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PCE contamination

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt

Insecticide Fact Sheet

Carrie Swadener / Journal of Pesticide Reform v.14, n.3 Fall94


In a purified form, some of the proteins produced by Bt are acutely toxic to mammals. However, in their natural form, acute toxicity of commonly-used Bt varieties is limited to caterpillars, mosquito larvae, and beetle larvae. Bt is closely related to B. cereus, a bacteria that causes food poisoning and to B. anthracis, the agent of the disease anthrax. Few studies have been conducted on the chronic health effects, carcinogenicity, or mutagenicity of Bt. People exposed to Bt have complained of respiratory, eye, and skin irritation, and one corneal ulcer has occurred after direct contact with a Bt formulation. People also suffer from allergies to the "inert" (secret) ingredients. People with compromised immune systems may be particularly susceptible to Bt.

Viable Bt spores are known to exist for up to one year following application. Insect resistance to Bt has been well documented. Genetic engineering may greatly expand use of Bt, speeding up the development of more resistance.


Bt is less toxic to mammals and shows fewer environmental effects than many synthetic insecticides. However, this is no reason to use it indiscriminately. Its environmental and health effects as well as those of all other alternatives must be thoroughly considered before use. Bt should be used only when necessary, and in the smallest quantities possible. It should always be used as part of a sustainable management program.

As hazards of conventional, broad acting pesticides are documented, researchers look for pesticides that are are toxic only to the target pest, have less impact on other species, and have fewer environmental hazards. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) insecticides result from this research. However, there is evidence suggesting that Bt is not as benign as the manufacturers would like us to believe, and that care is warranted in its use.

Bt is a species of bacteria that has insecticidal properties affecting a selective range of insect orders. There are at least 34 subspecies of Bt1 (also called serotypes or varieties) and probably over 800 strain isolates.2 Bt was first isolated in 1901 in Japan from diseased silk-worm larvae. It was later isolated from Mediterranean flour moths and named Bacillus thuringiensis in 1911. 3 It was not until 1958 that Bt was used commercially in the United States.4 By 1989, Bt products had captured 90-95 per cent of the biopesticide market.5

Bacillus thuringiensis products available in the United States are comprised of one of five varieties of Bt: Bt var. kurstaki and var. morrisoni, which cause disease in moth and butterfly caterpillars; Bt var. israelensis which causes disease in mosquito and blackfly larvae; Bt var. aizawai which causes disease in wax moth caterpillars); and Bt var. tenebrionis, also called var. san diego, which causes disease in beetle larvae.6,7 Other strains of Bt have been discovered that exhibit pesticidal activity against nematodes, mites, flatworms, and protozoa.5

Bt products are used to control moth pests in fruits, vegetables, and beehives; blackfly and mosquito pests in ponds and lakes; and several beetle pests in vegetables and shade trees.6 (See Fig. 1, 2, and 3 for more details.) Common brand names include Dipel, Foray, Thuricide (all Bt kurstaki), Vectobac, Mosquito Attack (all Bt israelensis), and M-Trak (Bt tenebrionis).6

Mode of Action

When conditions for bacterial growth are not optimal Bt, like many bacteria, forms spores. Spores are the dormant stage of the bacterial life cycle, when the organism waits for better growing conditions. Unlike many other bacteria, when Bt creates spores it also creates a protein crystal. This crystal is the toxic component of Bt.

After the insect ingests Bt, the crystal is dissolved in the insect's alkaline gut. Then the insect's digestive enzymes break down the crystal structure and activate Bt's insecticidal component, called the delta-endotoxin. The delta-endotoxin binds to the cells lining the midgut membrane and creates pores in the membrane, upsetting the gut's ion balance. The insect soon stops feeding and starves to death. If the insect is not susceptible to the direct action of the delta-endotoxin, death occurs after Bt starts vegetative growth inside the insect's gut. The spore germinates after the gut membrane is broken; it then reproduces and makes more spores. This body-wide infection eventually kills the insect.8

Factors Affecting Selectivity

One of Bt's most desirable characteristic is its selectivity; only certain insects are susceptible to the delta-endotoxin. Scientists have identified at least 29 different crystals and delta-endotoxins.5 Each is effective against specific insects. Each variety of Bt can produce one or more of these toxins.7 Alkaline (basic; pH greater than 7) solutions activate the delta-endotoxin, and different varieties may require different pHs.9 Certain enzymes must also be present in the insect's gut to break the crystal into its toxic elements.8 In addition, certain cell characteristics in the insect gut encourage binding of the endotoxin and subsequent pore formation.7 The age of the insect is also a factor, the younger larvae being more susceptible than older larvae.8

