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Communication (from Latin communicare, meaning "to share")[1][better source needed] is the act of developing meaning among entities or groups through the use of sufficiently mutually understood signs, symbols, and semiotic conventions.

The main steps inherent to all communication are:[2]

  1. The formation of communicative motivation or reason.
  6. Reception of signals and reassembling of the encoded message from a sequence of received signals.
  7. Decoding of the reassembled encoded message.
  8. Interpretation and making sense of the presumed original message.

The scientific study of communication can be divided into:

  • Information theory which studies the quantification, storage, and communication of information in general;
  • Communication studies which concerns human communication;
  • Biosemiotics which examines communication in and between living organisms in general.
  • Biocommunication which exemplifies sign-mediated interactions in and between organisms of all domains of life, including viruses.

The channel of communication can be visual, auditory, tactile/haptic (e.g. Braille or other physical means), olfactory, electromagnetic, or biochemical. Human communication is unique for its extensive use of abstract language. Development of civilization has been closely linked with progress in telecommunication.

Non-verbal communication

Nonverbal communication explains the processes of conveying a type of information in a form of non-linguistic representations. Examples of nonverbal communication include haptic communication, chronemic communication, gestures, body language, facial expressions, eye contact etc. Nonverbal communication also relates to the intent of a message. Examples of intent are voluntary, intentional movements like shaking a hand or winking, as well as involuntary, such as sweating.[3] Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, e.g. rhythm, intonation, tempo, and stress. It affects communication most at the subconscious level and establishes trust. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, the spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotion.

Nonverbal communication demonstrates one of Paul Watzlawick's laws: you cannot not communicate. Once proximity has formed awareness, living creatures begin interpreting any signals received.[4] Some of the functions of nonverbal communication in humans are to complement and illustrate, to reinforce and emphasize, to replace and substitute, to control and regulate, and to contradict the denotative message.

Nonverbal cues are heavily relied on to express communication and to interpret others' communication and can replace or substitute verbal messages. However, non-verbal communication is ambiguous. When verbal messages contradict non-verbal messages, observation of non-verbal behaviour is relied on to judge another's attitudes and feelings, rather than assuming the truth of the verbal message alone.


"Non-verbal communication is omnipresent." [5] They are included in every single communication act. To have total communication, all non-verbal channels such as the body, face, voice, appearance, touch, distance, timing, and other environmental forces must be engaged during face-to-face interaction. Written communication can also have non-verbal attributes. E-mails, web chats, and the social media have options to change text font colours, stationary, add emoticons, capitalization, and pictures in order to capture non-verbal cues into a verbal medium.[6]

"Non-verbal behaviours are multifunctional." [7] Many different non-verbal channels are engaged at the same time in communication acts and allow the chance for simultaneous messages to be sent and received.

"Non-verbal behaviours may form a universal language system." [7] Smiling, crying, pointing, caressing, and glaring are non-verbal behaviours that are used and understood by people regardless of nationality. Such non-verbal signals allow the most basic form of communication when verbal communication is not effective due to language barriers.

Verbal communication






Written communication and its historical development


The progression of written communication can be divided into three "information communication revolutions":[9]


Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. Gregory Bateson called it "the replication of tautologies in the universe.[10] This process, which requires a vast repertoire of skills in interpersonal processing, listening, observing, speaking, questioning, analyzing, gestures, and evaluating enables collaboration and cooperation.[11]


Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities including, but not limited to: strategic communications planning, media relations, internal communications, public relations (which can include social media, broadcast and written communications, and more), brand management, reputation management, speech-writing, customer-client relations, and internal/employee communications.

Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it is relatively difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications communications professionals must possess are excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and strategically.

Business communication could also refer to the style of communication within a given corporate entity, i.e. email conversation styles, or internal communication styles.







Family communication is the study of the communication perspective in a broadly defined family, with intimacy and trusting relationship.[14] The main goal of family communication is to understand the interactions of family and the pattern of behaviors of family members in different circumstances. Open and honest communication creates an atmosphere that allows family members to express their differences as well as love and admiration for one another. It also helps to understand the feelings of one another.



