Teacher Knowledge Manifestation of Integrated Science Teachers in Zimbabwe

This study explored the teacher knowledge manifestation of Integrated Science (IS) teachers who have specialised in Chemistry, Biology or Physics during their pre-service teacher education. 60 experienced Integrated Science teachers responded to an ‘Integrated Science Teacher Knowledge’ questionnaire which embraced different dimensions of teacher knowledge. The results of the study indicate that the IS teachers have a common set of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are, in their professional opinion, needed and in some instances, would enable them to teach IS. The research participants had considerable knowledge as well as clear views about what it meant for them to be IS teachers. It however should be noted that there was a marked variance in the perception of the three cohorts of teachers towards teaching through Practical Work, importance of pre-service teacher education specialisation towards teaching IS and knowledge of students’ culture. This study provides contextual inputs to effective IS teacher education re-alignment informed by the IS teacher practitioners, those with the craft knowledge of the contextual environment of the IS classrooms.

Introduction
This research is framed under the theoretical perspective of teacher knowledge. There is an on-going discourse on exploring teacher knowledge in General Education and Science Education fields (Elbaz, 1983;Shulman, 1987;Grossman, 1990;Carlsen, 1999;Lederman, 2006;Chapman, 2013;Goodwin & Kosnik, 2013;Adoniou, 2015;Mouza et al., 2017;Slavit & Lesseig, 2017). The nature of teacher knowledge debates often borders on whether teacher knowledge is situated within contexts or it is propositional in nature (Calderhead, 1996). Teacher knowledge research is essential as it has a direct bearing on student success (Coleman, et al., 1966;Ferguson, 1991;Flippo, 2001;Ingersoll, 2002;Reutzel & Cooter, 2012). Teacher knowledge is by definition, embedded in the personal context of the teachers, where all kinds of domain-related, teacherrelated and pupil-related and the intermingling of these circumstances play a role. Verloop, Driel and Meijer (2001) stress that it is logical to direct the search for shared teacher knowledge on groups of teachers that are in similar situations with respect to variables such as subject matter, level of education, and age group of students. This research interrogates the teacher knowledge manifestation of Zimbabwean Integrated Science teachers who have specialised in Chemistry, Biology or Physics during their pre-service teacher education. These teachers are likely to experience out-of-field teaching phenomenon when teaching certain topics of Integrated Science Ordinary Level school subject. Out-of-field teaching has been described as "education's dirty little secret". According to du Plessis (2017), out-of-field teaching is not an aberration, and it is not restricted to only a few subjects-for example, to the STEM-subject areas of Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics -but has implications for all subject areas and year level.
Science education in Zimbabwe at Forms 3 and 4 (15-16 -year olds) also referred to as Ordinary Level (O-Level) exists in a number of subject syllabi ranging from Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Human and Social Biology to Integrated Science. The Integrated Science subject is however the most common Science subject in Zimbabwean schools with for instance 151,717 candidates having set for O-Level terminal examinations in the year 2016 as compared to Biology's 23,138, Physics' 6,767 and Chemistry's 6,842 candidates (Zimbabwe School Examinations Council, 2016). Student have not been performing very well in terminal Integrated Science in Zimbabwe School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC) examinations at Ordinary Level. An analysis of November Ordinary Level examination results confirms that the performance of students in IS was general low as compared to other science subjects, for instance in year 2014 IS pass rate was 21.9% and in 2015 it was 31.52% (Zimbabwe School Examinations Council, 2016). Comparing the 2016 pass rate with other Science subjects, whilst IS was 39.58%, Physics was 61.18%, Biology was 57.07% and that of Chemistry was 77%. According to Makwati (2000: 1), "teachers are the single, most important component in the Zimbabwean education system. They are also the only measure parents, students, and administrators have for evaluating the effectiveness of the school system. Teachers have been institutionalised in the education system and remain the focal point of all curricular and classroom organisation" and hence the focus of this study on teacher knowledge.
The Integrated Science syllabus is divided into 5 compulsory components, i.e. Science in Agriculture, Science in Industry, Science in Energy Uses, Science in Structures and Mechanical Systems and Science in the Community. Applications of science and technology to agriculture, environmental, and socio-economic fields are embedded in the syllabus as an extension of subject concepts and skills. These concepts are intended to be imparted to students through an investigative and practical approach. In Zimbabwe there is no specific pre-service Integrated Science teacher education programme. Most prospective teachers specialise in specific science disciplines like Chemistry, Biology or Physics. With this context in mind, this study is therefore guided and limited by a central question: How do teachers who specialised in Chemistry, Biology or Physics describe secondary school Integrated Science teaching?

Research methodology
Sixty Integrated Science teachers were selected through snowball sampling and surveyed. These 60 research participants were distributed across 3 equal cohorts according to their specialisation areas of study at pre-service teacher education (i.e., Chemistry, Biology and Physics education). A 5-point Likert Scale Integrated Science Teacher Knowledge questionnaire was developed based on an extensive review of the literature that provided the most important aspects to be evaluated, which were later reflected in the questionnaire items 1 to 15. The questionnaire items embraced the different dimensions of teacher knowledge (Elbaz, 1983;Shulman, 1986;Grossman, 1990;Carlsen, 1999;Mouza et al., 2017). They closely matched the theoretical framework about different types of teacher knowledge through encompassing the practical and propositional knowledge that IS teachers expressed (Elbaz, 1983;Shulman, 1986).
The initial designed instrument had 53 items pieced together from several existing instruments which measure teacher knowledge. After the questionnaire had been developed, it was submitted to a panel of three university professors who acted as judges. They were asked to react to the questionnaire and suggest any necessary revisions for the items. They content validated the instrument to verify that the items were appropriate and were likely to yield accurate responses. The questionnaire items were derived from Teacher Knowledge Domains: General Pedagogical 5,7,9,10;3,4,8,11,12,15; and Knowledge about the Specific Context -items 6, 13. These knowledge domains were derived from the studies of Elbaz (1983), Shulman (1986, Grossman (1990) and Carlsen (1999). The questionnaire was physically distributed to the 60 Integrated Science teachers in four provinces of varying size, location, and population in Zimbabwe. Analysis of the questionnaire responses was electronically done on IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) version 24 software. Table 1 indicate the response frequency to the fifteen questionnaire items. As indicated on Table 1 the response rate to the Likert scale items was high. However, three respondents each, making up 5% per questionnaire item 5 and 15 did not attempt to respond to these. These high response rate might be pointing to the high drive of the participants to partake in this research and as well, the issues being interrogated by this research resonated with the concerns that the Integrated Science (IS) teachers have as they practice their profession.

Need for student culture knowledge
On being asked on need for student culture knowledge when teaching IS, 85% of IS teachers who specialised in Biology Education indicated that teaching IS requires as a prerequisite some knowledge of students' culture. This was at par at 85% with IS teachers who specialised in Chemistry education at college whilst only 50% of IS teachers who specialised in Physics Education agreed that teaching IS requires knowledge of students' culture ( Figure 1).

Figure 1. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against need of knowledge of students' culture
Knowledge about students' cultural background and its influence on students' misconception on certain scientific concepts together with the ability of a teacher to manage these misconceptions lie at the heart of what effective science teachers do and are indeed important aspects of pedagogical knowledge (Shulman, 1986(Shulman, , 1987. The research participants were generally in concurrence across the cohorts that students' culture was essential for learning IS, this disclosure is consistent with the research findings of Dziva, Mpofu, & Kusure (2011) although the research participants in Dziva et al. (2011) study placed the students' cultural knowledge on a low rung of importance.

Importance of knowledge of History of Science in teaching
On being asked to indicate the degree of agreement to questionnaire item statement 2 which read, "It is important for IS teachers to know the history of science", the IS teachers' response is presented on Figure 2 cross tabulated against their area of teaching specialisation. The IS teachers who specialised in Biology and Physics agreed to this statement matching at eighteen participants per cohort. Although sixteen participants from the Chemistry cohort agreed to the statement, four participants from this cohort disagreed to the said statement as compared to one participant apiece for the Physics and Biology cohort. By and large about 87% of the participating IS teachers agreed with the importance of history of science in student learning. Literature has it that the history of science proffers vivid, concrete case studies that demonstrates the nature of scientific reasoning (Matthew, 1994;Pitt, 1990) and hence maybe that is the reason why the majority of IS teachers recognise its importance. The history of science unravels the Nature of Science as well as providing examples of Pedagogical Content Knowledge which the IS teachers hold in the form of syntactic knowledge which are the agreements, norms. paradigms, and ways of establishing new knowledge that scientists in their respective specialisations hold as currently acceptable (Gess-Newsome, 1999). Many science educators treasure the history of science as it uncovers the scientific process, instead of focusing solely on final products and possesses a great potential for a multifaceted improvement of the learning process and its results (Galili & Hazan, 2002).

