfill his family and civic duties based on the principles of solidarity, democracy, tolerance and freedom 28 .

The Legal Basics of School Sport After the Political Transformation
An important provision of this law, which influenced the development of school sports, was the provision of art. 56, which decided that schools and institutions could operate (...) associations and organizations whose statutory purpose is to work with children and youth either expanding or enriching the form of didactic and educational activities and caring school. The basis of the activities of these associations was the Act of April 7, 1989 -Law about Associations 29 and the Detailed Act of 18 I 1996 about physical culture 30 . These laws, in their basic content, regulated the mode of creation and the rules of functioning of physical culture associations. It also introduced new regulations to school sport and its organization. Since then the SZS has lost the legal monopoly to organize sport and recreation activities at the school environment. As we know, organizations involved in the implementation of tasks related to the broadly understood physical culture include: sports clubs; inter-school sports clubs; popular sports clubs; parish sports clubs. This directory is not a closed directory. In addition to the four most commonly used organizational forms of physical culture in the student environment, there may be other organizations as long as their goals and statutes are consistent with the applicable legal order.
The characteristic feature of these associations was that they were developed under the previous Act of 3 July 1984 about physical culture 31 . They have acquired legal personality through the entry into the register of physical culture associations run by a governmental body with general jurisdiction (voivode). Already -under the rule of the previously binding 1984 Actstarting in 1994, students' sport clubs (UC) were started. The creation of these new organizational forms of school sport resulted not so much from the desire to meet the expectations of the environment, as with misunderstandings about the role of school sport that occurred between the Office of Physical Culture and Tourism and the SZS. Student sports clubs were sanctioned 2 years later, in 1996, under the Act on Physical Culture.
The definition of the student sports club contained the provisions of art. 7 Act of 18 I 1996 about physical culture, which provided that the student sports club was an association of physical culture sui generis. It was not registered in the National Court Register, but entered in the register maintained by the competent county governor (the mayor of the city with county status). This simplified procedure was designed to facilitate the setting up of such clubs 32 . As stated in the content of the article. 7 of the aforementioned law, the legislator has seen in this organizational formsa factor that will positively influence the development of widely understood school sports.These assumptions seemed to be right, because these associations were active in the environment of children and youth and were inextricably linked to schools; they were based on an existing base and school facilities; engage young people to participate in publicly accessible sports; they helped to promote sports talents and organizers.
An important breakthrough in the development of school physical culture associations with legal personality started the program « Sport of All Children «, which was introduced by the decision of the President of the Office of Physical Culture and Tourism of 13 April 1994. This decision was also established inter-ministerial Sports Committee of Children and Youth. One of the main tasks of the program was to expand the base of school sports primarily by providing comprehensive assistance in the development of primary school education. The program of action of these clubs has introduced sports «minidisciplines» in canoeing, football, volleyball, tennis, archery and cycling.
Activities undertaken by the «Sports of All Children» program have turned out to be in line with social expectations, in particular parents, teachers, and children themselves. The best thing about this was that, according to the state of the day on 6 April 1996the day of the new Act of 18 I 1996 about physical culture came into forcemore than 2200 student sports clubs were registered 68 .

Summary
The legal-organizational basis of school physical culture in Poland depended to a large extent from the political, social and economic system of the state. After World War II until 1989with a few exceptionsmandatory system with central directives, where there was no place for pluralism and self-governance.
After 1989, new forms of school sport were developed. This process continues to this day and is constantly being supplemented by new elements of the «infrastructure» of physical education school.


The Ratio of School Bag Weight to Body Weight and Its Relationship with some Factors in Elementary School Students of Gorgan, Iran, in 2013-14

(27.3%). Conclusion: Although this study indicates that the ratio of bag weight to students’ body weight is in the standard limit, but neck pain was common, and this issue could be considered and taught in school schedules by managers of educational settings.

Introduction
Among the social institutions, school is one of the most important officially organized centers (1). School is considered as an educational-social center, which is related to various growth aspects of the children (2), who constitute 20% of the active agents of the society (3). During the school period, the child experience physical, mental, emotional, and social variations (1).
On the other hand, the children face numerous physical and psychological injuries during the school years (3). These problems might lead to growth disorders and childhood diseases if enough attention is not paid to the ergonomic factors (4), and suitable environment is not provided for their growth and development. All these factors would not only pose serious obstacles to learning and education process, but also bring about many physical and psychological diseases and disorders in the adulthood (1,5).
A suitable and healthy body condition is the right of the future adults of the society (6). Therefore, considering the sensitivity of physical growth in the childhood and adolescence, the health development programs should be applied in schools in order to prevent the injuries and side effects (3).
In the school period, the main reasons for physical injuries and growth disorders should be searched in incorrect sitting positions, walking, and lots of other problematic habits. Carrying heavy things, such as heavy bags that are full of books or shoulder bags, by one hand could cause organ deformity (1), and plays an important role in occurrence of movement disorder during the youth period (3).
If the body structures do not form properly in the childhood, the individuals will certainly confront serious problems in the next stages of life (7). Furthermore, the bags and educational equipment are carried in different ways, affecting students' efficiency and health condition (8). Using backpacks and other types of school bags may impose hidden and evident influences and pressure on the stature and skeleton of students, and result in some disorders in the physiological functions (e.g., metabolic, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems) (9).
According to the Ontario Chiropractic Association in Canada, the bag weight should be less than 10% of the body weights for the elementary school students (10). Consistent with the previous studies, carrying backpacks that weigh more than 10% of the body weight causes such injuries as neck pain, shoulder pain, and backache. The heavy backpacks and the way of carrying them could cause pressure on the musculoskeletal system, which clearly leads to the change of body structure and walking, and gradually ends in discomfort. Almost half of the students have complaints about various musculoskeletal disorders, such as muscular fatigue, numbness, backache, shoulder pain, and neck pain during their school years (11).
There are some factors that could affect the students' health. These factors include inattention to the schedules in schools, disconformity of the measures and tools, and students' unawareness about a proper sitting position, correct method of carrying, and suitable bag type. These factors might lead to some problems for the students in the future if happening again and again (4).
In a study conducted by Whittfield on the students of New Zealand, about 77.1% had experienced some musculoskeletal signs during their school life (12). However, this value was reported as 30-65% in a study carried out by Linton (13). This difference might be due to the study design and/or exaggerated responses of the children. The high prevalence of musculoskeletal signs among the students is a matter of fundamental importance, which is related to the use of heavy backpacks and carrying methods based on various studies.
The prevalence of these disorders in the students has been reported to be more than 80%. If these disorders are not identified and prevented properly, they will have irreparable consequences (14). Considering the importance of the harmful effects of the heavy school bags on the students' health, this study was performed with the aim of determining the ratio of school bag weight to body weight and evaluating its relationship with some factors among the students of elementary schools in Gorgan, Iran, during 2013-14.