In simple terms, interpersonal communication is the communication between one person and another (or others). It is often referred to as face-to-face communication between two (or more) people. Both verbal and nonverbal communication, or body language, play a part in how one person understands another, and attribute to one's own soft skills. In verbal interpersonal communication there are two types of messages being sent: a content message and a relational message. Content messages are messages about the topic at hand and relational messages are messages about the relationship itself.[15] This means that relational messages come across in how one says something and it demonstrates a person's feelings, whether positive or negative, towards the individual they are talking to, indicating not only how they feel about the topic at hand, but also how they feel about their relationship with the other individual.[15]

There are many different aspects of interpersonal communication including:

  • Audiovisual Perception of Communication Problems.[16] The concept follows the idea that our words change what form they take based on the stress level or urgency of the situation. It also explores the concept that stuttering during speech shows the audience that there is a problem or that the situation is more stressful.
  • The Attachment Theory.[17] This is the combined work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991) This theory follows the relationships that builds between a mother and child, and the impact it has on their relationships with others.
  • Emotional Intelligence and Triggers.[18] Emotional Intelligence focuses on the ability to monitor ones own emotions as well as those of others. Emotional Triggers focus on events or people that tend to set off intense, emotional reactions within individuals.
  • Attribution Theory.[19] This is the study of how individuals explain what causes different events and behaviors.
  • The Power of Words (Verbal communications).[20] Verbal communication focuses heavily on the power of words, and how those words are said. It takes into consideration tone, volume, and choice of words.
  • Ethics in Personal Relations.[21] It is about a space of mutual responsibility between two individuals, it's about giving and receiving in a relationship. This theory is explored by Dawn J. Lipthrott in the article What IS Relationship? What is Ethical Partnership?
  • Deception in Communication.[22] This concept goes into that everyone lies, and how this can impact relationships. This theory is explored by James Hearn in his article Interpersonal Deception Theory: Ten Lessons for Negotiators
  • Conflict in Couples.[23] This focuses on the impact that social media has on relationships, as well as how to communicate through conflict. This theory is explored by Amanda Lenhart and Maeve Duggan in their paper Couples, the Internet, and Social Media

Barriers to effectiveness



  • Physical barriers - Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. An example of this is the natural barrier which exists when workers are located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficulties for an organization.
  • Physiological barriers - These may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused--for example--by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.
  • Bypassing - This happens when the communicators (the sender and the receiver) do not attach the same symbolic meanings to their words. It is when the sender is expressing a thought or a word but the receiver gives it a different meaning. For example- ASAP, Rest room
  • Gender barriers - Most communicators whether aware or not, often have a set agenda. This is very notable among the different genders. For example, many women are found to be more critical when addressing conflict. It's also been noted that men are more likely than women to withdraw from conflict.[28]

Cultural aspects

Cultural differences exist within countries (tribal/regional differences, dialects and so on), between religious groups and in organisations or at an organisational level - where companies, teams and units may have different expectations, norms and idiolects. Families and family groups may also experience the effect of cultural barriers to communication within and between different family members or groups. For example: words, colours and symbols have different meanings in different cultures. In most parts of the world, nodding your head means agreement, shaking your head means "no", but this is not true everywhere.[29]

Communication to a great extent is influenced by culture and cultural variables.[30][31][32][33] Understanding cultural aspects of communication refers to having knowledge of different cultures in order to communicate effectively with cross culture people. Cultural aspects of communication are of great relevance in today's world which is now a global village, thanks to globalisation. Cultural aspects of communication are the cultural differences which influence communication across borders.








Plants and fungi

Communication is observed within the plant organism, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. Plant roots communicate with rhizome bacteria, fungi, and insects within the soil. Recent research has shown that most of the microorganism plant communication processes are neuron-like.[36] Plants also communicate via volatiles when exposed to herbivory attack behavior, thus warning neighboring plants.[37] In parallel they produce other volatiles to attract parasites which attack these herbivores.


Bacteria quorum sensing

Communication is not a tool used only by humans, plants and animals, but it is also used by microorganisms like bacteria. The process is called quorum sensing. Through quorum sensing, bacteria can sense the density of cells, and regulate gene expression accordingly. This can be seen in both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. This was first observed by Fuqua et al. in marine microorganisms like V. harveyi and V. fischeri.[38]


Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication
Communication major dimensions scheme
Interactional Model of Communication
Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Communication
Transactional model of communication
Communication code scheme
Linear Communication Model



  1. An information source, which produces a message.
  2. A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals.
  3. A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.
  4. A noise source, which distorts the signal while it propagates through the channel.
  6. A destination, where the message arrives.


