This article is a literate JS program. There is tooling available at thriqon/condanna to extract the source code.

Condanna (italian for "sentence") is a short, but complete implementation of the Promises/A+ standard. It was written to show interested readers one way to implement promises.

Currently, native Promises are being implemented in modern JavaScript engines, that (hopefully) will provide better performance than existing non-native implementations. However, in my opininion it is still helpful for developers to have knowledge about the technology and concepts that power their applications.


Traditionally, JavaScript environments are single-threaded, i.e. at most one function is executed at any given time. Threads controlled by the browser that work in the background retrieving data from web servers or reading files do not count into this.

Web browsers recently implemented (or ar still implementing) a technology called Web Workers that allows code to start another thread from a web page that executes in the background, but communication between the parent environment controlling the user interface and the background thread is highly restricted. The usual characteristic of a multi-threaded environment, the shared memory, is not present when working with web workers.

In general, operations are taking different orders of magnitudes of time depending on the scope of them. Calculations on the CPU are very fast, while requests to some remote server take a comparatively long time. To keep pages responsive while loading more data from somewhere else traditionally plain callbacks were used. functions were registered with the environment and called later, when the result was present.

Unfortunately, this approach can easily lead to unmanageable and unwieldy code. Promises introduce an abstracting layer encapsulating callbacks for success and error. We can treat promises as a piece of data that happens to give us a result of some operation later. The great advantage of having a piece of data is that it is storable in a variable or pass to functions, in other words treat a long-running operation as a first-level citizen.


Promises had a rocky start, and a lot of incompatible implementations popped up. Not all of them provided the same semantics, and compatibility between promises from different libraries was not given. This semantic compatibility however is crucial for treating promises as first-level citizens (A function can always be invoked the same way, regardless from where it's imported).

As a joint effort from major libraries, a common set of rules was established. Since then, the Promises/A+ standard specifies a set of rules for compatible implementations.


A promise encapsulates the result of a calculation, but usually has no (and shouldn't have) means of specifying this result. Deferreds are a loose concept covering a promise and accompanying functions setting this result. This is part of the interface a promise library provides to construct promises.

For simplicity deferreds will be used in this library. Another common approach is the use of a constructor function that receives the functions to resolve or reject the promise as parameters.


The implementation of the library will contain three major modules: - a deferred - a promise resolver - a function call queue

These modules will be introduced in the following. During the implementation the paragraph from the standard demanding that design choice will be referred to.

The language of the resulting library is LiveScript. It provides nice syntactic features that abstract away most of the brackets and parantheses mandated by JavaScript. A transpiler later transforms the code into plain JavaScript which can be executed by browsers and also by NodeJS.

The standard differentiates between 'thenables' and 'promises'. A thenable is an object with a then method, while a promise is an object with a then method according to the standard. Certain guarantees can be taken for granted when an object is a promise, leading to more performant code. In this implementation there won't be a way of distinguishing between foreign thenables and trusted promises, which is why any thenable will be treated as just that: a thenable. No difference will be made between the two in this document, and the terms used interchangeably.

The Deferred

A deferred is constructed (the main API for this library) by calling deferred(). The first piece of state the deferred needs is a moded queue that will run function calls having the appropriate mode. For example, if there were two callbacks for the mode resolved and three callbacks for reject and later the mode set to 'resolved', the two callbacks mentioned first will be called. The mode of a queue can not be changed once it has been set. The chapter introducing the moded queue will talk more about it.

deferred = ->
  queue = modedQueue()

This is all the internal state that a deferred is going to keep. The next step is to construct the resulting promise and the two functions setting the actual result. Firstly, the promise:

    then: (onFulfilled, onRejected) ->

The only method provided as part of the promise is the then method. It can take up to two callback as parameters. Standard dictates (2.2.7) that it has to return a promise, so let's just create the accompanying deferred (the promise will be returned later) here:

      resultingDeferred = deferred()

When the promise is fulfilled, ...

If the passed parameter is a function (, a callback to be executed when the F queue is flushed is to be registered in the queue of this promise:

      if typeof onFulfilled is \function
        queue.push 'F', (resolvedWith) !->

At this point, this promise has been resolved, e.g., there is an actual answer from the remote server. It is now possible to call the supplied callback from the user of this library. If this function throws (which it is certainly allowed to do), the new promise has to be rejected with the throwed value, i.e. the reason (

Note that onFulfilled is called as a function, and does not have a context (2.2.5).

            newValue = onFulfilled resolvedWith
            resultingDeferred.reject e

newValue now holds the value that the new promise represented by resultingDeferred.promise should resolve with. This value might still be a promise, and it is to be resolved first. A standardized procedure is mandated by the standard to make sure that the correct type of value is returned to the user of the library here ( Note that the standard names this procedure 'resolve', which could lead to confusion with the resolve method of the deferred. In this document the procedure will be referred to it by resolvePromise instead. This procedure will be implemented in the next chapter, for now it is just executed:

          resolvePromise resultingDeferred, newValue

The section above handled the case where the user gave a callback for the case of fulfillment. This parameter however is optional. If it is not set, the value that resolved this promise has to be forwarded to the new promise as fulfillment value ( The easiest way to do this is to register the resolve method of the new deferred as callback for the current promise, if the onFulfilled parameter is not given or not a function:

        queue.push 'F', resultingDeferred.resolve

and when it's not, ...

