Impact of Philosophy and Sociology Teaching on School Performance: An Analysis of the School Census Microdata from the National Institute for Educational Studies and Research (INEP)

The new Provisional Measure 746/2016, removing the compulsory nature of the disciplines of Philosophy and Sociology in the secondary school curriculum, resulted in heated controversies among scholars and massive mobilisations of students across the country against their taking out from High School. The objective of this work was to identify the effect of the presence or not of the disciplines Philosophy and Sociology in the High School curriculum on the students’ learning. In terms of methodology, data from the Census of Basic Education 2015 and from the averaged per school performances in the ENEM 2015 were examined by means of several Data Science techniques more specifically, with the resources of the language R. The results of the analysis did not indicate any perceptible influence of the disciplines Philosophy and Sociology on the performance, unlike the Indicator of Student’s Socioeconomic Status and the Administrative Dependence of the School. These results seem to contradict the significant positive ones obtained after activities conducted by teachers trained in investigative philosophical dialogue in the classroom. Far from taking sides in the discussion about the pertinence of the inclusion of these disciplines in High School, what was sought here was to point out the need for a rethink about how they should be organised.

INTRODUCTION
According to Valverde and Esteves (2015), the discipline of Philosophy has been passing over time by a "pendular motion", now of inclusion, now of exclusion, in the curriculum of High School, in the flavour of the interests of dominant sectors in each moment , whether they were Catholic, positivist, patriotic or developmental, sometimes authoritarian, sometimes 'democratic'.
The most recent oscillation of this pendulum was given by Provisional Measure 746/2016 (Brazil, Presidency of the Republic, 2016), which removed the obligation of the disciplines of Philosophy and Sociology that was explicit in the Law of Directives and Bases of Education (LDB). Such oscillation reverberated during 2016, in the form of heated controversies between experts and massive student mobilisations across the country against their removal from High School Curriculum.
Here, we intend to identify the effect of the presence or not of the disciplines Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies in the curriculum of a high school curriculum about the learning of its students. Far from taking sides in the discussion of whether or not these disciplines should be included in High School, we are trying to provide a basis for a rethinking of how they should be organised.

THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
It is beyond the scope of this work to produce a history about the teaching of Philosophy and Philosophy in school education in Brazil, as well as on the reason for each exit or return to the curriculum, topics thoroughly discussed by Valverde and Esteves (2015) and by Paiva and Piol 2015), among others. Coelho (2017), citing the Curricular Guidelines for Secondary Education (SEB, 2006), reminds us that they signal to Philosophy the fundamental aspects that guide citizenship in the field of ethics and aesthetics, pointing to mutual tolerance and sensitivity to autonomous identity and democratic participation. To that, Valverde and Esteves (2015) add that the LDB reserved to Philosophy the role of making possible the understanding of the meaning of the learning of the sciences, letters and the arts and to contribute to the development of competencies for the argumentation within these three areas , in addition to contributing -together with the discipline of Sociology -so that, "at the end of high school, the student demonstrates […] the domain of the knowledge of Philosophy and Sociology necessary for the exercise of citizenship" (Brazil, Presidency of the Republic, 1996, section IV, article 36, § 1). In fact, Velasco (2017) argues that, although argumentation is not enough for philosophical activity, it comprises an essential foundation of Philosophy, being one of the central elements of the philosophical exercise in the classroom.
In fact, according to Meerwaldt, Ferri and Nevers (2013), the emphasis on Mathematics and Science classes is often placed on the transmission of factual information. Children are accustomed to having the teacher or book tell them the "right" answer to a question and the teacher expects them to replicate that same response in the assessments. According to these authors, this teaching practice stimulates a vision of Mathematics and Science as finished, highly abstract study fields, detached from reality and without space for investigation and discovery. According to the National Curricular Parameters (NCP), the teaching of Science and Mathematics […] has often been accomplished by presenting concepts, laws and formulas, in a disjointed way, distanced from the world lived by students and teachers and not only, but also because of this, empty of meaning. It privileges theory and abstraction, from the first moment to the detriment of a gradual development of abstraction that, at least, starts from practice and concrete examples. (Brazil, Ministry of Education and Technology, 1999, 22) On the contrary, proponents of constructivist science education (e.g., Driver et al. (1994)) and philosophy in science classes (e.g., Nevers (2009) andSprod (2011)), as well as advocates for modelling activities in mathematics classes (e.g., Dalla Vecchia (2015)), proposed forms of active construction of knowledge by students and a better conceptual understanding in Science and Mathematics.
Thus, Meerwaldt, Ferri and Nevers (2013) consider several reasons why the practice of philosophising could improve student understanding in the classroom. First, both types of problems discussed are complex and embedded in a narrative context, requiring in-depth reflection on the part of the teacher and the students. Second, the methods and skills employed in both approaches include cooperative learning and dialogue, analytical thinking and reasoning, critical reflection on worldviews, imagination, and creative thinking. Third, since children are directed to everyday problems and issues that children themselves find interesting, learning tends to be more meaningful. Finally, both approaches require the teacher to assume the role of a mentor rather than an instructor.
However, Coelho (2017) denounces that the parameters constructed for the High School for the discipline of Philosophy were guided by the contents given in the banks of the universities to the academics of the course from an entirely Eurocentric perspective. In this way, as Paiva and Piol (2015) remember, Philosophy is confronted with the new requirements of skills and abilities that form the young person for the globalised market. Thus, more than being included in the curriculum, it is imperative that Philosophy be meaningful to the lives and the time of the students. In this way, Coelho (2017) proposes that it be open to the study and discussions of emerging themes, such as ethnic-racial relations and gender, bioethics, environmental ethics, etc.
According to a survey by Fávero et al. (2004), Philosophy in high school is confined, in most cases, to the lecture or group work, with some debate on current themes, confronted with small philosophical texts, in a kind of "general culture" or an 'improved' common sense. According to this same study, many teachers follow a textbook that defines classroom work and the teacher's program, and reading texts by philosophers is often infrequent (Fávero et al., 2004).
More worrying, as reported by Fávero et al. (2004), for lack of competitions to hire teachers with specific training, the work ends up falling to teachers from other areas and disciplines, such as history, social sciences, theology, pedagogy and others, most of the times unprepared to work with Philosophy. In many cases, it occurs until the introduction of relaxation techniques, and other practices that approximate the Philosophy class of a "collective therapy" (Fávero et al., 2004).
Unfortunately, these deficient teaching conditions can turn Philosophy into an 'ornamental discipline' and, by the absence of an effectively reflective engagement, lead the work done to radically distance itself from a model of teaching that can be identified with Philosophy (Favero et al. al., 2004), thus failing to fulfil the objectives of its inclusion in the curriculum.

