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4.3 A History of Software Development for the x86

A section on the history of software development may seem unusual in a chapter on CPU Architecture. However, the 80x86's architecture is inexorably tied to the development of the software for this platform. Many architectural design decisions were a direct result of ensuring compatibility with existing software. So to fully understand the architecture, you must know a little bit about the history of the software that runs on the chip.

From the date of the very first working sample of the 8086 microprocessor to the latest and greatest IA-64 CPU, Intel has had an important goal: as much as possible, ensure compatibility with software written for previous generations of the processor. This mantra existed even on the first 8086, before there was a previous generation of the family. For the very first member of the family, Intel chose to include a modicum of compatibilty with their previous eight-bit microprocessor, the 8085. The 8086 was not capable of running 8085 software, but Intel designed the 8086 instruction set to provide almost a one for one mapping of 8085 instructions to 8086 instructions. This allowed 8085 software developers to easily translate their existing assembly language programs to the 8086 with very little effort (in fact, software translaters were available that did about 85% of the work for these developers).

Intel did not provide object code compatibility1 with the 8085 instruction set because the design of the 8085 instruction set did not allow the expansion Intel needed for the 8086. Since there was very little software running on the 8085 that needed to run on the 8086, Intel felt that making the software developers responsible for this translation was a reasonable thing to do.

When Intel introduced the 8086 in 1978, the majority of the world's 8085 (and Z80) software was written in Microsoft's BASIC running under Digital Research's CP/M operating system. Therefore, to "port" the majority of business software (such that it existed at the time) to the 8086 really only required two things: porting the CP/M operating system (which was less than eight kilobytes long) and Microsoft's BASIC (most versions were around 16 kilobytes a the time). Porting such small programs may have seemed like a bit of work to developers of that era, but such porting is trivial compared with the situation that exists today. Anyway, as Intel expected, both Microsoft and Digital Research ported their products to the 8086 in short order so it was possible for a large percentage of the 8085 software to run on 8086 within about a year of the 8086's introduction.

Unfortunately, there was no great rush by computer hobbyists (the computer users of that era) to switch to the 8086. About this time the Radio Shack TRS-80 and the Apple II microcomputer systems were battling for supremacy of the home computer market and no one was really making computer systems utilizing the 8086 that appealed to the mass market. Intel wasn't doing poorly with the 8086; its market share, when you compared it with the other microprocessors, was probably better than most. However, the situation certainly wasn't like it is today (circa 2001) where the 80x86 CPU family owns 85% of the general purpose computer market.

The 8086 CPU, and it smaller sibling, the eight-bit 8088, was happily raking in its portion of the microprocessor market and Intel naturally assumed that it was time to start working on a 32-bit processor to replace the 8086 in much the same way that the 8086 replaced the eight-bit 8085. As noted earlier, this new processor was the ill-fated iAPX 432 system. The iAPX 432 was such a dismal failure that Intel might not have survived had it not been for a big stroke of luck - IBM decided to use the 8088 microprocessor in their personal computer system.

To most computer historians, there were two watershed events in the history of the personal computer. The first was the introduction of the Visicalc spreadsheet program on the Apple II personal computer system. This single program demonstrated that there was a real reason for owning a computer beyond the nerdy "gee, I've got my own computer" excuse. Visicalc quickly (and, alas, briefly) made Apple Computer the largest PC company around. The second big event in the history of personal computers was, of course, the introduction of the IBM PC. The fact that IBM, a "real" computer company, would begin building PCs legitimized the market. Up to that point, businesses tended to ignore PCs and treated them as toys that nerdy engineers liked to play with. The introduction of the IBM PC caused a lot of businesses to take notice of these new devices. Not only did they take notice, but they liked what they saw. Although IBM cannot make the claim that they started the PC revolution, they certainly can take credit for giving it a big jumpstart early on in its life.

Once people began buying lots of PCs, it was only natural that people would start writing and selling software for these machines. The introduction of the IBM PC greatly expanded the marketplace for computer systems. Keep in mind that at the time of the IBM PC's introduction, most computer systems had only sold tens of thousands of units. The more popular models, like the TRS-80 and Apple II had only sold hundreds of thosands of units. Indeed, it wasn't until a couple of years after the introduction of the IBM PC that the first computer system sold one million units; and that was a Commodore 64 system, not the IBM PC.

For a brief period, the introduction of the IBM PC was a godsend to most of the other computer manufacturers. The original IBM PC was underpowered and quite a bit more expensive than its counterparts. For example, a dual-floppy disk drive PC with 64 Kilobytes of memory and a monochrome display sold for $3,000. A comparable Apple II system with a color display sold for under $2,000. The original IBM PC with it's 4.77 MHz 8088 processor (that's four-point-seven-seven, not four hundred seventy-seven!) was only about two to three times as fast as the Apple II with its paltry 1 MHz eight-bit 6502 processor. The fact that most Apple II software was written by expert assembly language programmers while most (early) IBM software was written in a high level language (often interpreted) or by inexperienced 8086 assembly language programmers narrowed the gap even more.