Methods
This cross-sectional descriptive-analytical study was conducted on the elementary school students (grades one to six) in Gorgan, Iran. Following a study conducted by (1), the sample size was determined as 258 cases. Firstly, all the schools of Gorgan (i.e., 108 schools) were assigned into two groups of all girls and all boys schools, and then five schools were randomly selected from each group. Subsequently, based on the number of the students in each grade, the samples were randomly chosen.
The data was collected using a demographic checklist, including some information about gender, school grade, as well as parental literacy level and jobs. In addition, some questions were also posed regarding whether the students had any problem for carrying the bag, and also their discomfort and problems. In order to measure the students' weight and also their bags' weight, a digital scale (SWANQF-2003B) was used, and their height was measured from head to feet using a meter.
After the measurement of the students' bags, their height and weight without the bag were measured by the researchers. In order to prevent the research bias, the sampling days were selected randomly. Sampling was performed within September-November, Association of Canada, the bags of the elementary school students should weigh less than 10% of their body weights (10). Therefore, the ratio of the bag weight to body weight of the students was calculated through dividing the bag weight by body weight multiplied by 100.
The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and statistical tests, including the independent t-test, Mann-Whitney U test, analysis of variance, and the equivalent nonparametric test of Kruskal-Wallis test when the statistical assumptions (e.g., normality) did not apply to the data. The data was entered into the SPSS version 16 software. Pvalue less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results
According to the results, the majority of the students (57.4%) were female. Furthermore, most of the students (21.3%) were in grade one and the least of them (13.2%) were in grade five. Regarding the bag type, the backpack had the highest frequency (89.5%). The findings demonstrated that the mean of bag weight was 2.8±0.8 kg. The mean of bag weight to body weight ratio was 9.4±3.78. Additionally, considering the standard, the ratio of bag weight to body weight was less than 10% in 59.48% of the students and more than 10% in 40.32% of the students (Table 1). Regarding gender, the mean ratio of bag weight to students' body weight was 10.19±3.88 and 8.5±3.44 in the female and male students, respectively. Based on the Shapiro-Wilk test, the data did not have normal distribution in neither of the groups. The results of the Mann-Whitney U test revealed that the mean ratio of bag weight to body weight was significantly different between the two groups (P<0.001). Furthermore, there was a significant difference between the students of different grades regarding the ratio of bag weight to body weight according to the results of the Kruskal-Wallis test (P<0.001).
Additionally, the father's and mother's job and education were not effective factors in the ratio of bag weight to students' body weight (P=0.784, P=0.124, P=0.327, and P=0.024, respectively). The Spearman correlation coefficient indicated no significant linear correlation between the bag weight and body weight (P=0.371). Nonetheless, there was a significant linear correlation between the bag weight to body weight ratio and the students' height (r=-0.611, P<0.001), indicating that the taller people had more standard bag weights.
Regarding the students' pain and discomfort, the "other" type of bag was omitted due to their low frequency, and then the other groups were analyzed. The results showed that 81.4%, 17.4%, and 1.2% of the students had neck pain, shoulder pain, and pain in the back and hands, respectively (Table 3). Among those students with backpack, 83.1%, 15.6%, and 1.3% of the participants reported discomfort in the neck, shoulder, as well as back and hands, respectively. According to the results of the Fisher's exact test, the school bag type did not affect the induction of discomfort in the neck (P=1), shoulder (P=0.74), and back (P=0.92).

Discussion
As the findings of this study indicated, 40.3% of the studied elementary school students carried bags weighing more than 10% of their body weights, which is an almost high percentage, compared to those reported by the similar studies. Accordingly, in a study conducted by Emdadi (1), 12% of the students used to carry bags weighing more than 10% of their body weights. This difference might be due to the gradual increase of the number of the school books, compared to the previous years.
One of the results of this study was that the difference in the bag weight to body weight ratio was significant between the two groups of female and male students, which is consistent with the study of Emdadi (1). Moreover, in a study performed in Hamedan, the frequency of the female elementary students, carrying bags weighing more than 10% of their weights, was higher than that of the male students. This finding is consistent with those of the present study, which might be due to having snacks or more complete stationery.
According to the results of the current study, the ratio of bag weight to body weight indicated a statistically significant difference between different school grades. In this regard, the mean of bag weight to body weight ratio decreased in higher grades, and the highest ratio belonged to the first grade. Shamsalddini et al. (11) demonstrated that the older students had lighter bags, which is consistent with our study. On the other hand, Emdadi et al. (1) showed that the first grade students carried 200 g heavier bags than their second grade counterparts.
In a study conducted in Italy, Moseliano et al. indicated that the 10% backpack weight to body weight ratio was standard. Furthermore, in the mentioned study, 21% of the heaviest backpacks belonged to the third grade students, and the eighth grade students had the lowest percentage (9%) of the heaviest backpacks (5). This might be due to the fact that the younger students are less experienced in bringing the books for the day. On the other hand, it is expected that the students gain more weight as they grow older, which by itself leads to the reduction of this ratio.
We found no significant relationship between the bag weight to body weight ratio and parental occupation, which is consistent with the study performed by Emdadi et al. (1). In this study, the occurrence rates of the neck pain, shoulder pain, backache, and hand pain were 2.7%, 26%, 8.9%, and 2.3%, respectively. In a study conducted by Beheshtipour et al. on 1,255 students, the shoulder and neck pain and backache were estimated as 45% and 6%, respectively (3). In another study carried out by Stephan et al., 46% of the participants had moderate backache (15). In a study performed in Milan, Italy by Nigrini et al., 46.1% and 65.7% of the students complained of backache and fatigue due to school bag weight, respectively (16). This minor difference is probably due to the cultural and population differences.

Conclusion
As the findings of the present study indicated, the ratio of bag weight to body weight was higher than standard in 104 students (40.3%). In addition, 33.3% of the students had some complaints about physical problems due to their school bags weight. Although the reported complaint rate was not very high, this low rate might result in some consequences and various problems in the future. Therefore, the healthcare personnel and other school teachers should inform the students and even their parents about school bags weight, bag type, and way of carrying them in order to diminish the respective complaints and injuries.