Health Effects Testing

Since Bt is a live microbial organism, testing for the possible hazards of Bt is con-ducted differently that for conventional pesticides. Microbial toxicity is described using pathogenicity (the ability of the microbe to cause disease) and infectivity (the ability of the organism to reproduce within the body.) The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requires no testing of Bt for carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or chronic toxicity. 10

Laboratory Tests of Acute Toxicity

Each of the more than 800 strains of Bacillus thuringiensis may exhibit different toxicity to insects, rodents and humans. This fact complicates any discussion about the toxicity of Bt The following are summaries of the acute toxicity data available for two commonly used commercial varieties of Bt.

Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (Btk.):

Btk. and commercial products containing Btk. generally have low oral acute toxicity to rats. In tests with laboratory animals, researchers did not observe any adverse effects after feeding large doses.11-13

Other types of exposures have some acute effects. Rats who breathed air containing Btk. spores experienced respiratory depression,14 and Btk. spores injected into rats' veins ag-gravated preexisting disease.15 Both Btk. and Foray 48B are irritating to rabbit skin,16 and Foray 48B is moderately irritating to rabbits' eyes.12

Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti.):

In studies assessing Bti.'s acute toxicity to mammals, mortality only occurred when Bti. was injected into the abdomen or the brain. In one study conducted on rats, 79 percent mortality occurred after a single injection into the brain.17 Effects other than mortality can also occur. For example, in mice injected with a Bti. suspension, spleens became enlarged.18

Bti. is irritating to both eyes and skin. Injection of both viable and inactivated Bti. spores under the skin resulted in abscesses in mice.17 Rabbits' eyes are irritated by Bti.18 The irritancy of Bti. to eyes depends on the physical characteristics of the formulation; a dry, dusty formulation with smaller particles is less irritating and cleared from the eye more quickly than a clumped formulation with larger particles.17

In a purified form, Bti.'s endotoxin is clearly toxic to mammals. When the delta-endotoxin from Bti. was injected intravenously into mice, they exhibited rapid paralysis, followed by death within 12 hours. When the same dosage was injected under the skin of suckling mice, death occurred in 2-3 hours. The delta-endotoxin also caused destruction of rat, mouse, sheep, horse, and human red blood cells.19 When a small protein isolated from the endotoxin was administered to mice at sublethal levels, mice suffered from severe hypothermia and their heart beat slowed.20

Figure 1 - Bt Used in U.S. Agriculture

Sources: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Economic Research Service. 1994. Agricultural chemical usage: 1993 field crops summary. Washington, D.C. (March.)
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Economic Research Service. 1993. Agricultural chemical usage: Vegetables 1992 summary. Washington, D.C. (June.)
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. Economic Research Service. 1992. Agricultural chemical usage: 1991 fruits and nuts summary. Washington, D.C. (June.)

Bt is widely used in cotton production in Texas, Mississippi, and Louisiana as well as in the production of fruits and vegetables in California, Arizona, and Florida.

Figure 2 - Uses of Bt in California

Source: California Environmental Protection Agency. Dept. of Pesticide Regulation. 1993. Summary of pesticide use report data: Annual 1991. Indexed by chemical. Sacramento, CA. (January.)

Figure 3 - Crops Frequently Treated with Bt


In California, where pesticide use reporting is more comprehensive than in other states, almost 52,000 pounds of Bt were used on diverse crops in 1991. Grapes, lettuce, and tomatoes account for almost half the Bt used in California (fig. 2). Bt is extensively used nationawide in the production of certain fruit and vegetable crops (fig. 3).

Acute Toxicity to Humans

Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki:

There have been few experimental studies assessing the toxicity of Btk. to humans. Most information comes from occupational exposures, or from exposures occurring during large-scale Btk. programs.