The technical problem: how accurately can the message be transmitted?
The semantic problem: how precisely is the meaning conveyed?

Daniel Chandler[40] critiques the transmission model by stating:

It assumes communicators are isolated individuals.
No allowance for differing purposes.
No allowance for differing interpretations.
No allowance for unequal power relations.
No allowance for situational contexts.

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver's (1949) linear model of communication and created the SMCR Model of Communication.[41] The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars.

Communication is usually described along a few major dimensions: message (what type of things are communicated), source/emisor/sender/encoder (from whom), form (in which form), channel (through which medium), destination/receiver/target/decoder (to whom). Wilbur Schram (1954) also indicated that we should also examine the impact that a message has (both desired and undesired) on the target of the message.[42] Between parties, communication includes acts that confer knowledge and experiences, give advice and commands, and ask questions. These acts may take many forms, in one of the various manners of communication. The form depends on the abilities of the group communicating. Together, communication content and form make messages that are sent towards a destination. The target can be oneself, another person or being, another entity (such as a corporation or group of beings).


  1. Pragmatic (concerned with the relations between signs/expressions and their users).
  3. Syntactic (formal properties of signs and symbols).


In light of these weaknesses, Barnlund (2008) proposed a transactional model of communication.[43] The basic premise of the transactional model of communication is that individuals are simultaneously engaging in the sending and receiving of messages.




In any communication model, noise is interference with the decoding of messages sent over the channel by an encoder. There are many examples of noise:


To face communication noise, redundancy and acknowledgement must often be used. Acknowledgements are messages from the addressee informing the originator that his/her communication has been received and is understood.[46] Message repetition and feedback about message received are necessary in the presence of noise to reduce the probability of misunderstanding. The act of disambiguation regards the attempt of reducing noise and wrong interpretations, when the semantic value or meaning of a sign can be subject to noise, or in presence of multiple meanings, which makes the sense-making difficult. Disambiguation attempts to decrease the likelihood of misunderstanding. This is also a fundamental skill in communication processes activated by counselors, psychotherapists, interpreters, and in coaching sessions based on colloquium. In Information Technology, the disambiguation process and the automatic disambiguation of meanings of words and sentences has also been an interest and concern since the earliest days of computer treatment of language.[47]