METHODOLOGY
The so-called 'data mining' was until recently considered one of the five stages of the Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) process proposed by Fayyad, Piatetsky-Shapiro and Smyth (1996), which aimed at identifying new, valid, potentially useful and understandable patterns that were embedded in the data. They were the selection of adequate bases, the cleansing of the inconsistencies that can afflict this data, the transformation of the data into more adequate formats, the choice of techniques and algorithms for mining, and the evaluation and interpretation of the extracted patterns in the form of the new knowledge. Today, the first three steps are grouped in a phase called exploratory data analysis (Peng, 2016).
As mentioned before, the present work intends to identify the effect of the presence or not of the disciplines Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies in the curriculum of the High School of a school about the learning of its students, evaluated using the average performances by the school in the ENEM.
Of course, there is the risk of criticism for approaching Philosophy under an 'instrumentalist' bias, measuring the effect 'to something' of the presence of these disciplines, as half activities rather than ends in themselves (Valverde & Esteves, 2015). However, it is worth remembering that Philosophy has always been so considered, from Colonial Brazil, when Philosophy was introduced in education by the Jesuits as an instrument of fight against the Reformation (Valverde & Esteves, 2015, emphasis added), until today, when the LDB of 1996 considers that Philosophy is necessary for the curriculum as a teaching instrument for the "exercise of citizenship" (Brazil, Presidency of the Republic, 1996, section IV, article 36, § 1, emphasis added). However, since it is not clear how this subjective "exercise of citizenship" could be evaluated, the decision of this work was by an objective evaluation through the performances in the ENEM.
Thus, in order to achieve the above objective, the following databases were chosen: • The microdata of the 2015 Basic Education Census, for the presence or absence of these subjects in the curriculum, and • The data about the means per school of the performance in the ENEM 2015 of the students enrolled in the 3rd year of the regular High School.
Data related to schools are provided by the teaching unit itself, through the School Census of Basic Education, through the school's enrolment in the Educacenso 1 system. The reliability of the census data is initially attributed to the directors and responsible for their completion in the school, after the Inep, which verifies the consistency of the data collected, discloses the preliminary information in the Brazilian Official Journal of the Union and then opens the system for a period of 30 days for verification and possible correction of information.
These data are available through the file ''Microdados do Censo da Educação Básica 2015' (Microdata of the Census of Basic Education 2015, with 2,522,857 lines in .csv format, obtained from the Inep website. 2 However, data from this Census also include Early Childhood Education, Elementary Education, Youth and Adult Education (EJA), Vocational Education and Special Education and have therefore had to be filtered in order to be restricted to regular high school.
The data considered relevant for this research were: 3

• Indicator of Permanence in School, defined by the percentage of participants
who attended all high school in the same school in which they were enrolled in 2015.
• School Size, defined by the number of students enrolled in the 3rd year of Regular High School.
• Indicator of Socioeconomic Status, referring to the public attended by the school in a stratum or social level. It is calculated from the parents' schooling, the possession of goods, and the contracting of services by the students' family.
• Administrative dependency, whether federal, state, municipal or private.
• Location, whether urban or rural.
• Teacher Training Indicator, related to teachers with a degree in the same subject that they teach or have a bachelor's degree in the same course with a pedagogical completion course completed.
• Offer or not of the discipline Philosophy.
• Offer or not of the discipline Social Studies.
• Offer or not of the discipline Sociology. Table 1 lists the possible values for these indicators, as well as the corresponding coding used in the ENEM System.  These two files were joined by the variable that contains the eight-digit School Identification Code, created by Inep at the time of the school's enrollment in the Educacenso system, and is common to both files (Figure 1). There is care in correctly and uniquely identifying each student, initially through his / her CPF, when informed, or other forms of relationship to effect this integration. In addition, a process of consistency is applied by Inep through a phonetic verification script between the data reported by the participant in the Enem 2015 registration and the data registered in the School Census (Brazil, INEP, 2016b). The resulting database (Figure 1) was explored using Data Science techniques, which derive from the Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) process (Fayyad et al., 1996). It includes the selection of appropriate databases, the cleaning of inconsistencies that can affect this data, the transformation of the data into more adequate formats, the choice of techniques and algorithms for mining, and the evaluation and interpretation of the extracted patterns in the form of the new knowledge.
More specifically, resources from the R language (R Core Team, 2017), version 3.4.0, available on April 21, 2017, were used. Although R is very versatile and has many features, all the work was done in a few minutes on a conventional notebook with 64-bit architecture, and on Windows 8.1 x64.
To test the hypothesis that the presence of the disciplines Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies in the curriculum of a school has a positive effect on the learning of its High School students, as evaluated through their performances in the ENEM, an analysis was made of the average proficiency per school in each of the knowledge areas evaluated in the ENEM 2015, and the intra and extracurricular indicators listed in Table 1.
Since the purpose of this paper is not to identify the most relevant factors for school performance, factor analysis and principal component analysis were not considered.

