Doctor of Philosophy

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For other uses, see PHD (disambiguation).
A new Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) from the University of Oxford wearing full academic dress to receive his degree.
A group of new PhD graduates with their professors.

A Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D. or D.Phil.) is a type of doctorate degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree, named after its historic roots as a Doctorate licensed to one allowed to profess a "Philosophia", has been formally awarded by European universities since the Medieval era circa 1150-1200.[1] Ph.D.s are awarded for a wide range of programs in the sciences (e.g., biology, physics, mathematics, etc.), engineering, and humanities (e.g., history, English literature, musicology, etc.), among others. The Ph.D. is a terminal degree in many fields. The completion of a Ph.D. is a requirement for employment as a university professor, researcher, or scientist in many fields. A clear distinction is made between an "earned doctorate", which is awarded for completion of a course of study and a thesis or dissertation, and an "honorary doctorate", a title granted by a university to a successful or notable person who has not completed doctoral academic work or completed a dissertation at the university. Individuals with an earned doctorate can use the title of "Doctor" with their name and use the initials "Ph.D." (or "D.Phil.")[2] after their name.

The requirements to earn a Ph.D. degree varies considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. A person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor. During the studies that lead to the degree, the student is called doctoral student or Ph.D. student, but also "doctoral candidate" or "Ph.D. candidate" once the student has completed all of the coursework and comprehensive examinations and is working on their thesis or dissertation.

A Ph.D. candidate must submit a project, thesis or dissertation often consisting of a body of original academic research, which is in principle worthy of publication in a peer-reviewed journal.[3] In many countries a candidate must defend this work before a panel of expert examiners appointed by the university. Universities award other types of doctorates besides the Ph.D., such as the Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A.), a degree for music performers and the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), a degree for professional educators.



The degree is also abbreviated Ph.D. or DPhil.[5] It is also called a Doctorate of Philosophy, from the Latin Doctor Philosophiae (for DPhil) or Philosophiae Doctor (for PhD or Ph.D.).



In theory the full course of studies might lead in succession to the degrees of, e.g., Bachelor of Arts, Licentiate of Arts, Master of Arts, Bachelor of Medicine, Licentiate of Medicine, Doctor of Medicine. There were many exceptions to this, however. Most students left the university before becoming masters of arts, whereas regulars (members of monastic orders) could skip the arts faculty entirely.[6][7][8]

Educational reforms in Germany[edit]

This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, founded and controlled by the Prussian government in 1810. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as Ph.D.)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium, by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities.[9] Professors across the humanities and Sciences focused on their advanced research.[10] Practically all the funding came from the central government, and could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.[relevant? ][11]

These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a Ph.D. after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 Yale University started granting the Ph.D. degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.[12] This research degree of doctor of philosophy was the first to be given in North America.[13] Even though in Germany the name of the doctorate was adapted accordingly after the philosophy faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in the faculty of natural sciences − in most of the English-speaking world the name of Doctor of Philosophy was retained for research doctorates in all disciplines.

United Kingdom[edit]

Research degrees first appeared in the UK in the late nineteenth century in the shape of the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD) and other such "higher doctorates". The University of London introduced the DSc in 1860, but as an advanced study course, following on directly from the BSc, rather than a research degree. The first higher doctorate in the modern sense was Durham University's DSc, introduced in 1882.[14] This was soon followed by other universities, including the University of Cambridge establishing its ScD in the same year and the University of London transforming its DSc into a research degree in 1885. These were, however, very advanced degrees, rather than research-training degrees at PhD level – Harold Jeffreys said that getting a Cambridge ScD was "more or less equivalent to being proposed for the Royal Society".[15]

Finally in 1917 the current degree of Ph.D. was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students.[16] The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist in British universities; together with the much older degrees of Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) and Doctor of Medicine (MD) they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees they are only infrequently awarded.


United States[edit]

Until the mid-19th century, advanced degrees were not a criterion for professorships at most colleges. That began to change as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for 1 to 3 years to obtain a Ph.D. in the sciences or humanities.[18][19] Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In 1861, Yale awarded the first three Ph.D.s in North America to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur Williams Wright, and James Morris Whiton.[20] In the next two decades, NYU, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began granting the degree. Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of Clark University in 1887, which only offered graduate programs, and the Johns Hopkins University which focused on its Ph.D. program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan and Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 Ph.D.'s were awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It was no longer necessary to study in Germany.[21][22]



Detailed requirements for the award of a Ph.D. degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's Degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a Ph.D. program.[citation needed] In the US, Canada, India and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for Ph.D. degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though this varies by university and field.[24] Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher. In order to submit a successful Ph.D. admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal and a personal statement are often required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission.




