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"I am proposing ... [3] that freedom of the seas which in international conference after conference representatives of the United States have urged with the eloquence of those who are the convinced disciples of liberty; and (4) that moderation of armaments which make of armies and navies a power for order merely, not an instrument of aggression or of selfish violence.”


Speech to U. S. Senate, Jan. 22, 1917.) 3. The "Zimmermann note" falls into the hands of the

United States Government (dated Jan. 19, 1917; published through the Associated Press, February 28). In this the German Secretary for Foreign Affairs secretly informs the German minister to Mexico of the German intention to repudiate the Sussex pledge, and instructs him to offer the Mexican Government New Mexico and Arizona if Mexico will join with Japan in attacking the United States. (See War Cyclopedia, under “Zimmermann Note.") The German Government officially notifies the United States (Jan. 31, 1917) that “from February 1, 1917, sea traffic will be stopped with every available weapon and without further notice.” This meant the renewal of ruthless submarine operations, in violation of the pledge given after the sinking of the Sussex. (See War Cyclopedia, as above under 1-7, also under "Submarine Warfare, Unrestricted.")

“The German Chancellor ... stated before the Imperial Diet that the reason this ruthless policy had not been earlier employed was simply because the Imperial Government had not then been ready to act. In brief, under the guise of friendship and the cloak of false promises, it had been preparing this attack.”—

(How the War Came to America, p. 13.) 6. German Ambassador to the United States dismissed

and diplomatic relations severed (Feb. 3, 1917). This act was not equivalent to a declaration of war. President Wilson in his speech to the Senate announcing it distinguished sharply between the German Government and the German people.-Failure of the German Government to recall its submarine order led the President to

recommend to Congress (Feb. 26) a policy of "armed neutrality.” More than 500 out of 531 members of tho two houses of Congress were ready and anxious to act; but a "filibuster” of a handful of "willful men” defeated the measure, by prolonging the debate until the expira tion of the congressional session, on March 4.-March 12, orders were finally issued to arm American merchant ships against submarines. (See War Cyclopedia, under "Armed Neutrality Adopted,” “Diplomatic Immunity," “Prussian Treaties, Attempted Modification of,“United States, Break with Germany," "United States,

Neutrality, 1914-17,” eto.) 6. President Wilson urges the recognition of a state of war

with Germany (April 2). (See War Cyclopedia, under “United States, Break with Germany,” etc.)

"The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind. It is a warfare against all nations. American ships have been sunk, American lives taken, in ways which it has stirred ue very deeply to learn of, but the ships and people of other neutral and friendly nations have been sunk and overwhelmed in the waters in the same way. There has been no discrimination. The challenge is to all mankind. Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it ...



"We have no quarrel with the German people. We have no feelings towards them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their Government acted in entering this war. It was not with their previous knowledge or approval. It was a war determined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the old unhappy days when peoples were nowhere consulted by their rulers and wars were provoked and waged in the interest of dynasties or of little groups of ambitious men who were accustomed to use their fellow men as pawns and tools. Self-governed nations do not fill their neighbor States with spies or set the course of intrigue to bring about some critical posture of affairs which will give them an opportunity to strike and make conquest. Such designs can be successfully worked out only under cover and where no one has the right to ask questions. Cunningly contrived plans of deception or aggression, carried, it may

States."—(Joint Resolution of Congress, approved by

the President, April 6, 1917) 8. Declaration of War against Austria-Hungary (Dec. 7,

1917). Passed unanimously in the Senate, and with one opposing vote (Meyer London, Socialist, from New York City, voting“ present”) in the House. (See War Cyclopedia. Austria-Hungary, Break with,” “Dumba, Recall of,” “War, Declaration against Austria-Hungary.")






1. Because of the renewal by Germany of her submarine

warfare in a more violent form than ever before, contrary to the assurance given to our Government in the spring of 1916. This resulted in the loss of additional American lives and property on the high seas and produced in the minds of the President and Congress the conviction that national interest and national honor required us to take up the gauntlet which Germany had thrown down. (See War Cyclopedia, under "Submarine

Warfare, American Lives Lost,” etc.) 2. Because of the conviction, unwillingly reached, that

the Imperial German Government had repudiated wholesale the commonly accepted principles of law and humanity, and was "running amuck" as an international desperado, who could be made to respect law and right only by forcible and violent means. The cumulative effect of Germany's outrages should be noted in this connection. (See War Cyclopedia, under "German Diplo

macy.” “German Government, Moral Bankruptcy of.”) 3. Because of the conviction that Prussian militarism and

autocracy, let loose in the world, disturbed the balance of power and threatened to destroy the international equilibrium. They were a menace to all nations save those allied with Germany; and the menace must be overthrown, as Napoleonism had been at the beginning of the nineteenth century, by a coalition of the states whose honor, rights, and national existence were endangered. The Middle Europe project should receive attention in this connection. (See War Cyclopedia, under “Autocracy." "Hegemony," "Kaiserism," "Mittel

