From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Bioscience)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bioscience" redirects here. For the scientific journal, see BioScience.
Insulin crystals




The wide concept of "biotech" or "biotechnology" encompasses a wide range of procedures (and history) for modifying living organisms according to human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock.[3] Biotechnology also writes on the pure biological sciences (animal cell culture, biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, genetics, microbiology, and molecular biology). In many instances, it is also dependent on knowledge and methods from outside the sphere of biology including:

Conversely, modern biological sciences (including even concepts such as molecular ecology) are intimately entwined and heavily dependent on the methods developed through biotechnology and what is commonly thought of as the life sciences industry. Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products).[4][5][6]



Brewing was an early application of biotechnology

Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of "'using a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.






The field of modern biotechnology is generally thought of as having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg's (Stanford) experiments in gene splicing had early success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen (Stanford) significantly advanced the new technology in 1972 by transferring genetic material into a bacterium, such that the imported material would be reproduced. The commercial viability of a biotechnology industry was significantly expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty.[11] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had modified a bacterium (of the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium.




A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture


For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.


  • Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."[14] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
  • Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
  • White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.[citation needed]}





Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs.[15] It deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity.[16] By doing so, pharmacogenomics aims to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects.[17] Such approaches promise the advent of "personalized medicine"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.[18][19]






Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests,[25] diseases,[26] stressful environmental conditions,[27] resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide[28]), reduction of spoilage,[29] or improving the nutrient profile of the crop.[30] Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents,[31] biofuels,[32] and other industrially useful goods,[33] as well as for bioremediation.[34][35]

Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from 17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres).[36] 10% of the world's crop lands were planted with GM crops in 2010.[36] As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on 395 million acres (160 million hectares) in 29 countries such as the USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain.[36]


There is broad scientific consensus that food on the market derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.[40][41][42][43][44] GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess.[45] However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.

Industrial biotechnology[edit]

An industrial biotechnology plant for the production of modified wheat starch and gluten

Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation. It includes the practice of using cells such as micro-organisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels.[46] In doing so, biotechnology uses renewable raw materials and may contribute to lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy.[47]


The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the USA and Europe.[48] Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety.[49] The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. [50] The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about coexistence of GM and nonGM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations incentives for cultivation of GM crops differ.[51]



See also[edit]

References and notes[edit]

  7. ^ What Is Bioengineering?. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.
  9. ^ a b Thieman, W.J.; Palladino, M.A. (2008). Introduction to Biotechnology. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-321-49145-9. 
  10. ^ Springham, D.; Springham, G.; Moses, V.; Cape, R.E. (24 August 1999). Biotechnology: The Science and the Business. CRC Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-90-5702-407-8. 
  16. ^ Wang L (2010). "Pharmacogenomics: a systems approach". Wiley Interdiscip Rev Syst Biol Med 2 (1): 3–22. doi:10.1002/wsbm.42. PMID 20836007. 
  17. ^ Becquemont L (June 2009). "Pharmacogenomics of adverse drug reactions: practical applications and perspectives". Pharmacogenomics 10 (6): 961–9. doi:10.2217/pgs.09.37. PMID 19530963. 
  18. ^ "Guidance for Industry Pharmacogenomic Data Submissions" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. March 2005. Retrieved 2008-08-27. 
  19. ^ Squassina A, Manchia M, Manolopoulos VG, Artac M, Lappa-Manakou C, Karkabouna S, Mitropoulos K, Del Zompo M, Patrinos GP (August 2010). "Realities and expectations of pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine: impact of translating genetic knowledge into clinical practice". Pharmacogenomics 11 (8): 1149–67. doi:10.2217/pgs.10.97. PMID 20712531. 
  20. ^ Bains, W. (1987). Genetic Engineering For Almost Everybody: What Does It Do? What Will It Do?. Penguin. p. 99. ISBN 0-14-013501-4. 
  21. ^ a b U.S. Department of State International Information Programs, "Frequently Asked Questions About Biotechnology", USIS Online; available from, accessed 13 September 2007. Cf. Feldbaum, C. (February 2002). "Some History Should Be Repeated". Science 295 (5557): 975. doi:10.1126/science.1069614. PMID 11834802. 
  23. ^ "Genetic Testing: MedlinePlus". Retrieved 2011-06-07. 
  25. ^ Genetically Altered Potato Ok'd For Crops Lawrence Journal-World – 6 May 1995
  26. ^ National Academy of Sciences (2001). Transgenic Plants and World Agriculture. Washington: National Academy Press. 
  30. ^ About Golden Rice. Retrieved on 2013-03-20.
  33. ^ van Beilen, Jan B.; Yves Poirier (May 2008). "Harnessing plant biomass for biofuels and biomaterials:Production of renewable polymers from crop plants". The Plant Journal 54 (4): 684–701. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2008.03431.x. PMID 18476872. 
  41. ^ A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001-2010) (PDF). Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Union. 2010. doi:10.2777/97784. ISBN 978-92-79-16344-9. ""The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research, and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." (p. 16)" 
  42. ^ Ronald, Pamela (2011). "Plant Genetics, Sustainable Agriculture and Global Food Security". Genetics 188 (1): 11–20. doi:10.1534/genetics.111.128553. PMC 3120150. PMID 21546547. 
  46. ^ Industrial Biotechnology and Biomass Utilisation
  47. ^ Industrial biotechnology, A powerful, innovative technology to mitigate climate change
  48. ^ Gaskell, G.; Bauer, M. W.; Durant, J.; Allum, N. C. (1999). "Worlds Apart? The Reception of Genetically Modified Foods in Europe and the U.S". Science 285 (5426): 384–387. doi:10.1126/science.285.5426.384. PMID 10411496.  edit
  49. ^ PotatoPro
  52. ^ Nigms.Nih.Gov. Nigms.Nih.Gov. Retrieved on 2011-09-05.

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]