THE NECESSITY FOR PARENTS TO WATCH ANIMATED CARTOONS WITH CHILDREN AGED SEVEN TO ELEVEN YEARS

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to establish the necessity for parents to watch televised animated cartoons with children aged seven to eleven years. Methodology: The study used a descriptive survey method to collect information through casual interviews and self-administered questionnaires. Results: The study found out that the amount of time children spend watching animated cartoons on television can make them retract from social interactions with visitors, parents or other siblings when the television is on. Animated cartoons have an impact on children in respect to acquired or "borrowed" language and dressing styles and attitudes towards role types. These relations may be imperceptible to the casual observer but data show that the best (Kim Possible, Ben 10 and American Dragon) cartoon characters are idols, image ideals and role models to children in Nairobi, yet both the two cartoon characters are not representative of children they interact with every day. This study found that it is prudent animated cartoons affect the perceptions and attitudes that are being reinforced in children and the implication of this on how they construct their worldview and self-worth. Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: Parents should be concerned and watch animated cartoons with children because animated cartoons have become an institution through which society is using to bring up children and use to teach values. Media practitioners should air animated cartoons that have no violence or bad morals but are still popular with children. The government should set policies governing the content in animated cartoons aired by the media houses

Background of the Study
The last part of the twentieth century was characterized by a process of commercialization, deregulation and privatization through a thoroughgoing restructuring of markets and marketplaces as a result of the 'globalization' process (Kotz, 2015). Globalisation has come to mean and imply a small shrunken world in which people gain access to cultures and knowledge that were once beyond their reach, a transcending of cultural boundaries that enables multitudes from all social Vol.2, Issue No.1, p 42 -52, 2018 www.carijournals.org 43 strata to participate in the global arena. This has stoked fears that globalisation contains within it a homogenising effect where local cultures may soon find themselves subsumed by the more dominant cultural patterns (Raaij, Veldhoven & Wärneryd, 2013). All of these fears have impacted on Nairobi in one way or another causing apprehension in some quarters. What raises this fear within mass media is the fact that the institutions and enterprises that control the process of globalisation of mass media have an inherent standardising effect that sets "global standards and tastes" at the expense of local, cultures and regional aesthetics. Nairobi and its environs have not escaped this process. The fear and apprehension are real when one realizes that globalization expanded consumption of television programs including animated cartoons, films, news, games and advertising. This particular development in mass media portends influence on cultures of people worldwide, especially children who inform their perception of culture and trends through the electronic media (Cruz-Roa et at., 2013) It is the hope of this research that a path can be charted that will make available to children progressive media that can reinforce positive attributes and gender constructions that view male and female in equal light in society. Children can come through to see female roles like Kim Possible in active and positive framing. It is also the hope of this research that effort is going to be put into producing local animated cartoons that include local realities and aspirations (Ekwe, 2018).

Social Learning Theory
According to the social learning theory, knowledge is best constructed when learners collaborate together. Students support one another and encourage new ways to form, construct and reflect on new material. The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Bandura states "Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do (Zimmerman, 2013). A key aspect of social learning theory is that of modelling whereby we observe others and then model our behaviour after them. The effects of modelling can be particularly apparent when children are exposed to televised animated cartoons without proper guidance. This may make the child develop totally new behaviour from speech, dressing style to table etiquette and moral stances (Smith, Cowie & Blades, 2015).
Social learning theory is much more than just observing behaviour and modelling our own after it. One must be motivated to attend to modelled behaviour, store information about it in memory (e.g. Rehearsing it) and to later retrieve it when an opportunity arises to put it to use (Gross, 2015). This helps to understand why children are susceptible to modelling changes as they mature and grow older by being more discriminate observers of their environment, and are better placed to extract general rules of behaviour from specific examples that they have observed. Berger (1995) says that the study of human development has greatly benefited from this theory in the sense that it has led researchers to see that many behaviours that may seem to be inborn or a result of deeply rooted emotional problems may actually be as a result of the immediate environment. Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences (Gross, 2015).

Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura ( 19861994) has argued that behaviour, personal (cognitive and biological) factors and environmental events operate as interacting determinants that influence each other in both ways. While the factors vary in their strength as influences they do not always operate simultaneously.
Most external influences affect behaviour through cognitive processes as the meaning is assigned to symbols and texts. Individuals have a self-regulating capability that anticipates self-satisfaction from fulfilling valued standards and responds in an evaluative manner to their own behaviour. As part of their self-reflective capability, individuals verify thought self-reflexively through four modes of thought; the persuasive, logical, vicarious, and inactive processes assess the adequacy between thought and the results of their actions. Vicarious (an action felt or enjoyed through imagined participation in the experience of others) learning begins in infancy (Mazur, 2016). Vicarious thrills experienced through comparisons with experiences on television can foster shared misconceptions of people, places or things (Boyd, 2013).
Children between the ages of 8 to 13 years who watched television cartoons in a study by Peruta, and Powers (2017) quoting Mayes and Valentine (1979) recognized that the characters exhibited behaviour that stereotyped gender roles. The children evaluated the male and female characters on characteristics that included "brave and do not need to be rescued" and "dominant and intelligent and can make decisions easily". Other characteristics included unconcerned about appearance, independent, keeps out of trouble, not easily excited in a crisis, acts as a leader, harsh, aggressive, does not have a strong need for security and does not cry easily. The researchers found significant differences in all dependent variables, and respondents' gender produced no significant interaction effect. Consequently, children may pick up these gender-biased behaviours and develop the gender-bias attitudes that may be are exhibited on television (Yaşar, 2018).
Among the various factors that help shape gender-typed behaviours, role models and imitation are significant influences (Hines et. al., 2016). Research suggests that children who view violent programming on television will behave more aggressively with peers (Can & Kaya, 2016) and the children who view pro-social behaviours on television are more likely to exhibit those types of behaviours themselves. The development of autonomy, initiative, and a sense of industriousness are critical to young children's positive development. Children who witness female characters on television programs who are passive, indecisive, and subordinate to men, and who see this reinforced by their environment, will likely believe that this is the norm. Female children are less likely to develop the qualities of autonomy, initiative and industry if they rarely see those traits portrayed. Likewise, where male characters are portrayed enacting leadership roles that exhibit assertive and decisive behaviour, children assume this to be the appropriate way for males to behave. Television captivates and affords children social learning opportunities and hence after a few years' exposures to the animated cartoons shown on Kenyan TV, children acquire role models, dressing styles, language, behaviour and a lifestyle (Perry, Ruggiano, Shtompel & Hassevoort, 2015).

