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The Conception of Buddhist Nirvä,.

and excellent imaginative pictures reprcsenting hirn a~i~
;~;, various aspects of bis life were painted. Mahäyäna main-
tained that the arduous path of prajnä ( transcendenta l wisdom)
was meant only for the advanced few, for the av~rage man it
was devotion to the Buddha which would enable h1m to attain
Nirväna. Buddha was worshipped in the form of Avaloki-
tesvar~, Amitäbha and the future Buddha, Maitreya.

9. Hinayina pluralistic, Mahliyäna non-dualistic

The philosophy of Hinayäna was one of radical pluralism,
that of Mahäyäna was undiluted non-dualism (advaya).

1O; Hinayäna rationalistic, Mahäyäna mystic

The approach to truth adopted by Hinayäna was one of
mystically-ting ed rationalism, that adopted by Mahäyäna was
one of super-rationali sm and profound mysticism.

Main Features of Madhyamaka Philosophy

(1) Sünya-Sünyatä
The most striking feature of Madhyamaka philosophy is
its ever-recurring use of sünya and sünyatä. So central is this
idea to the system that it is generally known as Sünyaväda i.e.,
the philosophy that asserts Sünya as the characterizatio n of
Sünya is a most perplexing word in Buddhist philosophy,
Non-Buddhists have interpreted it only as nihilism. But that
is not what it means.
Etymologically it is derived from the root svi which
means 'to swell, to expand'. Curiously enough, the word
Brahman is derived from the root 'brh' . or 'brrhh'
. which also
means 'to swell to expand'. The Buddha is said to be seated
in Sünya tattva, in the !ünya principle'. The word Jünya
seems to have been used in an ontological sense in such con-
texts. The implication of the etymological signification of the
word does not seem to have been fully worked out.
According to some scholars the word sünya has no ontolo-
gical signification. .lt has only a soteriological suggestion.
B_ut the word sünya has obviously been used als.;, in an ontolo-
gical sense with an axiological overtone and soteriological
background. ·
In •the ontolo~ic~l sense sünya is the void ·which is also
fulness. Because 1t 1s nothing in parti 1 't h h ·.
•i· f . • cu ar, 1 as t e poss1-
b1 ity o every th1ng. lt has been identified 'th N' -
. h h Ab 1 . w1 irvai:ia.,
w1t.. t e so ute, .w1th Paramärtha-sat (t.h e supreme R ea1·1ty ) ,
with 1:att~a (Reahty) • What is the s ünya-tattva ? This is what
NägärJuna has to say:
A~ar~pratyayarh säntam prapancair aprapaiicitam/
Nirvikalpam anänärtham etattattva~a lak~fl{larp,//
(M. K., XVIII, 9)
(I) lt is aparapratyayam. lt is that experience which
cannot be imparted to any one by another. lt has tö be realized
by every one for himself.
(2) I t is säntam . It is quiescent unaffected b~ the
empirical mind. '
(3) I t is prapa11cair aprapancitam i.e. inexpressible by the
verbalising mind. I t is non-determinate.
(4) 1t is nirvikalpam i.e. it is transcendent to discursive
thought. ·
(5) lt is anänärtham. It is non-dual.
Sünyatä is an abstract noun deri~ed from silnya. It means
deprivation and suggests fulfilment.
The worrls S ünya and S ünyatä will b_est be undersood in
connexion with svabhäva. · Svabhäva literaUy means'·own beihg'.
Candrakirti says that this word has been used in Buddhist
philosophy in two ways :
L The essence or special property of a thing, e.g., 'heat
is the svabhäva or special property of fire'. Iha yo dharmo yam
padärtharh na vyabhicarati, sa tasya svabhäva iti vyapadisyate, apar ~..
pratibaddhatvät" i.e. "In this world an attribute which . always
accompanies an object, . never parts from it, that, not -being
indissolubly connected with any thing eise, is known as the
svabhäva i. e., special property of that object" (P.P. 105)
2. Svabhäva (own-being) as the contrary of parabhäva_
(other-being). Candrakirti says, sz•o bhäval,i svabhiiva itv,asya pad-
ärthasya yadätmiyarh rüpam tat tasya svabhäva iti (P.. P. p. 115)
"Svabhiiva is the own being, the very nature of a thing".
Nägärjuna says akrtrimab svabhävo hi nirapek~ab paratra ca (M.
K. 15, 2) , "That is really- svabhäva which is not brought about
by anything eise, unproduced (akritrimab), that which is not
dependent on, not relative to any thing other than itself, rion-
contingent, unconditioned (nirapek1ab paratra ca)'~
38 1 ne Conception of Buddhist Nirvä,;za