A Study to Assess the Effectiveness of Skill Training of Children on First-Aid

Background and Objectives: A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of a Skill Training Programme (STP) on first-aid for selected Accidents and Emergencies for school children. The objectives of the study were to: develop and validate a STP on first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies, determine the level of knowledge of high school children regarding first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies, as measured by a structured knowledge questionnaire before and after the administration of STP, determine the level of skill of high school children regarding first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies, as measured by an observation checklist, before and after the administration of STP, determine the effectiveness of STP in terms of gain in post-test knowledge and skill scores, find the association between the level of knowledge and selected variables such as gender, parent’s educational status, parent’s occupation and source of prior information, find the association between the level of skill and selected variables such as gender, parent’s educational status, parent’s occupation and source of prior information, determine the high school children’s opinion about the STP. Methods: The conceptual framework of the present study is based on System’s Model of WHO SEARO technical publications. The hypotheses were developed and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The research approach used for the study was an evaluative approach with one group pretest posttest pre-experimental design. The study sample consisted of 56 high school children of 9th standard from Manipal Pre University College, Manipal. The sampling technique adopted for the study was non-probability cluster sampling for the selection of samples and convenience sampling for the selection of the school. The pretesting was done by administering the tool to seven students studying in the English medium in 9th standard from Christian high school, Udupi. Reliability of the structured knowledge questionnaire was ensured by administering the tool to 20 students, and skills of the 12 students were assessed out of the twenty studying in the 9th standard of Indrali English medium high school, Udupi. The pilot study was conducted on ten students studying Research Article

Introduction
Children and young people represent a country's future. Their health needs are vital, and they share an entitlement to good health and quality health services with the rest of the community. Children and adolescents have the right to knowledge and skills about health in the Universal Declaration of Children's Rights.
It is estimated that 50% of deaths occur within the first hour of the accident, 30% between one hour and one week and 20% occur after first week. The 'golden hour' and 'platinum hour' highlights the importance of early trauma care. Important factors responsible for increasing secondary injuries and complications are non-availability of first-aid, delay in transfer of patients from the injury site to a hospital, lack of definitive treatment in first contact hospitals, absence of triage and external medicolegal problems [1][2][3][4][5].

Statement of the Problem
A study to assess the effectiveness of a skill training programme on First-Aid for School Children.

Objectives of the Study
To develop and validate a skill training programme (STP) on first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies. 1. To determine the level of knowledge of high school children regarding first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies, as measured by a structured knowledge questionnaire, before and after the administration of STP.

2.
To determine the level of skill of high school children regarding first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies, as measured by an observation checklist, before and after the administration of STP.
3. To determine the effectiveness of STP in terms of gain in post test knowledge and skill scores.
4. To find the association between the level of knowledge and selected variables.
5. To find the association between the level of skill and selected variables.
6. To determine the high school children's opinion about the STP.

Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework of the present study is based on System's Model of WHO SEARO technical publications. This model is described under three major headings: input, process and output. Input refers to the high school children with their background information, process deals with the preparation of STP, assessment of knowledge and skill and administration of STP and the output includes the evaluation of the gain in knowledge and skill scores.

Methodology
The research approach used for the study was an evaluative approach with one group pretest posttest preexperimental design. The study sample consisted of 56 high school children of 9 th standard from Manipal Pre University College, Manipal. The sampling technique adopted for the study was non-probability cluster sampling for the selection of samples and convenience sampling for the selection of the school.
The content validity of the developed tools and the STP were established by giving it to seven experts from various fields. Reliability of all the tools were obtained, pretesting and pilot study was also done.
Data collection instrument used by the researcher for the study were - The pretesting was done by administering the tool to seven students studying in the English medium in 9 th standard from Christian high school, Udupi. Reliability of the structured knowledge questionnaire was ensured by administering the tool to 20 students, and skills of the 12 students were assessed out of the twenty studying in the 9 th standard of Indrali English medium high school, Udupi. The pilot study was conducted on ten students studying in 9th standard of SDA English Medium High School, Bangalore. The study design was found to be feasible and practicable.

Findings of the Study The Sample Characteristics
Majority of the students (51.79%) were girls. Most of the student's father's educational qualification (30.36%) was PUC. Most of the student's mother's educational qualification (35.71%) was PUC. Majority of the students fathers (89.28%) were non health professionals. Majority of the students mothers (64.28%) were house-wives. Majority of the students (73.21%) had prior information on first-aid.

Effectiveness of STP on First-Aid for Selected Accidents and Emergencies for High School Children
Gain in knowledge scores of high school children: In the pretest, maximum students 43 (76.78 %) had average knowledge and only one student had good knowledge whereas in the posttest, majority of the students 34 (60.71%) had average knowledge and 22 (39.29 %) students had good knowledge. The posttest mean knowledge score (22.10) was apparently higher than the pretest mean knowledge score (14.60) ( Figure 1). First-aid for wounds c. First-aid for fracture d.
First-aid for bites and stings

Significance of difference between mean of the pretest and posttest knowledge scores of high school children:
The t test showed that there was a significant difference between the mean pretest and posttest knowledge scores of the high school children on first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies t = 13.41, t(55)= 2, p < 0.05 which is significant [6]. Hence the null hypothesis was rejected which indicated that the STP was an effective method in improving the knowledge of high school children (Figure 2).
Association between pretest knowledge scores of high school children with the selected variables: Chi-square was computed between pretest knowledge scores of the high school children and the selected variables which indicated that there was no significant association between the pretest knowledge score and selected variables.