Europa," "Prussianism," etc.) 4. Because of the gradual shaping of the conflict into a wa

between democratic nations on the one hand and autocratic nations on the other, and because of the conviction that, as our nation in Lincoln's day could not hope to long endure "half slave and half free,” so the world community of today could not continue to exist part autocratic and part democratic. Note the effect of the Russian Revolution on the issues of the war. (See War

Cyclopedia, under “Russian Revolution of 1917.") 5. Because of the conviction that our traditional policy of

isolation and aloofness was outgrown and outworn, and could no longer be maintained in the face of the growing interdependence which is one of the leading characteristics of this modern age. (See War Cyclopedia, “United

States, Isolation.") 6. Because of the menace to the Monroe Doctrine and to

our own independence. (See War Cyclopedia, under “America Threatened,” “Monroe Doctrine, German Attitude.

7. Declaration of a state of war with Germany. Passed

in the Senate (April 4) by a vote of 32 to 6; in the House (April 6), 373 to 50. (See War Cyclopedia, under “War, Declaration Against Germany.").


“The history, the character, the avowed principles of action, the manifest and undisguised purpose of the German autocracy made it clear and certain that if America stayed out of the Great War, and Germany won, America would forthwith be required to defend herself, and would be unable to defend herself, against the same lust for conquest, the same will to dominate the world which has made Europe a bloody shambles. . .

"If we had stayed out of the war and Germany had won, we should have had to defend the Monroe Doctrine by force or abandon it; and if we had abandoned it, there would have been a German naval base in the Caribbean commanding the Panama Canal, depriving us of that strategic line which unites the eastern and western coasts, and depriving us of the protection the expanse of ocean once gave.

"And an America unable or unwilling to protect herself against the establishment of a German naval base in the Caribbean would lie at the mercy of Germany and subject to Germany's orders.

"America's independence would be gone unless she was ready to fight for it, and her security would thenceforth be not a security of freedom but only a security purchased by submission.”—(Elihu Root, speech in


HLABTEDLY. "A nation which declares war and goes on discussing whether it ought to have declared war or not is impotent, paralyzed, imbecile, and earns the contempt of mankind and the certainty of humiliating defeat and subjection to foreign control.

“A democracy which cannot accept its own decisions made in accordance with its own laws, but must keep on endlessly discussing the questions already decided, has failed in the fundamental requirements of self-government; and, if the decision is to make war, the failure to exhibit capacity for self-government by action will inevitably result in the loss of the right of self-government.

"Before the decision of a proposal to make war, men may range themselves upon one side or the other of the question; but after the decision in favor of war the country bas ranged itself, and the only issue left for the individual citizen is whether he is for or against his country.

"From that time on arguments against the war in which the country is engaged are enemy arguments.

"Their spirit is the spirit of rebellion against the Government and laws of the United States.

"Their effect is to hinder and lessen that popular support of the Government in carrying on the war which is neces mary to success.

“Their manifest purpose is to prevent action by continuing discussion.

“They encourage the enemy. They tend to introduce delay and irresolution into our own councils.

“The men who are speaking and writing and printing arguments against the war now, and against everything which is being done to carry on the war, are rendering more effective service to Germany than they ever could render in the field with arms in their hands. The purpose and effect of what they are doing is so plain that it is Impossible to resist the conclusion that the greater part

of them are at heart traitors to the United States and will. fully seeking to bring about the triumph of Germany and the humiliation and defeat of their own country.

“The same principles apply to the decision of numerous questions which arise in carrying on the war (such as conscription, sending troops to France, etc.) .....

"It is beyond doubt that many of the professed pacifista, the opponents of the war after the war has been entered upon, the men who are trying to stir up resistance to the draft, the men who are inciting strikes in the particular branches of production which are necessary for the supply of arms and munitions of war, are intentionally seeking to aid Germany and defeat the United States. As time goes on and the character of these acts becomes more and more clearly manifest, all who continue to associate with them must come under the same condemnation as traitors to their country.”—(Elihu Root, speech at Chicago. Sept. 14, 1917). For reading references on Chapter VIII, see page 40 IX. COURSE OF THE WAR, 1914-17

1. CAMPAIGN OF 1914. 1. Germany's general plan of action: First crush Franco,

then Russia, then Great Britain. The German plan in its earlier stages was like a timetable, with each step

scheduled by day and hour. 2. On the Western Front: (a) Belgium overrun (August 4-20). Resistance of

Liége, Namur, etc., overcome by giant artillery (42 centimeter mortars); but the delay (of ten days) gave the French time to mobilize and threw the German plans out of gear. Liége occupied, Aug. ust 7; Brussels, August 20; Namur, August 22; Louvain burned, August 26.

