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For the historical province, see Sind Province (1936–1955).
"Sind" redirects here. For other uses, see Sind (disambiguation).
سنڌ   ‎/   سندھ ਸਿੰਧ
Flag of Sindh
Official seal of Sindh
Nickname(s): Valley Of Mehran( Mehran Ji Waadi).Sindh Ammar(Motherland Sindh)
Location of Sindh in Pakistan
Location of Sindh in Pakistan
Map of Sindh, Pakistan
Map of Sindh, Pakistan
Coordinates: 26°06′N 68°30′E﻿ / ﻿26.1°N 68.5°E﻿ / 26.1; 68.5Coordinates: 26°06′N 68°30′E﻿ / ﻿26.1°N 68.5°E﻿ / 26.1; 68.5
Country  Pakistan
Established 1 July 1970
Capital Karachi
Largest city Karachi
 • Type Province
 • Body Provincial Assembly
 • Governor Ishrat ul Ibad (MQM) (PPP)
 • Chief Minister Qaim Ali Shah (PPP)
 • High Court Sindh High Court
 • Total 140,914 km2 (54,407 sq mi)
Population (2012 census preliminary)[1]
 • Total 42,400,000
 • Density 300/km2 (780/sq mi)
Demonym Sindhi
Time zone PKT (UTC+5)
ISO 3166 code PK-SD
Main Language(s)
Other languages: Saraiki, Kutchi, Memoni, Haryanvi, Punjabi, Brahui, Baluchi, Dhatki,[2][3]
Assembly seats 168[4]
Districts 24
Towns 119
Union Councils 1108[5]

Sindh /sɪnd/ (Sindhi: سنڌ (Perso- Arabic) सिंध (Devanagari)  ; Urdu: سندھ‎ ; Latin: Indus ; Ancient Greek: Ἰνδός Indós ; Sanskrit: सिंधु Sindhu ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the Mehran. The name "Sindh" is derived from the Sanskrit Sindhu, a reference to the Indus River that passes almost through the middle of the entire province. This river was known to the ancient Iranians in Avestan as Hindu, in Sanskrit as Sindhu, to Assyrians (as early as the seventh century BC) as Sinda, to the Persians as Ab-e-sind, to the Greeks as Indos, to the Romans as Indus, to the Pashtuns as Abasind, to the Arabs as Al-Sind, to the Chinese as Sintow, and to the Javanese as Santri.

Sindh is bounded to the west by Balochistan, to the north by Punjab, to the east by the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan and to the south by the Arabian Sea. The capital and largest city of the province is Karachi, which is also Pakistan's largest city and the country's only financial hub. Most of the population in the province is Muslim, with sizable Hindu, Ahmadiyya, Christian, Parsi and Sikh minorities.

Origin of the name[edit]

Sindh Province and the people inhabiting the region are named after the river known as the Sindhu before independence and now called the Indus River. In Sanskrit, síndhu means "river, stream", and refers to the Indus river in particular. The Greeks who conquered Sindh in 325 BC under the command of Alexander the Great rendered it as Indós, hence the modern Indus. The ancient Iranians referred to everything east of the river Indus as hind from the word Sindh. In Persian S is sounded H. When the British arrived in the 17th century in India, they followed that regional example and applied the Greek name for Sindh to the entire South Asia, calling it India.


Main article: History of Sindh

Prehistoric period[edit]

The Priest King from Mohenjo-daro, more than 4000 years old, in the National Museum of Pakistan, Karachi
Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan.
Lansdowne Railway Bridge

Sindh's first known village settlements date as far back as 7000 BCE. Permanent settlements at Mehrgarh, currently in Balochistan, to the west expanded into Sindh. This culture blossomed over several millennia and gave rise to the Indus Valley Civilization around 3000 BCE. The Indus Valley Civilization rivaled the contemporary civilizations of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in size and scope, numbering nearly half a million inhabitants at its height with well-planned grid cities and sewer systems.