Gain in skill scores of high school children:
The skill scores of 'first-aid for bleeding wounds' of school children showed that the mean posttest scores (8.39) is higher than that of mean pretest scores (4.71). The skill scores of 'first-aid for closed fracture of the hand' of school children showed that the mean posttest scores (8.35) is higher than that of mean pretest scores (3.42). The skill scores of 'first-aid for poisonous snake bite' of school children showed that the mean posttest scores (7.28) is higher than that of mean pretest scores (4.21). The t test showed that there was a significant difference between the mean pretest and posttest skill scores of 'first-aid for bleeding wounds 'of the high school children t= 27.94, t(55) = 2, p < 0.05 which is significant.
The t test showed that there was a significant difference between the mean pretest and posttest skill scores of 'first-aid for closed fracture of the hand' of the high school children t = 24.59, t(55) = 2, p < 0.05 which is significant.
The t test showed that there was a significant difference between the mean pretest and posttest skill scores of 'first-aid for poisonous snake bite' of the high school children t = 22.54, t(55)= 2, p < 0.05 which is significant. Hence the null hypothesis was rejected indicating that the STP was effective method in improving the skills of the high school children.
Association between pretest skill scores of high school children with the selected variables: Chi-square values computed between pretest skill scores and the selected variables showed that there was a significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for bleeding wounds' of the high school children and mother's educational status. There was significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for closed fracture of the hand' of the high school children and father's educational status. There was significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for poisonous snake bite and gender of the student and the mother's occupation.

Opinion of the School Children on STP
The opinionnaire on STP showed that all (100%) students agreed that the language of the STP was simple and clear and the content was easy to remember because of the visual aids. Majority (91.07%) of the students agreed that STP was easy to practice and they have gained adequate skills to provide first-aid and (98.21%) students agreed that their doubts were clarified.

Discussion
The findings of the present study have been discussed with reference to the objectives and hypothesis in the light of other studies. In the present study, the pretest shows that maximum students 43 (76.78 %) had an average level of knowledge on first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies. A survey was conducted in San Jose, California to assess the first-aid knowledge and decision making of athletic coaches. Data were collected from 104 athletic coaches from 17 metropolitan high schools using demographic proforma, knowledge questionnaire on first-aid and game situation data sheet. The findings showed that only 36% of the coaches achieved the passing scores that is above 80% of marks. A study was conducted at Texas to increase the mother's knowledge of child healthcare among 37 substance abuse mothers. The findings of the study showed that the mean pretest scores related to basic first -aid was 62.7%. In order to examine the effectiveness of STP on first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies for school children, the following studies were discussed [7][8][9][10]. The investigator failed to locate any study similar to the one undertaken by the researcher. The studies related to STP in areas of health and illnesses are presented in the section. The findings of the present study showed that the posttest mean knowledge score (22.10) was apparently higher than the pretest mean knowledge score (14.60). The data computed using paired t test showed that research hypothesis was accepted depicting that the high school children gained knowledge regarding first-aid for selected accidents and emergencies (t=13.41, p<0.05). This indicates that the STP was an effective method in increasing the knowledge of the school children. The present study findings could be supported by the following studies.
An evaluative study was conducted in Udupi district, Karnataka to determine the knowledge of primary school teachers on health appraisal of school children and to determine the effectiveness of STP on knowledge of health appraisal in selected schools. One group pretest posttest design and non-probability convenience sampling was used. The findings showed that posttest knowledge mean scores (29.74) were significantly higher than that of pretest mean scores (16.16), t(49) = 27.77, p<0.01 was highly significant indicated that STP was effective in improving the knowledge level of primary school teachers. The study concluded that it was important to provide information to teachers about health appraisal of children and STP was an effective strategy for improving their knowledge. An evaluative study was conducted in Udupi district, Karnataka to determine the knowledge of the life style practices of children between 10-12 years of age and the effectiveness of STP on healthy lifestyle practices among children in selected schools. Descriptive evaluative survey with one group pretest posttest pre experimental design was used. The findings of the study showed that 63.16% of children's knowledge of lifestyle was inadequate. It also showed that posttest knowledge mean scores (29.37) were significantly higher than that of pretest mean scores (15.53), t(80) = 2.64, p< 0.05. Majority of (74.72%) children expressed that the teaching programme was effective to a great extent. The study concluded that STP was an effective strategy for improving the knowledge of children on healthy lifestyle practices. The present study revealed that there was no significant association observed between pretest knowledge score and selected variables i.e. gender, parent's educational status, parent's occupation and source of prior information. A study was done to determine the effectiveness of teaching protocol on Nurses responsibility in ABG analysis for nurses working in critical care units of a selected hospital in Karnataka. The findings of the study showed that there was no significant association between the pretest knowledge and selected variables such as years of experience and participation in in-service education at 0.05 level of significance. This study is supports the findings of the present study. A study was conducted to assess the effectiveness of a booklet for mothers of under five children on prevention of injuries in selected areas of Udupi district, Karnataka. The chi-square value showed that there was there was significant association between the knowledge of the mothers and selected variables such as education of the mothers and the socio-economic status of the family at 0.05 level of significance. This study contradicts the findings of the present study. Chi-square between pretest skill scores of the school children and the selected variables shows that there was significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for bleeding wounds' and mother's educational status. There was significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for closed fracture of the hand' and father's educational status. There was significant association between the pretest skill score of 'first-aid for poisonous snake bite and gender of the student and the mother's occupation. A study was done to determine the effectiveness of teaching protocol on Nurses responsibility in ABG analysis for nurses working in critical care units of a selected hospital in Karnataka. The findings of the study showed that there was no significant association between the pretest practice and selected variables such as years of experience, participation in inservice education at 0.05 level of significance. This study contradicts the findings of the present study. The opinionnaire on STP showed that all (100%) students agreed that the language of the STP was simple and clear and the content is easy to remember because of the visual aids. Majority (91.07%) of the students agreed that STP is easy to practice and they have gained adequate skills to provide first-aid and (98.21%) students agreed that their doubts were clarified. The findings of the study are supported by a study on effectiveness of STP on health appraisal in selected schools of Udupi district. Majority of teachers (87.7 %) strongly agreed that STP was highly effective to a great extent.

Conclusion
It is thus concluded that STP is an effective strategy in bringing about the desired change in the knowledge and skills. Health education programme conducted by the nursing personnel in the school setting helps in imparting knowledge and skills to the students in providing immediate first-aid measures and thereby prevent complications.

Recommendations
On the basis of the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made for the future research -a similar study can be replicated with a control group on a larger population of the students, a similar study can be replicated on a larger sample with different demographic characteristics, a similar study can be replicated with broader content area on accidents and emergencies, a comparative study can be conducted to determine the knowledge and skills of different groups of students.