The Mädhyamika rejects the first meaning of svabhäva and

accepts only the second. Candrakirti says clearly krtrimasya
parasäpek$asya ca svabhävatvariz ne$fam. "We. do not accept that
as svabhäva which is brought about by, contingent on, relative
to something .eise" The first sense is not acceptable, for even
the so-called· svabhäva or essential property of a thing is kftrima-·
and säpek$a, contingent and relative. Even the heat which
is the special property of depends on so many condi tions-
a match, or a lens, fuel, or the friction of two pieces of wood.
I t is, therefore, not svabhäva in the highest sense of the word.
In one word svabhäva is the Absolute reality, whereas everything
else, all phenomena are parabhäva (relative).
The word Sünya has to be understood from two points of
view, viz. (1) from the point of view of phenomena or empiri-
cal reality, it means svabhäva-sunya i.e. devoid of svabhäva or
independent) substantial reality of its own; (2) from the point
of view of the Absolute, it means prapaiica-sünya i.e. devoid
of prapafica or verbalisation, thought-construction and plurality.
(i) We shall consider the word Sünya in its first significa-
tion at first. We have discussed the word svabhäva at length
so that we may be able to understand clearly the word sünya
when used in connexion with pheno~enal reality or with
dharmas (elements of existence). In this context sünya invari-
ably means svabhäva-sünya, i.e. empty or devoid of indepen-
dent, substantial reality. There is not a single thing in theworld
which is unconditionally, absolutely real. Everything is
related to, contingent upon, cond~ti~ned by something else.
The long discussion of causality or pratitya-samutpäda in Madhya-
maka Sästra is only meant to show that not a single thing in the
world exists in its own right, nothing has an independent rea-
li ty of 1ts own. Everything is conditioned by something
(pratityasamutpanna). The world is not Reality : it is a realm
of relativity. That is why Nägärjuna says ya}J, pratityasamut-
pädali sünyatäriz täm pracak$mahe. "'There is no real production :
there is only manifestation of a thing contingent on causes and
conditions. I t is this conditioned co-production that we desig-
nate as Sunyatä." There is no real causal relation between
entities; there is only mutual dependence between entities which
means in, other words tha t en ti ties are devoid of independen t
self-hood (svabhäva). Causal relation, therefore, does not mean
Jntroduction 39
a ~equ_ence of reali_ties but only a sequence of appearances. Evcry
thmg 1n the world 1s dependent upon the sum.-total of its con-
ditions. Things are merely appearances. He~ce pratitya-
samutpäda is equated with sunyatä or relativity. The world is
not a conglomeration of things. lt is simply process, and things
are simply events. A 'thing' by itselj is 'nothing' at all. This
is what is meant by the sünyatii or emptiness of all dharmas.
(ii) Now let us see what Sünyatii mcans from the stand-
point of the Absolute. From the -standpoint of the Absolute,
sünyatii means prapancair aprapaf'icitam that which is devoid
of, completely free of thought-construction, aniiniirthiim, that
which is devoid of plurality. In other words, sünyatä as applied
to tattva signifies that it is,
(a) in-expressible in human language.
(b) that 'is', 'not is', 'both is' and 'not is', 'neither is' nor
'not is'-no thought-category or predicate can be
appli,e d to i t. I t is transcendent to thought.
(c) tha-t it is free of plurality, that it is a Whole which
cannot be sundered into parts.
To sum up, the import of sünyatä may be understood in
six ways. Three of these are given together in 18th verse of
Chapter XXIV of the Kärikä :
yab pratityasamutpiidab s ünyatäm täm pracakmza~e/
Sä praj1zaptirupädayii pratipat sazva madhyamä/ /
"That we call sünyatii which is pratityasamutpäda, upädäya
prajfiapti, madhyamä pratipat."
1. In reference to vyavahära or empirical reality, sünyatä
means naibsviibhävya i.e., devoidness ·of self-being, ofunconditioned
nature. In other words, it connotes conditiond co-production
or pratityasamutpada-thorough-going relativity.
2. This idea is conveyed in another way by the term,
upädäyaprajfiapti or "derived name" which means that the
presence of a name does not mcan the reality of the named.
Candrakirti says, cakrädinyupadäya rathiingäni ratha~ prajnä-
pyate i.e., a chariot is so named by taking into account its
parts like wheel etc; it does not. mean that th(! chariot ·is some-
thing different in its own right apart from its constitueJ1t parts.
This is another instance of relativity.
As relativity, sünyatä also connotes the relative, no~-absolute
nature of speciflc views.
40 The Conception of Buddhist Nirvä,;za

3. Sünyatä exposes the folly of accepting any absolute

beginning or . total cessation and thus connotes madhyamä prati-
pat-taking things as they are and avoiding the extremes
( 1) is and (2 / is not.
Over and above these three, there are other senses in which
the word sünyatii has been used iil Madhyamaka philosophy. .
4. In reference to paramärtha or ultimate reality, sünyafä
connotes the non-conceptual nature of the absolute.
5.· In reference to the aspirant, snüyatä implies his attitude of
anupalambha or the skilfulness of non-clinging to the relative as
the absolute or to the absolute as something specific.
6. The Mahäprajnä-pärami tä Sästra brings out anotherimpli-
cation of the s ünyatä principle, viz; dharmaifaTJ,ä, the irrepre-
ssible longing for the Real, beyond the passing show of
mundane life.

Axiological significance of S ünyatä

Sunyatä is not merely a word of ontological signification. lt

has also an axiological implication. Since all empirical
things are devoid ofsubstantial reality, therefore they are 'worth:.
less'. lt is because of our ignorance that we attach so much
value to worldly things. Once Sünyatä is properly under-
stood, the inordinate craving for the mad rush after a thing
that :

'Like snow upon the Desert's dusty face

Lighting a little hour or two is gone'
ceases, and we experience the blessing of peace.

Soteriological significance of Sünyatä

S ünyatä is not merely an intellectual concept. I ts realiza-

tion is a means in salvation. When rightly grasped, it leads
to the negation of the multiplicity of the dharmas and to deta-
chment from the 'passing show' of the tempting things of life.
Meditation on Sünyatä leads to prajfiä (transcendental wisdom)
which brings about the emancipation of the aspirant from
spiritual darkness. Nägärjuna puts the quintessence of his
teachings about Sünyatä in the following verse:
Jntroduction 41

Karmaklcsa-k$ayänmokra h k kl _ .
· - " · arma esa vikalpatah//
Te prapailcat prapancastu sünyatäyäm nirudhyat;/ j
(M. K. xviii, 5)

"Em anc ipat ion is obt aine d by th e d'1sso1ut1o . .n of selfish

. •
dee ds an. d pass 1ons All selfish dee ds and- pass10ns are cau sed
. .
ss thin gs as full
by ima gina tive ~on strU cts whi ch valu e wor thle
cts are bor n of
of wo: th. The . vzkal~a~ or ima gina tive con stru
, the verb ahz 1ng , ima ging acti vity of the min · d . Th'1s
prap· anca
· f l • ,
act1v1ty o • t 1e m1n

d ceas es whe n Siln'l:.rlata-, emp t'1ness or h o11ow-
ness of th1ngs 1s real ized ."

S ünya as the symbol of the inexpressible

a sym bol of
Sün ya is use d in Ma dhy ama ka phil oso phy as
Mäd hya mik a
the inex pres sibl e. In call ing Rea lity sünya, the
only mea ns to say tha t it is aviipya, anabhiliipya i.e.,
ika, Näg ärju na
In the ver y firs t vers e of Madhyamaka Kär
prom inen t. The
mak es the stan dpo int of Sünyaväda lum inou sly
stan dpo int con sist s of the eigh t 'No s'.
Anir odh am anutpädam anucchedam asä.fvatam/
Ane kärt ham anänärtham anägamam anirgamam./
I t is ( 1 ) anirodham, bey ond dest ruct ion, (2)
diss olut ion, (4)
bey ond pro duc tion , (3) anucchedam, bey ond
-bey ond one ness ,
a.fäsvatam, bey ond eter ni ty. (5) ane kärt ham
amam bey ond in-
(6) ana när tha m-b eyo nd plur alit y, (7) anäg
gress (8) ani rga mam -be yon d egress.
the inte llec t..
In sho rt, Rea lity is bey ond the dich otom ies of
) has bee n
lt in inex pres sibl e. The wor d 'sün ya' ( or sün yatä
ve of aväcya,
used in this syst em, now and then , as indi cati