Teaching through Practical Work is as important as teaching Theory
Of the 58 Integrated Science teachers who responded to Item 3, 55.2% strongly agreed that teaching through Practical Work was as important as teaching theory, 32.8% agreed whilst 10.3% disagreed and 1.7% strongly disagreed. Fifty-two Integrated Science teachers which is about 90% of the respondents, agreed to strongly agreed that teaching IS through practical work is as important as teaching it theoretical, whilst 6 (10%) disagreed to strongly disagreed to this. Although the IS teachers generally strongly agreed with the statement that: "Teaching through Practical Work is as important as teaching theory in IS"; the level of strongly agreeing was more from the Chemistry education specialisation cohort than the other two cohorts (Figure 3). On the other hand, the Physics education specialisation cohort had more teachers disagreeing to the questionnaire statement item 3 as compared to the other two cohorts.

Practical Work enhance student learning
84.4% of IS teachers agreed to strongly agreed on the importance of Practical Work in enhancing student learning (Figure 4) as compared to 8.3% who disagreed. From the results of the survey it emerged that teachers recognise the importance of Practical Work in Integrated Science. Literature allude to the fact that general there is no remarkable divergence about the importance of Practical Work in school science (Kapenda et al., 2002) the main issues raised are on whether any such Practical Work endeavour genuinely supports learning and teaching.

Teaching Integrated Science is different from teaching other science subjects
About 48% of the research participants indicated that teaching IS is different from teaching other subjects whilst 36.7% viewed the teaching of IS as being similar to teaching any other science subject ( Figure 5). The 36.7% IS teachers are missing the point on what constitute IS which according to Harrel (2010) is an approach to learning and teaching from an assortment of world-views, strategies, and resources; and the taking advantage of real-life situations for problem solving and critical thinking in the classroom. It therefore should be taught in a different way as compared to other science subjects.  Figure 6 shows the crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against their views on the need for specialising in a particular science discipline in order to teach IS. 55% of the research participants agreed to strongly agreeing that specialising during pre-service teacher education was important as a preparation for teaching IS, 38.4% disagreed whilst the rest were undecided. It can be observed from Figure 6 that the count of IS teachers who agreed were higher for the Biology cohort as compared to the other cohorts. This questionnaire item did not however interrogate if the IS teachers thought whether their subject area specialisation was the one which was need or not for IS teaching. The questionnaire item 7 interrogated this. Figure 6. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against the need for specialising in a particular science discipline in order to teach IS Researches on teaching science topics within and outside areas of specialism reveal important differences in the quality of preparation and delivery of science lessons (Harrell, 2010;Nixon & Luft, 2015). IS teachers might find themselves feeling 'out-of-field' when found teaching those concepts which they are not specialised in, however, because of the nature of IS in Zimbabwe which has about 75% Biology content (ZIMSEC, 2010) the IS teachers might feel that those who specialise in Biological discipline are better-off.

Specialising in a science discipline is important in teaching IS
3.7 Need for not specialised in one science discipline at pre-service teacher education level 70% of IS teachers who specialised in Chemistry Education viewed the importance of not specialising in a single science discipline as they agreed to questionnaire item number 7 whilst 60% of IS teachers who specialised in Biology Education agreed with Item 7. For those who specialised in Physics education only 25% of IS teachers reported as agreeing to being better teachers if they had not only specialised in Physics Education. 11 of those teachers who specialised in Physics education at college were more inclined to the view that specialising in Physics education was enough for one to be a better IS teacher. It is evident that teachers who specialised in Physics education most times are teaching IS concepts out-of-field. However even when they are aware of this it is evident that they identify themselves with their area of specialisation and are satisfied that it is good enough preparation for them to teach IS (Figure 7).

Divert to teach aspects of IS if that aspect captures student interest during a lesson
On being asked on whether they concurred that they would divert and teach another aspect of IS if that aspect captures student interest at that time when teaching a particular section of IS, 38.3% of the research participants agreed 50% disagreed whilst 10% neither agreed nor disagreed and IS teacher did not respond to the item (Figure 8). The reason why 50% of the IS teacher participants disagree with the statement item might be that these teachers remember instances of their teaching outside subject specialism in which situation, according to Mizzi (2013), there is a tendency to be rigid, less confident in their teaching, following a textbook structure quite closely and tending to ask recall questions. Figure 8. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against teaching that captures student interest

Influence of rate of student learning on teaching of IS
The majority of the IS teachers disagreed to the questionnaire item statement which stated that the rate of student learning did not impact their teaching of IS. Figure 9. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against impact of rate student learning on IS teaching 61.7% of the participating IS teachers disagreed to strongly disagree, 25% agreed to strongly agreed, 11.7 % neither agreed nor disagreed and one teacher did not respond to the question. Across the 3 cohorts the IS teachers recognised the need to pace teaching with rate of student learning and in so doing the teachers acknowledge the "knowledge of students" and "learner characteristics" as propounded by Shulman (1987).

Importance of audio and visual aids in facilitating student learning of IS
93.3% of the research participants agreed to strongly disagreeing that audio and visual aids facilitated student learning of IS whilst 3.3% neither disagreed nor agreed, two participants did not however respond to the questionnaire item ( Figure 10).

Figure 10. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against importance of audio and visual aids in facilitating student learning
The level of concurrence to the importance of audio-visual aids in facilitating learning cut across all the three cohorts. The audio and visual aids have been identified by Grossman (1990) as the 3 rd PCK knowledge of which teachers are expected to know the curricular materials available to enact the curriculum.

Teaching IS outdoors
Item 11 of the questionnaire asked on whether IS teachers agreed or not with the statement: "Integrated Science teaching should mostly be done outdoors". 21.7% agreed, 30% neither disagreed nor agreed whilst a substantial number of 48.3% disagreed to strongly disagree across the three cohorts ( Figure 11).

Figure 11. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against need of teaching of IS through outdoors activities
Despite the fact that the IS syllabi document recommend that teachers should take advantage of out-doors to facilitate learning through for example field observations some teachers still view this approach as undesirable (ZIMSEC, 2010).

Training to use IT as a science teaching aid
78.3% of the research participants indicated that they were well trained in the use of IT to aid IS teaching whilst 10% said the contrary and another 10% neither agreed nor disagreed. One teacher however did not respond to the questionnaire item. Figure 12. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against training in the use of IT to aid IS teaching The response to this item is consistent to the response given to questionnaire item 10 where about 93% of the respondents indicated that audio and visual aids facilitate the learning of IS. Nyikahadzoyi (2013: 265) also acknowledged the need for teachers be holders of IT knowledge which he referred to as technological knowledge for the purpose of teaching when he referred to this knowledge as the knowledge of "advanced digital technologies -knowledge of operating systems, computer hardware, ability to use standard sets of software tools such as word processors, spread sheets, browsers, and e-mail".
3.13 Adequacy of the subject matter/content taught at college to teach IS 75% of the IS teacher participants felt that the subject matter they were taught at college was adequate for enabling them to teach IS. 8.3% of the teachers were not sure whilst 26.7% felt that the content knowledge which they were taught was not adequate for IS teaching (Figure 13). Figure 13. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against adequacy of subject matter/content taught at college for the purpose of teaching IS Whilst the majority of the research participants viewed subject matter they were taught at college as adequate for IS teaching albiet IS being multidisciplinary and them specialising in one science discipline, Shulman (1986) and Spear-Swerling andCheesman (2012: 1692) warns that inadequate Content Knowledge by the teacher leads to constricted and regressionist pedagogies as teachers resort to replicating own past experiences which may result in teachers providing "inadvertently confusing instruction" to students especial in those concepts where they experience out-of-field phenomenon (Nixon & Luft, 2015).
3.14 IS Teaching experiences upon joining the teaching profession 31.7% of the respondents across the cohorts indicated that they were ill-prepared Content-wise to teach IS when they joined the teaching profession from college whilst 56.7% said that they were well prepared to teach IS upon assumption of teaching duty from college, however, 8.3% of the research participants were neither in agreement nor disagreement that upon being employed they had to start reading hard in order to be able to teach those topics in IS divorced from their area of specialisation ( Figure 14).

Figure 14. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against content knowledge taught at college versus actual teaching situation
Although the IS teachers acknowledge that there are some content topics in IS which lie outside their area of specialisation more than half of the participants still felt that they were adequately prepared to teach IS upon graduation. This might be due to the fact that most of these participants had learnt IS as a subject at secondary school level and hence the content was not actual new to them but might still however be lacking PCK (Shulman, 1987).

IS teaching should mostly be conducted in-doors
Item 15 of the questionnaire asked the research participants if they agreed or not on whether IS teaching should mostly be conducted in-doors, i.e. in laboratories or classrooms. 36.7% of the participating IS teachers agreed to the teaching of IS indoors whilst 15% could neither agreed nor disagreed and 33.4% disagreed. Three research participants chose not to respond to the questionnaire item.

Figure 15. Crosstabulation of IS teacher qualification against teaching of IS in-doors
On comparing the teachers' responses of questionnaire items 11 and 15 it appears as if more of the research participants preferred teaching IS indoors (36.7%) than outdoors (21.7) despite the fact that the teachers should take advantage of out-doors to facilitate learning through for example field observations (ZIMSEC, 2010).

