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Pashto-speaking regions in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Pashto-speaking regions in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Countries Afghanistan and Pakistan
Population (2012)
 • Total c. 42-50 million[1][2][3]
 • Ethnic groups Pashtun
Time zone UTC+04:30 and UTC+05:00
Largest cities Peshawar

Pashtunistan (Pashto: پښتونستان‎, Pax̌tūnistān; also called Pukhtunistan,[4] or Pathanistan,[5][6] meaning the "land of Pashtuns")[7] is the geographic region inhabited by the indigenous Pashtun people of modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan.[8][9][10] Alternative names historically used for the region included "Afghānistān" and "Pax̌tūnkhwā" (for present Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province specifically, since at least the 3rd century CE onward).[4][11][12] Pashtunistan borders the Punjab to the east, Persian-speaking regions to the west and north, Kashmir to the northeast, and the Balochistan region to the south.

For administrative division in 1893, Mortimer Durand drew the Durand Line, fixing the limits of the spheres of influence between King Abdur Rahman Khan and British India. This porous line that runs through the center of the Pashtun region forms the modern border between Afghanistan and Pakistan.[13] Roughly, the Pashtun homeland stretches from areas south of the Amu River in Afghanistan to west of the Indus River in Pakistan, mainly consisting of southwestern, eastern and some northern districts of Afghanistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas and northern Balochistan in Pakistan.

Origin of term[edit]

The name used for the region during the middle ages and up until the 20th century was Afghanistan and Pakhtunhawa(for present Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province specifically),[11] which has been mentioned by Ahmad Shah Durrani in his famous couplet, by 6th-century Indian astronomer Varahamihira, 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Hiven Tsiang, 14th-century Moroccan scholar Ibn Batutta, Mughal Emperor Babur, 16th-century historian Firishta and many others.



The name Pakhtunistan (Pashto: پښتونستان‎ (Naskh)), or in the soft Pashto dialect, Pashtunistan, evolved originally from the Indian word "Pathanistan" (while Pathandesh is also an acceptable word)(Hindustani: پٹھانستان (Nastaleeq), पठानिस्तान (Devanagari)).[14][15] The very concept of Pashtunistan was taken from the old word "Pakhtunkhwa". The British Indian leaders and some of the Khudai Khidmatgars started using the word "Pathanistan" to refer to the region, and later on the word "Pashtunistan" became more popular.[14]

The native people[edit]

Main articles: Pashtun people and Pashtun tribes
Pashtun children, indigenous to the Pashtunistan region

The native or indigenous people of Pashtunistan are the Pashtuns (also known as Pakhtuns, Pathans and historically as ethnic Afghans). They are the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan and the second largest in Pakistan. The Pashtuns are concentrated mainly in the south and east of Afghanistan but also exist in northern and western parts of the country as a minority group. In Pakistan they are concentrated in the west and northwest, inhabiting mainly Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), and northern Balochistan. In addition, communities of Pashtuns are found in other parts of Pakistan such as Sindh, Punjab, Gilgit-Baltistan and in the nation's capital, Islamabad. The main language spoken in the delineated Pashtunistan region is Pashto followed by others such as Balochi, Hindko, Gojri, and Urdu.

The Pashtuns practice Pashtunwali, the indigenous culture of the Pashtuns, and this pre-Islamic identity remains significant for many Pashtuns and is one of the factors that have kept the Pashtunistan issue alive. Although the Pashtuns are politically separated by the Durand Line between Pakistan and Afghanistan, many Pashtun tribes from the FATA area and the adjacent regions of Afghanistan, tend to ignore the border and cross back and forth with relative ease to attend weddings, family functions and take part in the joint tribal councils known as jirgas.[16]

Depending on the source, the ethnic Pashtuns constitute 42-60% of the population of Afghanistan.[17][18][19][20][21][22] In neighboring Pakistan they constitute 15.42 percent of the 190 million population, which includes the Hindkowans and Pathans.[23] In the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan, Pashto speakers constitute above 73 percent of the population as of 1998.[24]


The area during 500 B.C. was recorded as Arachosia and inhabited by a people called the Pactyans.