ANALYSES
Initiating the exploratory data analysis, it was observed that the Census of Basic Education 2015 data also include Early Childhood Education, Elementary Education, Youth and Adult Education (EJA), Professional Education and Special Education and were therefore filtered out of to be restricted to regular high school (Figure 1), resulting in 32,924 records.
In addition, it was observed that, surprisingly, the variable Social Studies in the file available does not contain any data and, therefore, had to be eliminated from the database.
However, to access the presence or not of the subjects Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies, it was necessary to use the School Census file referring to classes, but, since the results of ENEM performance relate to the averages per school, without distinction of class, these data had to be aggregated by the school. On the other hand, once there are classes that were offered the subjects of Philosophy or Sociology and others that did not when the data were added, a multiplicity of records with the same entity code occurred, and it was necessary to filter the file again to eliminate these duplications, resulting in 27,993 distinct schools.
Following the data preparation phase, the five files containing data in ENEM 2015 performance per school for each knowledge area were unified by the school (Figure 1), resulting in a single file containing the data of 15,597 different schools.
Furthermore, records containing the value 'No information' in the variable Socioeconomic Status were discarded for not being informative, reducing the file to 14,986 schools.
Finally, these two files were joined by the School Identification Code (Figure 1), resulting in a new archive with 14,986 records corresponding to the participating ENEM 2015 schools.
Before starting the correlation analysis, however, it is necessary to investigate whether the assumption of this analysis is valid that the distributions of data have a normal distribution (Figure 1). Of course, the categorical variables in Table 1 are not normally distributed, and we will only concern ourselves with the continuous variables, such as the Teacher Training Indicator and the various average proficiencies per school, in each of the knowledge areas.
There are a number of tests for such verification of normality, such as the Jarque-Bera Test, the Lilliefors Test, and the Shapiro-Wilk Test, among many others. However, such is null hypothesis tests against the assumption of normality, serving to discard data with a distribution other than normal, contrary to what is desired here.  The histograms of Figure 2 and the kurtoses and asymmetries of the value distributions of the variables in Table 2, while not far from the zero value corresponding to the normal distribution, show that, in fact, they approach reasonably close to it. More specifically, it is observed that the average proficiency in Human Sciences is the closest to the normal distribution, while the average proficiency in Mathematics is the one that moves away from normality.
Thus, considering the reasonably large number of data we have (n = 14,986), it is assumed that the data are sufficiently normal for the reliability of the correlation analysis and the average proficiency in Human Sciences is used as the measure of performance in the upcoming analyses.
After the selection of databases, cleaning and transformation in the most suitable format for the analysis, we can proceed to the data-mining phase.
In order to investigate the effect of each of the intra-and extracurricular factors that characterize school contexts on student performance in the ENEM, from the resulting base, tables of correlations were constructed between the average proficiencies in each of the knowledge areas and these different factors, as shown in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.     From Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, it is observed that, in any of the five areas of knowledge evaluated by the ENEM 2015, the average proficiency per school correlated very weakly with the variables Philosophy and Sociology, with average correlations of 0.046 and 0.059 respectively, being these in all the cases, statistically significant results (p = 0.00), considering the sample size (n = 14,976), which leads us to reject the hypothesis that the presence or not in the disciplines Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies in a school curriculum has had any effect on the learning of its students in High School, as evaluated through their performances in the ENEM. Although of course aware of the statisticians' warning that "correlation does not imply causation" (Field, 2003, p.10), if a strong correlation does not imply establishing a causal relationship between two variables, on the other hand, a very weak correlation suggests the inexistence of a causal relation between them.
On the other hand, it is also observed that the factors with which these proficiencies correlated best were the Socioeconomic Status Indicator of the students, with correlations varying from 0.67 to 0.80 (p = 0.00), and the Administrative Dependence of the school, with correlations ranging from 0.62 to 0.66, all also statistically significant (p = 0.00). Thus, as shown in the dispersion and violin charts of Figure 3, not surprisingly, the best performances corresponded to students with a very high Socioeconomic Status, in schools with federal or private administration, of smaller size and with better-trained teachers. However, as the document Divulgação ENEM 2015 por escola (ENEM 2015 Disclosure per school) (Brazil, INEP, 2016a) warns, in view of the heterogeneity of contexts in which schools are inserted, comparisons among schools, according to INEP, should take into account the similarity of the contexts in which the schools are located, for the due consideration between the performance and the different intra-and extracurricular factors that characterize these contexts (Brazil, INEP, 2016a).
Thus, for a valid analysis of the effect of the presence or not of the disciplines Philosophy and Sociology in the curriculum of the school about its result in the ENEM, it is necessary to keep invariant the other characteristics of the school and the group that can also influence this result. Thus, one can only compare the performance of schools in a certain context that does not have the discipline of Philosophy with schools of the same context and that have it in their curricula.
In this work, each distinct set of values for the parameters indicated in Table  1 was treated as a 'context' (Figure 1). It should be noted, however, that these contexts that emerged during this research are more specific than any of the contexts defined in the document ENEM 2015 Disclosure by School, also distinguishing the variables Administrative Dependence and Location, and therefore do not have a direct correspondence with those. Thus, for example, according to Table 1, the context 54741 represents schools in which 80% or more of the participating students did all the high school in the school in which they were enrolled in 2015, of big size, that is, with 91 or more students enrolled in the 3rd year of regular high school, with high Socioeconomic Status, private and urban indicators. This context, together with contexts 54711 and 54721, are contained in Context 1 defined in that document ENEM 2015 Disclosure by School (Brazil, INEP, 2016a).
An inspection of the results indicates that out of the 378 contexts present in the data, only 43 satisfy this restriction to include both schools that have the discipline of Philosophy in their curricula and schools of the same context that do not. In the same way, only 123 contexts satisfy this restriction regarding the discipline of Sociology. Restricting the database to analysis only in these 43 contexts related to Philosophy results in only 5,447 records, while in the 123 contexts concerning Sociology, in 12,713 schools. Figure 4 shows the dispersion graph of the performances in the Human Sciences knowledge area of each of the 5,447 schools grouped in these 43 contexts related to the presence or not of the discipline Philosophy. Each vertical set of points represents the distribution of these performances within the same context. Expected differences in performance distributions between different contexts are observed. On the contrary, the marks of the absence of the discipline Philosophy are distributed, vertically within each context, in a random way amid the marks of its presence in the curricular grid; it is not observed any effect of the presence or not of this discipline on the performances. Figure 5 shows the dispersion graph of the performances in the Human Sciences knowledge area of each of the 12,713 schools grouped in the 123 contexts related to the presence or not of Sociology. Likewise, aside from the expected differences between different contexts, the marks of the absence of the Sociology discipline are randomly distributed vertically within each context, not observing any effect of the presence or not of this discipline on the performances. This result seems to contradict the significantly positive results obtained by Gorard, Siddiqui and See (2015) in reading comprehension, mathematical skills, spatial relations, abstract reasoning, intellectual confidence and classroom engagement after a year of "thinking skills teaching" through "philosophical dialogue". There is a clear difference in that process since it is a project aimed at 4th and 5th school years students. However, we believe that the major difference lies in the approach used: this intervention was based on the educational approach centred on fostering philosophical research, originally developed by Matthew Lipman, and known in Brazil since 1985 as a program of "Philosophy for Children "(P4C) (Kohan, 2000;Lipman, Sharp, & Oscanyan, 1994;Lipman, 1990). In fact, the longitudinal study of Colom et al. (2014), covering students from 6 to 18 years of age who participated in P4C activities over 12 school years, observed highly significant positive results in verbal ability, numerical ability, spatial relations, abstract reasoning, language and mathematics.
Without underlining the merits of the fundamentals and practices of this program 6 , the point to be emphasized here is that, instead of a teaching limited to the analysis and explanation of texts, under the influence of the French school, Lipman's methodology proposes a more active approach to those involved in the teaching and learning of Philosophy (Fávero et al., 2004). Here, teachers are trained in reading philosophical novels (those written by Lipman, however 7 ) in the investigative dialogue in the classroom, from the situations proposed by the text, and in the search for solutions that favour the development of reasoning (Kohan, 2000), although understood as having the goal of "avoiding the risk that today's youth will repeat the rebellious and 'irrational' behaviour of their colleagues in the 1960s," according to Silveira's (2015) critique.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Far from taking sides in the discussion about the pertinence of the inclusion of these disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies in High School or defending the program of "Philosophy for Children" as a solution, the empirical results above, in not observing any effect of the presence or not of these disciplines on student performances, seem to indicate the need for a rethink of how they should be organized.
The philosopher Marilena Chauí reports her first contact with Philosophy at school: "The first lesson began with the teacher saying 'Palamede of the Eleatic School, Zeno of Elea …'. It was a class of 15-year-olds who had never heard of Philosophy, much less of Zeno of Elea, and even less of who could be a Palamede!" (Cornelli, Carvalho, & Danelon, 2010, pp.17-18). In spite of this perhaps frightening first class, she decided to pursue Philosophy at the university, thanks to a previous rewarding initiation she had at home with this subject, with parents journalist and teacher, and then with other teachers in the same school.
Not all students are fortunate enough to have a rewarding previous initiation at home. Nonetheless, they should not be deprived of the benefits that these disciplines of Philosophy, Sociology and Social Studies could provide for their academic learning and their training as a conscious and critical citizen. It is hoped that the results of this work will contribute in some way to the solution to this dilemma.


Characteristic modes of vibration of Q-balls

. In this report, based on [1], we study analytically small perturbations of classically stable Q-balls in 3 + 1 dimensions. Models with ﬂat and polynomial potentials are considered. We ﬁnd that large Q-balls in the model with the ﬂat potential possess soft modes. We also ﬁnd a speciﬁc mode for Q-balls near the stability bound, which is related to the decay mode of Q-clouds. For these modes, the perturbation theory is applicable with respect to the relative frequency of an excitation.

Introduction
Q-balls are non-topological solitons arising in complex scalar field theories with the global U(1)-invariance [2,3]. 1 During the years of studies, they found numerous applications in different branches of modern physics. Q-balls are predicted in models of physics beyond the Standard Model [6], and were applied to different problems in astrophysics and cosmology (baryogenesis [7], phase transitions in the Early Universe [8], dark matter [9], alternative to black holes [10]). Beside that, the existence of Q-balls is discussed, e.g., in condensed matter physics [11].
Here we focus on studying spectra of linear fluctuations on top of classically stable Qballs. Analysis of small perturbations of classical solutions is of considerable interest from the theoretical and phenomenological perspectives. Recent examples include the investigation of quasinormal modes of black holes [12,13] or excitations in a non-uniform Bose-Einstein Condensate [14]. The advantage of Q-balls is that they are relatively simple objects and often their analysis can be performed by analytical methods. Below we will use models admitting analytical treatment for both Q-balls and their perturbations. We start in the next section with a brief overview of the main properties of Q-balls. In sections 3 and 4 we study modes of Q-balls in the flat and polynomial potentials. Section 5 contains a summary of our results.