Empirical Framework
The power to shape perceptions and attitudes through the medium of animated cartoons should impose a great ethical obligation on cartoonists, for when used in offensive, sexist or demeaning ways, cartoons, just like other forms of communication, can distract, incite and even perpetuate undesirable and negative behaviour in children and society at large. Most media and especially animated cartoons to which children are exposed and the conditions under which exposure occurs cannot teach. Television is a persuasive influence on children from a tender age and must then to some degree influence their cognitive and social development (Can & Kaya, 2016). In a study cited by Hetherington and Parke, weekend cartoons that are typically designed for children had an over 70% rate of violence contained in them. Choma (2013) observes in his article Visual Subliminal Messaging in Children's Cartoons that children's cartoons are packed with many controversial topics such as violence and sexuality.
Animated cartoons feature anti-social themes such as violence, sex, cheating, bribing and even killing (Creeber, 2015). A report in 1992 by the US National Institute of Medical Health identified three major effects of children observing violence in animated cartoons. Children become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, become fearful of the world around them and behave in aggressive or harmful ways to others. For example in the popular animated cartoon series Dexter's Laboratory, Dexter is a genius who accesses his enormous laboratory devoted to science and inventions from his bedroom. Dexter's mum and dad have yet to discover the enormous science facility in their house, but his big sister Dee Dee has found her way in. She is always out to destroy Dexter and keeps sneaking into the lab to try and blow up his experiments. She scares him a lot and enjoys pressing buttons in the laboratory that always end up causing danger. While the popular Ed Edd and Eddy animated series shows pain administered with a smile. Children get to learn that you can inflict pain on someone and still afford a smile (Illustration 1) 1a 1b 1c

Illustration: 1) Dexter's Laboratory 1b) Ed, Edd and Eddy
According to (Baym, 2015), when children are engaged in watching animated cartoons they seem to be anti-social. As long as the TV is on, children ignore visitors, parents and other siblings. They withdraw from social interaction. Their language and social skills are not practiced. She goes on to say that due to the passive nature of watching animated cartoons, children lack a desire to play outside with other children, thus killing the socialization and interaction (Condry, 2017). Chrisse Cannon (2007) a teacher in America in his article "Are cartoons affecting America?" opines that the programmes children watch affect their behaviour. He further says that cartoons affect children by impending proper mental and moral development because they do not challenge the Childs mind. The screen does all of the thinking for the child and leaving nothing to the child's imagination and only minimal brain activity occurs. He also observes that cartoons display improper behaviour, morals and actions. He says that the characters in cartoons may yell at each other, telling the other person "shut up!" At other times, he says, the cartoons may show hatred and violence, with fighting occurring between the characters. He further observes that the characters in cartoons are frequently disrespectful towards parents and other authority figures as well. He points out that clearly these programmes are not promoting or reinforcing the values that most parents teach their children.
Violence in animated cartoons affects the way children watch violent cartoons (Monkolprasit & Arunrangsiwed, 2016). For example, Renner found out that those children whose facial expressions, while viewing televised violent cartoons, depicted the positive emotions of happiness, pleasure, interest or involvement were more likely to hurt another child than were those children whose facial expressions indicated disinterest or displeasure. The Kenyan environment has also become very dangerous for children. They are known to suffer stress, a scourge ordinarily experienced by adults. Over the past two decades, hundreds of studies have examined how violent cartoons on TV affect children and young people. There is a growing consensus that children are vulnerable to violent messages (Condry, 2017).
It is true that animated cartoons also have a positive social impact on children. It serves as an important educational and socialization tool. They have helped children expand understanding of the world they live in; it has provided them opportunities to learn the values of the nation they live in and the culture, civilization of other children and countries. Parents have used animated cartoons to babysit. They have also been used to provide entertainment and relaxation for children. The educational puppet cartoon series, Sesame Street (illustration 2), launched its campaign-Healthy Habits for Life, to encourage young children to adopt a more dynamic and nutritious lifestyle featuring the benefits of fruits and veggies in their daily diet. An animated cartoon series created to encourage British children to eat more fruit and vegetables has become the focus of a new Department of Health campaign. Trials have shown that the cartoon prompted a dramatic increase in children's consumption of fruit and vegetables. 2a 2b

Illustration: 2a and 2b: Sesame Street
As well as encouraging a sedentary lifestyle, animated cartoons can also contribute to childhood obesity by aggressively marketing junk food to young audiences. According to the Canadian Paediatric Society, most food advertising on children's TV shows is for fast foods, candy and presweetened cereals. Commercials for healthy food make up only 4 per cent. Today in many children's cartoon's one sees cartoon characters jumping, diving, and falling from very high heights, then landing without being harmed. These sorts of cartoons display a false sense of reality upon children and children believe that they can fall off a tall cliff or be shot with a gun in the face and walk from these incidents with barely a scratch (Creeber, 2015).
The presence or absence of role models, how women and men, girls and boys are presented, and what activities they participate in on the screen powerfully affect how girls and boys view their role in the world. Studies of cartoons, regular television, and commercials show that although many changes have occurred and girls have a wider range of role models, still for girls "how they look" is more important than "what they do" (Arendt, 2015). In a 1997 study designed to study how children described the roles of cartoon characters, children (aged four to nine) "perceived most cartoon characters in stereotypical ways: boys were violent and active and girls were domesticated, interested in boys and concerned with appearance" (Napier, 2016).
The study, therefore, sought to determine the discussion of cartoons by children aged seven and eleven years with parents and teachers in Nairobi County, Kenya.

METHODOLOGY
The study used a descriptive survey method to collect information through casual interviews and self-administered questionnaires. The research used the non-probability design and employed judgmental sampling to select a sample of 426 children (224 boys and 202 girls) aged 7 to11 years old from the six selected primary schools in Nairobi. The study used structured questionnaires with closed and open-ended questions to collect primary data. A pilot study was used to test the validity and reliability of the research instrument using Cronbach's alpha on a selected sample of twentyfive students in the age bracket of 7-11 years from Nairobi Primary School. The collected data was edited, cleaned, coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics with the aid of SPSS version 11.0. The data was analyzed through straight tabulations and generated tables, graphs, and charts such as measures of central tendency such as means and modes and measures of dispersion such as the standard deviations. It can be deduced that the respondents like watching animated cartoons at home because they spend many hours at home especially during weekends and during school vacation. Again, most consumption or viewership takes place during the weekends or holidays, when some parents are likely to be at home with their children. It is therefore expected that most parents would talk to their children about the programmes that they watch of which cartoons are a major constituent.