One case of Btk. infection resulted from a farmer splashing a Btk. formulation, Dipel, in his eye. The man developed an ulcer on his cornea from which positive Btk. cultures were taken.21 Another man working on a spray program splashed Btk. on his face and eyes. He then developed skin irritation, burning, swelling, and red-ness. Btk. was cultured from a sample taken from his eye.22 Ground-spray applicators using Foray 48B reported symptoms of eye, nose, throat, and respiratory irritation. The frequency of their complaints was found to be related to the degree of expo-sure. Workers with similar preexisting health problems were more likely to report ad-verse effects from the ground spray.23

A woman exposed to an Btk. formulation as a result of drift went to the hospital due to burning, itching and swelling of her face and upper chest. She later exhibited a fever, altered consciousness, and suffered seizures.24 No Bt was cultured from tissue samples, but her doctor believed that Bt was the cause of the clinical symptoms.25

Monitoring studies following large-scale Bt spray programs have shown that ex-posed people carry Bt in their tissues. For example, more than 11 percent of nasal swab samples taken from patients surveyed by doctors in Vancouver (Canada) following a gypsy moth spray program were found to contain Btk.23 Bt was also found in cultures taken from patients in Lane County, Oregon following a gypsy moth spray program there. Monitoring studies also show that exposed people report a variety of health problems that they believe to be associated with Bt exposure.22 For example, during the Vancouver spray pro-gram, almost 250 people reported health problems, mostly allergy-like or flu-like symptoms. During a Washington gypsy moth spray program, over 250 people re-ported health problems and 6 were treated in emergency rooms for allergy or asthma problems.26 Physicians have so far been un-able to definitively link Bt exposure to these health problems.22,23,26

Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis:

There has only been one case of documented adverse effects of Bti. on humans. This case involved a researcher who accidentally injected himself with a mixture of Bti. and another kind of bacteria commonly found on human skin.20 He suffered from a toxic reaction and irritated lymph vessels. When these two bacteria were later injected into rodents the combination was consistently lethal, but each bacteria injected separately caused only slight inflammation.8

Special Concerns about Bt Toxicity

The earliest tests done regarding Bt's toxicity were conducted using Bt var. thuringiensis, a Bt strain known to contain a second toxin called beta-exotoxin. The beta-exotoxin is toxic to vertebrates, with an LD 50 (median lethal dose; the dose that kills 50 percent of a population of test animals) of 13-18 milligrams per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg) in mice when injected into the abdomen. An oral dose of 200 mg/kg per day killed mice after eight days.20 Beta-exotoxin also causes genetic damage to human blood cells.27 Bt formulations containing beta-exotoxin have not been used in most countries 20 although attempts are currently being made to register beta-exotoxin as an insecticide in the United States.8 Another toxin produced by Bt is the alpha-exotoxin that is highly acutely toxic to mice.20 Current Bt production methods are such that alpha-exotoxin is not a "significant component" of Bt formulations.8

Related Bacteria:
Bt belongs to a small group of closely related Bacillus species, including B. cereus, a bacteria that is an agent of food poisoning, and B. anthracis, the pathogen of the virulent animal disease, anthrax. These three bacteria are so similar it has been theorized that they are all varieties of the same species.28,29 If B. cereus is cultured with Bt cells, genetic material is transferred to the B. cereus cells that allows B. cereus to produce Bt's crystal proteins.28 Transfers of genetic material between B. anthracis and Bt have also occurred.30

A toxin produced by B. cereus that causes diarrhea in monkeys is also produced by certain strains of Bt,30 although this toxin is not likely to be present in Bt spore formulations.28 Human volunteers suffered from nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, colic-like pains, and fever after eating food contaminated with one Bt strain, Bt var. galleriae.31 These examples indicate the close relationship between Bt and disease-causing pathogens.

Increased Susceptibility: People with compromised immune systems or preexisting allergies may be particularly susceptible to the effects of Bt In mice with reduced immune function, the dose required to kill more than 50 percent of the mice when injected was several orders of magnitude smaller than the highest dose tested in nor-mal mice.32 Mice with impaired immune function also showed higher mortality than regular mice when one dose of Bti. was injected into the abdominal cavity.33 Although no definite cases have been reported of Bt infecting humans with compromised immune systems, the Oregon Health Division suggested before a Btk. spray pro-gram that "individuals with...physician-diagnosed causes of severe immune disorders may consider leaving the area during the actual spraying."34