Since the 2nd millennium BC, the region now inhabited by the native Pashtun people have been influenced by Ancient Iranian peoples, the Medes, Achaemenids, Greeks, Mauryas, Kushans, Hephthalites, Sassanids, Arab Muslims, Turks, Mughals, and others. In recent age, people of the Western world have nominally explored the area.[25][26][27]

Arab Muslims arrived in the 7th century and began introducing Islam to the native Pashtun people, some of the Arabs settled in the Sulaiman Mountains and slowly became Pashtunized over time. The Pashtunistan area later fell to the Turkish Ghaznavids whose main capital was at Ghazni, with Lahore serving as the second power house. The Ghaznavid Empire was then taken over by the Ghorids from today's Ghor, Afghanistan. The army of Genghis Khan arrived in the 13th century and began destroying Persian-speaking cities in the north while the Pashtun territory was defended by the Khilji dynasty of Delhi. In the 14th and 15th century, the Timurid dynasty was in control of the nearby cities and towns, until Babur captured Kabul in 1504.

Delhi Sultanate and the last Afghan Empire[edit]

Further information: Delhi Sultanate and Durrani Empire
Coronation of Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747 by a 20th-century Afghan artist, Abdul Ghafoor Breshna.

During the Delhi Sultanate era, the region was ruled by Turkic dynasties from Delhi, India. An early Pashtun nationalist was the "warrior-poet" Khushal Khan Khattak, who was imprisoned by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb for trying to incite the Pashtuns to rebel against the rule of the Mughals. However, despite sharing a common language and believing in a common ancestry, the Pashtuns first achieved unity in the 18th century after being under foreign rule for many centuries. The eastern parts of Pashtunistan was ruled by the Mughal Empire, while the western parts were ruled by the Persian Safavids as their easternmost provinces. During the early 18th century, Pashtun tribes led by Mirwais Hotak successfully revolted against the Safavids in the city of Kandahar. In a chain of events, he declared Kandahar and other parts of what is now southern Afghanistan independent. By 1738 the Mughal Empire had been crushingly defeated and their capital sacked and looted by forces of a new Iranian ruler; the military genius and commander Nader Shah. Besides Persian, Turkmen, and Caucasian forces, Nader was also accompanied by the young Ahmad Shah Durrani, and 4,000 well trained Pashtun troops from what is now Afghanistan and North-west Pakistan.

After the death of Nader Shah in 1747 and the disintegration of his massive empire, Ahmad Shah Durrani created his own large and powerful Durrani Empire, which included Pashtunistan, and most of nowadays Pakistan, among other regions. The famous couplet by Ahmad Shah Durrani describes the association the people have with the regional city of Kandahar:

"Da Dili takht herauma cheh rayad kam zama da khkule Pukhtunkhwa da ghre saroona". Translation: "I forget the throne of Delhi when I recall the mountain peaks of my beautiful Pukhtunkhwa."


European influence[edit]

Afghanistan before the 1893 controversial Durand Line border
Flag advocated by Pashtun nationalists as an expression for Pashtunistan and Pashtun nationalism[citation needed]
Flag of Pashtunistan.[28]

Following the decline of the Durrani dynasty and the establishment of the new Barakzai dynasty in Afghanistan, the Pashtun domains began to shrink as they lost control over other parts of South Asia to the British, such the Punjab region and the Balochistan region. The Anglo-Afghan Wars were fought as part of the overall imperialistic Great Game that was waged between the Russian Empire and the British. Poor and landlocked, newly born Afghanistan was able to defend its territory and keep both sides at bay by using them against each other. In 1893, as part of a way for fixing the limit of their respective spheres of influence, the Durand Line Agreement was signed between Afghan "Iron" Amir Abdur Rahman and British Viceroy Mortimer Durand. In 1905, the North-West Frontier Province (today's Khyber Paskhtunkhwa) was created and roughly corresponded to Pashtun majority regions within the British domain. The FATA area was created to further placate the Pashtun tribesmen who never fully accepted British rule and were prone to rebellions, while the city of Peshawar was directly administered as part of a British protectorate state with full integration into the federal rule of law with the establishment of civic amenities and the construction of railway, road infrastructure as well as educational institutes to bring the region at par with the developed world.

During World War I, the Afghan government was contacted by the Ottoman Turkey and Germany, through the Niedermayer-Hentig Mission, to join the Central Allies on behalf of the Caliph in a Jihad; some revolutionaries, tribals, and Afghan leaders including a brother of the Amir named Nasrullah Khan were in favour of the delegation and wanted the Amir to declare Jihad.