Discussion of Cartoons with Parents and Teachers
Almost all, 96.9% of the respondents lived with their parents who were expected to guide them on what to watch and what not to watch. The other 2.8% also lived with a guardian. The results in Figure 2 indicate that adults neither watch nor discuss cartoons with children.

Parental Involvement with Cartoons Children Watch
Vol.  This study reveals otherwise with only 39.7% of the 426 respondents saying that they talk about cartoons with their parents. Fifty-five point six per cent do not talk about cartoons with their parents as revealed earlier in this report. On whether they discuss cartoons with their teachers almost all of the respondents, 92% said they did not while 6.6% said they did talk about cartoons with their teachers. Despite the fact that the question was asking for a "Yes or "No" kind of answer, some of the children went ahead and gave elaborate responses as to why they do not discuss cartoons with their parents. They substantiated their "No" with comments such as "cartoons are for kids," "my parents are too busy to watch cartoons with me," of course not" and "Never".
For those children who talk about cartoons with their teacher, it is indeed a good sign since teachers can guide them on some of the things that they see in cartoons. It should, however, be noted that this guidance is from the fact that the teachers are older and wiser and not because they are more media literate.

Summary
Almost all the children who responded to this question (95.3%) said they liked watching animated cartoons. The study found out that the amount of time children spend watching animated cartoons on television can make them retract from social interactions with visitors, parents or other siblings when the television is on. This can also make them lack the desire to play, socialize or interact with other children. The children admitted that they watch animated cartoons while eating and some even watch while doing their homework. Respondents also watch cartoons during times when they could be talking to their parents for example during meal times. Some children say that parents watch TV with them while they are eating. The study found that gender dictates the kind of cartoons that are preferred by either boys or girls.

Conclusions
Based on the study, the study concluded that animated cartoons have a profound influence on conditions and culture since for many children culture is something they partake through electronic media. The production and distribution of media products are concentrated in a few hands. There is, therefore, no great diversity in content and great blurring of boundaries between information and entertainment.
Parents are busier today than ever and kids are often home alone and spend so much time watching television, parents should not use television as a babysitter. They should limit screen time, including animated cartoons, movies, video games and computer time to less than two hours a day. Parents should provide alternative means of relaxation and entertainment rather than the passive leisure of watching animated cartoons, for example, go for a walk or a bike ride, stamp collecting, painting, star gazing, learning to play a musical instrument or read together. Listen to music, talk, play a game and enjoy each other's company. Parents should try to engage children in more interactive and family activities. They should watch the animated cartoons their children watch or preview them, use it as an opportunity to discuss inappropriate material or unacceptable behaviour or lifestyle. This will be an important determinant of the amount and types of animated cartoons children watch. This can also help prepare children to make decisions on their own, whether about what they watch or how to make smart choices about sex, dressing, and language drinking, smoking and using drugs. Parents should pass along family values, not values children absorb from animated cartoons.
Media houses in places like Kenya have little choice in the content the audiences consume, especially the popular animated cartoons. That is because the five major networks produce and dictate what the rest of the world consumes. These corporations are profit-driven and the content of the cartoons they produce is geared largely towards their Western audience in worldview, imagery and language.

Recommendations
Parents should develop guidelines for children on how many animated cartoons he/she can watch; the less the better. Keep television out of a child's bedroom. The best place is the family room. Watch animated cartoons together and talk about what your child sees on the animated cartoons. They should help children understand and evaluate the content they watch in animated cartoons. Parents should not assume that all animated cartoons are harmless. The subtext of messages in animated cartoons dealing with sexuality and romance are ignored and unacknowledged by critics and parents. They should be considered because animated cartoons have become an institution through which society brings up children and use to teach values. Parents should influence their child's viewing by modifying their own viewing habits. They should be good role models. Instead of coming home and flopping in front of the television and making its prime source of recreation, look for other options like going for a walk or ride a bicycle, painting, learn to play musical instruments, talk, play a game and enjoy each other's company. It is important that parents advocate for high-quality programmes for children and removal inappropriate animated cartoons from the local TV stations. Parents should take interest in combating hypersexualization in the animated cartoon and allow the children to stay young.
Media housed should air on Kenyan stations animated cartoons that have local animated imagery designed to relate to the child's world or context. Media practitioners should provide entertainment programming in which life's problems are not simply and quickly solved with either violent actions or hostile humour. They should air animated cartoons that have no violence or bad morals but are still popular with children. The government should set policies governing the content in animated cartoons aired by the media houses.


extfieldsofstudy:
Sociology
Computer Science

text:
Shaping the Future of Academic Libraries: Authentic Learning for the Next Generation

Academic librarianship is changing in response to new pedagogies and educational approaches emerging in the tertiary (i.e. post-secondary, college or university) education sector. 1,2 As teaching shifts to more engaged and authentic student experiences, with a focus on preparing undergraduates with the necessary attributes to succeed in the future workplace, librarians have the opportunity to employ their skills in information management, digital literacy, scholarly communication and technology to partner with academic staff in effecting this change.

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simulating authentic research and professional environments. In addition to developing discipline-specific knowledge, these authentic research experiences grounded in scholarly publishing can contribute to the attainment of so-called "soft skills," such as communication and collaboration skills, vital in today's employment market. 3 Librarians are also increasingly taking on roles related to marketing and communication to promote the library's own services and collections, as well as supporting library clients in communicating and disseminating their own work to appropriate audiences. This diverse range of skills and experience means librarians can, and should, be more closely embedded in the academic curriculum, expanding the range of services and knowledge they offer to support staff and students in their teaching and learning programs. This paper presents a case study of a successful collaboration between library and academic staff within an undergraduate science course to provide a rich and authentic learning experience for students, where the traditional role of the librarian has been challenged to take on new responsibilities as partners in curriculum development and enabling new learning outcomes.