Nonetheless, software development on PCs accelerated. The wide range of different (and incompatible) systems made software development somewhat risky. Those who did not have an emotional attachment to one particular company (and didn't have the resources to develop for more than one platform) generally decided to go with IBM's PC when developing their software.

One problem with the 8086's architecture was beginning to show through by 1983 (remember, this is five years after Intel introduced the 8086). The segmented memory architecture that allowed them to extend their 16-bit addressing scheme to 20 bits (allowing the 8086 to address a megabyte of memory) was being attacked on two fronts. First, this segmented addressing scheme was difficult to use in a program, especially if that program needed to access more than 64 kilobytes of data or, worse yet, needed to access a single data structure that was larger than 64K long. By 1983 software had reached the level of sophistication that most programs were using this much memory and many needed large data structures. The software community as a whole began to grumble and complain about this segmented memory architecture and what a stupid thing it was.

The second problem with Intel's segmented architecture is that it only supported a maximum of a one megabyte address space. Worse, the design of the IBM PC effectively limited the amount of RAM the system could have to 640 kilobytes. This limitation was also beginning to create problems for more sophisticated programs running on the PC. Once again, the software development community grumbled and complained about Intel's segmented architecture and the limitations it imposed upon their software.

About the time people began complaining about Intel's architecture, Intel began running an ad campaign bragging about how great their chip was. They quoted top executives at companies like Visicorp (the outfit selling Visicalc) who claimed that the segmented architecture was great. They also made a big deal about the fact that over a billion dollars worth of software had been written for their chip. This was all marketing hype, of course. Their chip was not particularly special. Indeed, the 8086's contemporaries (Z8000, 68000, and 16032) were archiecturally superior. However, Intel was quite right about one thing - people had written a lot of software for the 8086 and most of the really good stuff was written in 8086 assembly language and could not be easily ported to the other processors. Worse, the software that people were writing for the 8086 was starting to get large; making it even more difficult to port it to the other chips. As a result, software developers were becoming locked into using the 8086 CPU.

About this time, Intel undoubtedly realized that they were getting locked into the 80x86 architecture, as well. The iAPX 432 project was on its death bed. People were no more interested in the iAPX 432 than they were the other processors (in fact, they were less interested). So Intel decided to do the only reasonable thing - extend the 8086 family so they could continue to make more money off their cash cow.

The first real extension to the 8086 family that found its way into general purpose PCs was the 80286 that appeared in 1982. This CPU answered the second complaint by adding the ability to address up to 16 MBytes of RAM (a formidable amount in 1982). Unfortunately, it did not extend the segment size beyond 64 kilobytes. In 1985 Intel introduced the 80386 microprocessor. This chip answered most of the complaints about the x86 family, and then some, but people still complained about these problems for nearly ten years after the introduction of the 80386.

Intel was suffering at the hands of Microsoft and the installed base of existing PCs. When IBM introduced the floppy disk drive for the IBM PC they didn't choose an operating system to ship with it. Instead, they offered their customers a choice of the widely available operating systems at the time. Of course, Digital Research had ported CP/M to the PC, UCSD/Softech had ported UCSD Pascal (a very popular language/operating system at the time) to the PC, and Microsoft had quickly purchased a CP/M knock-off named QD DOS (for Quick and Dirty DOS) from Seattle Microsystems, relabelled it "MS-DOS", and offered this as well. CP/M-86 cost somewhere in the vicenity of $595. UCSD Pascal was selling for something like $795. MS-DOS was selling for $50. Guess which one sold more copies! Within a year, almost no one ran CP/M or UCSD Pascal on PCs. Microsoft and MS-DOS (also called IBM DOS) ruled the PC.

MS-DOS v1.0 lived up to its "quick and dirty" heritage. Working furiously, Microsoft's engineers added lots of new features (many taken from the UNIX operating system and shell program) and MS-DOS v2.0 appeared shortly thereafter. Although still crude, MS-DOS v2.0 was a substantial improvement and people started writing tons of software for it.

Unfortunately, MS-DOS, even in its final version, wasn't the best operating system design. In particular, it left all but rudimentary control of the hardware to the application programmer. It provided a file system so application writers didn't have to deal with the disk drive and it provided mediocre support for keyboard input and character display. It provided nearly useless support for other devices. As a result, most application programmers (and most high level languages) bypassed MS-DOS' device control and used MS-DOS primarily as a file system module.