The Indus Valley Civilization is the farthest known outpost of archaeology in prehistoric times. Evidence of a new element of pre-Harappan culture has been traced here. When the primitive village communities in Balochistan were still struggling against a difficult highland environment, a highly cultured people were trying to assert themselves at Kot Diji. This was one of the most developed urban civilizations of the ancient world. It flourished between the 25th century BC and 1500 BC in the Indus valley sites of Moenjodaro and Harappa. The people had a high standard of art and craftsmanship and a well-developed system of quasi-pictographic writing which remains un-deciphered despite ceaseless efforts. The remarkable ruins of the beautifully planned towns, the brick buildings of the common people, roads, public baths and the covered drainage system suggest a highly organized community.[6]

According to some accounts, there is no evidence of large palaces or burial grounds for the elite. The grand and presumably holy site might have been the great bath, which is built upon an artificially created elevation.[7] This indigenous civilization collapsed around 1700 BC. The cause is hotly debated, and may have been a massive earthquake, which dried up the Ghaggar River. Skeletons discovered in the ruins of Mohen Jo Daro ("mount of dead") indicate that the city was suddenly attacked and the population was wiped out.[8]

Part of a series on

Etymology · History
Language · Culture · Cuisine · Diaspora · Sindhology
Tribes · Media

Sindh finds mention in the Hindu epic Mahabharata as being part of Bharatvarsha. Sindh was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BC. In the late 300s BC, Sindh was conquered by a mixed army led by Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great. The region remained under control of Greek satraps for only a few decades. After Alexander's death, there was a brief period of Seleucid rule, before Sindh was traded to the Mauryan Empire led by Chandragupta in 305 BC. During the rule of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the Buddhist religion spread to Sindh.


In the late 100s BC, Scythian tribes shattered the Greco-Bactrian empire and invaded the Indo-Greek lands. Unable to take the Punjab region, they seized Sistan and invaded South Asia through Sindh, where they became known as Indo-Scythians (later Western Satraps). By the first century AD, the Tocharian Kushan Empire annexed Sindh. Though the Kushans were Zoroastrian due to their former contacts with Persians, they were tolerant of the local Buddhist tradition and sponsored many building projects for local beliefs. Ahirs were also found in large numbers in Sindh.[9] Abiria country of Abhira tribe was located in southern Sindh.[10][11]

The Kushan Empire was defeated in the mid 200s AD by the Sassanid Empire of Persia, who installed vassals known as the Kushanshahs. These rulers were defeated by the Kidarites in the late 300s. It then came under Gupta Empire after dealing with the Kidarites. By the late 400s, attacks by Hephthalite tribes known as the Indo-Hephthalites or Hunas (Huns) broke through the Gupta Empire's northwestern borders and overran much of northwestern India. Sindh came under the rule of Emperor Harshavardhan, then the Rai Dynasty around 478 AD. The Rais were overthrown by Chachar of Alor around 632. The Brahman dynasty ruled a vast territory that stretched from Multan in the north to the Rann of Kutch, Alor was their capital.

Arrival of Islam[edit]

A manuscript written during the Abbasid Era.

In AD 711, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley, bringing South Asian societies into contact with Islam, Dahir was an unpopular Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai Dynasty,[12][13] a view questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region,[14] especially that of the royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach himself may have been a Buddhist.[15][16] The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the Jats and other regional governors.

In 711 AD, Muhammad bin Qasim led an Umayyad force of 20,000 cavalry and 5 catapults. Muhammad bin Qasim defeated the Raja Dahir, and captured the cities of Alor, Multan and Debal. Sindh became the easternmost province of the Umayyad Caliphate and was referred to as "Al-Sindh" on Arab maps, with lands further east known as "Hind". Muhammad bin Qasim built the city of Mansura as his capital; the city then produced famous historical figures such as Abu Mashar Sindhi, Abu Ata al-Sindhi,[17] Abu Raja Sindhi and Sind ibn Ali. At the port city of Debal most of the Bawarij embraced Islam and became known as Sindhi Sailors; they became famous due to their skills in navigation, geography and languages. After Bin Qasim left, the Umayyads ruled Sindh through the Habbari dynasty.


Soomro period[edit]

When Sindh was under the Umayyad Caliphate, the Habbari dynasty was in control. The Umayyads appointed Aziz al Habbari as the governor of Sindh. Habbaris ruled Sindh until Mahmud Ghaznavi defeated the Habbaris in 1120. Mahmud Ghaznavi viewed the Abbasids to be the Caliphs thus he removed the remaining influence of the Umayyad Caliphate in the region and Sindh fell to Abbasid control following the defeat of the Habbaris. The Abbasid Caliphate then made Al Khafif from Samarra; the term 'Soomro' means 'of Samarra' in Sindhi. The new governor of Sindh was to create a better, stronger and stable government. Once he became the governor he allotted several key positions to his family and friends; thus Al-Khafif or Sardar Khafif Soomro formed the Soomro Dynasty in Sindh and became its first king. Until the Siege of Baghdad (1258) the Soomro dynasty was the Abbasid Caliphate's functionary in Sindh, but after that it became independent. Since then some Soomras intermarried with local women and adopted some local customs as well. They were the first Muslims to translate the Quran into the Sindhi language.