Literature Review
An examination of the literature supports our central thesis that the role of the librarian is evolving to meet the requirements of pedagogical changes. The role of the academic librarian has traditionally revolved around managing and developing collections to support teaching, learning, and research, in addition to providing programs that support the development of information literacy skills in graduates. In a digitally connected world where the library is no longer the de facto information resource, academic librarians have grappled with a growing ambiguity and uncertainty around the future of the profession and their role in higher education. Changes to the curriculum and to the wider environment of work and society mean these traditional roles may no longer be sufficient to support academic staff and students. Librarians therefore need to reposition the profession, with a greater focus on partnering with academic staff, becoming embedded in the curriculum, and taking on new roles and capabilities in allied areas such as publishing and marketing. The term "blended librarian" was first used in 2004 to describe an academic librarian combining traditional information skills with a new blend of IT skills and a capacity to use technology in a purposive way to enhance learning. 4 Librarians have an opportunity to develop their roles as educators, building skills in areas such as educational design, development, and innovation, as "facilitators of active, critically reflective learning." 5 Clearly, there is a need for "deeper integration of [the library] profession into the mainstream functions of higher education," 6 though this poses significant challenges. Collaboration between faculty members and librarians may be most obvious in the realm of information and digital literacies, though librarians are not universally recognized for their contributions to course planning and teaching. 7 More recent research has attempted to address the issue of faculty and student perspectives of librarian efficacy and has sought to develop more effective methods for demonstrating the positive effects of the librarian's contributions to student learning outcomes. Findings by Booth, Lowe, Tagg, and Stone suggest that greater collaboration between faculty and librarians cultivates a greater focus on learning outcomes and a common understanding of information literacy as a priority for the university. 8 Following them, Reed and Thompson argue that research methods courses provide a natural place for faculty and librarian collaboration. 9 Students can develop their understanding of information literacy skills, but, additionally, such material offers a perfect opportunity to engage students in discussions around today's complicated and ever-evolving scholarly communication environment.
As part of the changing role of librarians, academic and research libraries have become steadily more active as publishers or publishing partners on campus over the past decade. In a 2007 survey of American research libraries, Hahn found an "emerging research library role as publishing service provider" with only 36 percent of libraries not active in the publishing arena. 10 A more recent 2016 report notes that around 30 percent of the members of the Association of American University Presses reported to libraries, 11 a figure that had doubled in the five years up to 2016, suggesting an ongoing growth in library-based presses and publishing activity. Australia has not lagged in this area, with a 2015 survey undertaken by the Council of Australian University Libraries finding a quarter of university libraries in Australia are publishing original scholarly work, with a wide readership of more than 3.4 million downloads per annum. 12 These efforts, however, have largely been directed at supporting the research mission of the press's home institution. Library-based presses have been most active in providing pathways for the dissemination of their institution's research outputs. 13 Projects using the library-based press to enhance teaching efforts and contribute to the development of valuable skills building students' persistence, success, and employability are a more recent and not yet well-embedded development. A leader in this field has been Purdue University, where the formation of the Journal of Purdue Undergraduate Research (JPUR) has "provide[d] students with an opportunity to disseminate their work while learning about the scholarly publishing process." 14 Backed by funding to undertake a structured assessment of the success of the journal in contributing to student learning outcomes, the Purdue University program has demonstrated that students "developed important information literacy competencies." 15 Furthermore, 20 percent of students who had published in JPUR indicated a desire to pursue a career in research in their respective fields of study; they also were positive about considering publishing in the future-both important indicators in preparing students for future careers within their chosen professions. These findings echo the experience of other student journals-most published under the auspices of library publishing programsthat "the nexus of scholarly communication and information literacy" 16 offers fruitful ground for developing key competencies in undergraduate students that will develop critical information and digital literacy skills and knowledge. 17 While the shift to developing programs that will transmit critical digital literacy skills affects all disciplinary areas, recent literature on science education suggests there is a particular need within the sciences for a focus on the broader digital fluency and scholarly communication skills that align to the expanded role and professional skills of librarians as described in the information and knowledge management literature. In a study conducted in 2007, Rodrigues et al. found that science degrees need to be reconsidered to deliver effective foundations for employment. 18 Additionally, they recommended that relevant skills must be developed as part of the educational experience, with opportunities in the program "for students to practice and receive feedback on these skills." 19 This recommendation is reflected in the push to integrate graduate attributes-a defined set of skills, characteristics, and qualities that a graduate is expected to attain and that are transferable beyond disciplinary boundaries-into Australian university policy 20 nationwide, generally referred to as graduate attribute framework. Each university then formulates its own graduate attributes framework in consultation with their respective industry. This process was started with a graduate attribute mapping of degree courses and, at our university, is now reaching the stage of graduate attribute alignment of courses and assessment tasks; in other words, curricula are being refined to include or identify assessment tasks that address these attributes.
Foremost among these graduate skills is the development of digital literacies, a relatively new concept referring generally to a range of "capabilities which fit someone for

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living, learning and working in a digital society." 21 Library and Information Science (LIS) literature strongly argues for libraries to expand their services to provide educational programs that assist both academic staff and students develop these digital literacy skills. The literature on science education echoes the necessity of developing digital literacy skills to enable more effective learning. While definitions of digital literacy abound, the focus may be specifically on technical literacies, the development of technical capabilities, and proficiency with common online platforms such as blogs and wikis or productivity software (such as word processing or spreadsheets). It has been argued these ICT-enabled affordances may be particularly valuable in science education, enabling, for example, better understanding of science concepts through the use of multimodal representations that "in science learning are important due to the abstract nature of many concepts." 22 Digital literacies, however, are usually also considered to develop the underlying skills to find, evaluate, reuse, create, share, and manage rights necessary to adequately use technology as an information and communication tool in an educational or workplace setting.
The JISC report provides a succinct overview of the emergent area of digital literacy, offering an attempt to understand and codify the new skills necessary to succeed in a digitally rich society. Many of the activities embedded in the course described in the following case study aim to develop digital literacy skills in the students and represent a practical application of the new approaches to librarianship espoused in the JISC report. 23