Malala Yousafzai, Pakistani school pupil and education activist

Kazim Bey carried a firman from the Khalifa in Persian. It was addressed to "the residents of Pathanistan." It said that when the British were defeated, "His Majesty the Khalifa, in agreement with allied States, will acquire guarantee for independence of the united state of Pathanistan and will provide every kind of assistance to it. Thereafter, I will not allow any interference in the country of Pathanistan." (Ahmad Chagharzai; 1989; PP: 138-139). However the efforts failed and the Afghan Amir Habibullah Khan maintained Afghanistan's neutrality throughout World War I (for more information see).[29]

Similarly, during the 1942 Cripps mission, and 1946 Cabinet Mission to India, the Afghan government made repeated attempts to ensure that any debate about the independence of India must include Afghanistan's role in the future of the NWFP. The British government wavered between reassuring the Afghan to the rejection of their role and insistence that NWFP was an integral part of British India.[30]

The Khudai Khidmatgar were a non-violent group, and Ghaffar Khan claimed to have been inspired by Mahatma Gandhi. While the Red Shirts were willing to work with the Indian National Congress from a political point of view, the Pashtuns as a people desired independence from India. When the decision for independence was announced, it included the condition of a referendum being held in the North West Frontier Province because it was ruled by the Khudai Khidmatgar-backed Congress government of Dr. Khan Sahib. The inhabitants of the province were given two choices: the choice to join either Pakistan or India. On 21 June 1947, Khudai Khidmatgar leaders met under the presidency of Amir Mohammad Khan at Bannu and believed that a referendum was inevitable and that the participants would declare that Pakhtuns did not accept India or Pakistan and announced a boycott of the referendum. When the vote was completed, the vast majority of the residents of province voted in favour of Pakistan and the region was subsequently incorporated into the new country with full civic amenities and rights.

Independence of Pakistan in 1947[edit]

Ayub Khan, President of Pakistan from 1958 to 1969, belonged to the Pashtun Tareen tribe of Abbottabad.

Since the late 1940s with the dissolution of British India and independence of Pakistan, some rigid Pashtun nationalists proposed merging with Afghanistan or creating Pashtunistan as a future sovereign state for the local Pashtun inhabitanits of the area. At first, Afghanistan became the only government to oppose the entry of Pakistan into the United Nations in 1947, although it was reversed a few months later. On July 26, 1949, when Afghanistan–Pakistan relations were rapidly deteriorating, a loya jirga was held in Afghanistan after a military aircraft from the Pakistan Air Force bombed a village on the Afghan side of the Durand Line. As a result of this violation, the Afghan government declared that it recognized "neither the imaginary Durand nor any similar line" and that all previous Durand Line agreements were void.[31] During the 1950s to the late 1960s, Pashtuns were promoted to higher positions within the Pakistani government and military, thereby integrating Pashtuns into the Pakistani state and severely weakening secessionist sentiments to the point that by the mid-1960s, popular support for an independent Pashtunistan had all but disappeared.

"An important development in Pakistan during the Ayub period (1958-1969) was the gradual integration into Pakistani society and the military-bureaucratic establishment. It was a period of Pakistan's political history which saw a large number of ethnic Pashtuns holding high positions in the military and the bureaucracy. Ayub himself was a non-Pashto speaking ethnic Pashtun belonging to the Tarin sub-tribe of the Hazara district in the Frontier. The growing participation of Pashtuns in the Pakistani Government resulted in the erosion of the support for the Pashtunistan movement in the Province by the end of the 1960s."[32]

—Rizwan Hussain, 2005

Afghanistan and Pashtun nationalists did not exploit Pakistan's vulnerability during the nation's 1965 and 1971 wars with India, and even backed Pakistan against a largely Hindu India. Further, had Pakistan been destabilised by India, nationalists would have had to fight against a much bigger country than Pakistan for their independence.[33]