Sün yatä not a theory

dial ecti c as
We hav e seen tha t the Mä dhy ami ka uses the
the o~ of his
a crit icis m of all dN# s (the orie s) witho1,1t any
_conclus1on. that
own . ßy the use of his dial ecti c, he reac hes the
1d of any 1nde-
all the dharmas are _sünya or nissvahhäva i.e. devo
pen den t, sub stan tial real ity.
42 The Conception of Budd hist Nirvär;a

lt may be thou ght that rünyatä itself is a theor y. But

this woul d be a misre ading of the Mäd hyam ika's posit ion.
Sünyata is not a theor y. lt is at once the awar eness of
impo tence of Reas on to reali ze Tru th and the urge to rise
a level highe r than Reas on in orde r to reali ze i t. Whe n
think er lets go his footh old on discu rsive thou ght, it is only then
that he can mou nt to some thing high er.
The purp ose of Ulnyatä is beau tifull y put by Näg~ rjuna in the
follow ing verse :
Atra brümab sünyatäyäm na tvam vetsi prayojanaml
Sünyatam sün_yatärtharii r,a tata evarh vihanyase11
(M. K. XXI V, 7)
"You do not know the purp ose of s ünyata. S ünyatä is not
used as a theor y just for the sake of sünya tä." In expla ining
the purp ose of funyatä, Cand rakir ti says that it is mean t to
silen ce the inces sant cogit ation of the verb alizi ng mind (pra-
pancastu f ünyatäyärh nirudhyate). Süny atä is taug ht not for its
own sake, but for leadi ng the mind to Real ity by restr ainin g
conc eptua lizin g tende ncy. I t is an expre ssion of aspiration,
not of theor y.

Süny atä-n ot nihilism

lt is conte nded by some that sünya tä is sheer nega tivism . lt

deno unce s every thing and has no posit ive sugg estio n
offer. Sünyatä does not lead us anyw here. lt is rank nihili
The Mad hyam aka diale ctic leadi ng to Süny atä is not merc
negat1v1sm. lt does not simp ly nega te all affirm ation s abou
Real ity; it also nega tes all nega tions abou t Real ity. lt
Real ity i-s neith er sat (exis tent) nor asat (non -exis tent ) .
only asser ts that the Abso lute is inacc essib le to thou ght;
does not say that the Abso lute is a non- entit y. lt only main
tains that the Abso lute is reali zed in non- dual, trans cend ental
wisd om. lt vehe ment ly plead s for the reali zatio n ofthe absol
Trut h. Nägä rjuna says "par amä rtham anäg amya nii;vät).arh
nädh igam yate" i.e., "wit hout reali zing the absoh 1te Trut
one cann ot attai n Nirvä t).a''.
The Mäd hyam ika only nega tes all view s abou t Real ity;
does not nega te Real ity itself . lt cann ot, there fore, be calle
nihi.\igm. As Dr. Mur ti puts it '·'No- doctr ine, abou t Rcal

does not mean no Reality doctrine" "nu- ,'II , - • •

• • • 1,) n„a a 1s negative

only for thought; but 1n 1tself it is the non-relational know-

ledge of the Absolute. lt may even be taken as more universal
and positive than affirmation" (GPB, p. 160) .
. Candrakirti :e_h~mently_ protests against the Mädhyamika
being caUed nihibst (nästika). He says that the Mädhyamika
only points to the relativity of things; and that .his doctrine
transcends both affirmation and negation (P. P. p., 156-157).
The Kärikä devotes ~ whole chapter (eh. XXIV) for
elucidating its position that sünyatä is not nihilism but only
relativity and conditionedne ss, that it is not a rejecti_on. of
the world of becoming but an explication of its inner implication
viz., that the unconditione d is thc ultimate truth of the condi-
tioned. Nägärjuna puts it beautifully in Kärikä XXIV, 14
Sarvarh ca yujyate tasya § ünyatä yasya yuj;•ate//
Sarvarh na yujyate tasya s ünyarh yasya na yujyate/f
"For him who accepts sünyatä, everythi:qg stands in its
proper place within the harmonious whole, and for him who
does not accept sünyatä, everything is out of joint."
Nägärjuna only insists that the relative must be taken as the
relative and not as the absolute and then there is proper
appraisal of values and appreciation of the meaningfulnes s of
life. His so-called negativism is only a therapeutic device.

Sünyatä-not an end in itself

Nägärjuna warns that one should not make a fetish of

Sünyatä. It is not an end in itself: lt is only a means to
lead the mind up to pra}'t1ä ( transcendenta l insight), ~nd
should not be bolstered up as an end in itself. The follown1ng
verse of Nagärjuna expresses this idea bau~_ifu~ly:
Sünyata sarvadntinäm proktä nibsara,:,,am Jzn_aib/
Te$äm tu sünyatä dr$/istän asädfiyän babhä1nre/f
(M. K. XIII, 8)
JU17:Ya t-a was d ec1ared by the Buddha for dispensing with
" 6- a - • •

all v1ews .
or ,1sms , . Tl10se who convert S ünvata
1tse-lf 1n to
another 'ism' are verily beyond hope or help"
Chandrakirt1. 1n . comment1ng . on th~ a bove refers to a remark
of the Buddha about Sunyatä made to Käsyapa. The Bt~ddha
said to him "O Käsyapa, it would be better to enterta1n the
44 The Concepti_on of Buddhist Nirvä,;za

personalistic view (pudgala dnti) of the magnitude of mount

Sumeru than to hug the Sanyat,j view of the nihilist (abhäväbhi-
nive!ikasya). Hirn I call incurable who clings to Sünyatä itself
as a theory. If a drug administered to a patient were to remove
all his disorders but were to foul the stomach itselfby remaining
in it, would you call the patient cured? Even so, Sl.lnyatä is
an antidote against dogmatic v-iews, but if a man were to cling
to it for ever as a view in itself, he is doomed."
Elsewhere Buddha is said to have remarked .that Sünyatä
is to be trea ted like a ladder for moun ting up to the roof of
prajf'üi. Once the roof is reached, the ladder should be dis-
carded. ,
Nägärju~a, again warns unequivocally in the following verse,
against the wrong use of Sanyatä.
Vinäsayati durdrf tä sünyatä mandamedhasam/
Sarpo yathä durgrhito vidyä vä du,rprasädhitä/ /
(M. K. XXIV, 11)
"Just as a snake caught at the wrong end by a dull-witted
fellow only kills him or a magic wrongly employed ruins the
mag1c1an, so too Sünyatä wrongly used by a man who does not
understand its implications only ruins him."
Dr. R. H. Robinson sums up the whole issue beautifully in
the following words :
"Emptiness (s ünyatä) is not a term outside the e~pressional
system, but is simply the key term within it. Those who would
hypostatize emptiness are confusing the symbol system with
the fact system." (Ear(y Mädhyamika in lndia and China, p. 49)

Meditation on s ünyata

lt has already been said that sünyatä is not simply an

intellectual concept but an aspiration. In order to perfect
this aspiration, one has to meditate on twenty varieties of sünyatä.
They are too long to be given here.