In a "sandwich Ph.D." program, Ph.D. candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university. Instead, the Ph.D. candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities, and in between conduct research at another institution or field research.[26] Occasionally a "sandwich Ph.D." will be awarded by two universities.[27]

PhD confirmation[edit]

A PhD confirmation is a preliminary presentation or lecture that a PhD candidate presents to faculty and possibly other interested members. The lecture follows after a suitable topic has been identified, and can include such matters as the aim of the research, methodology, first results, planned (or finished) publications, etc.


Value and criticism[edit]


The motivation may also include increased salary, but in many cases this is not the result. Research by Casey suggests that, over all subjects, Ph.D.s provide an earnings premium of 26%, but notes that master's degrees provide a premium of 23% already. While this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training.[28] However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs.[29] These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. Ph.D. students often have to take on debt to undertake their degree.

A Ph.D. is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. In some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a Ph.D. In the article "The Peril of Credential Creep in Foreign Policy", it is stated that "[m]ore and more foreign policy professionals are required to hold master's or Ph.D. degrees to compete in their field."[30] The article states that "If having a master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the Ph.D. is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers."[30] An article on the Australian public service states that "credentialism in the public service is seeing a dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions going to Ph.D.s and masters degrees [are] becoming the base entry level qualification."[31]

The Economist published an article citing various criticisms against the state of Ph.D.s.[29] Richard B. Freeman explains that, based on pre-2000 data, at most only 20% of life science Ph.D. students end up getting jobs specifically in research. In Canada, where the overflow of Ph.D. degree holders is not as severe, 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earn less than or equal to the average construction worker (roughly $38,000 a year) during their postdoctoral research tenure.[29] Only in the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) is there a shortage of Ph.D.s.


Mark C. Taylor opines that total reform of Ph.D. programs in almost every field is necessary in the U.S., and that pressure to make the necessary changes will need to come from many sources (students, administrators, public and private sectors, etc.). These issues and others are discussed in an April 2011 issue of the journal Nature.[32][33][34][35]

National variations[edit]


Degrees around the globe[edit]

The UNESCO, in its International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED), states that "Programmes to be classified at ISCED level 8 are referred to in many ways around the world such as Ph.D., D.Phil., D.Litt., D.Sc., LL.D., Doctorate or similar terms. However, it is important to note that programmes with a similar name to "doctor" should only be included in ISCED level 8 if they satisfy the criteria described in Paragraph 263. For international comparability purposes, the term "doctoral or equivalent" is used to label ISCED level 8".[36]



In Argentina, the admission to a Ph.D. program at public Argentine University requires the full completion of a Master's degree or a Licentiate's degree. Non-Argentine Master's titles are generally accepted into a Ph.D. program when the degree comes from a recognized university.



Requirements for completion[edit]






Ph.D. students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their Ph.D. degree. The most common of these are the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$25,800 a year (tax free). APAs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.[40] Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many Ph.D. students are forced to live under the poverty line.[41] In addition to the more common APA and university scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding.


Australian citizens, permanent residents and New Zealand citizens are not charged course fees for their Ph.D. or research master's degree, with exception to the student services and amenities fee (SSAF) which is set by each university and typically involves the largest amount allowed by the Australian government. All fees are paid for by the Australian government, except for the SSAF, under the Research Training Scheme.[42] International students and coursework master's degree students must pay course fees, unless they receive a scholarship to cover them.

Requirements for completion[edit]

Completion requirements vary. Most Australian Ph.D. programs do not have a required coursework component. The credit points attached to the degree are all in the product of the research, which is usually an 80,000 word thesis that makes a significant new contribution to the field. The Ph.D. thesis is sent to external examiners who are experts in the field of research and who have not been involved in the work. Examiners are nominated by the candidate's university and their identities are often not revealed to the candidate until the examination is complete. A formal oral defence is generally not part of the examination of the thesis, largely because of the distances that would need to be traveled by the overseas examiners. Scholar Bruno Starrs has examined the growing popularity of the PhD by Published Papers in Australia, with particular reference to the discipline of film and TV studies and the proliferation of honorary doctorates.