EFFORTS TO IMPROVE THE COMPETENCY OF PROFESSIONALISM TEACHER IN JEMBER REGENCY

This study aims to explain the condition of professionalism and efforts to improve the competence of teachers IPS in Jember District. The sampling technique was done by random sampling which amounted to 55 person. Methods of data collection with questionnaires and documentation. Data analysis uses a percentage descriptive. The result of the research shows that the competency of professionalism of IPS teachers is as follows: the acquisition of materials, concepts and scholarship of IPS teachers is 87.25% in the high category, the development of learning materials supported by IPS teachers creatively is 92.04% including in the high category; mastery of basic competence and basic competence by 87.05% including high category, utilization of communication technology for self-development of IPS teachers of 86.35% included in the high category. In general, the competency of professionalism of IPS teachers in Jember district is categorized as high, namely 88.17%, while the effort to increase the professional competence of IPS teachers as follows: joining the training and seminar of 66.81% low category; developing syllabus and IPS RPP of 70.50%; doing PTK 48.95% low category; develop science of technology in learning 74.82% high category. Overall, the effort to improve the professionalism competence of IPS Junior High School teachers in Jember District is 71.34 included in the high category.

INTRODUCTION
Teacher competence is needed in learning and teaching process. It is because it is related to professional ethics which is done by the teacher. Competence is not just oriented to the skill to pursue something, but more than professionalism as a teacher. Competence will influence the personality and development of the teacher profession. Sumiati (2007) explained that the competence of teachers covering aspects of them are: educational background, appearance, activities using procedures and techniques, and achievement of results.
Competence is manifested in real work that is beneficial for oneself and the environment (Musfah, 2011). The dynamics that developed to this day that the competence of teachers give influences in the process of learning in the classroom. A professional teacher's ability is GEOSFERA INDONESIA p-ISSN 2598-9723, e-ISSN 2614-8528 Vol. 1 No. 1 (2017, Page 16-21 , December, 2017 https://jurnal.unej.ac.id/index.php/GEOSI necessary, since in that context the teacher is not only in charge of the transfer of knowledge, but educates the main task. These more capabilities must be owned by teachers in generating quality future generations. IPS subject teachers have tasks like other subjects, but the competencies of IPS teachers have their own standart. IPS teacher quality must be able to perform dut ies and obligations as an educator in school. The quality of professional IPS teachers are: broad and deep mastery of social sciences, mastery of profound field, attitude and ICT skill. One of the causes that indicates the lack of ability of teachers to produce adequate quality of students, the low ability and skills of teachers in teaching is often considered the factor causing the low achievement of educational outcomes (Agung, 2012). Teacher competency IPS is needed at junior high school level.Emplementation of the curriculum 2013 implements social science consisting of geographical, sociological, historical, and economic branches into integrated social studies subjects.
Problems arising from integrated IPS applications include graduates of IPS graduates are minimal and socialization from the government to the less junior high school. The impact of IPS teachers is difficult to increase the professionalism in the social sciences, considering that in all schools of SMP Negeri in Jember many teachers of study. The number of teachers in the field of study that many make professional teachers especially social science is not optimal.
Orentation of IPS lesson application is used to study the phenomenon of the past and the coming. The emphasis of study in the field of social studies in the curriculum needs to be done as a step to answer the problems of both phenomena. Optimization of IPS lessons for students to solve past and present problems. However, the application of IPS lesson needs to be supported with the competence of teachers relevant to the field of IPS.Based on data obtained by researchers from the Office of Education Jemberbahwa the number of teachers of SMP Negeri and Swasta as many as 386 teachers, while the number of IPS teachers in Jember District as many as 184 teachers. Teacher's last education average IPS in KabupatenJember is 96% strata S1, while S2 is only 4%. Teachers of subjects at school have different educational backgrounds, if presented according to educational background such as: geography 20%, sociology 8%, history 21%, economics 34%, PKn2%, 2% religious education, and IPS 13% .Based exposure description on the background as follows: (1) How Fahrudi Ahwan Ikhsan et al / GEOSI Vol. 1 No. 1 (2017) 16-21 is the professionalism of IPS teacher in Jember Regency ?; (2) How to improve the competency of IPS teacher professionalism in Jember District. The formulation of the problem was aimed at this research which aimed at: (1) Knowing the condition of professional competence IPS teachers in Jember District; and (2) to know the effort of increasing the competence of IPS teachers in Jember District.