In the 1970s, the roles of Pakistan and Afghanistan reversed, despite the fresh crackdown on Baloch and Pashtun nationalists by the government of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. The Pakistan government decided to retaliate against the Afghan government's Pashtunistan policy by supporting Islamist opponents of the Afghan government including future Mujahidin leaders Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and Ahmad Shah Massoud.[34] This operation was remarkably successful, and by 1977 the Afghan government of Mohammed Daoud Khan was willing to settle all outstanding issues in exchange for a lifting of the ban on the National Awami Party and a commitment towards provincial autonomy for Pashtuns, which was already guaranteed by Pakistan's Constitution, but stripped by the Bhutto government when the One Unit scheme was introduced.[clarification needed]

21st century[edit]

A village in Kunar Province of Afghanistan
Nangarhar Province, Afghanistan

The Pashtunistan issue is rarely mentioned anymore as a point of disagreement between Afghan and Pakistan officials - a far cry from the 1950s and 1960s when the issue was considered contentious. There are several arguments from the governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan regarding the Pashtunistan issue. These arguments sometimes overlap but can be distinctively defined.[35] The British influence in the region of Afghanistan and Pakistan was most prominent during the late 19th century and early portion of the 20th century, when the British sought to reestablish efforts at colonization during Britain's imperial century. This British experiment was known as The Great Game, and was a subversive attempt at establishing Afghanistan as a buffer zone between British-India and the Tsardom of Russia. By seeking to accord certain terrain international legitimacy based upon British failures to assert control over the fiercely independent Pashtuns and tribes in the region, the establishment of a border that would separate British interests from tribal interests was extremely important to British foreign policy.

The British demarcation established as a result by the Durand Line was a deliberate strategy designed to divide the Pashtun territory along the border region of Afghanistan and Pakistan. The overall effect of the division was to alienate the Pashtun tribes from their neighbors as part of the British divide and conquer strategy, or divide and rule. This strategy had the ultimate effect of fostering anti-colonialist sentiment in the tribal regions, and Pashtuns as a result had a deep desire for independence and freedom from British rule.[36]

Pashtuns in Pakistan make up a minority ethnic group with about 15% of the population, totalling 29 million. This number also includes the Hindkowans and Pathans.[1] In addition, there are 1.7 million Afghan refugees of whom majority are Pashtuns. These refugees, however, are expected to leave Pakistan and settle in Afghanistan in the coming years. Three Pakistani presidents belonged to the Pashtun ethnic group. Pashtuns continue to occupy some important places in the military and politics, with the major political party Awami National Party led by Asfandyar Wali. In addition to this, some Pashtun media, music and cultural activities are based out of Pakistan, with AVT Khyber being the only Pashto TV channel in Pakistan. Pashto cinema is based out of the Pakistani city of Peshawar. The Pakistani city of Karachi is believed to host the largest concentration of Pashtuns.

There are more than 12 million Pashtuns in Afghanistan, constituting 42% of the population. Other sources say that up to 60% of Afghanistan's population is made up of ethnic Pashtuns, forming the largest ethnic group in that country. Pashto is the first official language of Afghanistan,[37] the Afghan National Anthem is recited in Pashto language and the Pashtun dress is the national dress of Afghanistan. Since the late 19th century, the traditional Pashtunistan region has gradually expanded to the Amu River in the north. Majority of the key government positions in Afghanistan have always been held by Pashtuns. In addition, many of the non-Pashtun groups in Afghanistan have adopted the Pashtun culture and use Pashto as a second language. For example, nearly all leaders of non-Pashtun ethnic groups in Afghanistan practice Pashtunwali to some degree and are fluent in Pashto language. This includes non-Pashtun leaders such as Ahmad Shah Massoud, Ahmad Zia Massoud, Ismail Khan, Mohammed Fahim, Bismillah Khan Mohammadi, Atta Muhammad Nur, Abdul Ali Mazari, Karim Khalili, Husn Banu Ghazanfar, Muhammad Yunus Nawandish, Abdul Karim Brahui, Jamaluddin Badr as well as most other ministers, governors and officials.