Statistical significance
The IBM SPSS Statistics 24 was used to perform a Kruskal-Wallis test on the Likertscaled items. The independent variable, or categorical variable, was the qualification (subject specialisation) group to which the Integrated Science teacher belonged. The dependent variables were fifteen Likert-scale ordinal data statements. The analysis was based on the following hypotheses: H0: The three groups have the same distribution of scores.
HA: At least two of the groups will contain a statistically significant difference in the distribution of scores.
Out of the fifteen Likert-scale statements on the questionnaire, one statement (item 3) resulted in a statistically significant difference between groups as noted by the Kruskal-Wallis score, where p<0.05 (Table 1). A pairwise comparison post-hoc tests on this item with statistically significant differences was carried out to determine which two groups differed significantly in their responses since a Kruskal-Wallis score does not indicate between which two groups the differences occur. Items 1, 2 and 4-15 were not statistically significant. However, items 1 and 7 did show marginal significance at p=0.051 and 0.084, respectively and hence considered as just conditions. Item 3 stated: "Teaching through practical work is as important as teaching theory in IS". This item showed a significant difference in views regarding the statement between teachers who have specialised in chemistry education and those who have specialised in physics education during their teacher education programmes. The difference maintained statistical significance following the Bonferroni correction, where adj.p=0.033. Integrated Science teachers who specialised in Chemistry education were much more likely to accept as true that teaching through Practical Work is as important as teaching theory in Integrated Science than those who specialised in Physics Education. Each row tested the null hypothesis that the Sample 1 and Sample 2 distributions were the same. Asymptotic significances (2-sided tests) are displayed. The significance level was .05. Significance values were adjusted by the Bonferroni correction for multiple tests. Although the IS teachers generally strongly agreed with the statement that: "Teaching through practical work is as important as teaching theory in IS"; the level of strongly agreeing was more from the Chemistry education specialisation cohort than the other two cohorts. Whilst about 88% of the respondents agreed to item 3's assertion, about 12% disagreed to this. The IS syllabus document however demands, "practical and investigative approach must be adopted in teaching this syllabus" (ZIMSEC, 2010: 2). Despite the IS teachers resonating with the importance of practical work in teaching IS and being aware of the demands of the IS syllabus document, those from the Physics education specialisation cohort, however, had more teachers disagreeing to the questionnaire statement item number three as compared to the other two cohorts. This sentinel position of teachers from the Physics specialism is in line with the findings of Hashweh (1987) and Nixon and Luft (2015) that if teachers' Content Knowledge is low, it directly influences the way they teach, often times they find themselves comfortable with sticking to the script, employing more teacher centred approaches and the resultant is the accompanied reduced teaching effectiveness as a result of limited content knowledge (Hobbs, 2013). It should be noted that this study is however, not implying that holding a degree qualification with requisite Content Knowledge makes teachers proficient, but, holding a teaching qualification in the "content area serves as a readily available minimum requirement" (Nixon & Luft, 2015: 76). Topic-knowledgeable teachers are often-times more likely to diverge from textbook accounts and demand synthesis from their students and engage in practical activities (Hashweh, 1987). The teachers from the Physics education cohort seem to be less exposed to biology concepts and to some extent chemistry concepts and these are the major concepts which make-up the Integrated Science curriculum at Ordinary Level in Zimbabwe (ZIMSEC, 2010).

Conclusion
The results of the study indicate that the IS teachers have a common set of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that are, in their professional opinion, needed and in some instances, would enable them to teach IS. The research participants had considerable knowledge as well as clear views about what it meant for them to be IS teachers.
The research participants were generally in concurrence across the cohorts that students' culture was essential for learning IS. Although almost half of the research participants indicated that teaching IS is different from teaching other subjects, a significant 36.7% viewed the teaching of IS as being similar to teaching any other science subject thus, failing to acknowledge that each content knowledge has a unique approach to teaching it. The majority of IS teachers who specialised in Chemistry Education and Biology Education acknowledged the importance of not specialising in a single science discipline whilst the majority of IS teachers from the Physics Education cohort disagreed. IS teachers who specialised in Physics education identify themselves with their area of specialisation and were satisfied that it was a good enough preparation for them to teach IS. Across the 3 cohorts the IS teachers general recognised the need to pace teaching with rate of student learning. The was a high level of concurrence across the 3 cohorts on the importance of audio-visual aids in facilitating learning.
Although the IS teachers acknowledged that there were some content topics in IS which lie outside their area of specialisation more than half of the participants still felt that they were adequately prepared to teach IS upon graduation.
The majority of the participating IS teachers agreed to the importance of history of science in student learning. The IS teachers generally strongly agreed with the statement that: "Teaching through practical work is as important as teaching theory in IS"; the level of strongly agreeing, however, was more from the Chemistry education specialisation cohort than the other two cohorts. Integrated Science teachers who specialised in Chemistry education were much more likely to accept as true that teaching Integrated Science through Practical Work was as important as teaching theory than those who specialised in Physics Education. From the results of the survey it emerged that the research participants recognised the importance of Practical Work in Integrated Science. About half of the IS teacher participants indicated that they will not divert to teach aspects of IS if that aspect captures student interest during a lesson. This tendency to be rigid, less confident in their teaching, following a textbook structure quite closely and tending to ask recall questions is often evidenced in instances of teaching outside subject area specialism. The research participants preferred teaching IS indoors (36.7%) than outdoors (21.7) despite them being encouraged to take advantage of out-doors to facilitate learning. The majority of the research participants indicated that they were well trained in the use of IT to aid IS teaching.
Slightly above half of the research participants agreed to strongly agreeing that specialising during pre-service teacher education was important as a preparation for teaching IS. The IS teacher participants felt that the subject matter they were taught at college was adequate for enabling them to teach IS albiet IS being multidisciplinary and them specialising in one science discipline.
This study provides contextual inputs to effective IS teacher education re-alignment informed by the IS teacher practitioners, those with the craft knowledge of the contextual environment of the IS classrooms. Ultimately, with the findings of this study, a tool for recruiting and developing teachers who can effectively teach IS can be developed.


extfieldsofstudy: Psychology Medicine

s2fieldsofstudy: Education Medicine

text:
Impact of Parents and Peers Smoking on Tobacco Consumption Behavior of University Students

Introduction: In the United Arab Emirates, smoking prevalence has increased in both sexes, especially among young adults. Various factors have led to this catastrophe; examples include coverage on TV and social media, as well as market availability. One major influence is smoking by parents and peers. A lot of students may start smoking because of the behavior of their family and friends, and therefore it is necessary to quantify adverse contributions. The aim of this project was to study to what degree parents and peers smoking habits may impact on smoking behavior of students at the University of Sharjah. Methods: This cross-sectional observational study with a non-probability convenient type of sampling, was conducted with university students aged 18 to 23. Information was collected using a self-administered questionnaire, comprising 23 questions, developed by ourselves. Results: A total of 400 University of Sharjah students (50% males and 50% females) were included.Some 15.8% of the smoking students had smoking parents, and 17.1% of them had smoking peers. The respective figures were 22.2% and 21.7% for males and 10% and 7.8% for females. Conclusions: Peers had a stronger impact than parents and both parents and peers had greater influence on males than on females. Interestingly, almost 80% of the smoking students did not have smoking parents or peers, which leaves the question unanswered of why they started smoking in the first place. Actions at a societal level should be taken into consideration to prevent smoking and thus help create a non-smoking generation.

Introduction
Smoking is considered as a life-threatening habit based on its associated health disorders. To avert this, there have been widespread campaigns geared towards encouraging people to stop smoking. Smoking cessation represents an important health issue for both public health policy regulators and primary healthcare providers. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco smoking kills half of its users, with one tobacco associated death occurring in every 6 seconds; this surpasses death rate does not result from any other disease. Additionally, it was proved that the highest numbers of health complications are associated with smoking such as cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and cancer.
To date, few studies were conducted to study the effect of peers and parents on university students smoking, while no study addressed the issue in the gulf region.
Among both genders, especially young adults, smoking prevalence was actually increased. Multiple and diverse reasons can lie behind such an increase, but some of them include TV and social media along with the easy access and availability of smoking products in the market.
An interesting factor that I thought was worth studying, is the impact of smoking parents and peers. What came

Impact of Parents and Peers Smoking on Tobacco Consumption Behavior of University Students
Hussein Mohammed Resen* into my notice is that many of the students who started smoking were actually influenced by the fact that their parents and peers are smokers. If the results came to be true, this study can open a new path for future studies and this impact can be further analyzed which will then make it possible for precautions to be taken towards smoking prevention.
The aim of this project is to study whether parents and peers smoking habits have any impact on the students of University of Sharjah's attitude toward smoking.