2. Praj11äpäramitä

The second important feature of Mahäyäna Buddhism 1s

the practice _o f prajnäpäramitii.
Meditation on thesünyatä (emptiness) is only a preparation
lntroduction 45
for. the spirit~al discipline of prajnäpäramitä. Prajnä is super-
rat1onal. lt 1s transcendent insight. Prajnä knows reality as
it is (prajfiäyathäbhütam artham prajänäti). Dr. K. V. Ra1nanan
says · that Mahäprajnä päramitä .~ästra uses the world prajnp_
in two senses, viz. ( 1 ) the eternal prajna, and (2) the prajfiä that
functions along with the five päramitäs. The latter is the func-
tional prajnäpäramitä, while the former is the substantial or stable
prajnä. The functional prajnä puts an end to the darkness of
ignorance and thus the eternal prajnä comes to the fore,
In the eternal prajnä, one cannot find cven the distinction of
ignorance and knowledge. I t is an ever-presen t luminous
knowledge. lt is the "eternal light in the heart of man."
Particular objects arise and perish, but the light of this prajnä
keeps for ever shining.
The functional prajnä is the act of knowing which consists of
analysis, criticism and comprehension. These are only mode of
the power of the permanent prajfiä.
lt is only by attaining prajilä that we can know Truth.
Prajr1ä cannot be attained by the chattering academician
'sicklied over with the pale cast of thought', nor can it be attained
simply by putting on the wishing cap. lt can be attained only
by arduous self-discipline and self-culture. Prajnäpäramitä
is usually translated as perfection of wisdom, but it really means
'transcendent wisdom' (prajfiä päramitä) .
There are six spiritual qualities that have to be acquired.
Prajnäpäramitä is a blanket tenn for all these qualities. They
are 1. däna (chari ty) 2. sila (wi thdrawing from all evil deeds),
3. kfänti ( forbearance ), 4. virya (enthusiasm and exertion ), 5.
dhyäna ( concentration) 6. prajnä ( transcendental insight).
The first four are moral qualities. Their development prepares
one for the practice of dhyäna. Dhyäna orients the mind towards
prajizä. After sufficient practice of dhyäna, scales fall frcm
the eyes and one sees truth face to face (vipasyanä); the chry-
salis of the ego is split asunder, and one sees 'the light that ncver
was on sea or land' :
The object of praj.näpäramitä is tathatä, dharmadhätu, bhütv-
Prajftäpäramitä is the highest kind of knowledge. lt is a~
integral principle which comprehends both the aspects of cogn1-
tion and emotion and so comprises both truth and universal
46 Tite <;{)nception of Buddhist Nirvät,za

love. lt destroys not only the craving for sense-pleasure but

also all desire for power and pelf.

3. The Ideal of the Bodhisattva

I t has already been said in connexion with the distinction

between Hinayäna and Mahäyäna that the attainment of the
status of the Bodhisattva is the ideal of Mahäyäna.
According to the Mahäpra}fiäpäramitä-sästra, Bodhi means
the way of all the Buddhas, and sattva means the essence
and character ofthe good dharma. The citta of the Bodhisattva
hdps every one to cross the stream of birth and death. There-
fore it is the citta or the individual that is really the Bodhisattva.
There are three important qualities of the Bodhisattva,
viz, the great resolve to save all mankind, the thought that is
unshakable, and the effort that knows no set-back.
When an aspirant acquires anutpattika-dharma-klänti i.e. the
capacity to endure and sustain the truth of the unborndharma,
then he enters the true status (nyäma) of the Bodhisattva. Having
entered this status, he is known as avaivarta, the irreversible,
the unshakable.
When he realizes the anutpattika-dharma-k~änti, he puts an end
to the klesas and when he achieves Buddhahood, he puts an end
to their residual impressions.
The aspirant evolves to the status of a Bodhisattva by
anuttara püjä-a devotional di~cipline consisting of seven steps,
and the practice of the six prajnäpäramitas. The highest deve-
lopment of the Bodhisattva consists in acquiring bodhicitta which
has two aspects, viz. ( 1 ) Sünyatä or prajfiä and, (2) KarutJä.
We have already seen what Hlnyatä or prajiiä is. Karut}ä is
usually translated as compassion or commiseration, but it is
better to translate it as universal love as Suzuki has clone.
Prajfiä or transcendent wisdom and Karut}ä or universal love
constitute Buddhahood.

4. Buddhology

In Hinayäna, the Buddha was simply a human being who

by his own effort became enlightened and divine. In Mahä-
yäna, it is Divinity itself that incarnates hself in a Buddha and
Introduction 47

descend s to earth to impart the highest teachin g about 1nan's

destiny as an act of grace.
Mahäy äna evolved the concep t of three bodies of the
Buddha , viz. ( l) NirmärJ,a-käya (2) Dharma-käya and (3) Sam-
bhoga-käya. The Sambhoga-käya or the body of bliss was a con-
cept evolved later by the Yogäcä rins. The Mä.dhy amikas
speak only of two bodies of the Buddha , viz. Dharma-käya
and NirmäTJ,a-käya.
Dharm a is a most protean word in Buddhi sm. In tpe
broade st sense it means an imperso nal spiritua l energy _behind
and in everyth ing. There are four import ant' senses in which
this word has been used in Buddhi st philoso phy and religion .
(1) Dharma in the sense of one ultimat e Reality . lt is both
transce ndent and imman ent to thewor ld, and also the governi ng
law within it.
(2) Dharma in the sense of scriptur e, doctrin e, religion , as
the Buddhi st dharma.
(3) Dharma in the sense of righteousness, virtue, piety.
(4) Dharma in the sense of "eleme nts of existen ce." In this
sense, it is general ly used in plural.
Dharma in t.he word Dharma-käya is used in the first sense,
viz. ultimat e Reality . The word käya in this context is not
used in the literal sense of body, but in the sense of äsraya or
substra tum, in the sense of unity, 6rganis ed form. Dharm a-
käya m----eans 'the princip le of cosmic unity'. lt is not merely
an abstrac t philoso phical concep t, but an 'object of the religiou s
. usness ' .