When the Soomro Dynasty lost ties with the Abbasid Caliphate after the Siege of Baghdad (1258) the Soomra King Dodo-I, established their rule from the shores of the Arabian Sea to the punjab in the north and in the east to Rajistan and in the west to Balochistan. The Soomros were one of the first Muslims in Sindh. They created a chivalrous culture in Sindh which eventually facilitated their rule centered at Mansura. Puran was later abandoned due to changes in the course of the Puran River; they ruled for the next 95 years until 1351 AD. During this period, Kutch was ruled by the Samma Dynasty, who enjoyed good relations with the Soomras in Sindh. Since the Soomro Dynasty lost its support from the Abbasid Caliphate, the Sultans of Delhi wanted a piece of Sindh. The Soomros successfully defended their kingdom for about 36 years but their dynasties soon fell to the might of the massive Sultans of Delhi armies such as the Tughluks and the Khiljis.

Samma period[edit]



Kalhoro and Mughal period[edit]

Cover of a book containing the epic Dodo Chanesar written in the Khudabadi script



In the year 1701 the Nawab Kalhora were authorized in a firman by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to administer the province of Sindh. In 1739, Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro challenged the powerful invader Nadir Shah but failed according to legend. To avenge the massacre of his allies, the capture of Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro and the abduction of his sons, Main Noor Mohammad Kalhoro sent a small force to assassinate Nadir Shah and turn events in favor of the Mughal Emperor during the Battle of Karnal in 1739, but remained unsuccessful. From 1752 to 1762, Marathas collected Chauth or tributes from Sindh.[26] Maratha power greatly declined in Sindh after Panipat in 1761. In 1762, Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro brought stability in Sindh, he reorganized the province and independently defeated the Marathas and their prominent vassal the Rao of Kuch in the Thar Desert and returned victoriously. After the Sikhs annexed Multan, the Kalhora Dynasty supported counterattacks against the Sikhs and defined their borders, however due to the lack of internal stability the Kalhoras could not continue further conquests.[27] In the year 1783 Akbar Shah II issued a firman, which designated Mir Fateh Ali Khan Talpur baloch as the new Nawab of Sindh, and mediated peace particularly after the ferocious Battle of Halani and the defeat of the ruling Kalhora by the Talpur baloch tribes.[28]

British Raj[edit]

Sindh became part of the Bombay Presidency in 1909.

In 1802, when Mir Ghulam Ali Khan Talpur Baloch succeeded as the Nawab, internal tension broke out in the province. As a result, the following year the Maratha Empire declared war on Sindh and Berar Subah, during which Arthur Wellesley took a leading role — causing much early suspicion between the Emirs of Sindh and the British Empire.[29] The British East India Company made its first contacts in the Sindhi port city of Thatta, which according to a report was:

"a city as large as London containing 50,000 houses which were made of stone and mortar with large verandahs some three or four stories high ... the city has 3,000 looms ... the textiles of Sindh were the flower of the whole produce of the East, the international commerce of Sindh gave it a place among that of Nations, Thatta has 400 schools and 4,000 Dhows at its docks, the city is guarded by well armed Sepoys".

British and Bengal Presidency forces under General Charles James Napier arrived in Sindh in the nineteenth century and conquered Sindh in 1843.[30] The Baloch coalition led by Talpur Balochs under Mir Nasir Khan Talpur Baloch was defeated at the Battle of Miani, during which 5,000 Talpur Baloch were killed. Shortly afterward, Hoshu Sheedi commanded another army at the Battle of Dubbo, where 5,000 Baloch were killed. The first Agha Khan helped the British in their conquest of Sindh. As result he was granted a lifetime pension. A British journal[31] by Thomas Postans mentions the captive Sindhi Amirs: "The Amirs as being the prisoners of "Her Majesty"... they are maintained in strict seclusion; they are described as Broken-Hearted and Miserable men, maintaining much of the dignity of fallen greatness, and without any querulous or angry complaining at this unlivable source of sorrow, refusing to be comforted".

Within weeks, Charles Napier and his forces occupied Sindh. After 1853, the British divided Sindh into districts and later made it part of British India's Bombay Presidency. Sindh became a separate province in 1935.