Institutional Context and Background
To illustrate how librarians can use their diverse range of professional skills to expand their role and more effectively partner in academic teaching and learning design, this paper presents a specific case study of how library and academic staff collaborated to rejuvenate the curriculum in one particular course in the sciences. Energy Science and Technology is a theory-heavy, third-semester physics course in the Faculty of Science at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS) that introduces theoretical thermodynamics to physics students in the context of electric energy production. Recently, the curriculum of this course was reviewed with the twin aims of: 1) providing a more challenging and engaging learning experience than current textbook-based approaches, in line with a universitywide initiative to rejuvenate learning; and (2) incorporating university-stipulated graduate attributes (see table 1).
Each degree course at UTS has a graduate profile associated with it that describes industry-informed capabilities that graduates are expected to achieve, along with discipline-specific knowledge. The graduate attributes are developed throughout a degree course gradually through careful scaffolding and monitoring of course-intended learning outcomes. Course graduate attributes and learning-intended outcomes are mapped against assessment criteria. Through this process, assessment tasks and assessment results are then inherently linked to degree course-intended graduate attributes; thus, all graduates can be expected to meet the required graduate attributes.
On introduction of the administrative requirement to comply with the graduate attribute framework 24 at UTS, the Energy Science and Technology course was reviewed and found to formally address only one of the requisite graduate attributes ("Disciplinary Knowledge"). This was not surprising considering the course's traditional textbook focus and primary role as a foundational, theory-focused course. To support the larger scaffolding of graduate attributes throughout the degree, it became evident that a broader range of important graduate attributes needed to be developed within the Energy Science and Technology course addressing skills and knowledge crucial to success within the classroom and graduate employability.
Several challenges were identified in attempting to address multiple graduate attributes, including the following: • difficulty in designing learning activities and assessment tasks to specifically address particular graduate attributes; • teaching a range of different graduate attributes without compromising on subject content, especially in STEM where discipline-specific knowledge is the foremost attribute in all courses; • identifying and deploying the requisite skills, given that lecturers rarely hold learned knowledge of how to formally teach and assess specific graduate attributes.
It was at this point, once the course curriculum had been reviewed and the challenges of curriculum identified by the course coordinator (who is also faculty in Energy Science and Technology), that faculty staff approached the library to adopt a team-based approach with library and teaching faculty to redesign the curriculum. The intended aims were to make learning more engaging, enable more authentic assessments, and develop graduate capabilities beyond specific and theoretical disciplinary knowledge. The team recognized that librarians have long-standing experience and knowledge in developing skills in finding and evaluation information, which could be employed to enhance the learning experience of students. For the course coordinator, the real value of involving librarians was in harnessing newer skills that could enrich the course. Faculty librarians could bring a diverse range of skills within the broad fields of digital and scholarly communication literacies, which could be employed to inform the course redesign to embed digital literacy capabilities. Professional staff within the library working in marketing and communications who had extensive experience in written communication, event planning, and graphic design could enable activities assisting students to build professional presentations. Students would use some of these skills in their professional research papers to express their findings; others would enable them to present at a professionally organized public presentation at a miniconference. The library also manages one of Australia's oldest and most successful open access scholarly presses, UTS ePRESS, with expertise in all aspects of scholarly communication and academic publishing, which provided an opportunity for students to build an understanding of the production and dissemination of scholarly outputs. Open circles indicate those graduate attributes targeted in the redesign of the Energy Science and Technology course. An additional graduate attribute adopted by the UTS Faculty of Science ("Lifelong Learning") is not included in the table.

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These diverse skills and experience were recognized to align closely with many of the graduate attributes to be embedded within the Energy Science and Technology course. Drawing upon the expertise of both academic and library staff provided the basis for developing the new curriculum, with authentic learning experiences based around the development of critical communication, research, and technology skills. In the following section we present a case study describing how a partnership between academic and library staff was formed to deliver an authentic and multifaceted learning experience to students.

Case Study
The Learning Design team consisting of course coordinator and library staff faced the challenge of introducing workplace skills into the curriculum of a theory-heavy science course, doing so in a way that was engaging and encouraged self-motivated learning in students.
Before describing the solution they developed, it is worth noting briefly the methodological approach adopted by the team. As the work is based in practice, the approach has largely been one of evidence-based research, with solutions applied iteratively over a period of two teaching cycles as staff have reflected on the experience and sought to improve student outcomes. However, in this paper, rather than describe action research methodology and its appropriateness for practice-based research in educational settings, which has been adequately discussed elsewhere, 25 we will describe the process of curriculum review and collaboration undertaken in this specific case study of the course Energy Science and Technology.

Learning Design Process
The course review had established that Energy Science and Technology adequately developed disciplinary knowledge in students but did not address the attainment of other capabilities they would need for success within their chosen discipline as identified by the UTS industry-informed graduate attributes. Therefore, it was thought that a suitable course of action would be to embed an authentic learning experience that simulates a real workplace scenario and is subject to real workplace conditions. Such authentic learning experiences can be either a workplace-integrated or a workplace-simulating experience. 26 The latter, in which the learner undertakes tasks mimicking real work conditions, is often used at an early stage in the degree while the former, in which learning is undertaken in a workplace outside the higher education setting, generally requires a more mature competency and skills base. In this context, for second-year students, a workplace-simulating experience was felt to be more appropriate.
Initially, for a course that covers theoretical thermodynamics, for the faculty to find an appropriate industry and a related workplace scenario that can be integrated into the existing course appeared quite difficult. Like quantum mechanics, theoretical thermodynamics is not a topic commonly worked on in industry; rather, it is something that one would find in a pure research environment or specialized engineering setting. Such an environment is very common, however, at a higher education teaching and research institution, where the full range of tasks undertaken by academic staff is generally not visible to students whose encounters are often limited to teaching activities. In their daily work academics, they may undertake a variety of tasks, ranging from formulating an original research objective for a research study, to finding and analyzing peer-reviewed scientific literature, to writing and submitting a research paper within journal-prescribed formats and timelines, to communicating findings to colleagues and presenting at conferences, to managing a public profile and promoting their research in appropriate disciplinary and broad-based outlets (including social media), to acting as a peer-reviewer of other research papers. Much of this work takes place in the context of a research team and contributes to competing priorities and workloads that include teaching and administration tasks.
For this reason, the course coordinator chose the writing of a student peer-reviewed scientific paper within a small research team as a new assessment task to provide a more engaging and practice-oriented learning experience. Through the process of preparing a scientific paper for publication, students would undertake tasks mimicking a real-world workplace setting-in this case, an academic laboratory in a research environment. This activity could develop the students' understanding of "scholarly publishing literacy," 27 thus preparing them, as graduates in physics, for one possible career in active research, while also developing a range of professional skills, such as communication and teamwork, which are transferrable to most workplaces. This new team-based, student peer-reviewed assignment replaced more traditional examinations in the course. Unlike exams, this type of assessment embedded in the course enables, rather than simply measures, learning. 28 The task was designed to allow this predominantly theoretical course to become a practical, student self-managed learning experience that is stimulating and challenging to students and helps to facilitate the institutionally desired graduate outcomes.
The Energy Science and Technology students are in their second year (third semester) of the four-year program, still in the process of building fundamental disciplinary knowledge, and they have not yet encountered authentic professional research tasks.
To provide an attainable pathway into research conducted in a professional environment, students were instructed to go beyond a literature review of their topic and to adopt a meta-study research approach. In this approach, results from different data in the team's research texts are synthesized in a systematic way to identify data patterns that are not apparent in any of those sources to create new knowledge, 29 which they then document in a professionally written, peer-reviewed paper. 30 Students were allowed to form their own teams and select research topics from a range of proposed topics. The teamwork itself exposes students to the practice of working in a team and managing a preset goal, team dynamics, and team tasks. These are skills that go beyond disciplinary knowledge, requiring students to engage in ways that are socially and emotionally demanding and are skills that are expected to be acquired in an authentic learning environment. Further, the writing of an academic research paper for publication in a research journal requires students to meet specific style guidelines and a submission deadline and participate in a rigorous peer-review process. At the end of the peer-review process (and still within the course term), the research papers are then collated for professional printing and published in an open access peer-reviewed student research journal. Students were provided with an assessment rubric that showed the alignment with respective targeted graduate attributes.
Throughout the session, students undertook a range of tasks, from literature searching to statistics workshops, building to the publication of a peer-reviewed journal article and miniconference presentation. Scaffolded support was embedded within learning tasks, to build both theoretical knowledge and practical digital and scholarly communication literacies, preparing students for future studies, research careers, or employment beyond academia.