Dharma is the essence of being, the ultimat e Reality , the

Absolu te. The Dharma-käya is the essentia l nature of the Buddha .
A,s Dharm akäya, the Buddha experie nces his identity with
Dharm a or the Absolu te and his unity (samatä) ·w ith all beings.
The Dharm akäya is a knowin_g; loving, willing being, an in-
exhaus tible fountai n-head of love and compas sion.
When Buddha 's disciple , the monk Vakkal i was on his
death-b ed, he express ed his ardent desire to see the Buddha
in person. On that occasio n, the Buddha remark ed "He who
'Sees the Dhamma sees Me. He who sees Me sees the Dhamma."
48 Ths Conception of Buddhist Nirvät,za

This statement of the Buddha gave rise to the conviction that

the real Buddha was the Dharma, not the historical Gautama
known as the Buddha, and thus the idea of Dharma-käya was
developed. The Mahäsanghikas conceived of Buddha as
[okottara or Dharma-käya (transcenden tal) and Säkyamuni only as
Nirma,;akäya or a phantom body conjured up by the Dharma-kiiya
for bringing the message of Dharma to ignorant humanity.
Dharma-kaya is the essential transcendental aspect of the
Buddha. Dharmatä is the ultimate impersonal principle.
Dharma-käya is the ultimate universal person. There is a
slight resernblance between the Brahman and lsvara of Vedänta
and Dharmadhätu and Dharma-käya of the Mädhyamika.
Dharma dhätu or tathatä is like the Vedän tic Brahman and
Dharma-käy a is something like the Vedäntic lsvara, but there is
also a good deal of difference between the two. In Vedänta,
lsvara in association with Mäyä creates, sustains and ·withdraws
the universe. Dharma-käya has no such function. The function
of Dharma-käya is to descend out of his deep wisdom and love,
to earth as a Buddha in order to teach the Dharma and uplift
erring humanity. He is Divine and yet not God, for in every
system the function of creation of the universe is· associated with
God. Buddhism does not believe in any such God. Suzuki
puts the idea of God in Buddhism in thP- following words:
"Buddhism must not be j udged as an atheism which endorses
an agnostic, materialistic interpretation of the universe. Far
from it, Buddhism outspokenly ack:o,owledges the presence in
the world of a reality which transcends the limitations of pheno-
menality, but which is nevertheless immanent everywhere and
manifests itself in its full glory, andin which we live, and move
and have .our being." ( Outlines of Mahäyäna Buddhism p. 219)
Dharma-käya is identified with the Absolute and is also
connected with the phenomenal. Therefore it is Dharma-
käya alone that can descend to earth as the saviour of mankind.
- Whenever Dharmakäya decides to come down to earth in
human form, He conjures up a phantom body called NirmäT)a-
kä_ya. NirmäTJ,a-käya is the body assumed by Dharma-käya when-
ever he decides to come down to earth to save mankind. lt
is through this that He incarnates in a human form, as a
Buddha, as the saviour of mankind. The actual physical body
of the Buddha is the Rüpa-kä_va. lt will thus be seen that Bud-
lntroduction 49

dhism is not a historic al religion like official Christi anity.

The Buddh a is not the founde r of a religion : He only trans-
mits Dharm a which is cternal . There have been many Buddha s
beföre, and there will be many Buddha s in the future.
When a Buddh ist takes refuge in the Buddh a, it is the
eternal Dharma -käya Buddha in whom he takes refuge.


lt has already been said that NirmätJ,a-käya is- a body assume d

by the Buddh a in order to establis h contac t with the world in
a human form. Dharma-käya is also-kn own as Sväbhävika-käya
or the essenti al, natura l käya of the·Bu ddha. The NirmätJ,akäya
is assume d for the time being for a specific purpos e. The
R üpa-käy a .or the actual physica l body of the Buddh a is visible
to every one. The NirmäTJ,a-käya is visible only to adepts.


The Buddh a used to say that Truth did not lie .in the
extrem e alterna tives but in the middle positio n (madhyamä
pratipa d). Hinayä nists genera lly used the concep t of madhyamä
pratipa d in the ethical sense, in the sense of nei ther taking too
much food nor too little, neither sleepin g too much, nor too
little etc.
The Mädhy amikas interpr eted madhyamä pratipa d in a
metaph ysical sense also. Says Nägärj una.:
Kätyäyanävaväde cästiti nästiti cobhayam /
Prati$iddham bhagavatä bhäväbhävavibhävinä / /
(M. K. XV, 7)
"In the Kätyäyanävaväda-sütra, the Lord who had the right
insight into both bhäva ( ens) and abhäva· (non-en s) rejecte d
both the extrem e alterna tives of 'is' and 'is not."
In comme nting on this, Candra kirti has quoted the rele-
vant passage in the Kätyäyanävaväda-sütra which is accepte d as
an author ity by all the Buddhi sts. In this, Bu~dh a says to
Käsyap a, "0 Käsyap a, 'is' is one extrem e alterna tive, 'not is"
is anothe r extrem e alterna tive. That which is the madhyama
positio n is intangi ble, incon:i para~le , w~thou t a~y positio n,
non-ap pearing , incomp rehens1 ble. That 1s what 1s meant by
50 The Conception of Buddhist NirväT)a
madhyamä pratipat (the middle position) 0 l(äsyapa. lt is
perception of Reality . (bhuta pratyavek1ä)" . (P. P., p. 118)
Nägärjuna takes his stand on this authoritative statement of
the Buddha. The word madhyama is not to be taken in its
Ifteral sense of 'in between.' or a 'mean between the two'. As
is clear from the adjectives 'intangible, incomparable, incom-
prehensible etc., madhyamä pratipat (the middle position) means
that Reality is trari:scendent to the antinomies · of Reason,
the dichotomies of thought, and cannot be 'cabined, caged and
confined' in the alternatives of 'is' and 'is not'. lt is . on this
basis that Nägärjuna called his philosophy madhy_amaka i.e.
'pertaining to the transcendent'.
Extremes become the dead-ends of eternalism and annihilation-
alism. There are those who cling exclusively to nonbeing and
there are others who cling exclusively to being. The great
Buddha rr1eant, by his doctrine of madhyamä pratf,pat (Middle
way), to drive home the truth that things here are neither
absolute being nor absolute non-being, but are a:rising and
perishing, forming continuous becoming, and that Reality is
transcendent to thought and cannot be caught up in the
dichotomies of the mind.