Setup
Q-balls are localized stationary solutions of classical equations of motion in a theory with the The field configuration of a Q-ball is described by the ansatz where f is a monotonically decreasing function of the radial coordinate which obeys the boundary conditions and without loss of generality one can put ω > 0. The existence and stability of Q-balls are due to the presence in the theory of a conserved U(1)-charge, Beside the charge, the Q-ball is characterized by its energy, The existence condition for Q-balls is easily derived, e.g., by the means of the analogy between the equation for the Q-ball profile f and Newton's equation for the particle of unit mass moving in the potential 1/2(ω 2 x 2 − V(x)). It reads as follows [3], provided that the inequality ω min < m holds for the potential V.

Perturbations of Q-balls in the flat potential
In this section, we consider the potential consisting of a parabolic branch followed by a flat branch, It is a particular case of the so-called piecewise-parabolic potential [16]. It is known that the theory with this potential allows for analytical investigation of both the Q-balls and linear perturbations above them [2,17]. Besides, the potential (7) serves to approximate realistic potentials with the flat direction, which are used, e.g., in describing dark matter by Q-balls [9]. From eq. (6) we see that the mass m of the free particle is the relevant dimensional parameter of the theory. Because of this, below we normalize physical quantities to it, by setting m = 1.
The properties of Q-balls in the potential (7) are well-known. Depending on the frequency, the solution belongs to one of the three groups, see table 1. Q-balls of the first group have ω in the interval 0 < ω ≤ ω s where ω s is such that  (1) with the potential (7). Numerically, ω s ≈ 0.837 and ω c ≈ 0.960.
If ω < ω s , the energy of the Q-ball is less than the energy of the collection of free particles of the same charge. Hence, the Q-balls of this group are absolutely stable. The second group is characterized by the inequality ω s < ω < ω c , where ω c is the frequency at which The Q-balls with these values of ω are classically stable, but can decay via tunneling [18]. Finally, the Q-balls with ω > ω c are classically unstable. They are also known as Q-clouds [19].
To study small perturbations of Q-balls, we take the ansatz and substitute it into the equations of motion for φ and its complex conjugated. Linearizing the result with respect to ψ, one obtains where h and g are given by In the potential (7) the functions (12) become We observe that, although in general the equations for ψ and ψ * are not disentangled, in the case of the piece-wise parabolic potential they are separated everywhere expect the single point at which the two branches of the potential are joined. It is this fact that allows to treat analytically both the classical solutions and their linear excitations.

Modes of metastable Q-balls and Q-clouds
Let us first consider the decay mode of Q-clouds. It is described by the spherically-symmetric ansatz of the form [20] ψ(x) = eγ t ζ(r) , where ζ(r) is a real function andγ > 0. Substituting eqs. (13) and (14) in eq. (11), one arrives at the linearized equation for ζ. The latter can be solved analytically in the regions r < R and r > R, where R is the point at which |φ 0 | = v. At this matching point, the differential equation on ζ is reduced to a system of linear equations on the constants entering the general solution. Imposing further the boundary conditions determines uniquely both the perturbation profile ζ(r) and the decay rateγ, for a fixed frequency of the background Q-ball. 3 The dependence ofγ on ω is shown on the left side of figure 1. Note also that close to the stability bound We now move to the other side of the stability bound and study the vibrational modes of metastable Q-balls. To this end, one should take the following perturbation ansatz [21], where γ is real and positive, ψ (l) 1 , ψ (l) 2 are real functions, and Y l,m are spherical harmonics. Plugging eq. (17) into eq. (11), one obtains the linearized equations for ψ (l) 1,2 , for any integer l ≥ 0. Imposing the boundary conditions and also which selects the localized "bound states", one arrives at the range of allowable values of γ, for the fixed l and ω. Interestingly, we find that in the sector of spherically-symmetric modes, l = 0, there is a unique solution shown on the right side of figure 1, while for l > 0 no vibrational modes exist. Close to the critical frequency, one has From eqs. (16) and (20) we see that the vibrational mode of metastable Q-balls and the decay mode of unstable Q-clouds are, in fact, the analytical continuations of each other. It is also important to note that at ω ≈ ω c , the relative oscillation frequency γ or the decay rateγ can serve as small parameters with respect to which one can build a perturbation theory and obtain the simple expressions for the modes,  (7) with v = 1. Right: The spherically-symmetric vibrational mode of metastable Q-balls in the potential (7) with v = 1. The dashed line represents the bound in ineq. (19). The mode ceases to exist at ω ≈ 0.937.

Modes of absolutely stable Q-balls
The spectrum of absolutely stable Q-balls is derived in the same way as the vibrational mode of the metastable solutions. The difference is that now there are multiple solutions for any l ≥ 0. Presented in figure 2 is the family of spherically-symmetric modes. We observe that their number is increased as ω → 0. In this limit, the spectrum linearizes and is welldescribed by the equidistant formula γ k ω 2 , k = 1, 3, 4, 5...
where k = 2 is excluded since the corresponding solution is singular. When ω approaches zero, the charge and energy of the Q-ball increase. Hence, large Q-balls in the flat potential possess soft modes in their spectra. The number of the modes is estimated as where the matching point R is associated with the size of the soliton. Note finally that the structure of the spectrum with the non-zero orbital momentum is similar to that with l = 0.

Perturbations of Q-balls in the polynomial potential
In this section, we consider another featured potential -the one with the power-like asymptotics at large fields. It is known that for a polynomial potential to admit Q-balls, it must be at least of the sixth degree in |φ| [3]. We write it in the following form, with δ > 0, and the minimal frequency ω min is related to the free boson mass via The comprehensive analysis of Q-balls in the potential of the sixth degree in 3+1 dimensions was carried out in [22]. Although in this potential the Q-balls cannot be found in an showing again the same counting as for the Q-balls in the flat potential.

Conclusion
To summarize, in this report we presented the results of the analytical studies of the linear perturbations of Q-balls in theories with the flat and polynomial potentials. We found that in the flat potential the spectra of large Q-balls contain an amount of soft modes. This fact is easily understood in view of the flatness of the potential in the interior of a Q-ball at the scale ω −1 . We also showed that at some frequencies the Q-ball may not have bound states described by the ansatz (11). Next, the Q-balls with the near-critical frequencies possess one spherically-symmetric vibrational mode which can be continued analytically to the instability region where it becomes the decay mode of Q-clouds. In the vicinity of the critical point, the perturbation theory can be built with respect to the relative frequency of the oscillation. Finally, it was found that the total amount of modes is proportional to the internal volume of a Q-ball, at least for large enough solitons. This result is to be expected in view of the close, although not exact, analogy between the localized modes of a soliton composed of the complex scalar field and bound states in the potential well, described by the Schrodinger equation.


An Analysis of Academic Libraries’ Participation in 21st Century Library Trends

Objective – As academic libraries evolve to meet the changing needs of students in the digital age, the emphasis has shifted from the physical book collection to a suite of services incorporating innovations in teaching, technology, and social media, among others. Based on trends identified by the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) and other sources, the authors investigated the extent to which academic libraries have adopted 21st century library trends. Methods – The authors examined the websites of 100 Association of Research Libraries (ARL) member libraries, their branches, and 160 randomly selected academic libraries to determine whether they adopted selected 21st century library trends. Results – Results indicated that ARL member libraries were significantly more likely to adopt these trends, quite possibly due to their larger size and larger budgets. Conclusion – This research can assist librarians, library directors, and other stakeholders in making the case for the adoption or avoidance of particular 21st century library trends, especially where considerable outlay of funds is necessary.