A memo from Novo Nordisk, the manufacturer of Foray 48B, states that the amount of the spray a person would be exposed to would be too small to develop new allergies. However, "It is possible that someone that already has developed an allergy to one of the components of Foray 48B or has asthma ... could be affected by exposure to small quantities of Foray 48B."35 The 1991 Material Safety Data Sheet for Foray 48B states "Repeated expo-sure via inhalation can result in sensitization and allergic response in hypersensitive individuals."36

Contaminants: In the mid 1980s, several Bt products were contaminated with other bacteria, including Streptococcus faecium and S. faecalis.37 While Bt products are routinely monitored for bacterial contaminants,2 the risk of contamination with a disease-causing bacteria is always present.25

Inert Ingredients

All Bt products contain ingredients other than Bt. These are identified only as "inert" ingredients and are called trade secrets by the manufacturers of the products. The "inert" ingredients are potentially the most toxic components of the formulations. 8 For example, during the 1992 Asian gypsy moth spray program in Oregon, a woman who was exposed to Foray 48B had a preexisting allergy to a carbohydrate that was present as an inert ingredient. Within 45 minutes of exposure, the woman suffered from joint pain and neurological symptoms.38

Because "inerts" are called trade secrets, there is little public information about their identity, but the information that is avail-able indicates they could cause health problems. Foray 48B has contained sodium hydroxide, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid,39 methyl paraben,40 and potassium phosphate, 41 as "inerts." While these ingredients make up less than 10 percent of Foray 48B,39 they pose hazards. Sodium hydroxide, more commonly known as lye, causes "severe corrosive damage to the eyes, skin, mucous membranes and digestive system .... Breathing sodium hydroxide dust or mist leads in mild cases to irritation of the mucous membranes of the nose ... and in severe cases to damage of the upper respiratory tract."42 Sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid are both corrosive. Sulfuric acid can cause severe deep skin burns and permanent loss of vision. When inhaled as a mist, sulfuric acid may cause severe bronchial constriction, and bronchitis.43 Phosphoric acid is an irritant to skin and mucous membranes, and its vapors may cause coughing and throat irritation.43 Both methyl paraben and potassium phosphate were once registered by EPA as pesticide active ingredients. 44

Sodium sulfite has been identified as an inert ingredient of the Btk. formulation Dipel 8AF.45 Up to ten per cent of asthmatics (about one million people in the United States) may react to sulfites, particularly those people who are treated with steroids.42 Symptoms of exposure in those sensitive to sulfites usually involve the respiratory system, and can also include nausea, diarrhea, lowered blood pressure, hives, shock, and loss of consciousness.42

Environmental Fate

Very little is known about the natural ecology of Bt It occurs naturally in many soils. In one study, Bt was isolated from 70 per cent of soil samples taken from around the world, and was most abundant in samples taken in Asia. More than half of these isolates were undescribed varieties of Bt46 Bt has also been isolated from insect bodies, tree leaves and aquatic environments. 7 It has even been recovered from paper.47

generally persists only a short time in soil. The half life of the insecticidal activity (the time in which half of the insecticidal activity is lost) of the crystal is about 9 days.48 However, small amounts can be quite persistent. In one experiment, Bt spore numbers declined by one order of magnitude after 2 weeks, but then remained constant for 8 months following application.49

Bt does not appear to move readily in soil. In one study, two varieties of Bt were applied in adjacent plots, but did not be-come cross-contaminated, indicating that Bt does not move laterally in soil.2,8 Other studies found that Bt was not recovered past a depth of 6 centimeters after irrigation, and that movement beyond the application plot was less than 10 yards.7,50

deposited on the upper side of leaves (exposed to the sun) may remain effective for only 1-2 days, but Bt on the underside of leaves (i.e. protected from the sun) may remain active for 7-10 days.2,8 It is possible for it to be significantly more persistent, however. Viable spores of Btk. were recovered from white spruce foliage one year after application.51 In one experiment conducted in Japan, Bt persisted for two years in a citrus orchard and remained toxic to caterpillars.52

. has been recovered from rivers and public water distribution systems after an aerial application of Thuricide 16B. Standard water treatment processes are not adequate to destroy Btk. spores.53 Bti. spores and crystals bind readily to sediments in the water column,54,55 which reduces their efficacy by making them inaccessible to mosquito and blackfly larvae.