Afghanistan makes its claim on the Pashtun areas on the ground that it served as the Pashtun seat of power since 1709 with the rise of the Hotaki dynasty followed by the establishment of the Durrani Afghan Empire. According to historic sources, Afghan tribes did not appear in Peshawar valley until after 800 AD, when the Islamic conquest of this area took place.[38]

Agreements cited by the Afghan government as proof of their claim over the Pashtun tribes include Article 11 of the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1921, which states: "The two contracting parties, being mutually satisfied themselves each regarding the goodwill of the other and especially regarding their benevolent intentions towards the tribes residing close to their respective boundaries, hereby undertake to inform each other of any future military operations which may appear necessary for the maintenance of order among the frontier tribes residing within their respective spheres before the commencement of such operations."[39] A supplementary letter to the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1921 reads: "As the conditions of the Frontier tribes of the two governments are of interest to the Government of Afghanistan. I inform you that the British government entertains feelings of goodwill towards all the Frontier tribes and has every intention of treating them generously, provided they abstain from outrages against the people of India."[39]

"The Durand Line and Pashtunistan issues have been raised by different Afghan regimes in the past. However, it may no longer be a concern. Pashtuns are now so well integrated in Pakistani society that the majority will never opt for Pashtunistan or Afghanistan. Afghan-Pashtun refugees have been staying in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for more than 30 years. Threat perceptions about Afghanistan need re-evaluation so that suitable changes are made in our Afghan policy."[40]

—Asad Munir, Retired brigadier who has served in senior intelligence postings in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and FATA

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa[edit]

Prominent 20th century proponents of the Pashtunistan cause have included Khan Abdul Wali Khan and Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan. Ghaffar Khan stated in the Pakistan Constituent Assembly in 1948 that he simply wanted "the renaming of his province as Pakhtunistan. Like Sindh, Punjab, etc." Another name mentioned is Afghania where the initial "A" in Choudhary Rahmat Ali Khan's theory stated in the "Now or Never" pamphlet stands for the second letter in "Pakistan". However, this name has failed to capture political support in the province.

There was support, however, to rename North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) as Pakhtunkhwa (which translates as "area of Pashtuns"). Nasim Wali Khan (the wife of Khan Abdul Wali Khan) declared in an interview: "I want an identity.. I want the name to change so that Pathans may be identified on the map of Pakistan..."[citation needed]

On 31 March 2010, Pakistan's Constitutional Reform Committee agreed that the province be named to Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa.[41][42] This is now the official name for the former NWFP.


See also[edit]