Introduction
As academic libraries evolve to meet the changing needs of students in the digital age, the emphasis has shifted from the physical book collection to a suite of services incorporating innovations in teaching, technology, and social media. These services tend to facilitate creativity, engagement, and the ability to access resources anywhere any time (Andrews et al., 2016). While there is much "crystal ball gazing," little assessment of how academic libraries have come to implement 21 st century trends has taken place (Garofalo, Johnston, & Lupold, 2015). Data collection efforts such as those conducted by organizations like the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) and the Association of Research Libraries (ARL) describe what libraries have done or what researchers and faculty want, but they do not operationalize what a 21 st century library looks like. In this study, the authors first identified the most commonly cited trends that comprise 21 st century libraries, then evaluated the websites of over 300 academic libraries to determine the extent to which they adopted these trends. The 300+ sample included a mix of ARL member libraries, ARL branch libraries, and randomly selected non-ARL academic libraries. The authors also investigated which institutional factors, such as number of librarians on staff, budget, collection size, institution size, and institution status (private versus public), predicted the adoption of these trends.
A review of the literature indicated no single definition or description of a 21st century library. Garofalo et al. (2015) advocated focusing on "engagement" and striving to connect with patrons, whether it be through personalized librarians, shared spaces, or collaboration with other services like writing centers. Leong (2013) also supported community engagement and outreach as a 21 st century library goal. One particularly innovative way some libraries are engaging their patrons is by creating makerspaces, which encourage exploration and innovation by allowing people to create, build, and experiment with a variety of equipment, software programs, and tools (Harris & Cooper, 2015;Herron & Kaneshiro, 2017;Nichols, Melo, & Dewland, 2017).
In the book Leading the 21 st Century Academic Library, edited by Bradford Lee Eden (2015), contributors described emerging positions that require technological skills capable of engaging in online learning, data management, digital collections such as institutional repositories, and other technologies to provide new services. Other topics include pursuing open education resources and ways to increase student engagement in library instruction.
Emerging staff positions, data management, digital scholarship, and open education resources are also mentioned in the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL)'s report "2016 Top Trends in Academic Libraries" (2017). The ACRL report further noted activities and services in the areas of research data services (RDS), information literacy and evidence of learning, collection assessment, altmetrics, and the use of social media. Tenopir et al. (2015) looked specifically at research data services (RDS) in relation to library demographics and found that they are more common in four-year and research universities than two-year institutions. As would be expected, Tenopir et al. note that research universities are more likely to employ RDS. Sewell and Kingsley (2017) noted that academic librarianship is moving away from curation of material and into support for research with new staff skills needed in areas such as research data management and curation of open access resources. These shifts are confirmed by ACRL's trends toward data management services, digital scholarship/institutional repository support, and emerging staff positions with skills in scholarly and digital communications, knowledge management, data management, digital humanities, and geographic information systems (ACRL, 2017). The American Library Association's (ALA) The State of America's Libraries report (Rosa, 2016) confirmed this further, noting that academic libraries are "embracing new responsibilities in such areas as scholarly communication, digital archives, data curation, digital humanities, visualization, and born-digital objects" (p. 3) as well as working in areas like altmetrics and research data management.
An important recent initiative in information literacy and evidence of learning is the Assessment in Action (AiA) program lead by ACRL. AiA challenged participating institutions to plan and implement projects "that aligned with institutional priorities and contributed to campus assessment activities" (Brown, 2017, p. 1). The three-year program produced several documents describing multiple ways in which libraries can positively impact student success. ACRL's report documents five areas where the library had a particularly positive impact on student learning and success, two of which concern information literacy instruction and one that concerns library partnerships with other campus units such as writing centers (Brown, 2017).
Innovative or non-traditional reference services are another area that could be considered a 21st century library trend. Increasingly, academic librarians are developing new and innovative ways to reach their patrons, whether finding students and faculty where they are (e.g., dorms and academic buildings outside the library) or through virtual services such as chat or LibAnswers (via Springshare). MacDonald and McCabe (2011) reported on a service called iRoaming in which librarians walk around the library with tablets to assist patrons at point of need. Other libraries have employed tablets mounted on robots which telechat to provide reference services remotely (Hartsell-Gundy, Johnson, & Kromer, 2015).  investigated the impact of innovative reference services at academic libraries and found that many libraries have developed alternate ways of reaching patrons including using a cooperative reference service, methods for making appointments with librarians, creation of an FAQ, and creation of a blog to enable patrons to see answers to questions already asked. Finally, Li (2013) discussed how distance education has caused reference services to adjust, offering various virtual reference services such as chat, videoconferencing, voice-over IP, co-browsing, instant messaging, use of a toll-free telephone number, and email.
While libraries are addressing the needs of the 21 st century learner in many ways, a review of the literature reveals a consensus to include some of the following: digital scholarship (including institutional repositories), data management services, makerspaces, evidence of learning with respect to information literacy instruction, innovative staffing with an emphasis on technology or digital services, engagement with open access resources (e.g., curation of open educational resources via a Libguide), collaboration with other departments, innovative reference services, altmetrics, and the use of social media. In what follows, the authors describe an assessment of 314 academic libraries as to their adoption of some of these 21 st century trends using the following research questions to guide our inquiry:  What 21 st century trends have the libraries in our sample adopted?  Are ARL libraries more likely to adopt 21 st century trends than branches of ARLs or non-ARL members?  What factors predict the likelihood of an academic library adopting 21 st century library trends?

Trends Selected
Based on the literature review and examination of academic library websites for information commonly available on websites, the authors chose the following eight 21st century library trends to look for in this study: research data services (RDS), digital scholarship (including institutional repository), makerspace, emerging staff positions, open educational resources, distance learner services, non-traditional reference services, and use of social media. Additionally, the authors checked for related variables they felt important to explore, such as whether the library offered research design and analysis help (not just reference assistance), collaborated with a campus writing center, offered specific services for international students or students with disabilities, loaned out devices such as laptops and tablets, and had a mobile-friendly website.

Sample
The sample included a combination of libraries that are members of the ARL, libraries at branches of ARL membership institutions but not ARL members themselves, and non-ARL libraries. ARL is an organization of 123 research libraries in the United States and Canada. ARL libraries share similar research missions and make up a large portion of the academic and research library marketplace. They are typically at larger, comprehensive, research institutions (ARL, 2017). ARL libraries were used as a variable in this study because they may be more likely to adopt these trends due to their typically higher budgets and their mission to support research. The total sample included the 100 ARL libraries at institutions in the United States (Canada was excluded due to our sampling decision to only study the United States), 54 libraries that are branches of ARL member institutions but not ARL libraries themselves, and 160 randomly selected, non-ARL libraries.
The final sample consisted of 314 libraries from post-secondary institutions in the United States.
To obtain the random sample of non-ARL libraries, a full list of all 3,148 four-year institutions was drawn from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS). Entries for any institutions that closed were removed. Technical schools were also filtered out, as the authors were interested in academic institutions only. This brought the list to 1,653, from which the ARL libraries and their branches were removed. The authors then used an online random number generator to randomly select 200 libraries from the list, 160 of which were ultimately included in the sample. The 40 that were excluded were branches where all data appeared the same for the whole school system (i.e., the system shares one library).
It is important to clarify that for university systems with several branches, only the branches designated as members of ARL have ARL status. Being a branch of an ARL library does not automatically confer ARL membership to that branch. In some cases, all branches of an ARL library are members (e.g., Rutgers). However, in many cases the branches of ARL libraries do not have ARL membership (e.g., campuses of the University of Michigan other than the main campus in Ann Arbor). In order to add this variable into the data analysis, the branches of ARL libraries that were not ARL members themselves were coded separately. This allowed the authors to test whether being a part of a system with an ARL member may have benefits not afforded to non-ARL affiliated libraries.