In one test, Bti. was applied to water, then allowed to contact mud particles. Over 99 percent of the Bti. spores were found in the mud, rather than in the water, after 45 minutes. The Bti. retained viability and toxicity for at least 22 days, killing 90 per-cent of the mosquito larvae when the mud was stirred and reintroduced to the water column.54


. has been found to drift over 3,000 meters downwind during an aerial application. The distance Btk. is capable of drifting depends upon the amount and method of application,56 as well as the climatic conditions. Bt thuringiensis was measured in air for up to 17 days following an application.4


Examples of genetic manipulation and genetic engineering with Bt include the following:7

Clearly, the possibilities for the genetic engineering of Bt delta-endotoxins seem endless. However, researchers know so little about the ecology and genetic stability of Bt, that the potential ecological effects of these transgenic organisms are impossible to predict with certainty.



Scientists once thought that the mode of action of Bt was complex enough to prevent the development of pest insect resistance. However, time and further research proved this to be untrue. Eight insect species have been studied because of their ability to develop resistance to Bt57 The Indian meal moth, a pest of grain storage areas, was the first insect to develop resistance to Btk.58 in laboratory experiments. Resistance progresses more quickly in laboratory experiments than under field conditions due to higher selection pressure in the laboratory.59 No indications of insect resistance to Bt were observed in the field, until the development of resistance was ob-served in the diamondback moth in crops where Bt had been used repeatedly. Since then, resistance has been observed in the laboratory in the tobacco budworm, the Colorado potato beetle and other insect species. 57 The gypsy moth also shows potential for developing Bt resistance.60 Some insects, such as the diamondback moth and the tobacco budworm, exhibit resistance to multiple Bt strains.61,62 Development of resistance occurs faster when larger amounts of a pesticide are used, so that use of crop plants genetically-engineered to produce the Bt toxin could dramatically increase the number of Bt-resistant insects.

Bt's Ecological Impacts

Some of the most serious concerns about widespread use of Bt as a pest control technique come from the effects it can have on animals other than the pest targeted for control. All Bt products can kill organisms other than their intended targets. In turn, the animals that depend on these organisms for food are also impacted.

Figure 4 - Development of Resistance to Bt in the Tobacco Budworm

Note: The resistance ratio is determined by dividing the dose required to kill a Bt-resistant insect by the dose required to kill a susceptible insect.

Source: Gould, F. et al. 1992. Broad-spectrum resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins in Heliothis virescens. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 89:7986-7990.

Under appropriate conditions, resistance to Bt can develop quickly. After only seventeen generations of selection, resistance to Bt increased 50-fold in the tobacco budworm.

Beneficial insects:
Many insects are not pests, and any pest management technique needs to be especially concerned about those that are called beneficials, the insects that feed or prey on pest species. Bt has impacts on a number of beneficial species. For example, studies of a wasp that is a parasite of the meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) found that treatment with Bt reduced the number of eggs produced by the parasitic wasp, and the percentage of those eggs that hatched.63 Production and hatchability of eggs of a predatory bug were also decreased.63 On collards, aphid-eating flies in the family Syrphidae were reduced by Dipel treatment.64 Both Bt tenebrionis and Dipel have caused mortality of predatory spider mites.65 Dipel also has caused mortality of the cinnabar moth, used for the biological control of the weed tansy ragwort.66 Finally, Bti. has caused mortality of a moth (Synclita obliteralis) that helps control aquatic weeds in Florida.67

Other insects:
Many insects that do not have as directly beneficial importance to agriculture are important in the function and structure of ecosystems. A variety of studies have shown that Bt applications can disturb insect communities. Research following large-scale Bt applications to kill gypsy moth larvae in Lane County, Oregon, found that the number of oak-feeding caterpillar species was reduced for three years following spraying, and the number of caterpillars was reduced for two years.68 Similar results were found in a study of caterpillars feeding on tobacco brush following a Btk. application to control spruce budworm in Oregon.69 In untreated areas, the number of species was about 30 per-cent higher, and the number of caterpillars 5 times greater, than in Btk.-treated areas two weeks after treatment. The number of caterpillars was still reduced in treated areas the following summer. In Washington, Bt applications in King and Pierce counties to kill gypsy moths reduced spring moth populations by almost 90 percent.70 In addition, one rare species appeared to have been eradicated from the treatment zone, and moth populations were "heavily impacted in an area more than double that which was actually sprayed" as moths moved into the treatment zone from surrounding areas.70 In West Virginia, applications of Foray 48B reduced the number of caterpillar species and the number of caterpillars. The year following application, the number of moth species and the number of moths were both reduced.71 A recent (1994) study in four different Oregon plant communities found that total weight of caterpillars was reduced between 90 and 95 percent by Bt treat-ment; the number of caterpillars was reduced by 80 percent; and the number of caterpillar species was reduced by over 60 percent.72

