﻿In human pathophysiology, the clash between microbial sponsor and infection immunity plays a part in multiple diseases

﻿In human pathophysiology, the clash between microbial sponsor and infection immunity plays a part in multiple diseases. the primitive CF lung, particularly concentrating on the part of sponsor versus bacterial elements; (ii) critical, neutrophil-derived innate immune effectors that are implicated in CF pulmonary disease, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antimicrobial peptides (e.g., LL-37); (iii) virulence factors and adaptive mutations that enable evasion of the host response; and (iv) ongoing work examining the distribution and colocalization of host and bacterial factors within distinct anatomical niches of the CF lung. and and studies. Wherein the latter have been augmented by the relatively recent development of the CF ferret and pig models (21,C23), most animal work within the field has continued, primarily in mouse models (24). Additionally, translational work using bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and immune cells obtained directly from CF patients has added significantly to the fields understanding of the host-microbe interface but, at times, also fueled controversy regarding the role of primary immune dysfunction in CF (25). Defects in Host Immunity The most common and generally well-accepted paradigm regarding the development of CF lung disease is the low-volume hypothesis (1, 7, 26). CFTR dysfunction results in an inability to secrete chloride and bicarbonate ions into the airway lumen, which normally balances sodium reabsorption via a different channel, the epithelial Na+ channel (ENac); unopposed sodium reabsorption results in net water uptake by the respiratory epithelium, resulting in dehydration of the airway surface liquid (ASL) (27, 28). The ASL has multiple functions, but chief among ONO 2506 these roles is hydration of mucus, a key component of the innate immune response as part of the mucociliary ladder (29). Dehydrated mucus ultimately compromises mucociliary and cough clearance of mucus, providing a nidus for colonization and infection by opportunistic pathogens (30). Relatedly, a second hypothesis for the development of CF lung disease pertains to the altered pH of ASL. Diminished functionality of CFTR reduces bicarbonate secretion into the airway ONO 2506 lumen, resulting in decreased pH of the ASL; indeed, some studies have shown that ASL from CF patients is even more acidic than that of healthful individuals (31,C33). The greater acidic ASL inside the CF lung offers multiple consequences. Initial, CF ASL (produced from the pig style Rabbit polyclonal to ETNK1 of disease, which recapitulates acidic airway secretions better than the mouse model) exhibits reduced bacterial killing due to compromised function of cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) (34, 35). AMPs are small innate immune proteins, present within epithelial and leukocyte secretions, with broad antimicrobial activity against bacterial and viral pathogens as well as immunomodulatory functions (36). The microbial killing activities of AMPs present within the CF airway, including human -defensin-3 (hBD-3) as well as LL-37, are reduced under acidic pH conditions (37, 38). AMPs are also further discussed in greater detail below (see LL-37, an Antimicrobial Peptide with Immunomodulatory Actions). Second, in the CF pig model, independent of ASL volume, altered pH of ASL also causes mucus tethering and impaired mucus detachment from the lung epithelium (39). This effect also promotes mucus plugging and reduced mucociliary clearance, but the primary mechanism here is the acidic ASL pH rather than ASL dehydration (35, 39). Finally, CF ASL activates proteases, which can directly damage lung tissue and degrade innate immune effectors (40, 41). Various studies also suggest that primary dysregulation of the immune system (i.e., due to abrogated CFTR function) contributes to CF lung disease, although this theory remains somewhat controversial; much of the disagreement appears to focus upon whether intrinsic immune defects promote a hyperinflammatory microenvironment within the CF lung or if bacterial infection represents the first event that incites early inflammation within the CF lung (42, 43). Indeed, there are multiple lines of evidence that support a predilection toward hyperinflammation within CF tissues, independent of bacterial infection. Studies have shown elevated concentrations of proinflammatory markers in the cell-free supernatants of CF epithelial cell cultures and in CF tissue specimens that are free of infection (compared to healthy controls) (44,C47). Research using CF mouse and ferret models demonstrates that newborn animals with CFTR mutations already have inflammation of the lung in the absence of detectable bacteria and fungi; the possibility of early viral infection, however, was not excluded in this ONO 2506 work (23, 48, 49). Evidence of inflammation included early neutrophil and macrophage infiltration into the naive mouse lung, whereas raised concentrations of proinflammatory cytokines.