Procedure
The authors visited the website of each school in the sample in order to ascertain whether the trends described above were adopted by the libraries. Although surveying librarians at the sample institutions would have allowed us to gather more complete data on trend adoption, the method we utilized allowed for 100% representation of our selected sample.
Prior to data collection, the research team went through a period of training. During the first session, the team collected data for 10 libraries to develop a method for searching for each variable completely. Teams of 2 researchers were then assigned 15 libraries. Each team member filled out the data collection worksheet separately. Those worksheets were returned to the first author who calculated interrater reliability (IRR). IRR was computed by calculating the number of responses that were in agreement out of the entire sample for each pair of raters using an Excel spreadsheet. The first team demonstrated 92% agreement in their responses. This team then reviewed places of disagreement to determine where agreement could be improved. IRR for the second team had 73% agreement, which was lower than desirable so that team retrained and worked together on an additional set of libraries in order to norm their responses. After retraining, the IRR for the second team was recalculated on a new sample of 20 schools which resulted in 90% agreement. After all teams demonstrated that their data collection was reliable, each researcher was assigned a set of libraries on which to collect data. After all data were returned to the first author, who managed and analyzed the data, each library website and data line for that website was cursorily checked to ensure that the other researchers did not miss any data. Additionally, the first researcher randomly selected libraries assigned to each team member to check the data collection more thoroughly. Through these procedures, the reliability of the data can be affirmed.
The next portion of the data collection included pulling institutional and library characteristics from IPEDS. These data included institution size (FTE student enrollment), whether private or public, Carnegie classifications, highest degree granted, library budget for salaries, materials and operations, physical, electronic, and media collection size, and circulation statistics of these items. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 23.

Description of the Sample
A total of 314 schools were investigated. The sample included 160 randomly selected schools, the 100 ARL member United States libraries, and 54 branch libraries of the ARL libraries.
Although a portion of the sample was randomly selected, 48 of 50 states were represented.

Description of Trend Adoption by Library Type
Trend adoption varied by library type (ARL, branch, non-ARL). ARL libraries more often adopted most trends, except for distance learning/learner services. The numbers presented in Table 1  Although ACRL's top trends noted knowledge management librarian as an up-and-coming position, and one for which ACRL commonly found job descriptions, no such position was found at any of the libraries in our study.

Description of Library Characteristics by Library Type
The data from IPEDS is reported in Tables 2-4 as means by library type (ARL, ARL branch, non-ARL). Several outliers from non-ARL libraries were removed as they greatly impacted the means superficially. For example, 2 institutions reported over 100,000 electronic databases where the means for electronic databases for ARL libraries without these 2 outliers were 890 and 156 for non-ARL libraries, indicating either an error in reporting or an uncommon method of characterizing an electronic database. As expected, ARL libraries and their branches reported higher means for economic factors, particularly with respect to staff salaries. Interestingly, the amount of money spent on salaries was similar to the amount of money spent on materials and services for all three library types. For library collection sizes (reported in

Other Trends Observed
In addition to the eight trends included in the trend score calculation, the authors collected data on other, related variables that the authors thought were important to explore. These are reported below in Tables 5 and 6 and include trends related to staffing positions and services.

Discussion
A total of 314 websites of academic libraries were analyzed to determine the extent to which these libraries adopted 21 st century trends. For ARL libraries the most common trends were research data services (RDS), IR/digital scholarship, and innovative reference. For non-ARL libraries, emerging staff, IR/digital scholarship, and innovative reference were the most commonly adopted trends. These findings are also supported by the regression analysis in which it was demonstrated that the money spent on library staffing at an institution was the only significant predictor of trend score.
ARL libraries were more likely to adopt 21 st century library trends than non-ARL libraries, due to the size and budget of the institution. Most importantly, however, the goals of ARL libraries to support research likely drive the adoption of these trends. It is important to note that comparisons among ARL and non-ARL libraries may not be suitable because non-ARL libraries include a wide variety of sizes of institutions (from very small private to very large public), while ARL libraries are typically larger schools with a larger average FTE.
Additionally, because ARL libraries are larger and better funded, they are often early adopters. Simply put, they can afford to be wrong about a trend. Many libraries that do not have budgets flexible enough to tolerate chasing a trend that may turn out to be a fad, will wait until the trend is supported by the literature or becomes so commonplace in other libraries that students expect it. In this way, ARL libraries can influence the trajectory of certain trends. This dynamic can be seen in the research conducted for this article. For every new service or job title, the ARL libraries have adopted them in greater number.
One of the more commonly adopted trends by ARL over non-ARL libraries is IR/digital scholarship. IRs can be prohibitively expensive and/or technologically challenging to operate. Smaller and less well funded libraries may find these significant barriers to adoption. Interestingly, OERs, which are about leveraging free resources and therefore appealing to the cost conscious, were more readily adopted by ARL than non-ARL libraries. One reason for this might be a lack of sufficient staff. While OERs themselves are free resources, it takes time and expertise to vet them, clarify any copyright provisions, and keep up with the constantly changing and expanding OER landscape.
Data on services other than the eight 21 st century trends are represented in tables 5 and 6. As with social media, the adoption of mobile websites is ubiquitous enough to be considered a new standard in website design. Out of this seemingly eclectic group of services, the most commonly adopted service is device loans, with 68 out of 100 (68%) ARL libraries, 31 out of 44 (70%) ARL branches, and 43 out of 160 (27%) non-ARL libraries offering this service. To more thoroughly examine this trend, research into the types of devices being loaned and what the circulation statistics are, is needed. The second most popular service trend for non-ARL libraries are writing center collaborations and disability services. For ARL libraries, disability services are also the second most popular. These trends, together and in conjunction with the growing number of Outreach Librarian positions (38% of ARL libraries, 30% ARL branches, and 17% of non-ARL libraries), show the growing importance of outreach and external collaboration. Interestingly, while the above-mentioned collaboration services are on the rise, adoption of collaboration with international students appears to be lagging; it is the least likely service trend for both ARL and non-ARL libraries. This may be a weakness in solely examining library websites, as library subject specialists may very well be conducting outreach to this group without it being represented in their job titles. Further research could compare the number of international students enrolled in the schools sampled. For ARL libraries, the third most adopted service trend was research design and analysis assistance. As previously mentioned with respect to RDS, this trend reflects the importance ARL institutions place on conducting research.
Another interesting observation is the number of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Librarian positions at ARL libraries (40%). This is a relatively new area that seems to have become quite popular as more research in done using geospatial data. It can require significant technological knowledge, which may explain why it is not a high-ranking trend for non-ARL libraries or ARL branches (2% and 7% respectively). While not identified as a 21 st century trend for this paper, it is a trend worth watching.
If we were to distill the findings of this study, a strong case could be made that the most important and popular trends are supporting and curating IRs/digital scholarship and outreach/external collaboration. If we look to ARL libraries as trend setters in the library profession, it is clear that IR/digital scholarship is the most pressing trend.
Although the 2018 ACRL analysis of emerging trends was published prior to the data collection in this study, it showed that some focus has shifted to fake news and information literacy, and legacy print collections, while trends that remain the same are project management, open access resources, data management and data collection, and patron driven collections.