Aquatic insects are also affected by Bt treatments. Canadian studies found that certain stream insects (Simulium vittatum and Taeniopteryx nivalis) were killed by applications of Thuricide and Dipel respectively. 73,74 Midges (chironomids) have repeatedly been shown to be killed by Bti.75- 77

Because many birds feed on the caterpillars and other insects affected by Bt applications, it is not surprising that impacts of Bt spraying on birds have been documented. In Lane County, Oregon studies of chickadees following a gypsy moth spray program found that birds nesting in Bt-treated areas brought fewer caterpillars to their nests than did birds nesting in untreated areas. The birds were able to find other food, so that nesting success was not significantly impacted.78 In New Hampshire, when Bt-treatment reduced caterpillar abundance, black-throated blue warblers made fewer nesting attempts and also brought fewer caterpillars to their nestlings.79 A Canadian study found that numbers of caterpillars, followed by numbers of two species of warblers and a thrush, were reduced by Bt treatment. In addition, there were fewer spruce grouse chicks in Bt treated areas, and the chicks in those areas grew more slowly than chicks in untreated areas.80

There is also some evidence that Bt can be directly toxic to birds. A study of the effects of application of Dipel to ring-neck pheasant eggs found that hatching was only half as successful as hatching of un-treated eggs. Because the Dipel was applied with a spreader-sticker compound (Plyac) the decrease in hatching may be a result of the Plyac and not the Bt product.81

Other animals: 
Because shrews often feed on caterpillars, impacts from Bt treatments are likely. A study in northern Ontario (Canada) found that treatment with Dipel changed the structure of the shrew population. Adult males emigrated, so that the proportion of juveniles increased. The juveniles and adult females who did not emigrate shifted from a diet of caterpillars to alternative prey.82


Bti. treatments can also affect other animals. Low concentrations of Bti. endotoxins decrease the weight of tadpoles and delay their metamorphosis.84 The Bti. formulation Vectobac is acutely toxic to fathead minnows, probably because "inerts" in the product deplete the dissolved oxygen in water.85 The Bti. formulation Teknar was acutely toxic to brook trout fry, probably because of xylene used as an "inert" in the product.86

Comparison with synthetic insecticides: 
Where comparative studies have been done, the ecological impacts of a Bt treatment are almost always less than those of synthetic insecticides. For example, Bt treatment of collards caused less of an increase in aphid numbers than did treatment with carbaryl, which killed many aphid predators. 64 Vectobac was much less acutely toxic to an estuary fish than other mosquito insecticides including temephos, fenoxycarb, diflubenzuron, and methoprene.87

Figure 5 - Effect of Bt Treatment on the Number of Oak-feeding Moths near Elmira, Oregon

Source: Miller, J.C. 1990. Field assessment of a microbial pest control agent on nontarget Lepidoptera. Amer. Entomol. (Summer):135-139.

Bt applications to kill gypsy moths in Oregon caused a three-year decrease in the number of oak-feeding moth species





  4. Jenkins, J. 1992. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry Memo. Subject: Bt Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Extension Service.







  11. Novo Nordisk. Enzyme Toxicology Lab. 1990. Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki: Acute oral toxicity/pathogenicity study in rats given Btk. tox batch PPQ 2843 (NB 75). Danbury, CT: (July 20.)



  14. Oshodi, R.O. and R. Macnaughtan. 1990. Btk. preparation: Acute inhalation toxicity study in rats. Volume 6. Danbury, CT: Novo Nordisk. (April 20.)















  29. Bennett, R.W. and S.M. Harmon. 1990. Bacillus cereus Food Poisoning. Chapter 8. In Balows, A. et al. (eds.). Laboratory diagnosis of infec- tious diseases: Principles and practice. Volume 1: Bacterial, mycotic, and parasitic diseases. New York: Springer-Verlag.