Promises can be fulfilled, but can also be rejected if they can't be fulfilled, for example because of a network error when fetching external data. Callbacks can be registered for this case by supplying them as a second parameter to this, such as: fetch(url).then(null, (reason) -> alert(reason)).

To register the callback in the moded queue, the same steps have to be executed, but with different variables. The callback will be placed in the 'R' queue, if it is given ( A thrown exception in the handler will also reject the promise (, and omission of the handler will forward the reject to the new promise (

      if typeof onRejected is \function
        queue.push 'R', (rejectedWith) !->
            newValue = onRejected rejectedWith
            resultingDeferred.reject e

          resolvePromise resultingDeferred, newValue
        queue.push 'R', resultingDeferred.reject

It is worth noting that a rejection handler can bring the promise 'back on course' by returning a new value, e.g. by resolving the reason for the exception and trying again, but can as well decide to keep the promise chain in rejection by rethrowing the reason.

At this point, the then method is complete. It's a method that registers the supplied parameters in a queue to be executed when the deferred resolves, and either lets these callbacks transform the value of the resulting promise or forwards the status to the next one. The new promise (as controlled by the given callbacks) is given back to the caller:

      return resultingDeferred.promise

The whole deferred is almost done as well. What is left is to give the caller methods to resolve and reject the deferred. If the deferred resolves, all registered callbacks for fulfillment have to be run (and any subsequently registered callbacks as well), and similarly for rejection. This will be implemented in the moded queue chapter, for now it suffices to just set mode and value for the queue if the deferred resolves

  resolve: (value) -> queue.setModeAndValue 'F', value

or rejects:

  reject: (reason) -> queue.setModeAndValue 'R', reason

The Promise Resolver

The promise resolver is a procedure defined in great detail by the standard. There are already calls for the method in the code above, but it isn't implement yet.

resolvePromise = (deferred, value) !->

Firstly, a safety layer is introduced to make it more difficult to establish 'endless loops'. Otherwise, if a user did something like d.resolve(-> d.promise), the library would wait for the result of promise d.promise to resolve the promise d.promise, which will never finish. The deferred is therefore rejected immediately, if the promise accompanying the deferred is the same object as the given value, and exit from the procedure (2.3.1).

  if deferred.promise is value
    deferred.reject new TypeError("Tried to resolve promise with itself")

The next step of the procedure allows the adoption of the state of a promise whose implementation is known and trusted, and whose state is accessable (2.3.2). Because of simplicity, there is no way of knowing whether the given value is a promise created from this library, and also no means of accessing its state from outside¹. Adopting the state of a promise in value is left as an exercise to the reader. An approach could be to reuse the queue of the value promise as the queue of the current deferred.

Afterwards, it has to be checked whether value is an object or a function (2.3.3). If value is neither, the deferred can directly be resolved with value (2.3.4), because value cannot be a promise if it's not an object or function (it can't have a .then). A test for typeof value is 'object' or typeof value is 'function' is unfortunately not enough, because JavaScript treats null as object as well.

  unless value? and (typeof value is \object or typeof value is \function)
    deferred.resolve value

At this point, it is known that a) value is an object or a function and b) that it has properties (since it's not null). To protect against problems caused by different results of repeatedly getting value.then it has to be fetched exactly once ( and 3.5). If anything goes wrong when the method is retrieved, the deferred has to be rejected with the thrown exception (, and exited from the procedure.

Although fetching a property might seem unproblematic, it is in fact not: It is now possible to define getters, hiding a method call behind a property access. Subsequent accesses might result in different results, and accesses might fail because of exceptions.