Sibghatullah Shah Rashidi pioneered the Sindhi Muslim Hur Movement against the British Raj. He was hanged on 20 March 1943 in Hyderabad, Sindh. His burial place is not known. During the British period, railways, printing presses and bridges were introduced in the province. Writers like Mirza Kalich Beg compiled and traced the literary history of Sindh.

Pakistan Resolution in the Sindh Assembly[edit]

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who spoke five languages: Sindhi, Kutchi, Urdu, Gujarati, and English

The Sindh assembly was the first British Indian legislature to pass the resolution in favour of Pakistan. Influential Sindhi activists under the supervision of G.M. Syed and other important leaders at the forefront of the provincial autonomy movement joined the Muslim League in 1938 and presented the Pakistan resolution in the Sindh Assembly. In 1890 Sindh acquired representation for the first time in the Bombay Legislative Assembly. Four members represented Sindh. Those leaders and many others from Sindh played an important role in ensuring the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, which took place on 1 April 1936.

The newly created province of Sindh secured a legislative assembly of its own, elected on the basis of communal and minorities' representation. Sir Lancelot Graham was appointed as the first governor of Sindh by the British government on 1 April 1936. He was also the Head of the Council, which comprised 25 members, including two advisors from the Bombay Council to administer the affairs of Sindh until 1937. The British ruled the area for a century. According to English explorer Richard Burton, Sindh was one of the most restive provinces during the British Raj and was, at least originally, home to many prominent Muslim leaders such as Ubaidullah Sindhi and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (neither of whom were Sindhi) who strove for greater Muslim autonomy. At the 27th Session of the Muslim League at Lahore on March 23, 1940, Sir Haji Abdullah Haroon was among those who spoke and endorsed the 'Pakistan Resolution'.

Creation of Pakistan[edit]

On 14 August 1947, Pakistan was created according to the two nation theory. The province of Sindh attained self-rule for the first time since the defeat of Sindhi Talpur Amirs in the Battle of Miani on 17 February 1843. The first major challenge faced by the Government of Pakistan was the settlement of over 2 million Muhajirs from India who began migrating into newly created Pakistan. In 1947 Sindh joined Pakistan by vote of members of legislature.

Geography and climate[edit]

Makli Hill is one of the largest necropolises in the world.
Peninsula of Manora

Sindh is located on the western corner of South Asia, bordering the Iranian plateau in the west. Geographically it is the third largest province of Pakistan, stretching about 579 kilometres (360 mi) from north to south and 442 kilometres (275 mi) (extreme) or 281 kilometres (175 mi) (average) from east to west, with an area of 140,915 square kilometres (54,408 sq mi) of Pakistani territory. Sindh is bounded by the Thar Desert to the east, the Kirthar Mountains to the west, and the Arabian Sea in the south. In the centre is a fertile plain around the Indus River.[32]




Flora and fauna[edit]

Main articles: Fauna of Sindh and Flora of Sindh
Indus River Dolphin






Demographics and society[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Sindh
Sindh Demographic Indicators
Indicator Statistic
Urban population 49.50%
Rural population 50.50%
Population growth rate 2.80%
Gender ratio (male per 100 female) 112.24
Economically active population 22.75%
Historical populations
Census Population Urban

1951 6,047,748 29.23%
1961 8,367,065 37.85%
1972 14,155,909 40.44%
1981 19,028,666 43.31%
1998 29,991,161 48.75%
2012 55,245,497 (invalidated)[33] n/a
Religions in Sindh[34]
Religion Percent

Sindh has the 2nd highest Human Development Index out of all of Pakistan's provinces at 0.628.[35] The 1998 Census of Pakistan indicated a population of 30.4 million. Just under half of the population are urban dwellers, mainly found in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Mirpurkhas, Nawabshah District, Umerkot and Larkana. Sindhi is the sole official language of Sindh since the 19th century.

The Sindhis as a whole are composed of original descendants of an ancient population known as Sammaat, various sub-groups related to the Baloch origin are found in interior Sindh and to a lesser extent Sindhis of Pashtun origins. Sindhis of Balochi origins make up about 30% of the total Sindhi population (they however speak Sindhi Saraiki as their native tongue), while Urdu-speaking Muhajirs make up over 19% of the total population of the province while Punjabi are 10% and Pashtuns represent 7%.

A significant number of Hindu Sindhis can be also found in India, they emigrated to Republic of India following religious violence during independence.