Library Partnership in Learning Design
Library staff were involved from the formative stages of course planning as part of the learning design team developing educational resources and learning activities, which embedded a range of graduate attributes into the curriculum.
Librarians worked with the course coordinator and other teaching staff to design the course curriculum, scaffolding the material and developing supplementary online material. Some of the content developed and delivered by librarians represented essential library learning skills that have long been included in library training programs, such as constructing search queries, searching indexing and full text databases, evaluating scholarly and scientific literature, and correctly citing sources.
While this content may represent established information literacy practices, for the class on Energy, Science and Technology, the delivery was embedded in the curriculum, as part of regular librarian-led face-to-face teaching modules, rather than as an invited single session or voluntary workshops. The teaching format also focused on flipped and blended approaches, using online content and practical in-class exercises to reinforce learning, resulting in a more effective approach to traditional information literacy and library instruction.
The library contribution to the course aimed to move beyond the traditional library role of assistance with finding information resources and referencing. Library staff from UTS ePRESS, the library-based institutional publisher, provided a range of professional publishing services to support the publication of the journal including editing, cover design, typesetting and layout, creation of ISSN and article-DOIs, insertion of DOIs in reference lists, and publication of the works in PDF, HTML, and Print-On-Demand formats. By ensuring that the journal was produced to the professional standards of a scholarly journal, students not only gained an authentic experience of what it means to be a professional researcher; they also had a tangible item to add to their CV, demonstrating their attainment of skills in scientific writing and publishing ethics. Library staff and students working in partnership on these activities enhanced student learning through the creation and publishing of an open access journal, PAM Review: Energy Science and Technology, 31 and the inclusion of scholarly communication concepts and skills in the course. Through activities focused on practical learning, students were introduced over the course of the semester to the concepts of open access publishing, academic peer-review, copyright and rights management, academic writing and editing, and digital citizenship. In class workshops, students learned through practical experiences, helping to comply with the journal's editorial guidelines and peer-review processes, reviewing fellow students' work and preparing their papers for submission via the online publishing system applying consistent house styles. Each practical step-supported by library staff-reinforced learning about the process of research and academic writing, while also developing communication and teamwork skills.
Library staff also provided instruction to students on managing their own professional identity, by incorporating workshops on setting up a researcher profile using tools such as Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and ORCID. These activities provided teachable moments within the frame of digital citizenship about the benefits of building and maintaining a professional portfolio and profile, while also alerting students to the ethics and potential risks involved in the use of social media within a professional context.
To conclude the experience, library staff assisted teaching staff in organizing a miniconference hosted in the library at which student research teams presented their research findings, providing a "safe" environment for them to practice presentation and academic communication skills and gain an understanding of how skills in marketing, media, design, and event planning can contribute to the dissemination of scholarly work and the building of professional profiles.

Results
The effectiveness of the course and the success of the curriculum transformation was assessed on an ongoing and iterative basis, appropriate to the action-research method-ology adopted, with regular analysis and evaluation from the teaching team. The key measure for success was developing an engaging experience for students that helped them gain both discipline knowledge and graduate attributes related to employability and workplace success. To measure this, focus groups were held to gather student feedback and assess students' learning experience of the new learning and assessment tasks. Students were asked to answer a set of open-ended questions and then participated in a facilitator-hosted discussion. Students commented positively about the authentic learning experience, which closely simulated a professional workplace experience, working in a research team and interacting with supporting agencies and resources (mentor, library team, and facilities).
The feedback from students in focus groups as well as video interviews taken after workshop sessions 32 indicated that they understood the purpose of the authentic learning activity they undertook throughout the semester and felt it contributed to their attainment of skills that would enhance their employability: • Students realized the value of the nondisciplinary graduate attributes, commenting that it made "the subject more applicable to future careers." • They identified the value of learning to work in professionally organized teams with responses including: "I have also learned a lot about being a leader and making sure everyone is on the right track, but in a positive and encouraging manner" and "[W]orking in a team was rewarding, it helped to improve my skills of collaboration and collaborative time management." • Students also realized the limited benefit that rote learning presents; as one student pointed out, "there are ways to pass tests without understanding but this way we have to understand." • The power of placing learning into an authentic environment taught by learned experts was highlighted by one student commenting that "[I] enjoyed the selfmanaged learning the most, as I feel information I've collected during this project will have greater 'staying power' than it may otherwise." • Students also gained more insight into aspects of professional work they were not aware of previously: "I wasn't actually aware that scientific papers were reviewed in this way before publishing." • Students were also able to identify the transferability of the skills: "The selfmanaged learning was a good way to see what I would have done differently for another project in terms of time management and working within a team." Additional positive outcomes were also indicated by the professional growth and satisfaction of the staff involved in developing the curriculum. Reflexive methods to encourage self-reflection were employed throughout the design, implementation, and evaluation of the course. Library staff reported that the experience had enhanced their relative skill set in various ways, such as in designing and delivering in-class workshop learning activities. Academic staff who were involved reported professional development in terms of curriculum design, scaffolding of graduate attributes, and teaching communication skills, as well as a broadening and deepening of their own professional insight into the field of knowledge they presented to the class.
Library staff also reported an expansion of capabilities and satisfaction in being able to more fully use the range of professional skills and knowledge they possess. One library staff member reflected that the research and development of a teaching session focused on open access publishing, and open scholarly communication generally, was especially rewarding as it raised their awareness of important current trends related to the library and university sector as a whole. A broadening of the concept of what it meant to be a modern academic librarian was also reported by two of the library teaching staff, and this was seen as a positive outcome of the shared teaching and curriculum development. In the future, quantitative metrics may also be applied; for example, they could be used to measure the success of the journal employing statistics such as article downloads and citations to demonstrate the professionalism of the students' work, as well as relevance and quality of their documented research.
The success of PAM Review as learning supporting medium has led to further curriculum development and student publishing projects that aim to provide authentic research experiences for students. A second student journal entitled NEW: Emerging Voices in Australian Indigenous Studies has launched and is publishing works by undergraduate students from two institutions in what the editors term "Critical Indigenous Studies." 33 The launch of a third journal is being planned for 2017 from postgraduate students.
In part due to the success of PAM Review, the library has also pursued other partnerships with academic staff to develop learning and research programs, which in many cases stretch the traditional role of the library and meet emerging initiatives in academic librarianship. For example, students enrolled in the School of Design have curated an exhibition of their work and presented tutorial sessions in the library talking about their learning experiences. The library hosted the exhibition and made curatorial staff available to students to assist them in preparing the exhibition. In doing so, students were supported to develop key skills around reflecting on their own practices and knowledge, exhibiting and communicating about their work, and building their professional persona. These are the same skills developed by students within Energy Science and Technology, where authentic and engaging experiences have been created by drawing on the joint expertise of academic staff employing their disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge, and library staff using an expanded array of professional skills around information and knowledge management, publishing, and communication.
These outcomes strongly suggest that the process of embedding librarians within the teaching and research enterprise in the university enables better learning experiences and lifelong outcomes for students and supports the research mission of the university. As a corollary of expanding the role of academic librarians, better outcomes for the library can also be achieved in terms of a higher profile and greater value to the institution.
The sustainability of a peer-reviewed student journal such as PAM Review will rely upon maintaining academic rigor, high-quality production, and active promotion. The team produced a documentary-style video 34 during the 2017 teaching session, which captures the student experience over a semester of producing PAM Review. The video is intended to help future students better understand the process they will follow in developing their skills through the experience of researching, writing, peer-reviewing, and editing a journal. It also provides a guide for library and academic staff who may wish to adopt a similar approach in their own work. This video project, undertaken with the assistance of the university's Institute for Interactive Media & Learning (IML), will further enhance the professional reach of the PAM Review experience and, for the curriculum team involved, enable a continuation of the process of review, evaluation, and iterative improvement as part of the practice-based, action research methodology adopted for this project.