Limitations
The method of this study, while allowing for 100% participation of the selected sample, has some weaknesses. Two trends that the authors could not assess through this method was collection development assessment and evidence of learning. Although some websites included information about information literacy assessment, the authors could not be certain that this particular trend would be found consistently on a website. A survey would have allowed a better assessment of these trends. It is recommended that future research validate the results of this study through more interactive means. Lastly, the eight trends selected for the trend score, while supported by the library literature, are somewhat subjective in that there may be multiple ways to assess one variable. For example, although we could not determine the use of altmetrics, a social media presence was a clue that libraries were using common and modern methods of connecting with patrons. It is important to note that due to random selection, a portion of the non-ARL libraries are in small institutions and are therefore poorly compared to the larger ARL libraries.

Implications and Recommendations for Future Research
The implications for library practice and policy as a result of this research primarily point to the need for professional development of library staff in order to be able to support these new trends, particularly with an emphasis on technology and research support. Future research should continue to analyze adoption of these trends and others to both validate the results written here and to establish a model of prediction. Such models can assist libraries in avoiding costly mistakes and adopting trends that are appropriate for their library type and budget.

Conclusion
To define and assess what 21 st century academic libraries look like, the authors identified the most commonly cited 21 st century library trends and evaluated the websites of over 300 academic libraries to determine the extent to which they adopted these trends. The authors visited the websites of all ARL member libraries in the United States, their branches, and 160 randomly selected academic libraries that are not ARL libraries. The primary goal of this study was to identify the extent to which the libraries in the sample reflected the status of a 21 st century library, as defined by adoption of the trends discussed above. Additionally, the study sought to determine whether ARL libraries were more likely to adopt these trends over non-ARL libraries. Lastly, regardless of ARL status, the authors investigated which institutional factors, such as number of librarians on staff, budget, collection size, student FTE, and institution status (private versus public), predicted the adoption of 21 st century trends. Results indicated that ARL member libraries were significantly more likely to adopt these trends, quite possibly due to their larger size and larger budgets. This research can assist librarians, library directors and other stakeholders in making the case for the adoption or avoidance of some trends, especially where considerable outlay of funds is necessary.


Work Hazards and Job Satisfaction Among Public Servants in Cross River State Nigeria and Counselling Interventions

This research study investigated work hazards and job satisfaction among public servants in Cross River State Nigeria and counselling interventions. To achieve the objectives of this study, one null hypothesis was raised to direct the study. Literatures related to the variables under study were reviewed. A sample of 800 public servants were selected from three senatorial districts of the population through stratified random sampling technique. Ex-post-facto design was adopted for the study. Questionnaire titled “work hazards and job satisfaction among public servants (WHJSPS)” was used for data collection. The hypothesis was tested using independent t-test, at 0.05 level of significance. The result obtained from the findings revealed that the level of job dissatisfaction among public servants in Cross River State is significantly high, showing that they are not job satisfied. Attitude to work has significant influence on job satisfaction; public servants with positive attitude to work were more satisfied with job than their counterparts with negative attitude to work. There is a significant inverse relationship between physical/mechanical work hazards, biochemical work hazards, ergonomic work hazards, psychosocial work hazards and job satisfaction. It was recommended among other things, that adequate and regular worker salaries and wages should be made by the government as workers will be happy to perform efficient job. Government should empower workers for career advancement, adequate prevention of work hazards through provision of safety devices, modern buildings, good roads and education of workers on the use of modern equipment, will greatly energize public servants for efficient work and job satisfaction.

Introduction
The essence for which man search for jobs, attend interviews and get employment is to meet personal needs and to achieve job satisfaction. An employee gets job satisfaction when he or she receives good feelings in performing jobs. One of the aspects of job satisfaction that gives good feelings to a person is reward a person gets for doing job well. This could be in form of monetary reward or the prestige that an employee gets when doing a job that helps the public. Locke citing in Sari and Judge (2004) defined job satisfaction as pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from appraisal of one's job or job experience. Job satisfaction is viewed as a positive attitude by an employee toward his job as well as his personal life. Abiodum and Gbodebo (2012), described job satisfaction as a type of attitude that people have about their jobs and the organizations in which they perform these job. It also refers to the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs. These definitions clearly show that job satisfaction describes activities within and outside the workplace. However, work setting has direct and indirect impacts on how employees live in their society.
There are many factors which may influence Job satisfaction of public servants. Among others are career type, attitude to work and work hazards. Career type refers to a particular career of one that makes one to be more passionate and excited in performing job to the best of one's knowledge. A career of one's interest makes a person to perform job without complaining, goes to work early and would love to work even till late hours, because she values her job as more important. Super citing in Asuquo (2007), defined career to incorporate work and non-work related variables as the sequence of important positions, occupied by an individual all through his or her pre-occupations, occupational and post-occupational life including work-related roles such as those of employee and pensioner. This definition shows that career includes all the experiences from time of training, to the time an individual actually engage in work and progresses to the period of retirement.
Attitude to work as a factor that influences job satisfaction of public servants is viewed in two dimensions. A positive attitude and a negative attitude to work. Sari and Judge (2004), pointed that attitude and belief of a worker may cause a person to work harder or not to achieve job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction. An employee's job satisfaction influences his general wellbeing as one spends good time at work. Inversely, if a person is dissatisfied with a particular job, this could lead to dissatisfaction in other areas of one's life. Herrel (2005) stated that attitude to work can be powerful tool for positive action or a poison that cripples one's ability to fulfil potentials.
Work hazards are some of the factors that cause problems to job satisfaction of public servants. Work hazards are things that threaten the wellbeing of a person or health and cause danger to live or death in the work place. Such hazardous things exist at place of work and affect public servants at work. The hazardous things are waste materials, chemical substances, air pollulated environment, long distance to work, heavy duty machine, sharp objects and many others that threaten life and cause job dissatisfaction (Bureau of Labour Statistics, 2010).
There are different classes of work hazards. International Labour Organization (2012) classified work hazard into biological and chemical hazards, psychosocial hazards, physical and mechanical hazards and ergonomic hazards. Biological hazards come from working with people, animals or infected plant materials. Examples are blood or other bodily fluids bacteria and viruses, insect bites, animal and birds dropping found in farm and laboratory and nursing homes that cause threat to life at work places.
Chemical hazards occur when one is exposed to any chemical substance inform of solid, liquid or gas in the work place. These include cleaning products and solvents, vapor and fumes, carbon monoxide or other gases, gasoline or other flammable materials. Both biological and chemical hazards could be called biochemical hazards.
Psychosocial hazards are related to the way work is designed, organized and managed as well as the economic and social context of work and are associated with psychiatric, psychological and or physical injury or illness that are directly or indirectly related to work place. Linked to psychosocial risks are issues as occupational stress and work place violence which are recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and safety of employees at work palce.
Physical and mechanical hazards are common sources of injuries at work place. They are unavoidable in certain industries and ministries. They are the unsafe conditions of things that cause injury, illness and death at work. They are electrical materials, unguided machines, constant loud noise, exposure to sun lights, pins, ultra violet rays, heat of cold conditions, working on high ladders or roofs, working with mobile equipment, bad roads, vehicles in bad conditions and many others that cause danger, fear and even death to some public servants at work.
Ergonomic hazards occur when working conditions, type of work and or body position put strain on the body. They are difficult to identify because they do not cause harm immediately. Short term exposure to ergonomic hazards may affect the muscles the next day and long term exposure may lead to serious injury. Causes include poor lighting, improper chair, poor posture, awkward movement, especially if they are repeated, using force to work repeatedly and many other activities that cause strain and stress on the body.
A public servant is generally a person who is employed by the government either through interview as civic servants and politicians elected or appointed to serve the public. A public servant is someone who does something that is in the best interest of the people. (The Federal Republic of Nigeria Civil Service Manual Hand Book, 2013) (The Federal Republic of Nigeria Civil Service Manual Hand Book, 2013) stated that a public service is a service which ranks for the purpose of pension. Degoke (2016) defined public services as an organized body consisting of public servants: civil servants and elected or appointed officials that provides essential services for the citizens of a country. Public service is to improve quality of lives in the public sector and not necessary for profit making.
Generally, most public servants are not satisfied with their jobs most often, they complain of irregular and inadequate salary payment, lack of working facilities and equipment at work place, poor road linking to work and pollution at work places causes a lot of worry and depression to public servants.
Public servants' attendance records show that majority of employees go to work late, sign attendance register with false information on time they arrive at work place and some may leave the place of work to do private business while the job they were employed to do remain undone or delayed. In some area, files may be hidden in some offices. Public servant's job dissatisfaction borders non-Governmental organizations and Government and they device means to improve the state of job satisfaction of public servants. Individuals have suggested ways to solve this problem but the problem still persist.