According to the 1998 Population Census of Pakistan following are the Major Languages of the Province [36]

  • Punjabi 10% (including Standard, Saraiki, Hindko, and Pahari-Potowari dialects 7%, 1%, 1% and 1% respectively)
  • Dhatki (Thari) majority in two districts ( Tharparkar and Umerkot covering 20% of Province land)

Other languages include Kashmiri, Gujarati, Memoni, Dari, Kutchi, Khowar, Shina, Kashmiri, Bangali , Lari (dialect), and Brahui.

Sindhi language[edit]

Main article: Sindhi language
Dialects of Sindhi.

Sindhī (Arabic script: سنڌي) is spoken by more than 35 million people(in 2011) in the province of Sindh. However 25% people are Sindhi-speaking in the largest city of Karachi Sindh, Pakistan. Karachi is also populated by migrants from India who speak Urdu .[37] The other migrated inhabitants of the city are Biharis from Bangladesh, Pashtuns from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjabis from various parts of Punjab and other linguistic groups of Pakistan. Most of these Urdu-speaking people sought refuge in the city from India during the independence of Pakistan, and they settled in Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkar and other cities in Sindh.[37] Sindhi is an Indo-European language, linguistically considered to be the sister language of Sanskrit. Balochi, Gujarati, Rajasthani language have influences of Sindhi and Sanskrit however accommodating substantial Persian, Turkish and Arabic words.

In Pakistan Sindhi is written in a modified Arabic script, where the majority of the Sindhi population is Muslim. Hindu Sindhis who migrated to India after independence (currently are about 6 million) still register their mother tongue as Sindhi, meanwhile 7 million Hindu Sindhis are living in Pakistan.

Key dialects: Kutchi, Lasi, Parkari, Memoni, Lari, Vicholi, Utradi, Macharia, Dukslinu (spoken by Hindu Sindhi) and Siraki. During British colonial period, Siraiki evolved as a separate language.

Urdu language[edit]

Main article: Urdu

Urdu is another widely used language in Sindh, especially in the urban areas of Sindh alongside Sindhi and is the lingua franca of Pakistan. It is another Indo-Aryan language with strong linguistic ties to Sindhi. It is mostly spoken & understood in urban areas, because the foreign settlers mainly from North India, Bengal, Baluchistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab are settled there. The local ethno-linguistic indigenous population only understands Urdu. The languages of the above-mentioned people are not spoken or understood by the original dwellers of Sindh.

Parkari Koli language[edit]

Main article: Parkari Koli language



Sindh's population is mainly Muslim (81.32%), and Sindh is also home to nearly all (93%) of Pakistan's Hindus, who form 16% of the province's population.[34] The majority of Muslims are Sunni Hanafi followed by Shia Ithnā‘ashariyyah. The non-Muslim communities includes Hindus, Ahmadiyya, Christians, and Zoroastrians 2% of Sindh. A large number of Hindus migrated to India after independence of Pakistan in 1947 while Muslim refugees, Muhajirs, arrived from India.


Provincial symbols of Sindh (unofficial)[38][39]
Provincial animal Sindh Ibex Capra ibex ibex – 03.jpg
Provincial flower Nerium (common) Nerium oleander flowers leaves.jpg
Provincial tree Neem Tree Acacia nilotica subsp. cupressiformis.jpg
Districts of Sindh
Main article: Government of Sindh



Main article: Districts of Sindh

There are 24 districts in Sindh, Pakistan.[40]

Major cities[edit]



Main article: Economy of Sindh
A view of Karachi downtown, the capital of Sindh province
GDP by Province



Sindh is Pakistan's most natural gas producing province.

Agriculture is very important in Sindh with cotton, rice, wheat, sugar cane, Date (fruit)), bananas, and mangoes as the most important crops. Sindh is the richest province in natural resources of gas, petrol, and coal.


Year Literacy rate
1972 60.77
1981 37.5%
1998 45.29%
2008 60.7%
2012 69.50%

This is a chart of the education market of Sindh estimated by the government in 1998.[43]

Qualification Urban Rural Total Enrollment ratio (%)
14,839,862 15,600,031 30,439,893
Below Primary 1,984,089 3,332,166 5,316,255 100.00
Primary 3,503,691 5,687,771 9,191,462 82.53
Middle 3,073,335 2,369,644 5,442,979 52.33
Matriculation 2,847,769 2,227,684 5,075,453 34.45
Intermediate 1,473,598 1,018,682 2,492,280 17.78
Diploma, Certificate... 1,320,747 552,241 1,872,988 9.59
BA, BSc... degrees 440,743 280,800 721,543 9.07
MA, MSc... degrees 106,847 53,040 159,887 2.91
Other qualifications 89,043 78,003 167,046 0.54

Major public and private educational institutes of Sindh include:


Sindhi culture is known all over the world for its arts, crafts and heritage.