Participants
The Cross-sectional observational study presents baseline data collected from student's questionnaire (medical and non-medical) in University of Sharjah. The sample was made up of 400 students. (50% males and 50% females) within an age range from 18 to 23 years old.
The analyzed variables were measured with questionnaires that were conducted with subjects that fit within the sample to collect data. The questionnaire was developed by the group members based on the research objectives, and other questions were built based on the research articles read by the group members. The

Procedure
Once the Ethical Committee approved the procedure and gave me the approval. I proceeded to identify the students that would participate in the study, in each campus.
All participating students fulfilled a questionnaire during 10 minutes. The data collection task was divided among the 5 members of the group equally and each questionnaire included a consent form that the participants will have to read and sign before answering any of the questions.

Data analysis and statistical method
In order to see the impact of parents and peers smoking on the university students' attitude towards smoking in Sharjah, I have tried to establish a link between parents and peers smoking and the students' attitude towards smoking. A peer was defined as any person who shares the same interests, age, background or social status as the student. Moreover, three different factors in the student's lifestyle were studied to check whether they were affected by the impact of parents and peers smoking; which were student's health, social life and personality. I defined social affect as any change in the student's emotions, intentions, or beliefs, health as any discomfort or complaint that the student felt due to their parents or peers smoking, and personality as any change in the way the student thinks, acts or speaks.
The data collected was analyzed and any patterns were recognized. The data acquired from the questionnaire were inserted in the "SPSS 22" software, to get the data analysis and to use the appropriate statistical tests for the different types of data.
The results were analyzed using chi-square test, a result is considered significant if its p value which was obtained using chi-square test is 0.05 or less.

Results
Data was analyzed with the aim of answering the research questions of the article. The results for each research question are written separately.

Comparing the impact of smoking parents and peers on the students' smoking
The number of students who had smoking parents and smoked was 15 out of 95 (15.8%), while the number of students who didn't have smoking parents but smoked was 26 out of 300 (8.7%).
The number of students who had smoking parents and smoked was significantly higher than the number of students who didn't have smoking parents and smoked (p=0.0486).
The number of students who had smoking peers and smoked was 40 out of 234 (17.1%), while the number of students who didn't have smoking peers but smoked was 1 out of 135 (0.74%).
The number of students who had smoking peers and smoked was significantly higher than the number of students who didn't have smoking peers and smoked (p=0.0001).

Comparing the impact of smoking parents with the impact of peers smoking
Results weren't significantly different as there were 95 students with smoking parents, 15 of them were smokers (15.8%). On the other hand, there were 234 students with smoking peers, 40 of them were smokers (17.1%).
The percentage of the smoking students who smoked with smoking peers is not significantly higher than the number of students who smoked with smoking parents. (p=0.775).

Comparing the impact of smoking parents and peers and whether it varies with gender
Results were significant as I found out that out of 45 males with smoking parents, 15 of them were smokers (22.2%) ( Table 1), while 5 out of 50 females with smoking parents were smokers with percentage of (10.0%) ( Table 1).
The percentage of smoking male students with smoking parents is significantly higher than smoking female students with smoking parents. (p=0.005) On the other hand, results showed that in males with smoking peers; 34 students out of 157 were smokers (21.7%), while out of 77 female students with smoking peers, 6 were smokers (7.8%).
The percentage of smoking male students with smoking peers is significantly higher than smoking female students with smoking peers (p=0.008).

The impact of smoking parents and peers on medical and non-medical students
Measuring the impact of smoking parents and peers on medical and non-medical students, 8 out of 43 medical students with smoking parents were smokers (18.6%), and 7 out of 52 non-medical students who had smoking parents were smokers (13.4%).
The percentage of smoking medical students with smoking parents is not significantly higher than smoking non-medical students with smoking parents. (p=0.462).
On the other side, when identifying the impact of peers on smoking medical students and non-medical students, there were 105 medical students with smoking peers, 11 of them were smokers (10.5%) (Table 1), while out of 129 non-medical students with smoking peers, 29 of them were smokers (22.5%) ( Table 1).
The percentage of smoking non-medical students with smoking peers is significantly higher than smoking medical students with smoking peers (p=0.0156).

The impact of smoking parents and peers on the students' lifestyle
In my research study; I aimed to assess the effect of parents and peers smoking on the students' social life, health, or personality, and all obtained results regarding the impact on social life were significant.
Regarding the social impact; 95 students with smoking parents; 9 of them claimed being affected socially by their smoking father (9.5%). On the other hand, 234 students had smoking peers, 25 students claimed they were affected in their social life (10.7%).
The percentage of smoking students with smoking Impact of Parents and Peers Smoking on Tobacco Consumption Behavior of University Students no matter what major they are enrolled in. The impact of smoking peers on non-medical students is higher than the impact of smoking peers on medical students can be due to the nature of studying in the medical colleges which doesn't have much student-student interactions compared to the non-medical colleges. Moreover, medical students devote most of their time to studying and they barely engage in social interactions and thus less likely to be affected by peers behavior.
In terms of gender, male students were 2 times more likely to be affected by their smoking parents and 3 times more likely to be affected by their smoking peers. A proper explanation for this can be the fact that the smoking behavior in the society is more prevalent and common among males, as it is regarded by many of the male students as a cool and manly behavior that should be followed by all males. Furthermore, many of the famous and successful movies reflect and portray smokers as successful and attractive (Page, 2012). While among the females, majority of them consider the smoking as "unfeminine" behavior, resulting in the low prevalence that I have in the results, which is also consistent with findings from Sirichotiratana et al., (2008). Female smoking is relatively uncommon in Asia, and there are generally strong negative perceptions toward female smokers (Lai et al., 2004).
Lastly, regarding the impact on the three students' lifestyle factors that were studied (health, social life and personality), it appeared to be that there was no significant difference between them as parents and peers had almost the same impact on the students. The impact itself can be explained by second-hand smoking theories. In Taiwan, the Bureau of Health Promotion (2012) reported that 42.2% of students indicated they were exposed to secondhand smoke at home in 2011. This is followed by the social factor, as some students feel embarrassed because of their smoking parents or peers. Lastly having a smoking parent or friend can lead to changes in the students' personality and their point of view towards the smoking behavior.
The study focuses on the behavior that youngest people exhibit due to them being influenced by their parents and peers. I also wish by my results to spread the awareness among both parent and the students since the initiating and quitting behavior considered as a point of change in the students, their family and peers. Once parents realize that there is association between their smoking and their children's attitude toward smoking, this will encourage parents to quit smoking, which might carry a positive peers who claimed being affected socially is not significantly higher than smoking students with smoking parents who claimed being affected socially (p=0.774).
Moving to the health aspect, I found out that out of 95 students with a smoking parents, 58 claimed being affected in their health (61%), while there were 234 students with smoking peers, 146 claimed being affected in their health (62.4%).
The percentage of smoking students with smoking peers who claimed being affected in their health is not significantly higher than smoking students with smoking parents who claimed being affected health-wise. (p=0.820).
Regarding the personality impact, there were 95 students with a smoking parents, 7 claimed that their personally was affected (7.4%). Finally, with the effect of smoking peers on personality, 20 students out of 234 reported being affected (8.5%) ( Table 2).
The percentage of smoking students with smoking peers who claimed being affected in their personality is not significantly higher than smoking students with smoking parents who claimed being affected in their personality (p=0.724).

Discussion
The results answer the main objective of the article, which is to find out whether there is a relation between the parents and peers smoking and the students' smoking behavior. I found a significant relationship between the effect of both parents and peers as they had a noticeable impact on the students' smoking behavior, which can be issued a risk factor behind university students smoking.
By comparing the impact of parents and the impact of peers, there was no significant difference between the two. Thus, parents don't get the dominant hand on peers in affecting the students vice versa. This can be explained by the fact that although university students spend time with their friends and they are affected by them, they still depend on their parents sometimes and get influenced by their actions, as they are still considered in the stage of building their character.
Additionally, the fact that the impact of smoking parents on medical students is not significantly higher than the impact of smoking parents on non-medical students this can be explained by the same principle as both groups are students and they are still dependent on their families  Also, actions should be taken on a societal level to reduce smoking among adults for the aim of creating a nonsmoking generation. Other factors that are also in need of being taken into consideration are media and educational level of a person since the education will make person open minded and more aware about different aspects in his life including his physical and mental health. The selfsatisfaction should be also considered to see the level of regression or acceptance and this might influence their thinking in future regarding smoking cessation. Prior research has shown that both general parenting behaviors and smoking-specific parenting practices contribute to adolescent smoking behaviors (Wang et al., 2014). Therefore, understanding and identifying the correlation between parents smoking and university students' attitudes toward smoking can really improve the parents' cognition and parenting practices to drive their sons and daughters away from smoking. This can be achieved through campaigns and raising awareness. It shouldn't be considered as words that are said on spot; it must be a collaboration between different groups for building a shining generation that knows where to step.