Conclusions
The librarian's role as a learned expert partnering in teaching and publishing as part of the science curriculum demonstrates the move from librarians as traditional custodians of educational materials to new roles as mentors, teachers, publishers, and content creators. By shifting the role of the academic librarian away from the physical library and engaging with staff and students in their classroom and through the library website, the library has become a much more valuable and effective contributor to improving the student experience, playing a key role in curriculum design and course delivery.
The embedded librarian becomes just as engaged in the work of the team as any other team member. As the engagement grows, the embedded librarian develops highly customized, sophisticated, and value-added contributions to the team. 35 The achievement of a professionally produced open access scholarly journal by a group of undergraduate students, such as PAM Review, is evidence of the success of this approach in imparting to students critical theoretical and discipline-specific knowledge and helping them obtain digital and communication skills they will need to succeed in the workplace of the future.


extfieldsofstudy: Medicine Psychology

text:
The relationship between non-cognitive student attributes and academic achievements in a flipped learning classroom of a pre-dental science course

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine whether non-cognitive student attributes such as learning style and personality type affected academic performance in a flipped learning classroom of a pre-dental undergraduate science course. Methods ‘Biodiversity and Global Environment,’ a 15-week, 3-credit course, was designed as a flipped class in Seoul National University School of Dentistry in 2017. Second-year pre-dental students were required to enroll in the course and to engage in online learning and in-class discussion. The Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator were conducted to measure non-cognitive student factors. Independent samples t-test and multivariate regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between self-rated measurements and academic achievement. Results More than half of the students enrolled in the flipped science course had an assimilator learning style (50%), followed by convergers (24%), accommodators (16%), and divergers (10%), and their personality types were dominated by the introverted, sensing, thinking, and judging types, respectively. Examining group differences using the t-test demonstrated a significant relationship between the diverger group and higher academic success. In particular, the multivariate regression analysis indicated that both thinking types and female students performed better in discussion than feeling types and male students. Conclusion To operate the flipped learning classroom more effectively in medical and dental education, the instructor should carefully develop and apply a more tailored facilitation and relevant assessment by considering student learning styles and personality types.

Introduction
Since its inception in 2007, the flipped classroom has reversed the traditional learning environment from being instructor-centered to student-centered [1]. Dental educators found the traditional lecture model to have several limitations, such as one-way communication, lack of interaction, and poor student engagement [1,2]. In light of these disadvantages of the lecture classroom, the flipped classroom model has been introduced in most dental schools in Korea.
However, whether the flipped classroom can be sufficiently effective to challenge the traditional peda-gogy in dental education is debatable. Even though more medical and dental schools have begun to implement flipped classrooms as an innovative pedagogy, studies found the success of a flipped classroom to be dependent on individual student attributes that influence their learning experiences and learning outcomes [2,3]. It was reported that, for those students preferring traditional lectures, the flipped course instruction would not significantly affect their perceptions of the learning experience [2].
When considering student attributes in the learning experience, the level of intellectual achievement was significantly influenced by non-cognitive and cognitive factors. Recently, an increasing number of studies have focused on how non-cognitive factors shaped student academic performance [4][5][6]. Previous studies found that, among non-cognitive student factors, student learning style and academic strategy preference can be combined with appropriate lecturing methods to result in desirable learning achievements [7]. In particular, personality type, which is expressed as an individual's unique behavior and thinking style, is considered to be a significant non-cognitive factor that affects not only student academic achievement, but also career and major selection [8].
As non-cognitive elements, learning style and personality type were reported to be closely related to academic performance [9,10]. Based on this finding, there have been attempts to analyze academic achievement in different major fields, such as engineering and nursing [11][12][13]. In this study, Kolb's empirical learning model, the most common learning style of adults, and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which is the representative tool invented based on a psychological typology of Jung et al. [11] to measure an individual's personality, were used to investigate the effects of learning style and personality type on academic achieve-ment [14].
The purpose of this study was to examine whether students' non-cognitive attributes, such as learning style and personality type, affected academic performance in a flipped learning classroom of a pre-dental undergraduate science course. The focus of the study was based on the assumption that the general benefits of a flipped classroom depend on the non-cognitive attributes of dental students, some of which can be measured using the Kolb's Learning Style Inventory and MBTI.