Arts and crafts[edit]





Cultural heritage[edit]

Main article: Sindhi culture
The ruins of an ancient mosque at Bhambore









Different non-governmental organisations (NGOs) such as the World Wildlife Fund, Pakistan, also play an important role to promote the culture of Sindh. They also provide training to women artisans in the interior of Sindh so these females get a source of generating income for themselves. For this purpose they are promoting their products under the name of "Crafts Forever".

Mir Muhammad Naseer Khan Talpur, the last ruler of Sindh
Acclaimed Sufi Singer Parveen performing at the Sindh Festival in 2014.
Huts in the Thar desert

Places of interest[edit]



See also[edit]


  1. ^ "Sind - type and level of administrative division". World Gazetteer. Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 2009-08-19. 
  3. ^ "Sindh (province, Pakistan)" at Encyclopædia Britannica Online
  4. ^ "Provincial Assembly Seats". 
  5. ^ "Government of Sindh". 
  6. ^ "Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro". The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) website. Retrieved September 6, 2014. 
  7. ^ Suhail Zaheer Lari, An Illustrated History of Sindh (1994, Karachi) p. 16, 17
  10. ^ Foreign influence on ancient India By Krishna Chandra Sagar
  11. ^ Foreign Influence on Ancient India - Krishna Chandra Sagar - Google Books. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  17. ^ Seidensticker, Tilman. "Abū ʿAṭāʾ al-Sindī - Brill Reference". Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  18. ^ A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global Empire - Sugata Bose - Google Books. 2004-12-26. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  19. ^ "Topics". 2009-06-16. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  21. ^ Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792 by Jeremy Black p.16 [2]
  22. ^ Cervantes Virtual website
  25. ^ Trade and Empire in Muscat and Zanzibar: The Roots of British Domination - M. Reda Bhacker - Google Books. 1992-11-17. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  26. ^
  27. ^ Fall and Colored Leaves - Jasbir Singh Sethi - Google Books. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  28. ^ Qammaruddin Bohra, City of Hyderabad Sindh 712-1947 (2000).
  29. ^ Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley
  30. ^ General Napier was apocryphally supposed to have reported his conquest of the province to his superiors with the one-word message peccavi, a schoolgirl's pun recorded in Punch (magazine) relying on the Latin word's meaning, "I have sinned", homophonous to "I have Sindh". Eugene Ehrlich, Nil Desperandum: A Dictionary of Latin Tags and Useful Phrases [Original title: Amo, Amas, Amat and More], BCA 1992 [1985], p. 175.
  31. ^ Personal observations on Sindh: the manners and customs of its inhabitants ... - Thomas Postans - Google Boeken. Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  32. ^ Weiss, Anita M. and Mughal, Muhammad Aurang Zeb (2012). "Pakistan". Louis Kotzé and Stephen Morse (eds), Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability, Vol. 9. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire, pp. 236-240.
  33. ^ "Population shoots up by 47 percent since 1998". Retrieved 2012-08-03. 
  34. ^ a b 1998 Census Data
  35. ^ [3][dead link]
  36. ^
  37. ^ a b "Political and ethnic battles turn Karachi into Beirut of South Asia » Crescent". Retrieved 2012-11-24. 
  38. ^ "Govt declares Neem `provincial tree`". Dawn. April 15, 2010. Retrieved September 6, 2014. 
  39. ^ Amar Guriro (December 14, 2011). "‘Our Sindhi symbols – ibex, black partridge’". Pakistan Today. Retrieved September 6, 2014. 
  40. ^ "District Nazims of the Province of Sindh". 
  42. ^ "World Bank Document" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-11-07. 
  43. ^ "Population by Level of Education and Rural/Urban". Statistics Division: Ministry of Economic Affairs and Statistics. Government of Pakistan. Retrieved 2009-08-19. [dead link]
  44. ^ "Cultural Heritage". =. Retrieved September 6, 2014. 
  45. ^ "Sindh celebrates first ever 'Sindhi Topi Day'". 

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]