METHODS
The population in this study is all IPS teachers in Jember regency number 184.
According to Arikunto (2006) that the sample is part or representative of the population studied. Sampling technique is done by random sampling. The sample used is SMP Negeri IPS teachers in Jember Regency taken 30% at random. So sample number 55 sample.
Methods of data collection in this study using questionnaires and documentation. Method of data analysis using descriptive percentage. The variables in this study consist of two kinds of professionalism teacher IPS conditions in Jember District and efforts to increase the competency of teacher professionalism in Jember District.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study aims to determine the efforts of IPS teachers in improving the competence of professionalism in junior high school district Jember. Astronomically, Jember District is high category, 29 respondents (52.73%) high, and 5 respondents (9.09%) low category. From the results of the analysis can be concluded that the ability of teachers in the learning process to students meet the standards of competence set in the national high standard that is equal to 88.17%.
Mastery matters, concepts, and science that is Teachers IPSThe number of 55 respondents obtained a description of the mastery of materials, concepts, and science supporters IPS that diampu by teachers as follows: 45 respondents (81.82%) with very high category, 5 respondents (9.09%) high category, and 5responden (9.09%) low category. The classical condition of mastery of the material, concepts and science that IPS teacher teachers (87.25%) in the high category. Penguasaanyang associated with integrat ed social science does not experience constraints in delivery to students.
Based on the result of the research, it is known that 55 respondents give responses related to the competency standard competence and basic competency of student's subjects as follows: 27 respondents (49,09%) with very high category, 21responden (38,18%) high category, 5 respondents (9,09 %) low category, and 2responden (3.64%) very low category.
The classical percentage of standard competency and basic competence of subjects that is supported by social studies teachers (87.05%) are high category. The development of learning tools has followed the development of the era and science of integrated IPS on the material taught to students.
Based on the results of the research in Table 4 it is known that the development of learning materials that IPS teachers are able to creatively as follows: 29 respondents (52.73%) with very high category, 24 respondents (43.64%) high category, 2 respondents (3.63% ) low category. Classically the percentage of the development of learning materials that are able to IPS teachers creatively (92.04%) included in the category tinggi.Pengembangan material with contextual problems in the field conducted by teachers IPS so that students can understand the material in depth.
Based on the results of the analysis of research results from 55 respondents obtained deskripsitentang efforts to improve the professionalism of IPS teachers in Jember District as follows: 5responden (9.09%) with very high category, 42 respondents (76.36%) high category, 8 respondens (14.55%) low category. The conclusion obtained that overall the largest (71.34%) has a high effort in improving the competence of professionalism in the field of integrated IPS.
To formulate aspects of competency in detail can be analyzed based on certain taxonomy according to Benjamin S. Bloom competence divided into three aspects, namely: competence in cognitive aspects (intelligence), competence in the affective aspects (feelings), competence in psychomotor aspects (Sumiati, 2007: 245). The competency detailed by Benyamin S. Bloom has been adjusted to his taxonomy create in learning theory. Bloom hopes for a teacher to run it the taxonomy he made must refer to the three aspects of his competence detail too.
So that there is a match between learning theory and teacher competence, so that the teacher can run the learning process smoothly. Teacher competency will have an influence in the process classroom learning. Teachers need to have the ability to run his profession as an educator. Teacher competency in this case is not only just deliver the subject matter, but a teacher needs to have more ability than that. As a profession, there are a number competencies possessed by a teacher, namely pedagogic competence, personality competence, professional competence, and social competence community (Sanjaya, 2006: 18). Theoretically, the four competencies can be separated by one each other, but practically the actual four competencies it cannot be separated. The four types of competence intertwine each other in an integrated manner in the teacher. Teachers who are skilled at teaching of course you also have to have a good and social person adjustment in society.
The teacher is the most important component in a education. Without a teacher a learning will not work well. According to Dunkin there are a number of aspects that can affect quality the learning process is seen from the teacher factor, namely the teacher formative experience, teacher training experience, and teacher properties (Sanjaya, 2006: 53). These three indicators are the most important elements must be owned by a teacher. This is due to the three indicators contains teacher characteristics, namely experiences related to social and educational background and characteristics possessed by the teacher. The position of the teacher as one of the professions must indeed be recognized within people's lives. Teachers must be recognized as equal equal professions tall and sitting as low as other professions, like doctors, judges, prosecutors, accountants, architecture, and many others. As a profession, the teacher fulfills the five characteristics or characteristics inherent in the teacher, namely: first, it has a function and social significance for the community, felt benefits for the community.
Second, demand certain skills obtained through an adequate process of education and training education institutions can be accounted for.
One characteristic of teachers as a very important profession is that teachers must have the ability in accordance with the competency standards that have been applied. Teacher competency will influence the learning process in the classroom. Teachers need to have the ability to carry out their profession as educators. Teacher competency in this case is not just conveying subject matter, but a teacher needs to have more ability than that. In general, the competence of a teacher refers to four factors, namely pedagogic competence, personality competence, professional competence, and community social competence (Sumiati, 2007: 242).
These four factors are expected to be possessed by every teacher, including teachers of social science, abilities that are not necessarily owned by people who are not teachers. So that the teacher can carry out his duties properly.


Factors Affecting Faculty Attitude for Adopting Online Learning at Aljouf University, Saudi Arabia

This study aims to take an initial step toward investigating the readiness of faculty members for adopting online learning at Aljouf University, a Saudi newly established university. Participants (n=156) were asked to complete a Web-based questionnaire that starts with eight demographic questions and has four other parts: attitude toward online learning, computer self-efficacy, attitude toward technology, and computer anxiety. The results demonstrate that faculty members show positive attitudes toward online learning (M=3.03, SD=0.45). They also showed a slight high computer self-efficiency (M=2.92, SD=0.40), positive attitudes toward technology (M=3.10, SD=0.33), and a low level of computer anxiety (M=1.05, SD=0.38). Finally, the results reveal that among the demographic variables, only the nationality of the participants and their experience with online learning had a significant effect on their attitude toward online learning. The study concluded with providing a number of recommendations for application and future studies.

Statement of the Problem
With a vast majority of populations continuously connected to the Internet, many educational institutions across the world are tapping the potential of imparting online education in different sectors. These developments in the field of online learning and teaching can be seen across different sectors of higher education, more significantly in the area of distance education by creating new avenues for improvements in distance learning programs. These developments in on-campus and distance education programs are also attributed to the educational value of digital and networked learning tools (Milheim, 2012). In Saudi Arabia, e-learning is considered to be a new process (Al-Harbi, 2011) introduced at the undergraduate level teaching-learning context. In addition, most of the universities in Saudi Arabia are slowly progressing on par with the global trends of focusing on incorporating e-learning into the existing curriculum of on-campus and distance education programs (Al-Khalifa, 2009). At Aljouf University, a newly established university that is currently the only university serving Aljouf region of Saudi Arabia, the Deanship of E-learning and Distance Education (DELDE) has been established with a mission of leading and facilitating the university movement toward online education.
In 2015, the university's plan was to implement online learning in the regular programs, as well as move its distance education programs from an independent correspondence form to an online learning form after launching the Blackboard software. The targeted learners were those students who enrolled in the on-campus programs, as well as those who registered in the distance education mode. DELDE is required to support the learners and faculty, provide training programs, and monitor the effectiveness of online courses for enhancing the teaching-learning process. As a result, DELDE started monitoring the progress of the initial phases of introducing e-learning to the teaching-learning process. One of the first steps that DELDE has taken was to investigate the faculty readiness for online learning. Faculty readiness to embrace online learning is a critical component of quality online education. The success of the instructors' readiness in online learning includes the willingness to prepare, design, and facilitate effective courses within an online environment. sion Theory ), if the educa ess of the use study is also b ing (Arani, 20 cchio, 1992

Methodology
This study is a descriptive correlation quantitative study. It describes the current level of attitude of the faculty members toward online learning. Relationships, among attitude toward online learning, computer self-efficacy, attitude toward technology, and computer anxiety of faculty, were also determined and described.

Study Plan
The Web-based survey was sent via the Information Technology (IT) department to all faculty members of Aljouf University (N=732) in Spring semester 2016. This study identified the participants to be those holding either a master or doctorate degree, and 156 members met the inclusion criteria and chose to participate in the study. In identifying relevant demographic information of the participants, the following items were included: age, gender, nationality, qualification degree held, and experience in online learning. The characteristics of the participants are shown in Table 1.