Methods
'Biodiversity and Global Environment,' a 15-week, 3credit course, was designed as a flipped learning class in 2017. Second-year pre-dental students in Seoul National University School of Dentistry were required to enroll in the course and to participate in online learning and in-class discussion. The Kolb's Learning Style Inventory and the MBTI were conducted to measure student learning and personality types at the beginning of the course. A total of fifty pre-dental students consented to the collection of records and completed the surveys.
In this study, the flipped-course combined distance learning and in-class activities to engage dental students in each class, as presented in Table 1. Session 1 allowed students to watch 2-4 videos clips and/or to read weekly online materials before class. At the beginning of each class, student preparedness for class was tested by a 10-minute quiz. Session 2 started with a 20-minute mini-lecture, followed by a 90-minute discussion (session 3) that was evaluated by both tutors and peers.
At the end of the course (session 4), the students were expected to take a final written test and to submit a reflective journal as a take-home exam. Second-year pre-dental students admitted in 2016 Five discussion groups were organized, and each group consisted of one facilitator and 10 students. Duration A total of 15 weeks in the fall semester, 2017 Task Performing one module every week, from session 1 before class, through sessions 2 and 3 during class and to session 4 completing the final test and reflective journal (take-home exam) at the end of class five tutors were asked to take turnsgiving a mini-lecture on each module, and they also (plus other two faculty members available in class time) participated in group discussion facilitation. In this course, the total score comprised quizzes, discussion, reflective journal, final test, and attendance.
The quiz was designed as formative test, and the final exam served as a summative test, and each counted as 30 points out of the total 100. The in-class discussion skill was evaluated by both peer students (10 points) and tutors (10 points). Tutors also assessed the reflective journals (10 points) using rubrics, and 10 points were possible for attendance.
For the pre-dental student learning styles and MBTI types, a descriptive statistical analysis was conducted, and an independent samples t-test was used to determine whether there were group differences in academic achievement. Also, multivariate regression analyses were adopted to examine the relationships between student self-rated measurements and academic achievement, which consisted of such domains as quizzes, discussion, reflective journal, attendance, and final test. As such, this study focused on whether student learning style and personality type affected the success of a flipped classroom of a pre-dental course. The STATA ver. 11.0 program (Stata Corp., College Station, USA) was used for statistical processing of analytical data.

Results
As suggested in Table 2, academic achievement, the average student total score was 61.01 out of 100 points.
The average between-group differences in terms of academic achievement, especially the total score, in-dicated no significant differences between groups in terms of gender and learning types (Table 3). However, the difference in performance between the diverger and non-diverger was statistically significant. In other words, the diverger group had a higher total score than   indicates the difference at the 99% level.
the non-diverger group.
In the multivariate regression analysis, the variables corresponding to the converger, accommodator, and assimilator were negatively significant for total, quiz, and final test scores. In other words, the divergers consistently showed higher academic achievement in a flipped classroom than the convergers, accommodators, and assimilators ( Gender and MBTI thinking-feeling (TF) variables were statistically significant in discussion among academic achievement, which meant that female students and thinking types were more likely to perform better in discussion than were males and feeling types ( Table 4).
The MBTI sensing-intuition variables showed a statistical significance in quizzes, confirming that the sensing type tended to have a higher quiz score than the intuition type.

Discussion
Recently, the flipped classroom model has been widely adopted in medical and dental education. However, in designing a flipped course, the instructors were unlikely to consider the student non-cognitive attributes for flipped learning success. These results confirmed the significant relationships between non-cognitive attributes and flipped learning outcomes in terms of learning style and personality type.
The learning style of the pre-dental students enrolled in a dental school showed a typical pattern, in which the assimilator and converger types were the most representative learning styles, supporting the consistent results. In a previous study analyzing the learning style of domestic medical students, the assimilator was also the most common, with the convergence being the second highest [15]. According to Kolb's learning theory [16], assimilators and convergers are more common in areas of natural sciences, with a greater interest in physical objects than people. On the other hand, accommodators and divergers are more popularly expressed among people in the humanities and social sciences, with greater interests in people than objects. In this regard, dental students typically conform to the pattern of natural sciences.
In this study, we demonstrated a strong relationship between the diverger group and academic performance.
Divergers are able to consider alternatives and explore several possibilities to solve problems. Based on this characteristic, they often demonstrate better abilities in debate through rich imagination and insight [15,16]. In other words, the diverger group was more successful in a flipped learning classroom, which maximizes interaction between professor-student and student-student groups through learning activities, such as discussions and presentations that are unlikely to happen in vertical lecture classes.
Pre-dental student personality types were dominated by introverted, sensing, thinking, and judging types (ISTJ). In previous studies analyzing the learning styles of domestic medical students, the majority of the group was higher in introversion, sensing, thinking, and judging. As a whole, the high rates of ISTJ may reflect a systematic and structural tendency toward the outside world, rather than a flexible and adaptive one, in medical and dental students [15,17].
The MBTI TF was statistically significant regarding discussion, pointing out the notion that thinking types had higher discussion scores than feeling types. Even if MBTI TF did not affect the overall score of flipped learning, it could be assumed that the thinking type performed better in discussions that required momentary and intensive thinking skills. However, in the study highlighting the effect of personality type on problembased learning (PBL), only the judge-perceive variable was statistically significant, with the judging type being reported to perform better than the perceiving type [18].
The difference might be due to the notion that the characteristics of PBL that focuses primarily on solutions to given tasks could benefit the judging type, leading to higher performance.
Gender was found to be a relevant variable in regression analysis, with the average number of female students performing better than males in discussion. In this study, the female pre-dental students had higher discussion scores than males in a flipped-classroom.
According to Reynold's study on gender differences in PBL, female students, who preferred studying individually, tended to show positive attitudes toward the cooperative system of PBL, in accord with the cooperative learning of in-class discussion [19].
Efforts to understand the learning styles and personalities constituting student non-cognitive characteristics are necessary. Because dental students tend to be one of the most academically competent groups in natural science, there is high possibility that the mutual distinction is more largely expressed in non-cognitive aspects relative to cognitive factors.
Despite this, studies on learning strategies and styles have not been actively conducted in the field of medical and dental education [6,7]. It is therefore necessary to understand non-cognitive factors, such as learning style and personality type, for intellectual tasks and academic achievements and to foster a more efficient and effective teaching methodology.
It is desirable to develop and apply a more tailored teaching method for dental school students in operating the flipped learning classroom. The results of this study confirmed that the majority of students in dental school have a learning style that matches the natural sciences, mainly in the form of the assimilator and converger.
Developing more individualized teaching methods that consider the characteristics of dental students with relatively better strengths in drawing conclusions through the process of deliberation will be a more effective for educational pedagogy when operating a pre-dental flipped learning classroom, which is centered around interactive activities such as discussion.
This study was conducted on the students of such a single course in a dental school that it needs more follow-up research before its application in other Knowledge of personal preferences would encourage instructors to design a flipped course, which is more conducive for participation and better performance.