As academic discipline


See also


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  2. ^ C.E. Shannon. "A Mathematical Theory of Communication" (PDF). Math.harvard.edu. Retrieved .
  3. ^ "Types of Body Language". Simplybodylanguage.com. Retrieved .
  4. ^ Wazlawick, Paul (1970's) opus
  6. ^ Martin-Rubió, Xavier (2018-09-30). Contextualising English as a Lingua Franca: From Data to Insights. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-1696-0.
  7. ^ a b (Burgoon et al., p. 4)
  8. ^ Ferguson, Sherry Devereaux; Lennox-Terrion, Jenepher; Ahmed, Rukhsana; Jaya, Peruvemba (2014). Communication in Everyday Life: Personal and Professional Contexts. Canada: Oxford University Press. p. 464. ISBN 9780195449280.
  9. ^ Xin Li. "Complexity Theory - the Holy Grail of 21st Century". Lane Dept of CSEE, West Virginia University. Archived from the original on 2013-08-15.
  10. ^ Bateson, Gregory (1960) Steps to an Ecology of Mind
  11. ^ "communication". The office of superintendent of Public Instruction. Washington. Missing or empty |url= (help)
  12. ^ Danesi, Marcel (2009), Dictionary of Media and Communications. M.E.Sharpe, Armonk, New York.
  13. ^ "Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, U.S. Army (2012). Information Operations. Joint Publication 3-13. Joint Doctrine Support Division, 116 Lake View Parkway, Suffolk, VA" (PDF). Dtic.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-05-04. Retrieved .
  14. ^ Turner, L.H., & West, R.L. (2013). Perspectives on family communication. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
  15. ^ a b Trenholm, Sarah; Jensen, Arthur (2013). Interpersonal Communication Seventh Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 360-361.
  16. ^ Barkhuysen, P., Krahmer, E., Swerts, M., (2004) Audiovisual Perception of Communication Problems, ISCA Archive http://www.isca-speech.org/archive
  17. ^ Bretherton, I., (1992) The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, Developmental Psychology, 28, 759-775
  18. ^ Mazza, J., Emotional Triggers, MABC, CPC
  19. ^ Bertram, M., (2004) How the Mind Explains Behavior: Folk Explanations, Meaning, and Social Interaction, MIT Press, ISBN 978-0-262-13445-3
  20. ^ "Listening". 2012books.lardbucket.org. Retrieved .
  21. ^ Lipthrott, D., What IS Relationship? What is Ethical Partnership?
  22. ^ Hearn, J., (2006) Interpersonal Deception Theory: Ten Lessons for Negotiators
  23. ^ Lenhart, A., Duggan, M., (2014) Couples, the Internet, and Social Media
  24. ^ Robbins, S., Judge, T., Millett, B., & Boyle, M. (2011). Organisational Behaviour. 6th ed. Pearson, French's Forest, NSW pp. 315-317.
  25. ^ What Should Be Included in a Project Plan. Retrieved December 18, 2009
  26. ^ J. Scott Armstrong (1980). "Bafflegab Pays" (PDF). Psychology Today: 12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-08-28.
  27. ^ "Technology can sometimes hinder communication, TR staffers observe - The Collegian". The Collegian. 2012-10-09. Retrieved .
  28. ^ Bailey, Sandra (2009). "Couple Relationships: Communication and Conflict Resolution" (PDF). MSU Extension. 17: 2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-12-15. Retrieved – via George Mason University Libraries.
  29. ^ Nageshwar Rao, Rajendra P. Das, Communication skills, Himalaya Publishing House, 9789350516669, p. 48
  30. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-07-18. Retrieved .CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  31. ^ "Incorrect Link to Beyond Intractability Essay". Beyond Intractability. 2017-04-18. Retrieved .
  32. ^ "Important Components of Cross-Cultural Communication Essay". Studymode.com. Retrieved .
  33. ^ "Portable Document Format (PDF)". Ijdesign.org. Archived from the original on 2017-05-14. Retrieved .
  34. ^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad; et al. (2015), Engaging - A Guide to Interacting Respectfully and Reciprocally with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People, and their Arts Practices and Intellectual Property (PDF), Australian Government: Indigenous Culture Support, p. 12, archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2016, retrieved 2016
  35. ^ Walsh, Michael (1997), Cross cultural communication problems in Aboriginal Australia, Australian National University, North Australia Research Unit, pp. 7-9, ISBN 9780731528745, retrieved 2016
  36. ^ Baluska, F.; Marcuso, Stefano; Volkmann, Dieter (2006). Communication in plants: neuronal aspects of plant life. Taylor & Francis US. p. 19. ISBN 978-3-540-28475-8. ...the emergence of plant neurobiology as the most recent area of plant sciences.
  37. ^ Ian T. Baldwin; Jack C. Schultz (1983). "Rapid Changes in Tree Leaf Chemistry Induced by Damage: Evidence for Communication Between Plants". Science. 221 (4607): 277-279. Bibcode:1983Sci...221..277B. doi:10.1126/science.221.4607.277. PMID 17815197. S2CID 31818182.
  38. ^ Anand, Sandhya. Quorum Sensing- Communication Plan For Microbes. Article dated 2010-12-28, retrieved on 2012-04-03.
  40. ^ Daniel Chandler, "The Transmission Model of Communication", Aber.ac.uk Archived January 6, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  41. ^ Berlo, D.K. (1960). The process of communication. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
  43. ^ Barnlund, D.C. (2008). A transactional model of communication. In. C.D. Mortensen (Eds.), Communication theory (2nd ed., pp. 47-57). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction.
  44. ^ a b Wark, McKenzie (1997). The Virtual Republic. Allen & Unwin, St Leonards.
  46. ^ North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Nato Standardization Agency AAP-6 - Glossary of terms and definitions, p. 43.
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  48. ^ Hayes, Andrew F. (31 May 2005). Statistical Methods for Communication Science. Taylor & Francis. pp. 8-9. ISBN 9781410613707.

Further reading

External links




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