Requirements for completion[edit]







Most of postgraduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by means of teaching assistant seats or research works. Some institutions such as Colciencias, Colfuturo and Icetex grant scholarships or provide awards in the form of forgivable loans [43]

Requirements for completion[edit]











The financing of Ph.D. studies comes mainly from funds for research of the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research. The most common procedure is a short-term employment contract called doctoral contract: the institution of higher education is the employer and the Ph.D. candidate the employee. However, the student can apply for funds from a company who can host him/her at its premises (as in the case where Ph.D. students do their research in a company). As another encountered situation, the company and the institute can sign together a funding agreement so that the student still has a public doctoral contract, but is daily located in the company (for example, it is particularly the case of (French) Scientific Cooperation Foundation). Many other resources come from some regional/city projects, some associations, etc.




In the last few years, there have been many changes in the rules relating to a Ph.D. in India .[citation needed] According to the new rules described by UGC, universities must have to conduct entrance exams in general ability and the selected subject. After clearing these tests, the shortlisted candidates need to appear for an interview by the available supervisor/guide. After successful completion of the course work, the students are required to give presentations of the research proposal (plan of work or synopsis) at the beginning, submit progress reports, give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend the thesis in an open defence viva-voce.



In Germany, admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having an advanced degree (i.e., a master's degree, diplom, magister, or staatsexamen), mostly in a related field and having above-average grades. A candidate must also find a tenured professor from a university to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Betreuer) of the dissertation throughout the doctoral program called Promotion. This supervisor is informally referred to as Doktorvater or Doktormutter, which literally translate as "doctor's father" or "doctor's mother", respectively. Due to the different college systems in Germany, only professors from universities (Univ.-Prof.) can serve as a doctor's supervisor and therefore, Universities of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschulen) are not entitled to award a doctorate.[46]






In 2014, the median age of new Ph.D. graduates was 30.4 years of age.[47]

USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics[edit]


As most education systems only have one advanced research qualification granting doctoral degrees or equivalent qualifications (ISCED 2011,[48] par.270), the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Kandidat Nauk) of the former USSR counties is usually considered at the same level as the doctorate or Ph.D. degrees of those countries.[49][50]


According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, for purposes of international educational statistics, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) belongs to ISCED level 8, or "doctoral or equivalent", together with Ph.D., D.Phil., D.Litt., D.Sc., LL.D., Doctorate or similar. It is mentioned in the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as an equivalent to Ph.D. belonging to this level.[48] In the same way as Ph.D. degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) allows its holders to reach the level of the Docent.[55] The second doctorate[49] (or post-doctoral degree)[56][57] in some post-Soviet states called Doctor of Sciences (Russian: доктор наук, Doktor Nauk) is given as an example of second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates in ISCED 2011[48] (par.270) and is similar to Habilitation in Germany, Poland and several other countries.[49][57] It constitutes a higher qualification compared to Ph.D. as against the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) or Dublin Descriptors.[57]

About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities study at the expense of budget funds.[58] The average stipend in Russia (as of August 2011) is $430 a year ($35/month).[59] The average tuition fee in graduate school is $2,000 per year.[60]




The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program (Ph.D.) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento".[61][62] Further, the research doctorates or Ph.D. (Dottorato di ricerca) in Italy were introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980,[63][64] referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.[65][66]

Hence, the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy [67] (Scuola Superiore Universitaria),[68] also called Schools of Excellence (Scuole di Eccellenza)[67][69] such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" Ph.D. title by law[62][70] and MIUR Decree.[71][72]





In Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, generally a master's degree is required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Direct admission to a Ph.D. programme after bachelors is also offered by the NITs, the NITs and the ACSIR. In some subjects, doing a Masters in Philosophy (M.Phil.) is a prerequisite to starting a Ph.D. For funding/fellowship, it is required to qualify for the Nepal Eligibility Test for Lectureship and Junior Research fellowship (NET for LS and JRF) [45] conducted by the federal research organisation Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (Nepal) (CSIR) and University Grants Commission (UGC). In the last few years, there have been many changes in the rules relating to a Ph.D. in Nepal.[citation needed] According to the new rules, most universities conduct entrance exams in general ability and the selected subject. Apart from Tribhuvan University, many other Universities and private colleges such as South Western State College facilitate scholars to pursue PhD study.


A doctoral degree (Pol. doktor), abbreviated to Ph.D. (Pol. dr) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields [73][74][75][76][77] as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences,[78] regulated by the Polish parliament acts[79] and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of Ph.D. is awarded to a scientist who 1) completed a minimum of 3 years of Ph.D. studies (Pol. studia doktoranckie; not required to obtain Ph.D.), 2) finished his/her theoretical and/or laboratory's scientific work, 3) passed all Ph.D. examinations, 4) submitted his/her dissertation, a document presenting the author's research and findings,[80] 5) successfully defended his/her doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by his/her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.