There are many words used for the Absolµte or Reality in

Madhyamaka philosophy. Tathatä (suchness) sünyatä, nirväTJ,a,
advaya (non-dual), anutpanna ( unprocluc~d), nirvikalpa ( the
realm of non-discrimination), dharmdhätu or dharmatä (the
essence of being, the true nature of Dharma), anabhiläpya (the
inexpressible) tattva (thatness) nisprapanca (free of verbalisation
and piuraiity),yathäbhüta (that which really is), Siztya (Truth),
bhütatathatii or bhüt4tä (the true reality), tathägata-garbha (the
womb of Tathägatas), aparapratyaya (reality which one must
realize within oneself), etc. Each word is used from a parti-
cular standpoint.
Throughout the Madhyamaka siistra, Nägätjuna has been at
pains · to prove that the Absolute is transcendent to both
thought and speech. Neither the concept of bhäva (ens) nor
abhiiiia (non-ens) is applicable to it. Nägärjuna advances the
fqllowing reason for the inapplicability of these concepts.
Bhävastävad na nirvät_zam jarämaraTJ,alakfaTJ,am I
PrasaJyetästi bhiivo hi na jarämaraTJ,am vin;ä 11
" . _ _ (M. K. XXV 4)
_NirvaIJ.a or ~he Absolute Reality cannot be a bhäva or posi-
tive ens, for ,1n that case it would be subject to · origination,
decay, and death; there is no empirical existence which is free
from decay and death. If it cannot be bhäva far less can it be
.abhäva, (non-existence ), for abhäva-_(pon-e~istence) is only a
relative _concept (absence of bhäva) depending' upon the con-
cept of bhäva." As Nägärjuna puts it:
Bhävasya cedaprasiddhirabhävo naiva siddhyati /
Bhävasya hyanyathäbhä~am abhävam bruvate janä~ /1
(M. K. XV, 5)
"When bhäva itself is proved to be inapplicable to Re~Hty:
.abhäva cannot stand scrutiny, for abhäva is known only as the
disappearance of bhäva."
When the concepts of bhäva (empirical existence), and abhäva
(the negation of bhava) cannot be applied to the Absolut~ -
the question of applying any other concept to it does not arise,
f or all other concepts depend upon the above two. In one
word' the Absoluteis transcendent
to thought, and because it is
transcendent to thought, it is inexpressible.
Nirvrttamabhidhätavyam nivrtte cittagocare /
Anutpannaniruddhä hi nirvätJ,amiva dharmatä 11 _
(XVIII, 7)
"'What cannot be an object of thought cannot, a fortiori, ~e a~
object of speech. The Absolute as the· essence of all bemg 1s
neither born, nor does it cease to be.". .- - -
- t"
C and rakir 1 says , Paramärtho hi äryäTJ,äm
. . tufr_,,zmbhava~
.- . .
(P. P. p. 19) "To the saints, the Absolute 1s JUSt silence 1.e. 1t
is inexpressible" • • h ·
Phenomena ave n h o i
" ndependent ' substantial reahty
·· • • eirf
of t
R 1 t. . t or d ependence is the main charactenstlc o
owhn. e a 1v1 dythat which is relative is not real in the highest
p enomena, an 1· f th ppear
sense of _th e word . T he . Absolute is· the Rea ity o e a -

ances. ld t two different sets

h Ab 1 t d the wor are no
T e so u e an . h h Phenomena viewed as
of reality posited aga1nst eac ot der. nditions c.onstittite the
. ed by causes an eo
re1at1ve, as govern - · conditions are the Absolute.
world, and viewed as free of a11
The Conception of Buddhist NirvlJIJa
The Absolute is always of' uniform nature. Nirväl},a or the
Absolute Reality is not something produced or achieved.
Nirväl},a only means the disappearance of the fabrications of
discursive thought.
If the Absolute is beyond all thought and speech, how can the
Absolute be described, how can there be any teaching
about :the Absolute ? The answer is-Phenomena do not
completely cut us off from Reality. Phenomena are appear-
ances, and appearances point to their Reality. The veil gives.
a hint of that which is veiled.
Candrakirti quotes a saying of the Buddha,
Anak1arasya dharmasya sruti~ ka de!ana ca ka I
Srüyate desyate capi samiiropadanak1ara'!J, II
''How can there be any understanding or teaching of that
which is wordless (i.e. inexpressible) ? That can be under-
s.tood and taught only by samaropa-an ascribed mark." Pheno-
mena serve as the 'ascribed mark' ot Reality. Phenomena
are like an envelope that contains within ·it an invitation from
Reali ty. The superimposed character (samaropa) of pheno-
mena veils the noumenon; when that superimposed character
is uncovered, when the veil is removed, it only reveals Reality.
The philosophy of Sünyatä is meant only to ·help uncover the veil..


Are phenomena wholly unreal? Nägärjuna says they have

reality of a sort. They are samvrti satya; they are the appea-
rance of Reality. Appearance points to that which appears.
Samvrti is appearance, cover or veil. Samvrti or cover is not
a mere gossamer floating about in vacuo; samvrti covers para-
märtha (absolute reality). Nägärjuna says:
Dve satye samupäsritya buddhänäm dharmadesanä I
Lokasamvrtisatyam ca satyam ca paramärthatab 11
(M. K., XXIV, -8)
"The Buddhas teach the Dharma by resorting to two truths,
samvrti-satya (empirical truth) and paramartha-satya (absolute
.So important is the distinction that Nägarjuna maintains
that no one can-understand the teaching of the Buddha who
does -not ·know diis distinction.

lntroduction 53
re nayor na vijäna14ti vibhägam sav,qyor dva)ofr. /
Te lattvam na vijänanti gambhiram BuddhaJäsane / I
(M. K. XXIV, .9)
"Those who do not know the distinction between these
two truths _canaot understand the deep significance of the
teaching of the Buddha."
Candrakirti explairts samvrti in the following way-:
SamantädvaratJ,am samvrti!;,,. Ajfiänam hi samantät-sarva-
padärthatattvävacchädanät samvrtiriv,ucyate 11
(P. . P. p. 2_1 5)
"That which covers all round is samvrti. Samvrti is ajfiäna
(primal ignorance) which covers the real natur~ of all things."
Phenomena are characterized as samvrti, because they throw
a veil over Reality. At the sarn~ time- they serve as a pointer
to Reality as their ground. Samvrti-sav,a is vy,ävahärilca-sav,a
.. pragrnatic or empirical reality. Paramärtha-sav,a is absolute
reality. Two truths-Samvrti-and_partJmärtha, however-, do
not connote two different spheres to which they are· applied.
The Absolute comprehended through the categories of thought
is phenomena and phenoniena stripped of these categories ar~
the Absolute.
Candrakirti mentions three senses_of samvrti
( 1 ) Samantät sarvapadärtliatattvävacchädänät samvrtifz.
(P. p. p. 215)
Samvrti is tnat which covers all round the real nature_ of things.
Candrakirti calls it ajfiäna (the primal ignorance). Samvrti:
is due to ajfiäna or avirlyä and is identical with ·it. lt i_s the prima!
ignorance that throws a veil över Reality.
(2) Parasparasambhavanam vä samvrtiranyonyasainäsray~a
. (P.p.p.215)
Samvrti is mutual dependence of things or their relativity. In
this sense, it is identical with phenome~a.
(3) Samvrtif,, samketo lokavyavahäral;,,. Sa ca abhidhänäbhidheya-
(P. p~ p. 215)
What is conventionally accepted by people at large is samvrti.
All these senses are mutuaUy connected. The first one is
the prirnary sense, but each of these senses has an importance
from the point of view of empirical reality.
Samvrti or pragmatic reality is the means (upäya) for reachin~
54 · The Con~eption of Buddhist Nirvär;.a