Limitations
Possible limitations are that even though no names were required form the participants, there could be a possibility that some students didn't declare the truth about their smoking behavior, or the smoking behavior of their peers and parents due to embarrassment. Also the correlation between the smoking of the parents or peers and the smoking of students can be made, but you can't establish a decisive cause-and-effect relationship between these two, because there are other factors that need to be taken into consideration, and there is a possibility that the correlation was made due to chance.
In conclusion, peers had a stronger impact than parents. The impact of smoking parents was more prominent on medical students rather than non-medical students, while peers had more impact on non-medical students. Parents and peers had more impact on males rather than females.
Smoking mothers had even more impact on students in comparison to fathers or both parents smoking. Lastly, health was the most prominent lifestyle factor in which the students were actually affected.
Media campaigns, smoke-free operations, prohibition on smoking advertising and sales are important measures in the prevention of students' smoking (Jacobson, 2000). There should be decisions made on the governmental level to try to eradicate this phenomenon.

Directions for future research
Further studies in the area are needed to support the claims of the article, as the university students are considered to be the building blocks of the society and are passing through a very critical and sensitive stage of life, and thus their social life needs to be studied as a measure to prevent various diseases caused by smoking.
One of the interesting results that I had is that almost 80% of the smoking students in the population smoked without the effect of parents or peers, which makes you wonder what reason could those university students have had caused them to start smoking.

Author contributions
All authors were involved in study conception/design, data collection and analysis, drafting of manuscript, statistical expertise, administrative work, and critical revisions for important intellectual content.

Declaration of interests
None.


Reggio Emilia Inspired Philosophical Teacher Education in the Anthropocene: Posthuman Child and the Family (Tree)

Karin Murris is full professor of pedagogy and philosophy at the School of Education at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Grounded in philosophy as an academic discipline, as a teacher educator her main research interests are in posthuman intraactive pedagogies such as philosophy with children and Reggio Emilia, school ethics, and postqualitative research methods. She is principal investigator of the Decolonising Early Childhood Discourses: Critical Posthumanism in Higher Education research project funded by the South African National Research Foundation (NRF). Her articles can be downloaded from https://uct.academia.edu/ KarinMurris. Email: karin.murris@uct.ac.za

The work reported on in this paper involved three lecturers, all teaching the postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE) foundation phase in the School of Education, University of Cape Town. Over a period of six weeks (September-November 2017) Karin Murris, Rose-Anne Reynolds, and Joanne Peers planned their lectures together by regularly returning to the shared documentation in a Google.doc folder (audio and video tapes, photos, field notes, lesson preparation, our comments, etc.). Our students are be(com)ing foundation phase (5-to 9-year-olds in South Africa) teachers, and we show, mainly through visual images, how one picturebook can be used as a provocation for an e/ mergent curriculum in teacher education. Central in our assemblage is the changed relationality among human, subhuman, and more-than-human that should be at the heart of environmental education in the Anthropocene, and how this de/colonizing shift is brought into existence through collaborative Reggio-Emilia-inspired pedagogical documentation across three university courses. In particular, we focus on discriminatory animal:human and child:adult relations in segregated In this paper, we give a flavour of how, against the odds, Reggio-Emilia-inspired pedagogical documentation can work in reconceptualizing environmental education, reconfiguring child subjectivity and provoking an ontological shift from autopoiesis to sympoiesis in teacher education. Working posthuman(e)ly and transdisciplinarily across three foundation phase teacher education courses at a university in South Africa, we situate our teaching within current environmental precarities. We show how we stirred up trouble in and outside our university classroom and provoked our students to "make kin" with children, each other, other animals, and the more-than-human, but also to stay with the trouble, that is, to learn to be truly present in colonized spaces.

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and enclosed spaces for children, adults, animals, and plants that are regulated through various inside/outside binaries that include and exclude, keeping the "other" at a distance. Schools, zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, etc., are colonizing material-discursive spaces. These spaces assume nonegalitarian power relations between adult and child, humans and animals, and humans and plants.
To move beyond colonizing ontological relationality in-between humans of a certain age, race, gender, or class (and where they intra-sect) and between humans and more-than-humans, students need to be able take up an activist position seeking material and social transformation. Moving beyond notions of individual flourishing to multispecies flourishing is provoked through our use of picturebooks. We show how they are central to our innovative, philosophical work and, as material-discursive bodies, have brought new posthuman practices into being. Joanna Haynes and Karin Murris argue that contemporary picturebooks are post-age philosophical texts (Haynes & Murris, 2012, 2017. They can constitute an e/mergent curriculum in schools as well as teacher education, and through an assemblage of mainly visual images we offer a modest imaginary of how we can-against the oddsteach differently in teacher education. In this paper we show how Julia Donaldson and Alex Scheffler's picturebook The Stickman (2008) provoked a project that embraced a nonrepresentational, rhizomatic exploration of concepts across three university courses, rather than using a transmission approach of giving fixed definitions of concepts.

Human Exceptionalism
To design and teach a posthuman teacher education curriculum in South Africa is challenging, for various, entangled reasons: the hegemonic developmental orientation of childhood education in higher education institutions, student teachers' own expectations of what amounts to a good education based on their own experiences of schooling, and the government's solutions to the current educational "crisis" (very low scores on international benchmark tests in mathematics and literacy) by introducing a new revised national curriculum: The Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement [CAPS]. Since CAPS, teachers are under pressure to work with standardized national workbooks, including highly prescribed, specified, sequenced and paced guidance regarding the content that should be taught in schools with scripted lessons and worksheets. These interventions by the government reinforce the already existing focus in teacher education on strengthening the teaching of school subjects (mathematics and literacy) in their programs. Less value is attached to the subject of life skills in the foundation phase, which includes a mixed bag of, for example, the natural and social sciences, the creative arts, and physical exercise. Although not explicitly mentioned, environmental education is part of life skills and is theoretically framed by the human-(child)centered drive to reach the global sustainable development goals (SDG) and focuses on children's rights and their holistic development based on scientific evidence (Jamieson, Berry, & Lake, 2017). So the official and hidden curriculum of South African schools is human centered. Like elsewhere, one of the aims of education is to socialize learners (and student teachers) into particular kinds of relationships that assume human exceptionalism. The concept "family" needs to be taught as part of life skills.

Reconfiguring Relationality With the Subhuman and the More-Than-Human
Fields as diverse as, for example, environmental humanities, the performative arts, cultural theory, education, organizational studies, critical geography, architecture, anthropology, political theory, childhood studies, and literary and literacy studies are now questioning human-centered figurations of the subject. Some argue that anthropocentrism and a focus on identity rather than difference is the main reason for present struggles with respect to race, gender, class, and the environmental problems in the controversially termed geological period of the Anthropocene 1 in which we now live. Critical biologist and feminist philosopher Donna Haraway (2016) explains our current predicament passionately:

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These times called the Anthropocene are times of multispecies, including human, urgency: of great mass death and extinction; of onrushing disasters, whose unpredictable specificities are foolishly taken as unknowability itself; of refusing to know and to cultivate the capacity of responseability; of refusing to be present in and to onrushing catastrophe in time; of unprecedented looking away. (p. 35) Haraway's writings include a passionate plea to cultivate "response-ability" and to resist "looking away" at our present time of "The Great Dithering" (2016, pp. 144-145). Our task, she urges, is not only to stir up trouble and "to make kin in lines of inventive connection as a practice of learning to live and die well with each other in a thick present, " but also to stay with the trouble, that is, "to learn to be truly present … as mortal critters entwined in myriad unfinished configurations of places, times, matters, meanings" (p. 1).
A plethora of terms has emerged that describe this "new" (for Western thinkers) philosophical orientation with implications for ethics: posthumanism, new materialism, vital materialism, relational materialism, sociomaterialism, object-orientated ontology, and so forth. There are more or less subtle differences among these philosophies. Our own inspiration for doing education differently is inspired mainly by the complex critical posthumanism developed by Haraway, Karen Barad, and Rosi Braidotti (who, in turn, draws heavily on Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, who also in turn have developed their ideas in dialogue with the writings of Western philosophers Plato, Leibniz, Kant, Nietzsche, and especially Spinoza).
Although Haraway (2016) prefers the term "compostist" (p. 101) to posthumanist, her writings have been and still are very influential on the development of critical posthumanism, especially Karen Barad's influential strand of posthumanism. Haraway makes a useful distinction between seeing human animals as autopoietic systems and sympoietic systems (p. 176, note 13). In the former, humans have "self-produced binaries, " they are "organizationally closed, " "autonomous units, " centrally controlled (e.g., through a human will or intellect), orientated around growth and development with "evolution between systems, " and are "predictable" (p. 176, note 13). In contrast, sympoietic systems lack boundaries, are "complex amorphous entities, " have "distributed control" with an "evolution within systems, " and are "unpredictable" (p. 176, note 13). Haraway explains: Sympoiesis is a simple word; it means "making-with." Nothing makes itself; nothing is really autopoietic or self-organizing. In the words of the Inupiat computer "world game," earthlings are never alone. That is the radical implication of sympoiesis. Sympoiesis is a word proper to complex, dynamic, responsive, situated, historical systems. It is a word for worlding-with, in company. (p. 58, italics in original) Earthlings are "never alone. " Theorizing subjectivity as an existential event is a paradigmatic shift from the discursive to the material-discursive and expresses a relational posthuman ontology salient for multispecies flourishing. The ontological fact that earthlings are "never alone" means that teachers are always part of, and situated in (as Haraway points out), complex, dynamic, historical, and responsive systems that are both material and discursive at the very same time. Teaching and learning are, therefore, "worlding-with" practices that disrupt power-producing Western humanist binaries, such as mind/body, culture/nature, cognition/emotion, theory/practice, and adult/ child, because categories that involve binaries, such as "subjects, objects, kinds, races, species, genres, and genders" are all products of relationships "between" significant others (Haraway, 2003, pp. 6-7). Similarly, Barad's neologism intra-action at the heart of her agential realism also emphasizes an ontological shift in how humans and morethan-humans relate with and influence each other (Barad, 2007(Barad, , 2013. Intra-action is different from interaction in that nature and culture are never pure, are never unaffected by each other, but are always in relation-a sympoietic system for Haraway; an "entanglement" for Barad; and an "assemblage" for Deleuze.