"Every minute in it (the German plan) was de termined. From the German frontier, opposite Aixla-Chapelle, to the gap of the Oise, on the French frontier . . . there are six days' march. But the passage of the Germans across Belgium in armi halted before Liége and before Namur, halted on the edge of the Gette, beaten on August 12 on the edge of the forest of Haelen, victorious on August 18 and 19 at Aerschot-had lasted sixteen days (August 4-20). The splendid effort of the Belgians had therefore made ten full days late the arrival of the German armies on the French frontier, from which only eight marches separated them from the advanced forts of Paris.”—(Joseph Reinach, in N. Y.

Times Current History, Sept., 1917, p. 495) (b) Invasion of France. Advance of Germans in fivo

armies through Belgium and Luxemburg: General von Moltke, chief of staff; Generals von Kluck, von Buelow, etc. Wary tactics of the French under General Joffre; arrival of the British expeditionary force (100,000 men) under General French (August 8-21); Battle of Mong-Charleroi (August 21-23); dogged withdrawal of the French and British from Belgium to the line of the River Marne, while a new French army (the Sixth) was being formed.

-Advance of the Germans to within twenty miles of Paris; then sudden swerve to the east away from Paris.

(o) Battle of the Marne (September 6,10). The oppos

ing forces in contact from Paris to Verdun, a front of one hundred and eighty miles. French attempt to turn the German west flank. German armies forced to retreat from the Marne to the River Aisne, where they entrenched.

The battle of the Marne was "one more decisive battle of the world, . . . for Europe conceivably the greatest in permanent meaning since Waterloo. In that battle it has been decided that Europe should still be European and not Prussian. At the Marne, France had saved herself and Europe." — (F. H. Simons, in American Review of Reviews, for

February, 1915, page 179.) (d) Failure of the Allies (Sept. 12–17) to break through

the German line in the Battle of the Aisne. Extension of the trench system from Switzerland to the North Sea (fall of Antwerp, Oct. 8). Importance of German conquest of Belgian coast as supplying bases for her later submarine warfare.

The battle line established after the Battle of the Aisne remained practically stationary, with some slight swaying backward and forward, for the Dext three years. The parts of France held by the Germans included ninety per cent of her iron ore, eighty per cent of her iron and steel manufactures,

and fifty per cent of her coal resources. (e) Battle of the River Yser (Oct. 16-28); Belgians cut

dykes. First battle of Ypres (Oct. 22-Nov. 15); Prussian Guards defeated by the "contemptible little army" of Great Britain. German losses on

Yser and at Ypres, 150,000. 2. On the Eastern Front: (a) First Russian invasion of East Prussia (Aug. 18)

following their unexpectedly rapid mobilization. The resulting necessity of withdrawing German troops from the West front helped to produce the German check on the Marne. Russians disas trously defeated among the Mazurian lakes in the Battle of Tannenburg (Aug. 26-Sept. 1). General

Hindenburg thenceforth the idol of Germany. (b) Russian invasion of Galicia. Breakdown of the

Austrian resistance. Capture of Tarnapol, Halicz and Lemberg (Aug. 27-Sept. 3); Jaroslav (Nov. 5); siege of Przemysl (surrendered March 22, 1915);

invasion of Hungary threatened. (c) German invasion of Russian Poland fails. Three

offensives of German armies against Warsaw beaten off (Nov.-Dec.). Narrow escape of a German army from disaster in the Battle of Lodz (Nov. 19

Dec. 3). (d) Thanks to the relaxation of Austrian pressure, due

to the foregoing events, Serbia expelled the Aus

trian invaders from her territory (Dec. 14). B. Loss of Germany's colonies. New Guinea, Bismarck

archipelago, etc., taken by the Australians (Sept.). Tsungtau (Nov. 7) and various Pacific islands captured by the Japanese. British conquest of Togoland (Aug. ust 26); German Southwest Africa (July 15, 1915); Kamerun (Feb. 16, 1916); British invasion of German East Africa begun (conquest completed in December, 1917).–Failure of De Wet's German-aided rebellion in

South Africa owing to loyalty of the Boers (Oct.-Deo., 1914).-Pro-Turkish Khedive of Egypt deposed, British protectorate proclaimed, and a new ruler set up with

title of Sultan (Dec. 17, 1914). 4. Turkey openly joins the Teutonic Allies (Oct. 29).