Reality which is the goal (upeya ). Nägäijuna exprcssly mentions

the importance of vyavahära or empirical reality in attaining
paramärtha or absolute' rea1ity. Says he:

Vyavahäramanäsritya paramärtho na desyate /

Paramärthamanägamya nirvä~am nädhigamjate //
(M. K. XXIV, 10)
''Without a recourse to pragmatic reality, the absolute truth
cannot be taught. Without knowing the absolute truth, nirvä'T}a
cannot be attained."

Commenting on this, Candrakirti says:

T asmäd nirväTJ,ädhigamopäyatväd avasyameva yathävasthitä
samvrtib ädäveva abhyupeyä bhäjanam iva salilärthinä 11
(P. P. P. 216)
"Therefore, inasmuch as samvrti as characterized is a
means for the attainment of Nirväl).a, it should, be adopted,
just as a pot is tobe used by one desirous of water." Samvrti
is upäya (means), paramärtha is upeya (goal).
There are two kinds of samvrti- (i) loka-samvrti _and (ij)
aloka-samvrti. (i) Loka-samvrti refers to the common empirical
objects recognized as real by all ~s for example, a jar, a piece
of cloth etc, (ii) Aloka samvrti refers to objects experienced under
abnormal conditions. Illusory objects, distorted percepti_o ns
caused by diseased or defective sense-organs, dream objects
etc. ·are cases of aloka-samvrti. These are aloka-sarhvrti-non-
empirical, for they are unreal even for the empirical conscious-
Prajfiäkaramati has designated loka-samvrti as tathya-samvrti
(true samvrti) and ploka-samvrti as mithyä-samvrti (false samvrtj ).
The former is like the vyävahärika sattä, and the latter like the
prätibhäsika sattä of the Vedäntists-Just as aloka-samvrti is unreal
for the empirical consciousness, even so loka-samvrti is unreal
from the transcendenta1 point of view. Samvrti is called sarya
(true or real) by courtesy, for there cannot be degrees in Truth.
Paramärtha or the Absolute Reality alone is truly real.
The texts or teaGhings of .th.e Buddha bearing on paramar-
tha sarya or the ~bsolute Reality are called nitärtha (pri~ary or
direct) and those bearing on samvrti-sarya are called neyartha
(secondary, indirect) by the Mädhyamika.
Introduction 55


We have seep that dharma-dhätu or dharmatä or tathatä is the

word used in Madhyam aka philosoph y for the Absolute .
Candrak irti says, Ta sä dharmär_ziirh dharmatä näma saiva tatsva-
r üpam (P. P. p. 116 ) . "Th;;t.t w hich is the essential being of
all elements of existence is the nature of Reality." lt is tathatä,
it is Reality such as it is. ln the words. ofßradle y, we can only
say that it is, not what it is. Accordin g to Candrak irti-
tathäbhävo'vikäritvarh sadaiva sthäyitä. (P. P. p. 116) "The
thatness of Reality consists in its invariabi lity, in. its remainin g
for ever as it is. ''
Tathatä is the Truth, but it is imperson al. In order to
reveal itself, it requires a medium. Tathäga ta is that medium.
Tathäga ta is the epiphany of Reality. He is Reality persona-
lized. Tathäga ta is an amphibio us being partakin g both of
the Absolute and phenome na. He is identical with Tathatä,
but eQlbodied in a human form. That is why Tathatä is also
called Tathägat agarbha (the womb of Tathäga ta).
Theword Tathäga ta is interpret ed as tathä+gata .or tathä+
ägata i.e. 'thus gone' or 'thus come' i.e. as the pr€vious Bud-
dhas have come and gone. This, however, does not throw much
light on the concept of Tathägat a. There is one verse · in the
Mahäbhärata which, it seems to me, removes complete ly the
obscuri ty surround ing this word.
Sakuntän ämiväkäs e matsyänä miva codake /
Padaril yathä na drsyate tathä jfiänavid äm gati!z //
(Säntiparva, 181, 12}

"Just as the foot-prin ts of birds flying in the sky and of fish_

swimmin g in water may not be seen: So or tlzus is the g<Jing of
those who have realized the Truth. ,.,
This very wor<i tathä-gati (only a different form of ta_thä-
gata) is used for those perfect beings whose foot-prin ts are
untracea ble. The word 'untracea ble' is used for Tatliäga ta in
Majjhimanikäya, Vol. I, p. 140, P. T. S. ed. tathägatam ananu-
vejjoti vadämi i.e. 'I declare that Tathäga ta is ananuvejja (skt-
ananuvedya) i. e .. whose track is untracea ble, who is above all
the dichotom ies of thought. ' In the !)hammapada also, the
Buddha has been called apada ( trackless) in tam Buddhamananta-
56 The Conception of Buddhist Nirvi!rJa