  _then = null

    _then := value.then
    deferred.reject e

Even though value has a property called then, it is not guaranteed that this is actually a function. If it is not, it is not a thenable and the promise has to be resolved with value instead ( and exited the procedure:

  unless typeof _then is \function
    deferred.resolve value

At this point, _then points to a method then of an object. Unfortunately, it is still not known if it is well behaved, i.e. conforms to the standard. A safeguard has to be established to protect against multiple (instead of up to one) calls to the callbacks that are given to it. The easiest way to do this is to keep a flag around which tells if there were already calls and any subsequent calls are to be ignored (

  alreadyReceivedCalls = no

When the promise is fulfilled, i.e. the first callback is called, resolvePromise is called 'recursively' again (, but only if no other callbacks have been called yet. This makes it possible to nest promises arbitrarily deep.

  fulfill = (value) !->
    unless alreadyReceivedCalls
      alreadyReceivedCalls := yes
      resolvePromise deferred, value

If the promise rejects, the promise is only rejected if no other callback has yet been received (

  reject = (reason) !->
    unless alreadyReceivedCalls
      alreadyReceivedCalls := yes
      deferred.reject reason

What remains is to call then. If anything goes wrong when calling _then (i.e. an exception is thrown), the promise is rejected, unless it's already received another call (e.g. if any of the callbacks were called synchronously before returning from _then) ( _then is called with its containing object as context (

  try value, fulfill, reject
    reject e

The moded queue will make sure that the deferred can only change its state once. Why is the safeguard neccessary here as well? The answer is simple: If the thenable firstly calls the fulfillment callback, resolvePromise might resolve the deferred asynchronously because it first has to wait for a passed promise. If in the meantime the thenable rejects, the standard mandates that the deferred will be resolved anyways with the value of the first call (

This concludes the chapter implementing the promise resolver. It implements checks testing whether the passed value is a thenable, and if yes, resolves them asynchronously and passes the fulfilling values or the reasons for rejection on to the callbacks stored in the queue, which will be implemented in the next chapter.

The Moded Queue

The standard gives a few requirements for the calling of callbacks registered with the then method. It doesn't mandate how these callbacks are executed.

  1. The callbacks are to be executed in the order they were registered ( and
  2. The callbacks are called as functions, with no this (2.2.5).
  3. The callbacks are executed with only platform code in the stack (2.2.4).
  4. The callbacks must not be executed more than once ( and

Each of this requirements is implemented by code, and they will be mentioned at the the appropriate locations.


The moded queue will have the following characteristics:


modedQueue = ->

To satisfy condition 1, callbacks will be stored in an array. Each new entry will be appended to the existing list.

  queue = []

Initially, the moded queue isn't set to a mode, and the argument isn't set either:

  mode = null
  arg = null

Later in this function, function calls with a single parameter will be scheduled asynchronously. For portability setTimeout with a delay of zero is used.

The function is called without a context (2) and directly from the platform, with no application code in the stack (3).

  scheduleFunctionCall = (f) !->
    setTimeout (!-> f arg), 0

What remains is to define the 'public' interface of the queue. If the user of the moded queue wants to register a new callback, she has to specify a mode and a function:

  push: (callbackMode, callback) !->

If the mode is not yet set, add it to the queue:

    if not mode?
      queue.push(mode: callbackMode, f: callback)

Otherwise, if the mode is set and equal to the mode of the callback, the callback is to be immediately scheduled for execution.

    else if mode is callbackMode
      scheduleFunctionCall callback

If the mode is set, but does not match the mode of this callback, the call is simply ignored. The other method of the queue is setting the mode and value:

  setModeAndValue: (newMode, value) !->

If the mode as already been set, ignore this call. The mode can't be changed once it's been set.

    return unless not mode?

The new mode and value are now written into the corresponding variables, and then all callbacks waiting in the queue that have the specified mode are executed.

    mode := newMode
    arg := value
      .filter((entry) -> entry.mode is mode)
      .map (.f)
      .forEach scheduleFunctionCall
    queue := null

Extension Points

The implemented library only implements the bare minimum of functionality. However, it is very easy to extend it.

Some libraries provide the ability to add another type of callback to the promises, which is fired when the promises settles, i.e. either when it resolves or rejects. This can be added quite easily by a new method on the promise and adding the callback to both queues.

The de facto standard interface to create promises appears to be new Promise((resolve, reject) -> ...). Since the deferred is available, it is possible to synchronously call a constructor method.

Helpers to wait for the fulfillment of a whole array of promises are commonly found in promise libraries. Adding such a method is also quite easy, as one only has to count the number of already fulfilled promises and resolve the final promise in the end.


Condanna = deferred: deferred

This concludes the implementation of a fully working promises library. The build tool will pick up the Condanna object and export it to the various environments.

An object with a deferred method is exactly the format expected by the official promises test suite. The test suite can be called directly on the library to make sure it's compliant.

$ promises-aplus-tests condanna
872 passing (16s)

1: Omission is not a blocker for Promises/A+ compliance, since state adoption can also happen (with probably wore performance) by treating the promise as an unknown and untrustable thenable.