Defeat of Turks by Russians in the Caucasian region (Jan. 1915). Failure of Turkish attempts to invade Egypt (Feb. 3, 1915). Revolt of the "holy places" in Arabia against Turkish rule and establishment of a

petty kingdom there (June 27, 1916). 5. Naval War. Great importance in the war of British

naval preponderance, aided by early concentration in the North Sea. British naval victory in Helgoland Bight (Aug. 28). German naval victory in the Pacifio off coast of Chili (Nov. 1). Three British cruisers tor pedoed by submarines in the North Sea (Sept. 21). German cruiser Emden caught and destroyed at Cocos Island after sensational career (Nov. 10). British na val victory off Falkland islands (Dec. 8) avenges defeat of Nov. 1. German fleets driven from the seas. Dis appearance of German shipping. Freedom of action for British transport of East Indian, New Zealand, Australian, and Canadian troops, etc., to Europe, and of Allied commerce, except for the (as yet slight) submarine danger. Error of Great Britain in failing to

declare at once a rigid blockade of Germany. 6. Situation at close of 1914: On western front, defeat

of the plan of the German General Staff; on eastern front, Teutonic forces held in check; Germany and Au tria as yet cut off from their new ally, Turkey. On the whole the advantage was on the side of the Entente Allies. But the Allied commanders (General Joffre, Lord Kitchener, and Grand Duke Nicholas) failed fully to grasp the needs of the situation. "Each of these leaders believed that the height of military efficiency had been reached in the past campaigns"; in the great development of barrier fire and the excellence of the French “75's." The Teutonic allies, on the other hand, "were making the colossal preparations of artillery and munitions which were destined to change the year 1915 into a tragedy for the Entente Allies.”—(T. C. Frothingham, in N. Y. Times Current History, Sept., 1917, page 422.)


1. On the West Front. Failure of the Allied offensive in

Champagne (March-April); Battle of Neuve Chapelle. Second Battle of Ypres (April 22-26); Germans first use poison gas; heroism of the Canadians. Inade quacy of Allies' preparations for carrying the formidable German entrenchments. Desultory fighting through the summer. Failure of the second offensive in Champagne and Flanders (Sept.). General French superseded by General Haig as British commander in chief. Death of Lord Kitchener through the sinking of the warship

Hampshire (June 7, 1916). 2. The Gallipoli Expedition. Failure of Allies to foros

the Dardanelles with their fleets alone (Feb.-March). Troops landed after long delay, in April and August. Abandonment of expedition in Dec.-Jan., after enormous losses. Disastrous effects on the hesitating noe


this fiasco. 3. Second Russian invasion of East Prussia crushed by

Hindenburg in Battle of Mazurian Lakes (Feb. 12). Russians lost 150,000 killed and wounded and 100,000 prisoners. Terrific drive of combined Germans and Austrians under Hindenburg and Mackensen in Poland and Galicia (April-Aug.). Fall of Przemysl (June 2); Lemberg (June 22); Warsaw (Aug. 5). All Poland conquered; Courland overrun. Russian losses, 1.200,000 killed and wounded; 900,000 captured; 65,000 square miles of territory. Russian line established from Riga to Eastern Galicia. Grand Duke Nicholas removed from chief command and sent to command in the Caucasus












of trenches”). Great German attack under the Crown Prince (Feb.— July); defeated by the heroic resistance of the French under General Pétain ("They shall not pass.") Enormous German losses (about 500,000 men) through attacks in close formation against French for

tifications defended by "barrage" fire and machine guns. Practically all ground lost was slowly regained by the French in the autuma. “Verdun was the grave of Germany's claim to military invincibility." -(Col. A. M. Murray, “Fortnightly" History of the War, I. 368). -Hindenburg made commander-in-chief of the German




sive (June-Sept.) under General Brusilov, on front from Pripet marshes to Bukovinian border. Capture of Czernovitz (June 18). Hundreds of thousands of Austrians taken prisoners. Successful offensive of Grand Duke Nicholas in Armenia against the Turks;


by Allied successes and coerced by the disloyal Russian Court, Roumania declared war (Aug. 27) with a view to rescuing her kindred populations from Austrian rule. Unsupported invasion of Transylvania; terrific counter attacks by German-Austrian-Bulgarian armies under Generals Mackensen and Falkenhayn; Roumaniano driven from Transylvania. Greater part of Roumania conquered (fall of Bucharest, Dec. 6). Rich wheatfields and oil lands gained by Teutons, and the "corridor” to Constantinople widened. The "Mittel-Europa"




Trentino (May 16—June 3). Brusilov's drive in Gall cia, however, relieved the pressure upon the Italiano, who then (Aug. 6th to Sept.) freed Italian soil of the Austrians, and began an offensive which brought them Gorizia on the River Isonzo (Aug. 9) and carried them


high seas fleet engaged the British battle-cruiser fleet until darkness enabled the German ships to escape the on-coming British dreadnaughts.--Increased use of submarines by Germans. Channel packet Sussex sunk (March 25) without warning, in violation of German



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