Instruments
To accurately achieve the objectives of this study, a set of four constructs were developed. The survey started with collecting the needed demographic information regarding the participants. The second part includes the attitude toward online learning scale (16 items) developed by the researcher to measure the faculty members' attitudes toward applying online learning. The third part contains the perceived computer self-efficacy scale (Askar, 2001) to measure the computer self-efficacy of the faculty members. In the fourth part, the technology attitude scale (Yavuz, 2005) was used to measure the faculty members' attitudes to technology attitudes. Finally, the computer Anxiety Scale (modified from Ceyhan & Namlu, 2000) was used to measure the faculty members' levels of Computer Anxiety.
For the second, fourth, and fifth parts of the survey, participants were asked to rate their degree of agreement on a 5-point Likert scale for each item as follows: 1) strongly disagree to 5) strongly agree. On the other hand, participants were asked to rate their responses for computer efficacy with 1) always; 2) usually; 3) sometimes; 4) rarely; and 5) never. The reliability of the questionnaire was statistically tested. The Chronbach reliability alphas of the four factors were 0.86 for attitude toward online learning, 0.81 for computer self-efficacy, 0.73 for technology attitude, and 0.80 for computer anxiety. The items in the questionnaire were translated from English to Arabic using a back-and-forth translation method. Four faculty members from the college of education, who mastered both the Arabic and the English languages, participated in the process of the survey translation.

Statistical Analysis
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS20) was used to generate descriptive and inferential statistics at a significance level of 0.05. The frequencies and mean were reported for each variable. T-test and ANOVA were also used to examine the relationships between the instructors' attitude toward online learning and the jel.ccsenet.org Journal of Education and Learning Vol. 7, No. 1;2018 demographic variables. On the other hand, Pearson r correlation was used to examine the relationships between attitude toward online learning and computer self-efficacy, attitude toward technology, and computer anxiety. Pearson r correlation was also used to investigate the relationships among the three independent variables.

Results
From the data collected and statistics performed, the study yielded the following results and analyses. The results in Table 2 demonstrate that faculty members show a positive attitude toward online learning (M=3.03, SD=0.45). It also reveals that they have a positive attitude toward technology (M=3.10, SD=0.33). In terms of their computer self-efficiency, the results show that faculty members have a slightly high computer self-efficiency (M=2.92, SD=0.40). Finally, the results show that faculty members reported a low level of computer anxiety (M=1.05, SD=0.38). As shown in Table 3, there is a stromg positive relationship among online learning attitude, computer efficacy, and technology attitude; however, there is a negative relationship between computer anxiety and the other three factors. The results indicate that the gender, qualification, and age of the participants yielded near equal in terms of their receptivity in computer efficacy, technology attitude, online learning attitude, and computer anxiety (Tables 4 and 5). Moreover, among the readiness constructs, technology attitude was not affected by any demographic profiles, age, gender, qualification, nature of work, or years of traditional teaching. However, the results reveal a number of significant relationships between the demographics and the readiness of the participants. The participants' nationality has an effect on computer efficacy, online learning attitude, and computer anxiety. Experience in online learning, likewise, had an effect on the attitude toward online learning and computer efficacy.