Staying With the Trouble: Reggio Emilia and Philosophy With Children
Key to our de/colonizing 2 work is the use of Reggio Emilia and Philosophy for Children (P4C) as intra-active intragenerational pedagogies (Murris, 2016(Murris, , 2017. It involves wondering about the established meanings of concepts through philosophical questioning and provoking projects (progettazione 3 ) by taking the concepts that emerge in philosophical inquiries further into other intra-ventions through pedagogical documentation. This type of documentation demands that teachers are response-able for their observations, descriptions, interpretations, and explanations and dare to see the ambiguities (Dahlberg, Moss, & Pence, 2013, p. 155)-always selective, partial, contextual, and situated. A willingness to be open to surprises and the unexpected is key. The documentation brings into the world a material-discursive expression of students' learning and their intra-action with more-thanhuman things, thought, affect, concepts, and environment (Edwards, 1995).
The pedagogical documentation of our teaching contains many images of the students' work, of them working together, sometimes on their own, often in small groups, and regularly as a whole class. The constant reworking of the documentation is a form of listening through annotated visualization of selected events in class, bringing energies and forces to the project work that open up new possibilities (Olsson, 2009, p. 41). In that sense, the posthuman pedagogy reworks the past across spacetime (Barad, 2007(Barad, , 2014 as re-turning changes the in-between of what is documented and how it is "read" and the infinite possibilities created in this way. The conceptual focus seemed the key to such a dynamic, evolving curriculum: provoking new thoughts, emotions, sensations, and perceptions. In particular, we focused at the end of last year on the concepts "family" and "family tree"-generated partly by the students themselves. Resisting the temptation to define these concepts and treat them as representations of an independently existing reality "out there, " we worked with them transversally, that is, they cut across the binaries of the objective (nature) and the subjective (culture). They not only stirred our minds, but also struck our bodies (Massumi, 2015, p. x). They constrain as well as express desire and freedom. Switching "languages" transmodally thickened the sedimented understandings of concepts and the relationships they are always part of (in our teaching this was, for example, stick-tree-wood-land-conservation-laws-colonization-country-earthuniverse-the-humans-who-created-the-concept).

Transmodality
We regard transmodality as the creation of new understandings of concepts through the switching of one hundred languages (and a thousand more) to project forward as part of a process of intra-action in-between human and nonhuman bodies (which is different from self-expression). The famous metaphor of "the hundred languages" is from a poem written by Loris Malaguzzi. A powerful critique of the privileging of the dominant two languages in (higher) education, reading and writing, the metaphor refers at one (practical) level to the introduction of materialdiscursive tools for meaning making in schools, such as visual arts, physical movement, video, digital cameras, augmented realities, and computers. At a symbolic level, the hundred languages are, as Carlina Rinaldi (2006) puts it: a "metaphor for crediting children and adults with a hundred, a thousand creative and communicative potentials" (p. 175). Before showing how we have used the concept family transmodally, adopting the hundred languages of Reggio Emilia we first explore further why human-centered figurations of the subject are troublesome.

Posthuman Child and Learning About Posthumanism Experientially
Posthuman teaching is a radical shift from a Cartesian substance ontology to an intra-active relational ontology. It moves discussions about relationality from the sociological to the ontological-the so-called ontological or material

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turn in the history of ideas. This turn sits uncomfortably with pedagogies informed by scientific realism, social constructivism, postmodernism, or poststructuralism which all assume that linguistic or other semiotic systems mediate between nature and culture (Murris, 2016, chapter 3). The power of these systems has been not only substantial but also "substantializing, " allowing linguistic structure to determine our understanding of the world (Barad, 2007, p. 133). Take, for example, the standardized educational practice of giving definitions of concepts to capture the essence or meaning of concepts, also in higher education, including attempts to define what child is by nature. Curiously, neither Barad nor Braidotti nor Haraway explicitly refers to adult:child relationality.
However, our transmodal work with student teachers across three preservice education courses (Childhood Studies, Life Skills, and Special Studies) in the University of Cape Town's School of Education shows how the ontological shift from autopoiesis to sympoiesis denaturalizes child and childhood. Students' material-discursive expressions evidence a philosophical distancing from the figuration of the developmental child of psychology (child as 'i'), the self-contained, autonomous child of the children's rights discourse (child as 'I'), and the child-in-socioculturalcontext of sociology (child as 'ii') (Murris, 2016). We start with the neologism child as 'i' (Figures 1 and 2).

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When we started teaching the three preservice teacher education courses we draw on in this paper, we began by returning to their feedback halfway through their second teaching practice (TP). Karin teaches Childhood Studies. She had put large sheets of flipchart paper on tables in the middle of the room and each student drew, wrote, and used playdough and other materials. They then walked around the large rectangle of paper-tables and intra-acted (diffracted 4 ) with other students' expressions. After TP, our first lecture started with revisiting the large sheets of paper and intra-acting with the visual images and writings on it ( Figure 3).
We had previously discussed the impact of these pages and the effect they had on them. The students expressed deep disappointment in what it means to be a teacher in practice, and there was a heavy atmosphere in the university classroom. Many felt invisible in their school as student teachers. Not really being taken seriously themselves, they also expressed concern about the children, who were not learning much and were often shouted at, or worse. There were deep sighs and much silence. One student wrote and drew a powerful image: Invisible child … Who is education for? (Figure 4), with transparent plastic expressing the lack of visibility and respect for children in South African schools.
Our task as teacher educators seems overwhelming in teaching our students how we can respect children as knowledge producers by introducing a different relationality that does justice, not only to the subhuman, but also to other animals and the more-than-human.
In her childhood studies course, Karin asked the students to create narrative characters of her neologisms child as i, I, ii, and iii 5 . Kieran Egan (2006, p. 3) argues that successful teaching depends on engaging feelings. One cognitive tool he suggests is to create characters (from numbers, commas, phonemes, etc.) and stories with them in order to-as Egan puts it-make "within yourself an emotional connection with the topic" (Egan, 2006, p. 3, emphasis in original). Personifying characters and making stories helps in being affected by concepts. Karin speculated that it might also help the students engage with different figurations of child and childhood. It was striking that the students struggled with the "child as I" character. They could not quite imagine what it would be like for children in schools to be treated, for example, as having participation rights. Tristan Barrett created the following QR code to express the "child as I" character, which although "competent, " is still a developmental one with adulthood as ideal.

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Karin also invited the students to read out loud in a circle and discuss Loris Malaguzzi's Your Image of the Child: Where Teaching Begins (1994). This powerful article by the founder of the Reggio Emilia approach to education seemed the right choice in the context of their disturbing teaching practice experiences. What stood out for the students as an expression of "child as iii" (posthuman child) was this: We need to define the role of the adult, not as a transmitter but as a creator of relationships-relationships not only between people but also between things, between thoughts, with the environment. It's like we need to create a typical New York traffic jam in the school. (Malaguzzi, 1994, n.p.) This discussion, in turn, inspired student teacher Tannagh to express child as 'iii' as shown in Figure 6.
Student teacher Nadia Woodward beautifully expressed her entire interconnected family: "child as i, I, ii, and iii" ( Figure  7).
With posthumanism as our navigational tool, we use the concept child, not to depict a singular entity in the world of competencies, voice, agency, and so on, but to express human and more-than-human intra-active relationality. Individuals materialize and come into being through relationships, and so does meaning. The neologism child as iii (Murris, 2016) expresses posthuman child: a subject (an inhuman becoming) that is part of the world and not an object in space and time (as container concepts). Importantly, it does not follow, as is often assumed, that the subject does not matter epistemically or ethically. As Liselott Olsson (2009)