Related Literature
Work hazards (ergonomic) and job satisfaction among public servants centred on things that threaten health and causes danger to life at work and how public servants work to get job satisfaction. Kanen-Age (2006), explains that accident is a sudden occurrence that results to an employee being injured while performing his/her normal duty to employer or government. It is enforceable in the law court that compensation should be paid to any employee who has permanent incapacitation. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) (2014) reported that Bureau of Labour statistics U.S. hospital's record show that 253,700 employees suffered work related injuries and illness in 2011, which is 6.8 work related injuries and illness for every 100 full time employees. It was reputed that workers employed in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had high rates of hazardous chemicals. Workers also had high prevalence of exposure to physical and chemical hazards. In 2010, 30% of workers had frequent skin contact with chemicals, 28% of those in mining oil and gas extraction industries had frequent exposure to smoke at work. About two-third were exposed to vapors, gas, dust or fumes at work. These issues cause public servants serious problem, inefficient work, poor health, absence from work, incapacitation and even death at work.
Workplace violence is and physical assault, threatening behaviour or verbal abuse that occurs in the work setting. Hodgetts and Hergar (2008) reported a study by the north western National life insurance company that workplace violence affects one in every four employees, sometimes the violence results in homicide which is the third leading cause of fatal occupational injury in the states. Most common violence was assaults. 1.5 million are affected in a year, followed by rapes and sexual assaults and robberies. Other examples of workplace violence include: Verbal threats with attempt to cause harm, by striking, pushing to inflict bodily harm, including vague or covet threats attempt to cause physical harm, other aggressive physical act against another person. Verbal harassment, abusive or offensive language, questions or other discourteous conduct toward supervisors, fellow employees or the public. Disorderly conduct, such as shouting, throwing or pushing objects, punching and slamming doors, making false, malicious statement against co-workers, supervisors or subordinates which tend to damage their reputations or undermine their authority. Inappropriate remarks such as making delusive statements. Using gun or other weapons into the workplace, these acts can be extremely upsetting to those who feel that their rights in the workplace are being violated.
Bimbola (2010) reported that there is no gain saying that only the living can work and earn wages; hence the event of fire outbreak was a part of global strategy and health directed at advocacy awareness. It was revealed that about 2 million occupational fatalities occur annually while more than 100 occupational fatalities occur and some billions of capital losses were reported in Nigeria between 2009 and 2010. It was reported that over 200 cases of industrial accidents occur in the workplace in Nigeria daily with high rate of fatalities. Some of the victims that suffered major injuries such as loss of hands, and legs were dismissed after the companies gave a token compensation to families of victims for both death and permanent disabilities. The study noted that adequate and efficient programme of safety and health at work should be provided. Organized labour should be more involved in the processing of accident and prevention of occupational health hazards.

Statement of the Problem
Job satisfaction of public servants has been a subject of concern among Nigerians. The problem that led the researchers into this study is the level of job satisfaction of employees. Most often they complain about their jobs and irregular payment of salaries and wages, lack of facilities and equipment, bad roads linking homes to workplaces, polluted environment and high cost of living. Coupled with fear of being kidnapped on the way to work and on the way back from work causing job dissatisfaction among workers.
Public servants who are not satisfied with their jobs and salary payment are discontent, frustrated and depressed. They go to work late, sign attendance register with false information about arrival time, leave the workplace early before schedule time to do private business, absent from work, demand money for services rendered to people, hide files in offices, and embezzled government money made for public development.
Government and non-governmental organizations have tried to solved these dreadful situations by ensuring that workers are happy through provision of some amenities, convicted and imprison offenders and payments of salary are made to solved workers' problems and to give public servants job satisfaction. In spite of all these attempt, the problem of job dissatisfaction still persists. These problems gave the researchers worry and want to investigate if the problem was caused by work hazards.

Research Hypothesis
The following hypothesis was raised to guide the study: 1. There is no significant relationship between physical / mechanical work hazards and job satisfaction of public servants.

Methodology
Ex-post-facto design was used for the study. The population of the study consisted of eight hundred public servants from eighteen local government areas of Cross River State, Nigeria. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select the number across the state ministries/ departments therein, hence, 415 were male and 385 females. Public servants career type and job satisfaction questionnaire (PSCTJSQ) was designed and used for data collection.

Hypothesis one
This hypothesis in its null form states that there is no significant relationship between physical/mechanical work hazards and job satisfaction of public servants. 18560 435680 This hypothesis was tested using Pearson product moment correlation statistic. The result is presented in table 5. The result in table 5 showed that calculated r-value of -544 is in absolute sense greater than the critical r-value of 0.062 at 0.05 level of significance, using 798 degree of freedom. The calculated value is negative and thus implies that there is a significant inverse relationship between physical/mechanical work hazard and job satisfaction among public servants. That is, the more the physical/mechanical work hazard faced by public servants, the less satisfied they were on their jobs. Based on this result, the null hypothesis was rejected.

Discussion of Findings
In the above hypothesis as analysis showed that the calculated rvalue was in absolute sense greater than the critical rvalue which means that the calculated value is negative and it implies that there is a significant relationship between physical / mechanical work hazards and job satisfaction among public servants. The result also revealed that the more the physical/mechanical work hazards faced by public servants, the less satisfied they were on their jobs. As opined by Bureau of Labour Statistics (2010) on injuries, illness and fatalities report that physical hazards were the common unsafe conditions that cause injuries illness and death to workers at work places and in 2010 mechanical related injuries were responsible for 64,170 injuries that workers obtained permission for treatment from work. In the ministry of Agriculture, more reports were given about injuries from vehicles from farm activities, injuries from falls and death remain major hazards from farm workers. This result is also in line with Okereke (2016) result findings, which revealed that Nigerian workers are exposed to a lot of occupational hazards at work.

Conclusion
This study investigated work hazards and job satisfaction among public servants in Cross River State. From all indications it was realized that there is significant inverse relationship between physical/mechanical work hazards and job satisfaction of public servants. That is the more the physical/mechanical work hazards faced by public servants, the less satisfied they were on their jobs. Based on this result, the null hypothesis was rejected.
From the above, it is recommended that, provision and education of employees on safety devices and use of equipment like: safety shoes, coveralls and other personal protective equipment (PPE) and proper security of equipment will save live and machines at workplace. Also adequate prevention of work hazards can be ensured by the government through implementation of laws that guide against mismanagement of machines and waste products in all facet of working environment will greatly reduce harm to live and job satisfaction.