  1. ^ a b "Pakistan population: 187,342,721 [Pashtun (Pathan) 15.42%]". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 2011. Retrieved 2012-02-10. 
  4. ^ a b Students' Britannica India 1–5. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2009-06-07. Ghaffar Khan, who opposed the partition, chose to live in Pakistan, where he continued to fight for the rights of the Pashtun minority and for an autonomous Pakhtunistan (or Pathanistan) within Pakistan. 
  5. ^ The Modern Review, Volume 86. Prabasi Press Private. Retrieved 2009-06-07. The Afghan Government is actively sympathetic towards their demand for a Pathanistan. It has been declared by the Afghan Parliament that Afghanistan does not recognise the Durand line... 
  6. ^ The Spectator, Volume 184. F.C. Westley. Retrieved 2009-06-07. Instead it adopted the programme of an independent " Pathanistan " — a programme calculated to strike at the very roots of the new Dominion. More recently the Pathanistan idea has been taken up by Afghanistan. 
  7. ^ Various spellings result from different pronunciation in various Pashto dialects. See Pashto language: Dialects for further information.
  11. ^ a b "Afghan and Afghanistan". Abdul Hai Habibi. 1969. Retrieved 2010-10-24. 
  13. ^ Pakistan: Analyst Discusses Controversial 'Pashtunistan' Proposal, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFERL)
  14. ^ a b "Pashtu Literature Part II". Pashtoonkhwa. Retrieved 2009-06-07. The name Pakhtunistan or in soft Pashtu dialect Pashtunistan evolved originally from the Indian word Pathanistan. The very concept of Pakhtunistan was taken from the old word Pakhtunkhwa. The British, Indian leaders and even the Khudai- Khidmatgars were using Pathanistan for Pakhtunistan in the beginning, but later on they started using the word Pakhtunistan. 
  15. ^ "The Problem of Pukhtunistan". Khyber Gateway. Retrieved 2009-06-07. The word Pathanistan is not Persian but Indian. It shows that the Khalifa had already acquired the consent of the Muslim leaders of India or these leaders might have motivated the Khalifa to first liberate the Pukhtuns' land (Pathanistan) to build up a strong base against the British Empire in India 
  16. ^ Ahmed, Feroz (1998) Ethnicity and politics in Pakistan. Karachi. Oxford University Press.
  17. ^ Janda, Kenneth; Jeffrey M. Berry and Jerry Goldman (2008). The Challenge of Democracy: Government in America (9 ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 46. ISBN 0-618-81017-X. Retrieved 2010-08-22. Even within the largest ethnic group, the Pashtuns (about 50 percent of the population)..." 
  18. ^ Congressional Record. Government Printing Office. p. 10088. Retrieved 2010-09-24. 
  19. ^ Taylor, William J. Jr.; Abraham Kim (2000). Asian Security to the Year 2000. DIANE Publishing. p. 58. ISBN 1-4289-1368-8. Retrieved 2010-09-24. 
  20. ^ "AFGHANISTAN v. Languages". Ch. M. Kieffer. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 2010-10-24. Paṧtō (1) is the native tongue of 50 to 55 percent of Afghans... 
  21. ^ Brown, Keith; Sarah Ogilvie (2009). Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world. Elsevie. p. 845. ISBN 0-08-087774-5. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Pashto, which is mainly spoken south of the mountain range of the Hindu Kush, is reportedly the mother tongue of 60% of the Afghan population. 
  22. ^ Hawthorne, Susan; Bronwyn Winter (2002). September 11, 2001: feminist perspectives. Spinifex Press. p. 225. ISBN 1-876756-27-6. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Over 60 percent of the population in Afghanistan is Pashtun... 
  23. ^ European Journal of Social Sciences : Volume 8 Number 3 : Poverty Alleviation Through Power-Sharing in Pakistan Retrieved 5 April 2010
  24. ^ "Pakistan Census report 1998". Government of Pakistan. 1998. Retrieved 2010-10-29. 
  25. ^ "Country Profile: Afghanistan". Library of Congress. Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008. Retrieved 2010-09-10. 
  27. ^ John Ford Shroder. Archived "Afghanistan - VII. History". Retrieved 2009-10-31. 
  28. ^ Da pashtonistan new song, Ramzanarmani Ramzan
  29. ^
  30. ^ Roberts, J(2003) The origins of conflict in Afghanistan. Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0-275-97878-8, ISBN 978-0-275-97878-5, pp. 92-94
  31. ^ The Pashtunistan Issue, Craig Baxter (1997), Library of Congress Country Studies.
  32. ^ Rizwan Hussain. Pakistan and the emergence of Islamic militancy in Afghanistan. 2005. p. 74.
  33. ^ Paul Wolf. "Pashtunistan." Pakistan: Partition and Military Succession. 2004.
  34. ^ "Remembering Our Warriors: Babar 'the great'." Interview of Maj. Gen. (Retd.) Naseerullah Khan Babar, by A. H. Amin. Defence Journal. April 2001. Retrieved 15 April 2010.
  35. ^ Feroz Ahmed. "Pushtoonistan and the Pushtoon National Question." (Sep., 1973) Pakistan Forum, Vol. 3, No. 12. September 1973. pp. 8-19+22.
  36. ^ Senlis Afghanistan- Retrieved 23 December 2010
  38. ^ H. G. Raverty (1898) Tarikh-e-Farishtah; Notes on Afghanistan; Peshawar District Gazetteer 1897-98.
  39. ^ a b Olaf Caroe. The Pathans 1981.
  40. ^ "Re-evaluation of our Afghan policy". Express Tribune. 15 May 2012. Retrieved 16 May 2012. 
  41. ^ BBC News Online - Pakistan debates key amendment bill Retrieved 5 April 2010
  42. ^ Dawn News - Consensus reached on renaming NWFP Retrieved 5 April 2010

Further reading[edit]

  • Ahmed, Feroz (1998) Ethnicity and politics in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press.
  • Ahmad, M.(1989) Pukhtunkhwa Kiyun Nahin by Mubarak Chagharzai. pp. 138–139.
  • Amin, Tahir (1988) -National Language Movements of Pakistan. Islamabad Institute of Policy Studies.
  • Buzan, Barry and Rizvi, Gowher (1986), South Asian Insecurity and the Great Powers, London: Macmillan. p. 73.
  • Caroe, Olaf (1983) The Pathans, with an Epilogue on Russia. Oxford University Press. pp. 464–465.