strikingly puts it,
what is talked about is in no way whatsoever a "dead" subject. On the contrary the ideas of subjectivity that are put forward … concern a subject that is more alive than ever. But it is also a subject that is constantly in the making, a becoming subject, and this subject is much more than an individual subject; it is a totally unique and singular subject that is never repeatable, not even to itself. (p. 127) The ontological shift in subjectivity also means in a sense that "adult has become child … a being who is incomplete, always on-the-way, who is never finished developing" (Kennedy 2006, p. 10). This postdevelopmental shift in Posthumanism not only disrupts the adult:child binary, but profoundly democratizes the playing field in many directions-nothing is considered to stand outside or above or to take a true, privileged, transcendental position, and this is critical for de/colonizing environmental education in the Anthropocene. It understands the human body of any age as an unbounded organism that exists in an entangled network of human and nonhuman forces, opening up a nonhierarchical kind of being and knowing by queering human-made categories (e.g., nature/ culture) that include and exclude. Early childhood educator Fikile Nxumalo (2014) points out that Indigenous knowledges have for millennia taught that "human subjectivities are inseparable from their more-than-human relations and responsibilities" (p. 54).
Both critical posthumanism and Indigenous knowledge systems encourage educators philosophically and practically to engage with more robust and complex accounts of the relationality involved in pedagogical encounters, reconfiguring adult-child and animal-human relationships in schools, the material world, the environment, and the relationship between theory and practice (Olsson, 2009;Lenz Taguchi, 2010;Murris, 2016;Pacini-Ketchabaw, Nxumalo, Kocher, Elliot, & Sanchez, 2015;Pedersen, 2016;Snaza & Weaver, 2015;Taylor, 2013;Taylor & Hughes, 2016). However, despite the urgency of a shift to a relational ontology for sustainability education (Malone, Truong, & Gray, 2017), the nitty-gritty of how to prepare student teachers in higher education for alternatives to hegemonic

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Western binary logic in our understandings of the world is slow coming forward.
For student teachers to embrace practices of staying with and stirring up trouble and making kin in their own future classrooms, they need to experience different ways of relating, not only to the subhuman (child), but also to other animals and the more-than-human. They also need to experience themselves, as students, how their own teachers plan for teaching differently, rhizomatically 6 , and collaboratively. These experiences are not holistic, but dis/embodied in the sense that they are "transindividual. " Bodies are not bounded by a skin as units in space and time, but are in/determinate subjects and produced involving contradiction and multiplicity (hence: dis/ embodied). Posthuman pedagogies assume "nomadic subjects" (Braidotti, 2006(Braidotti, , 2013, selves who are not only epistemologically homeless, but also dis/continuously (Barad, 2014) becoming.
The philosophical shift in subjectivity poses profound challenges in teacher education as student teachers need strong systems of support and mentoring through carefully designed preservice education. Considering our program is primarily designed as a quick preparation for becoming a teacher, how does one teacher-educate posthuman(e)ly? In what follows, we share one example of our collaborative work.

The Stickman and the Family (Tree)
The Stickman (2008) is an illustrated poem about the toy of the gruffalo's child-a character in another picturebook by Julia Donaldson and Alex Scheffler-who gets involved in a terrifying journey when he takes a jog away from his family tree, inhabited by "Stick Lady Love and their stick children three. " Before using the picturebook, Karin had asked each student to draw their own family tree. Some had drawn hierarchical ones, and one student had made a rhizomatic drawing. We explored in depth the reasons for who or what was on their tree (are genetic "blood" lines necessary?). Some students had included their pet animals (see Figure 8).
When intra-acting with the pedagogical documentation, we noticed that the concepts family, belonging, and alive/dead kept returning in our work with the students. To thicken the sedimented understandings (Barad, 2007) of these concepts, Karin offered students the opportunity to intra-act with the embedded augmented reality iSolar System book (Carlton Books, 2013). Through a downloaded app on their smartphone, the planets come alive and circle around each other (see Figure 8). A conceptual connection was made with the Stickman's belonging to his family tree, and Karin stirred up trouble by asking "Is the earth part of a family?" The students expressed deep puzzlement about the hierarchy between human and nonhuman, about anthropomorphism by prioritizing human needs over animals and objects, and powerful links were made with the field trips Rose-Anne organized as part of the course Special Studies 7 to the Two Oceans Aquarium and Arderne Gardens in Cape Town. We used the outings to the aquarium and a botanical garden to further explore, On arrival at the aquarium, we were struck by a poster welcoming visitors with a hermit crab saying, "Join the family" (see Figure 10). By implication, we were not already members of this family.
Joining this family would involve a hefty financial transaction, and the students were troubled by how expensive it was to visit the aquarium, which meant it excluded groups of people who could not afford to pay the entrance or joining fees, which in turn would then impact who could be a part of the "family. " One student asked, "Is the aquarium a private school?" and this led to a discussion about inclusion and exclusion and access to resources. During apartheid, resources were deliberately limited and access to schooling was limited to specific groups of children and people. These inequalities still exist today in a two-tier education system.
The tanks in the aquarium are meant to be homes for the various sea creatures. Their material-discursive presence raised questions that stirred up trouble for our class of 21 student teachers. The tanks are designed for particular groupings of fish, so the aquarium ended up being a "family" with tanks as rooms with no interleading doors because all the tanks were separate, so which "family, " therefore, was to be joined? After all, only humans could voluntarily join the family; the fish and sharks had no say in whether they wanted to be there or not. One student expressed her concern that the fish in the tanks had been removed from their larger families in the ocean to be available to be looked at by the aquarium visitors: "Fish in tanks are also part of a family-never thought of that before." Is family then a human concept, and how does the concept work to include and exclude? How does it prevent making kin with other animals and the more-than-human?

Animals on Life Support in the Aquarium
On the day we were in the aquarium, there were a lot of schools visiting. In Figure 15, you can see how the educational intra-vention had been set up. The idea is for the children to sit still, be quiet, and listen to the presenter (with the mic), while the divers and different fish are on display in the tank behind them. This is the way fish and their lives are presented to the children. An ideal ocean-no destruction, no evidence of the harm humans inflict on the ocean-those messages are conveyed separately and differently. Here, the presenter recites a script about what he (or/and his line manager) thinks the humans and children want to and should know about the fish in the tank behind them. The children in the audience raise their hands to ask questions or to tell others what they already know or are experiencing as they watch the sea creatures in the tank. Most hands are not answered-the knowledge and knowing about the fish is firmly located in the adult human with the mic. Education here presupposes subjectivity as an autopoietic system with "selfproduced binaries" (Haraway, 2016, p. 58), positioning child as 'i' with a developmental orientation and without surprises or opportunities for dis/embodied learning.
As part of this event, the students asked: "Is it ethical to watch fish?" and "Are fish comfortable being watched by strangers?" These unexpected, complex, dynamic, responsive, and situated questions are part of learning as a sympoietic system-a "worlding-with, in company" and being "truly present" (Haraway, 2016, pp.1, 58) in colonized spaces.
Rose-Anne was particularly struck by the advanced forms and use of technology necessary to keep the fish alive. In every tank, tubes were needed to pump oxygen to enable sea creatures to breathe and survive. It is a form of life support that would not be necessary if creatures had been left in the ocean. The fish are kept alive in these artificial conditions for the benefit of the human "family" who come to visit (see Figure 13). Not only are the fish kept alive by oxygen that filters into the tanks, but their food is given to them by the divers. Ironically, the environmental education leaflet at the aquarium promises visitors to connect "a wide audience with nature. " But "nature" and "culture" always intra-act, are never "pure" or unaffected by each other. They are always entangled and part of a sympoietic system (Haraway, 2016).

Not Just Family as Defined by and Only for Humans
One way to respond to Haraway's (2016) passionate plea to cultivate response-ability and to resist "looking away" at our present time of "The Great Dithering" (pp.144-145) is to move our primary place of learning and teaching to the outdoors. After returning to our documentation of the aquarium, we decided to visit Arderne Gardens a couple of weeks later with the aim of stirring up more trouble with the concept family tree. The choice of that particular botanical garden was deliberate: It is the home of alien trees and plants whose reason for being in the park is that they were "exotic" to South Africa. These trees do not "naturally" "belong" there. They are not part of the flora indigenous to South Africa and were planted by White settlers (the Arderne family).
One particular tree called the Moreton Bay Fig demanded  our attention. It is one of the oldest exotic trees in South Africa (around 165 years old), but of course not as old as the indigenous trees. The tree was not background or context, but part of the reading: a reading-with, a thinking-with. We suggested to the students that they take up the invitation by the tree's huge roots on top of the soil, creating contained spaces, and read the picturebooks we had brought along in small groups to each other. These picturebooks all featured trees and forests. At the time, we had no idea that this fig tree is also interestingly called the "wedding tree" because so many couples have their wedding photos made in between the roots and in front of the tree.
Angela Webb, leaning against and supported by the giant roots, read Anthony Browne's Hansel and Gretel (2008) to fellow student teacher Zukile Ncube. Without being able to articulate it fully in words, we are struck by the materialdiscursive entanglement of Figure 14, making kin between human and nonhuman, transversing gender, race, class, and age: soil-paper-blanket-hands-concentration-texturestripes-blue-bark-bedtime-fairytale...
So how then do we think about family, and not just family as defined by and only for humans?
Our philosophical teaching disrupted the colonizing, power-producing, Western humanist binaries-the assumptions that picturebooks are only for children, that reading in educational institutions happens inside buildings, that a human family is more important than fish or tree families, and that these families cannot exist beyond human-created binaries. Our collaborative work with the students dis/continuously raised questions about what it means to belong to a family.