Discussion
The deanship continues the mission of supporting colleges to deliver quality education by implementing online learning in traditional courses. To achieve this mission, the deanship began with the organization of training programs for faculty members. However, the use of latest technologies poses many challenges to DELDE and thus requires a comprehensive strategy to educate the faculty and students on the effective use of online learning technologies. Because technological progress facilitates life in a large variety of contexts, from science to education, and is often supported by computers (Celik & Yesilyurt, 2013), introducing online learning and teaching courses can trigger a mixed response in faculty members. The results of this study can give more insight into the success of the mission of ensuring a quality teaching and learning environment.
The results demonstrate that faculty members show a slightly high computer self-efficiency, positive attitudes toward technology and online learning attitude, and a low level of computer anxiety. The result also reveals significant relationships among the four factors: online learning attitude, computer efficacy, technology attitude, and computer anxiety. This result aligned with the finding from previous studies (Brosnan, 1998;Celik & Yesilyurt, 2013;Simsek, 2011).
The results of the current study indicate that faculty members show positive attitudes toward online learning. The integration of computer-based instructional methods in the learning and teaching process improved the quality of distance education programs. It reduced the amount of physical labor and strain that prevailed in the traditional distance learning programs. In addition, computer technology fastened the pace of correspondence between the teachers and the students, thus eradicating many barriers that were obstacles in the communication processes. However, research in the field of e-learning has proven that self-efficacy is an important factor because the personal beliefs and motivational conditions are expected to have an impact on the actual computer performance (Imhof, Vollmeyer, & Beierlein, 2007). The quest among the administrators and academicians to progress with the current trends and improve the quality of education through innovative methods of classroom instruction being the sole reason to embrace the new technology into the classroom has witnessed mixed reactions in the teaching community. Often, the administrators and the curriculum designers are quick to recommend computer and Web-based technology for classrooms across the world by forgetting the fact that many teachers lack expertise in the use of technology. Because the latest computer-related educational software constitutes too many tools, it poses problems for the teachers during the initial stages. As individuals progress from the initial forethought phase of goal setting and strategic planning to the reflection phase, they are expected to improve on their self-efficacy and reach to a stage where they can self-evaluate the reasons for success and failures of technological instruction. However, it was observed that the university teachers are still struggling with the challenges associated to understanding an increasing array of technologies and differentiating which ones are relevant for online instruction (Witt, 2012). jel.ccsenet.org Journal of Education and Learning Vol. 7, No. 1;2018 However, earlier research in the technology-integrated learning field outlines that there are constraints that often impede the progress of e-learning. Despite these advancements in the use of computer applications and web technology, teachers' views and abilities concerning technology have not moved with the pace of these developments (Strickland, 2006). The need to integrate computers in learning has become indispensable but is often accompanied by constraints. When individuals are instructed to make use of computer applications specifically designed for enhancing learning in the classroom, they may display anxieties and reactions. A complex combination of negative responses, which includes fear, worry, agitation, and apprehension (Saadé & Kira, 2009), in the use of computer applications can be a cause of anxiety in the new and untrained generation of teachers working in different fields of education.
The results also demonstrate that faculty members at Aljouf University show a slightly high computer self-efficiency. Computer efficacy, or the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce the given attainments (Bandura, 1997), has an effect on teachers in any department. Self-efficacy is an important factor that is positively related to performance during computer training (Webster & Martocchio, 1992) and determines the success of computer learning (Chung, 2012). Bandura (1997) defines self-efficacy as an individual's self-assessment of his/her own capabilities to organize and validate courses of action that are required to attain designated types of performance. He further states that self-efficacy is influenced by an individual's confidence in accomplishing a task with whatever skills one possesses. Computer self-efficacy is considered to be a particular type of self-efficacy (Nordin, 2005), which may be needed for acquiring computing skills (Miura, 1987). Computer self-efficacy is also defined by Compeau and Higgins (1995) as the belief of an individual's ability and capability to accomplish tasks by applying computer technology. The acceptance and rejection of technology is based on Bandura's theory of self-efficacy which refers to the belief in one's ability to perform a particular behavior (Bandura, 1986). Additionally, many studies have demonstrated the effect that computer self-efficacy has on enhancing performance and the technological expertise of employees, thus, reducing computer-induced anxiety. According to , a major constraint in computer-integrated instruction is that individuals who consider themselves as incompetent in computers are less likely to use them. They argue that self-esteem is a critical factor for success and depends on intelligence and competency levels of an individual. As a result, the level of faulty computer self-efficacy needs to be improved for the successful implementation of online learning at Aljouf University.
On the other hand, technology is a boon to education, and traditional approaches are enhanced by using the latest technology in teaching. Attitude toward technology is a determining factor in teacher readiness for online learning (Celik & Yesilyurt, 2013). In this highly advanced technology era, it is common for teachers to be adaptive and receptive of new technologies. Thus, Tezci (2010) stressed that their professional attitude motivates them to use these changes to enhance the quality of teaching and learning. Attitude is a pattern of behavior tendencies or anticipatory readiness, predisposition to adapt to social situation, or simply it is a response to social stimuli that have been conditioned. Hence, attitude plays significant role in determining people acceptance and rejection of an idea or a task. The result of the current study indicated that the faculty members at Aljouf University expressed positive attitudes toward technology, which is expected to help the successful implementation of online learning. According to Coppola (2004), technology integration in learning is a challenging task because teachers have to believe in the beneficial aspects and should foresee the value of technological integration in the regular instructional process. Kluever et al. (1994) also concluded a teacher's attitude toward technology determines the successful implementation of using technology in education.
The results also indicate that the faculty members show low computer anxiety. Computer anxiety is another factor that affects the integrating technology with higher education. Busch (1995) asserted that positive attitudes toward computers and lower computer anxiety levels could be important factors in supporting the ability to learn computer skills for teaching and learning. This present study shows that technology attitude has an effect on computer anxiety, because when an attitude of belief and agreement with a certain task is maintained, more success is perceived and anxiety is reduced (Brosnam, 1998).
The result also reveals significant relationships between attitude toward online learning, computer efficacy, technology attitude, and computer anxiety. It also showed significant relationships among the three independent factors: computer efficacy, technology attitude, and computer anxiety. This result aligned with the finding of a previous study by Celik and Yesilyurt (2013). Attitude to technology, perceived computer self-efficacy, and computer anxiety are important predictors of teachers' attitude toward using computer-supported education. In the era of global technology, employees are often expected to upgrade their knowledge and skills in the uses of computer devices. According to Gibson (1996), there is a need for an assessment to detect adult learners who might be potentially at risk of failing in using computer technology in their distance learning. Simsek (2011) argued that reducing computer anxiety and increasing the computer self-efficacy is necessary to learn computer skills. A computer-based teaching program requires teachers to progress from their traditional methods of chalk and talk to a more state-of-the-art arena of applying computer applications to the teaching-learning process.
According to the results of this study, nationality appears to play an important role in a faculty member's level of computer self-efficiency, attitude toward online learning, and computer anxiety with online learning. The success of e-learning courses depends on the beliefs, attitudes, and technical knowledge that teachers bring to the e-learning environment. The results reveal that 80% of the participants were non-Saudi, and the nationality of the faculty members had a significant effect on three of four readiness constructs. The faculty members come from various countries and bring their 1) availability and access of computers; 2) availability of curriculum materials; 3) beliefs; 4) technological and content knowledge; and 5) technical, administrative, and peer support (Lowther, Inan, Daniel Strahl, & Ross, 2008 On the other hand, the results indicate that gender has no significant effect on any of the readiness constructs. Both female and male faculty members have similar perception ratings for every readiness construct. Gorder (2008) explained that gender exhibits no difference in the means of technology use perception. Experience with online learning has a significant effect on a faculty member's attitude toward online learning and their computer self-efficacy. A teacher's experience can influence his or her online readiness and can filter in its success because experiences gained over time enhance knowledge, skills, and productivity. According to Fives (2003), lack of confidence caused by lack of experience in teachers can result to stress. Hence, as the teaching experience increases, the corresponding efficacy increases.

Conclusion and Recommendation
The objective of this study was to investigate faculty member attitude toward online learning at Aljouf University. The results indicate that faculty members at JU show positive attitudes toward online learning. They also show a slightly high computer self-efficiency, positive attitudes toward technology, and a low level of computer anxiety. The findings also suggest that the faculty attitude toward online learning is highly correlated with their computer efficacy, attitude toward technology, and computer anxiety. In other words, for faculty members to be ready for successful implementation of online learning, they have to have a high level of computer efficacy, a positive attitude toward technology, and a low computer anxiety. Any change of factor can affect the others and consequently affect the readiness of implementing online learning. As discussed by Isleem (2003), computer attitude is a significant predictor of technology use in an instructional environment. The attitude and emotional investment of teachers also create the meaning they bring to technological changes. Therefore, integrating technology into education constitutes changes to the teaching style, which may need changes in the attitude of teachers (Albion, 2002). As a result, the recommendations of the study include that although introducing online education, pedagogical benefits should be emphasized. Moreover, guidance and assistance should be provided as the teachers provide their own experiences and beliefs. The result of the present study suggested that experience with online learning has a significant effect on faculty members' attitude toward online learning and their computer self-efficacy. It also indicated that Saudi faculty members showed higher level of attitude toward online learning than non-Saudis. They also showed a better level of computer self-efficacy and computer anxiety. Because most of the non-Saudi faculty members came from Arab countries such as Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, this result can be explained by the different financial status of Saudi Arabia and those countries. This result also may suggest more awareness and training on computer skills, integration of technology in education, and online teaching need to be organized for non-Saudi faculty members. Future studies need to be done to investigate the factors affecting the readiness of non-Saudi faculty members toward online learning at Aljouf University.