gocaram apadam kena padena nessatha (verse 179). the

verse 254 of the Dhammapada, the' word Tathägata has been
used in connexion with äkase padam natthi. lt appears that
Tathägata only means 'thus gone' 'so gone' i.e. trackless, whose
track cannot be traced, . by any of the categories of thought.
The Mahäbhärata is considered by some scholars to be pre-
Buddhistic. Whether it is pre-Btiddh istic or post-Buddh istic,
tathägata seems to have been used for those who had realized
Truth and were trackless.
Whatever the origin of the word, the function of Tathä-
gata is clear. He descends on earth to impart the light of Truth
to mankind and departs without any track. He is the en1bodi-
ment of Tathatä. When the Buddha is called Tathägata, his
individüal personality is ignored; he is treated as a 'type' that
appears from time to time in the world. He is the earthly
manifestati on of Dharma. The Tathägata who has gone beyond
all plurality and categories of thought (sarvaprapanca-atita) can
be said to be neither permanent nor impermane nt. He is
untraceabl e. Permanent and impermane nt can be applied only
where there is duality, not in the case of the non-dual. , And
because Tathatä is the same in all manifestati on, therefore all
beings are potential Tathägatas. lt is the Tathägata within us
who makes us long for Nirvä'(la and pltimately sets us free.
Sünyatä and Karu'(lä are the 'essential characteris tics of
Tathägata. Sünyatä in this context means prajfiä (transcende n-
tal insight). Having Sünyatä or praJfia, Tathägata is identical
with Tathatä or Sunya. Having karu'(lä, he is the saviour of all
sentient beings.
The true being of the Tathägata which is also the true
being of all is not conceivable . In his ultimate nature, the
Tathägata is "deep, immeasura ble, unfathoma ble."
The dharmas or elements of existence are indetermin able,
because they are conditioned , because they are relative. The
Tathägata is indetermin able in a different sense. The Tathä-
gata is indetermin able, ·because, in his ultimate nature, . he is
not conditional ly born. The indetermin ahility of the ultimate
nature really means 'the inapplicabi li ty of the ways of concepts.'
Nägärjuna puts it beautifully in the Kärikä:
Prapancayanti ye Buddham prapaficätitam al!Jayam /
Te prapaficahatä~ sarve na pasyanti Tathägatam // (XXII, 15)
ltztroduction 57
"Those who describe the Buddha who is transcendent to thought
and word and is not subject to birth and death in tenns of concep-
tual categories are all victims of prapanca {the verbalising mind)
and are thus unable to see the Tathägata in his real nature."
Candrakirti quotes a verse from Vajracchedikä (verse 43) :
Dharmato Buddha dra!tavyä dharmakäyä hi näyakä/.z /
Dharmatä cäpyavijneyä na sä sakyä vijänitum 1/
(P. P„ p . .195)
"The Buddhas are to be seen in their real dharma-nature, for
these supreme guides ( ofhumanity) have the dharma-nature in
their core. But the essence of dharma is transcendent to thought
and cannot be grasped by ideation."
The tathatä or the unconditioned Reality is not another entity
apart from the conditioned. The unconditioned is the groul)d
of the conditioned. To think that the determinate things are
ultimate and self-existent in their distinct natures is to commit
the error of eternalism säsvata-väda), and to think ,.that the
indeterrninate or the unconditioned is wholly exclusive of the
determinate is to commit the t!rror of negativism.
The Mahäprajnäpäramitä Sästra distinguishes three kinds of
tathatä or essential nature. The first consists of the specific,
distinct nature of every thing, the second of the non-ultimacy
of the specific natures of things, of the conditionedness or rela-
tivity of all things that are determinate, and the third of the
ultimate reality of every thing. Actually, however, the tirst two
are called tathatä only by courtesy. lt is only the ultimate, un-
conditioned nature of all that appears which is tathatä in the
highest sense.
Tathatä or the "true nature' of things at the different
levels, viz., mundane or appearance and transmundane or
Reality is also called dharmatä at the two different levels.


Tathatä or Reality is also called Nirväi;ia or dharmatä or

dharmadhätu. The word dhätu in this context means the inmost
nature, the ultimate essence.
The tathatä or dharmadhätu is both transcenden t and im-
manent. lt is transcendent as ultimate Reality, but it is present
in every one as his inmost ground and essence.
58 The Conception of Buddhist Nirviinn·
Bhütakoti refers to the skilful penetr ation of the mind into
the dharmadhätu. The word 'bhii ta' means the uncon ditione d
reality , the dharmadhätu: The word 'Koti' means the skill to.
reach the lin1it or the end ; it -sigt?-ifies realiza tion. Bhiitak oti
is also called anutpädakoti, which means the end beyon d birth
and death.
All things menta lly analys ed and tracke d to their source·
are seen to enter the anutpädadharma, the dharmadlui-tu. This.
enterin g of all things into the uncon dition ed Realit y is known
as anutpädakofi, anutpäda signifies Nirvä:Q.a which is beyon d birth
and death. In the dharmadhätu, all beings are transfo rmed into.
the dharm a nature .
Prajiiä päram itä is equate d with dharmadhätu. Advay a- the·
non-dual or undivided.
Accor ding to Madhy amaka philos ophy, Realit y is non-du aL
The essenti al condit ionedn ess of entitie s, when proper ly ·
unders tood, reveals the uncon dition ed as not only as their ground
but also as the ultima te reality of the condit ionede ntities them-
selves. In fact, the condit ioned and the uncond itioned are
not two, nor separa te. This is only a relativ e distinc tion, not an
absolu te division. That is why Nägär juna says, "What from
one point of view is samsära is from anothe r point öf view
Nirväl).a itself "
(XXV, 20)
We have seen the main feature s of Madhy amaka philo-
sophy. lt is both philos ophy and mystic ism. By its dialectic,
its critica l probe (prasangäpädana) into all the categories of
though t, it relentl essly exposes the preten sions of Reason to
know Truth. The hour ofRea son's despai r, howev er, becomes
the hour of Truth. The seeker now turns to medita tion on
the variou s forms of Jünyatä, and the practic e of prajnäpäramitäs.
By moral and yogic practic es, he is prepar ed to receive the
Truth. In the final stage of Prajfiä, the wheels of imagin ation
are stoppe d, the discurs ive mind is stilled , and in that silence
Realit y (bhüta-tathatä) stoops to kiss the eye of the aspiran t;
he receives the accola de of prajnä and becomes the knight-
errant ofTru th. There is no greate r certain ty than that of the
mystic and equall y there is no greate r impote nce laid upon
him in giving expres sion to the Truth which he has received
on that dizzy summ it of experi ence. lt is an experi ence of a
Introduction 59

different dimension-spaceless, timeless, nirvikalpa (beyond the

province of thought and speech) Hence it cannot be expressed
in any human language. The question is put at the logical
level ofReason; the answer is found at the supralogical, suprara-
tional level of prajflä which one can mount to only by a life of
moral and spiritual discipline. The Madhyamaka system
is neither scepticism nor agnosticism. lt is an open invitation
to every one to see Reali ty face to face.
\•Ve saw at the outset that the ideal of Mahäyäna is the
Bodhisattva. We shall conclude this brief summary of Madhya-
maka system with the following words of Sarigharakshita:
"Buddhism niay be compared to a tree. Buddha's transcenden-
tal realization is the root. The basic Buddhism is the trunk,
the distinctive Mahäyäna doctrines the branches, and the schools
and sub-schools of the Mahäyäna the flowers. N ow the func-
tion of flowers, however beautiful, is to produce fruit. Philo-
sophy, to be more than mere barren speculation, must find
its reason and its fulfilment in a way of life; thought should lead
to action. Doctrine gives birth to Method. T4e Bodhisattva
ideal is the perfectly ripened fruit of the whole vast tree of
Buddhism. Just as the fruit encloses the seed, so within the
Bodhisattva Ideal are recombined all the different and sometimes
-seemingly divergent elements of Mahäyäna" (A Survey of
Buddhism, p. 432).