JOURNAL OF CHILDHOOD STUDIES ARTICLES FROM RESEARCH
We "end" with powerful questions posed by Haraway (2016, p. 2), questions that will continue to stir up trouble in our teacher education program: Making kin as oddkin rather than, or at least in addition to, godkin and genealogical and biogenetic family troubles important matters, like to whom one is actually responsible. Who lives and who dies, and how, in this kinship rather than that one? What shape is this kinship, where and whom do its lines connect and disconnect, and so what? What must be cut and what must be tied if multispecies flourishing on earth, including human and other-than-human beings in kinship, are to have a chance?

Funding
This writing is based on research supported by the National Research Foundation of South Africa [grant number 98992]. Figure 15. Entanglement of the human, subhuman, and more-than-human.


Creative thinking level of students with high capability in relations and functions by problem-based learning

This research was conducted in order to describe the creative thinking level of students with high capability in relations and functions with Problem Based Learning. The subjects of the research were students with high capability grade VIII at SMPIT Ibnu Abbas Klaten. This research is an qualitative descriptive research. The data were collected using observation, tests and interviews. The result showed that the creative thinking level of students with high capability in relations and functions by Problem Based Learning was at level 4 or very creative because students were able to demonstrate fluency, flexibility, and novelty.

Introduction
Creative thinking skills is the skills to think of many possibilities; to use various methods; to use different point of view; to think of something new and innovative in order to guide the teachers in generating and selecting alternatives [1]. Creative thinking skills should be practiced at all levels of education from primary schools to universities to achieve the goals in accordance with the demands of the educational curriculum [1]. One of the abilities of mathematical thinking that needs to be developed early on is the ability to think creatively [2]. Therefore, the ability and creative thinking skills must also be owned by every student in the mathematics learning [3]. Hopefully, their creative thinking skills can be used to problems in daily life.
There are three main indicators of creative thinking skills, namely fluency, flexibility, and novelty [4]. Fluency in problem-solving refers to a student's ability to obtain many solutions to a problem. Flexibility in problem-solving refers to a student's ability to solve a problem using many different methods or ways. Novelty in problem-solving refers to the student's ability to solve a problem with many different solutions and correct answers, especially to find an original solution which is not common for that student's grades or their knowledge level. There are five creative thinking levels, namely level 4, level 3, level 2, level 1, level 0 [4]. Students at level 4 (very creative) satisfied three components of creative thinking indicators (fluency, flexibility, and novelty). Students at level 3 (creative) satisfied two components, flexibility and fluency or novelty and fluency. Students at level 2 (quite creative) only satisfied one aspect, namely flexibility or novelty. Students at level 1 (almost not creative) only satisfied a fluency aspect. Students at level 0 (not creative) did not satisfy all components.
The low ability of student's creative thinking was described by some international research results such as TIMMS and PISA scores in recent years [5]. Then, the preliminary study of Carni [6] in one Senior High School in Bandung shows the result of the creative thinking tests that are given is in the (2) learning is still dependent on the teacher; (3) learning is a memorizing activity; (4) teachers rarely practicing the comprehension ability; (5) teachers rarely practicing some experiment activities, and learning of physics is still the focus on the count [6]. The results of Dyers, J. H. that 2/3 of the ability of one's creativity obtained through education, 1/3 students come from genetic. These findings confirm the important role of education in developing creativity [7]. Based on the description that has been described, teacher must design learning that can develop creative thinking level. Currently the development is applied by changing curriculum of 2006 into the curriculum of 2013. This new curriculum were built based-on understanding of the competence to be achieved in the learning process and realizing the importance of being trained for high-level thinking skills [8]. In the curriculum of 2013 provides guidance for teachers to be more creative in teaching and developing teaching materials. Teachers are not the main actors but as facilitators, moderators, and evaluators in learning.
Problem-based learning is a method applied in Curriculum 2013 [9]. Problem-based learning can encourage students to actively solve problems so they can get the concept of the material independent [10]. One of the characteristics of problem-based learning is to provide a problem that close to real life and may occur in real life, so that Problem-based learning is a solution to facilitate the students to perform connection process between the material to real life [11]. Characteristics or traits problem based learning as follows: (1) the learning process should begin with a problem which is predominantly concrete problems; (2) materials and learning activities should pay attention to the circumstances of how that can attract the attention of students; (3) The teacher is a supervisor during the learning process; (4) students need to be given enough time to think or collect information and develop strategies for problem-solving and creativity they have driven while learning; (5) the level of difficulty of the materials studied are not at high rates which can make students despair; (6) the learning environment comfortable, quiet and safe should be constructed so that developing students' ability to think and solve problems [12].
Based on the description that has been presented, problem-based learning pay attention creative thinking skills. Kamin [13] say that problem based learning one of the teaching methods, has positive effects in the development of creative thinking skills. Problem-based learning model means gives a positive effect on students' creative thinking skills [14]. Problem-based learning can be applied to develop creativity well [15]. Learning by PBL can improve several skills, including communication skills, and the organization through team work [16]. The purpose of this research is to describe creative thinking level of students with high capability after mathematics learning by Problem-based learning. Students with high capability are chosen in order to become one of references by students with average or low capability.

Methods
This research is an qualitative descriptive research. Subjects in this study were students with high capability grade VIII at SMPIT Ibnu Abbas Klaten. To determine students with high capability, 36 students grade VIIIB-4 at SMPIT Ibnu Abbas Klaten were asked to solve problems about coordinate system. Coordinate system is the prerequisite material of the relation and function. The results of the test were rated using scores from 0-100, and they were grouped into three categories. The test scores <60 are categorized into low capability, 60 ≤ test scores < 80 into middle, and test scores≥80 into high. Then students with high capability and good communication skills were chosen to be the subject of the study. The data were obtained using observation, test, and interviews. Observation used to obtain the quality of learning using problem-based learning. Test used to obtain data creative thinking skills. Interview used to clarify the student answer.

Result and Discussion
Observation on this research is observation of mathematics learning process conducted in class VIIIB-4 SMPIT Ibnu Abbas Klaten. The study material is the relation and function. Students who learn to use the models of problem-based learning as participant is 36 students. Students are grouped into 9 groups, each group consists of four students. Each group given student activity sheet about relations and functions. Each group worked on the student activity sheet, then the results of the work presented in the class. After learning relations and functions by problem-based learning, students solved mathematical problems to determine about their creative thinking skills. Students with high capability were selected as informants. According to test and interview result, creative thinking skills will be known as indicator that fulfilled by students with high capability. Then creative thinking level of student can be inferred.  Figure 1 showed that from the result of student's answer, the student can mention 5 ideas that is the function from A to B with the rule added by 1, the function from A to B with rule multiplied by 2, the function from A to B with rule multiplied by 6 then divided by 3, From A to B with rules added by 3, functions from A to B with rules added by 2. So students were able to apply ideas to solve problems. Based on the indicator of creative thinking skills, test result and interview result, it can be considered that the student fulfilled the fluency aspect in solving the problem.  Figure 2 showed that the results of student answers, obtained by students can mention 2 ways to solve the problem that is the arrow diagram way and the sequential pairs way. So students were able to solve the problem in several ways. Based on the indicator of creative thinking skills, test result and interview result, it can be considered that the student fulfilled the flexibility aspect in solving the problem.
In Figures 1 show that from the results of students answers, students can mention 5 ideas of the function from A to B with the rule added by 1, the function from A to B with rules multiplied by 2, the function from A to B with rules multiplied by 6 then divided by 3, Function from A to B with rules added by 3, functions from A to B with rules added by 2. Students were able to make a function from A to B with rules multiplied by 6 then divided by 3, this is a novelty, because it has never been taught in class. So students were able to solve problems in a different way with material that already discussed in class in addition the calculation process is correct. Based on the indicators of creative thinking skills, test result and interview result, it can be considered that the students fulfilled the novelty aspect in solving the problem.
Students with high capacity can solve problems with 5 different ideas (fluency). Students with high capability are also capable of solving problems in two different ways (flexibility). Students with high capability are able to solve problems in a different way with material that already discussed in the class and the process of calculation is correct (novelty). Thus, students with high capability fulfilled all indicators of creative thinking skills. As a result, students with high capability have creative thinking level 4 or very creative.

Conclusion
Students with high capability solved problem about relations and functions after problem-based learning, used many solutions and many different methods or ways. They also can solve a problem with different solutions and give correct answers. This means students with high capability fulfilled three indicators of creative thinking skills, namely fluency, flexibility, and novelty. Consequently, students with high capability have creative thinking level 4 or very creative.