  32. Bryant, R.E., J.A. Mazza and L.R. Foster. 1993. Effect of cyclophosphamide-induced neutrope-nia on susceptibility of mice to lethal infection with Bacillus thuringiensis. Unpublished abstract. Oregon Health Sciences University.

  33. Siegel, J.P., J.A. Shadduck and J. Szabo. 1987. Safety of the entomopathogen Bacillus thuring- iensis var. israelensis for mammals. J. Econ. Ent. 80:717-723.

  34. Oregon Department of Human Resources. Health Division. 1991. Health effects of Bt: Report of surveillance in Oregon, 1985-87. Precautions to minimize your exposure. Salem, OR: (April 18.)












  46. Martin, P.A.W. and R.S. Travers. 1989. World-wide abundance and distribution of Bacillus thuringiensis isolates. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 55(10):2437-2442.

  47. Vaisanen, O.M., J. Mentu, and M.S. Salkinoja-Salonen. 1991. Bacteria in food packaging pa-per and board. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 71:130-133.








  55. Hoti, S.L. and K. Balaraman. 1991. Changes in the populations of Bacillus thuringiensis H-14 and Bacillus sphaericus applied to vector breed-ing sites. The Environmentalist. 11(1):39-44.


  57. McGaughey, W.M. and M.E. Whalon. 1992. Man-aging insect resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis toxins. Science 258:1451-1455. (November 27.)




  61. Tabashnik, B.E. et al. 1993. Resistance to tox-ins from Bacillus thuringiensis subsp . kurstaki causes minimal cross-resistance to B. thuringiensis subsp. aizawai in the diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59(3): 1332-1335.







  68. Miller, J.C. 1990. Field assessment of the effects of a microbial pest control agent on non-target Lepidoptera. Amer. Entomol. (Summer): 135-139.


  70. Crawford, R.L. 1993. Interim one year monitoring of non-target Lepidoptera: Asian gypsy moth aerial spray area, King and Pierce counties, Washington. 30 April - 13 May 1993. Interim final report in fulfillment of U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Order No. 43-5703-C4286. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Burke Museum.




  74. Kreutzweiser, D.P. et al. 1992. Lethal and sub-lethal effects of Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki on aquatic insects in laboratory bioas-says and outdoor stream channels. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 49:252-258.


  76. Molloy, D.P. 1992. Impact of the black fly (Diptera: Simulidae) control agent Bacillus thuringiensis var. israeliensis on chironomids (Diptera: Chironomidae) and other nontarget in-sects: Results of ten field trials. J. Amer. Mosquito Cont. Assoc. 8(1):24-31.


  78. Gaddis, P.K. and C.C. Corkran. 1986. Secondary effects of BT spray on avian predators: The reproductive success of chestnut-backed chicka-dees. Portland, OR: Northwest Ecological Research Institute.


  80. Bendell, J.F., R.D. James, and B.L. Cadogan. 1990. Effect of Bt30 var. kurstaki on insects, small birds and mammals, amphibia, and chicks of spruce grouse. Unpublished study. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto.

  81. Jones, I.W. 1986. Summary report: Effect of Dipel (r) and Plyac (r) on hatchability of ringneck pheasant eggs. Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife.

  82. Bellocq, M.I. et al. 1992. Effects of the insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis on Sorex cinerus (masked shrew) populations, diet, and prey se-lection in a jack pine plantation in northern Ontario. Can. J. Zool. 70:505-510.

  83. Watts, R. (Conservation and Protection Aquatic Toxicity Laboratory, North Vancouver, B.C. Canada). February 20, 1992. Letter to Leslie Schubert, Capilano Salmon Hatchery, Depart-ment of Fisheries and Oceans, North Vancouver B.C. Canada. Re: Conduct of fish toxicity tests on Foray 48B.

  84. Paulov, S. 1987. Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis (H-14) endotoxins on the development of the frog Rana temporaria L. Acta F.R.N. Univ. Comen. - Zoologia (30):21-26.


  86. Fortin, C., D. Lapointe, and G. Charpentier. 1986. Susceptibility of brook trout ( Salvelinus fontalis) fry to a liquid formulation of Bacillus thuringiensis serovar. israelensis (Teknar (r) ) used for blackfly control. Can. J. Fish Aquat. Sci. 43:1667-1670.


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