In addition to poor device management, MS-DOS provided nearly non-existant memory management. For all intents and purposes, once MS-DOS started a program running, it was that program's responsibility to manage the system's resources. Not only did this create extra work for application programmers, but it was one of the main reasons most software could not take advantage of the new features Intel was adding to their microprocessors.

When Intel introduced the 80286 and, later, the 80386, the only way to take advantage of their extra addressing capabilities and the larger segments of the 80386 was to operate in a so-called protected mode. Unfortunately, neither MS-DOS nor most applications (that managed memory themselves) were capable of operating in protected mode without substantial change (actually, it would have been easy to modify MS-DOS to use protected mode, but it would have broken all the existing software that ran under MS-DOS; Microsoft, like Intel, couldn't afford to alienate the software developers in this manner).

Even if Microsoft could magically make MS-DOS run under protected mode, they couldn't afford to do so. When Intel introduced the 80386 microprocessor it was a very expensive device (the chip itself cost over $1,000 at initial introduction). Although the 80286 had been out for three years, systems built around the 8088 were still extremely popular (since they were much lower cost than systems using the 80386). Software developers had a choice: they could solve their memory addressing problems and use the new features of the 80386 chip but limit their market to the few who had 80386 systems, or they could continue to suffer with the 64K segment limitation imposed by the 8088 and MS-DOS and be able to sell their software to millions of users who owned one of the earlier machines. The marketing departments of these companies ruled the day, all software was written to run on plain 8088 boxes so that it had a larger market. It wasn't until 1995, when Microsoft introduced Windows 95 that people finally felt they could abandon processors earlier than the 80386. The end result was the people were still complaining about the Intel architecture and its 64K segment limitation ten years after Intel had corrected the problem. The concept of upwards compatibility was clearly a double-edged sword in this case.

Segmentation had developed such a bad name over the years that Microsoft abandoned the use of segments in their 32-bit versions of Windows (95, 98, NT, 2000, ME, etc.). In a couple of respects, this was a real shame because Intel finally did segmentation right (or, at least, pretty good) in the 80386 and later processors. By not allowing the use of segmentation in Win32 programs Microsoft limited the use of this powerful feature. They also limited their users to a maximum address space of 4GB (the Pentium Pro and later processors were capable of addressing 64GB of physical memory). Considering that many applications are starting to push the 4GB barrier, this limitation on Microsoft's part was ill-considered. Nevertheless, the "flat" memory model that Microsoft employs is easier to write software for, undoubtedly a big part of their decision not to use segmentation.

The introduction of Windows NT, that actually ran on CPUs other than Intel's, must have given Intel a major scare. Fortunately for Intel, NT was an asbysmal failure on non-Intel architectures like the Alpha and the PowerPC. On the other hand, the new Windows architecture does make it easier to move existing applications to 64-bit processors like the IA-64; so maybe WinNT's flexibility will work to Intel's advantage after all.

The 8086 software legacy has both advanced and retarded the 80x86 architecture. On the one hand, had software developers not written so much software for the 80x86, Intel would have abandoned the family in favor of something better a long time ago (not an altogether bad thing, in many people's opinions). On the other hand, however, the general acceptance of the 80386 and later processors was greatly delayed by the fact that software developers were writing software for the installed base of processors.

Around 1996, two types of software actually accellerated the design and acceptance of Intel's newer processors: multimedia software and games. When Intel introduced the MMX extensions to the 80x86 instruction set, software developers ignored the installed base and immediately began writing software to take advantage of these new instructions. This change of heart took place because the MMX instructions allowed developers to do things they hadn't been able to do before - not simply run faster, but run fast enough to display actual video and quick render 3D images. Combined with a change in pricing policy by Intel on new processor technology, the public quickly accepted these new systems.

Hard-core gamers, multimedia artists, and others quickly grabbed new machines and software as it became available. More often than not, each new generation of software would only run on the latest hardware, forcing these individuals to upgrade their equipment far more rapidly than ever before.

Intel, sensing an opportunity here, began developing CPUs with additional instruction targetted at specific applications. For example, the Pentium III introduced the SIMD (pronounced SIM-DEE) instructions that did for floating point calculations what the MMX instructions did for integer calculations. Intel also hired lots of software engineers and began funding research into topic areas like speech recognition and (visual) pattern recognition in order to drive the new technologies that would require the new instructions their Pentium IV and later processors would offer. As this is being written, Intel is busy developing new uses for their specialized instructions so that system designers and software developers continue to use the 80x86 (and, perhaps, IA-64) family chips.

However, this discussion of fancy instruction sets is getting way ahead of the game. Let's take a long step back to the original 8086 chip and take a look at how system designers put a CPU together.

1That is, the ability to run 8085 machine code directly.

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