Starting in 2016,[81] in Ukraine Doctor of Philosophy (PhD, Ukrainian: Доктор філософії) is the highest education level and first science degree. "Doctor of Sciences" (DSc. Ukrainian: Доктор наук) is the second and the highest science degree, awarded in recognition of a substantial contribution to scientific knowledge, origination of new directions and visions in science. A PhD degree is a prerequisite for heading a university department in Ukraine.


The doctorate was introduced in Sweden in 1477 and in Denmark-Norway in 1479 and awarded in theology, law and medicine, while the magister's degree was the highest degree at the Faculty of Philosophy, equivalent to the doctorate.




Doctoral degrees are regulated by Real Decreto (Royal Decree in Spanish) R.D. 1393/2007,[84] and will be regulated R.D. 99/2011,[85] starting with the 2014/2015 academic year. They are granted by a university on behalf of the King, and its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO.[86]

All doctoral programs are of a research nature. A minimum of three years of study are required, in one only stage:



The social standing of doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.[88] All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").[89]

United Kingdom[edit]



In the case of the University of Oxford, for example, "The one essential condition of being accepted ... is evidence of previous academic excellence, and of future potential."[90] The University of Oxford (and the University of Sussex) also abbreviates their Doctor of Philosophy degree as D.Phil. but in other respects is equivalent to a PhD. Commonly, students are first accepted on to an MPhil or MRes programme and may transfer to Ph.D. regulations upon satisfactory progress and is referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status. This is typically done after one or two years, and the research work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, he or she may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree as is the case at the King's College London and University of Manchester. In many universities the MPhil is also offered as a stand-alone research degree.

In addition, Ph.D. students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences.[91][92] This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.[92]





There is usually a preliminary assessment to remain in the programme and the thesis is submitted at the end of a three- to four-year programme. These periods are usually extended pro rata for part-time students. With special dispensation, the final date for the thesis can be extended for up to four additional years, for a total of seven, but this is rare.[95] For full-time Ph.D.s, a 4-year time limit has now been fixed and students must apply for an extension to submit a thesis past this point. Since the early 1990s, British funding councils have adopted a policy of penalising departments where large proportions of students fail to submit their theses in four years after achieving Ph.D.-student status (or pro rata equivalent) by reducing the number of funded places in subsequent years.[96]

There has recently been an increase in the number of Integrated Ph.D. programs available, such as at the University of Southampton. These courses include a Master of Research (MRes) in the first year, which consists of a taught component as well as laboratory rotation projects. The Ph.D. must then be completed within the next 3 years. As this includes the MRes all deadlines and timeframes are brought forward to encourage completion of both MRes and Ph.D. within 4 years from commencement. These programmes are designed to provide students with a greater range of skills than a standard Ph.D.; and for the university they are a means of gaining an extra years' fees from public sources.

Other doctorates[edit]


Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates (D.Prof or ProfD), which are the same level as Ph.D.'s but more specific in their field.[97] These tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a taught component and a professional qualification. These are most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), educational psychology (D.Ed.Psych), occupational psychology (D.Occ Psych.) clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business administration (DBA), and music (DMA). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000 word thesis component, which together are officially considered equivalent to a Ph.D. degree.

United States[edit]

Further information: Doctorate § United States



There are 282 universities in the United States that award the Ph.D. degree, and those universities vary widely in their criteria for admission, as well as the rigor of their academic programs.[98] Typically, Ph.D. programs require applicants to have a bachelor's degree in a relevant field (and, in many cases in the humanities, a master's degree), reasonably high grades, several letters of recommendation, relevant academic coursework, a cogent statement of interest in the field of study, and satisfactory performance on a graduate-level exam specified by the respective program (e.g., GRE, GMAT).[99][100] The number of Ph.D. diplomas awarded by US universities has risen nearly every year since 1957, according to data compiled by the US National Science Foundation. In 1957, US universities awarded 8,611 Ph.D. diplomas; 20,403 in 1967; 31,716 in 1977; 32,365 in 1987; 42,538 in 1997; and 48,133 in 2007.[101]



Models of supervision[edit]



International PhD equivalent degrees[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

  1. ^ Bourner, Bowden, & Laing (2001)
  2. ^ .Graduate Courses, University of Oxford
  5. ^ The abbreviation DPhil is used only by the University of Oxford and the University of Sussex. See also "University of Oxford, What is a D.Phil? The Oxford term for Ph.D.". 
  16. ^ Simpson, Renate (1984). How the Ph.D. came to Britain : A Century of Struggle for Postgraduate Education. Taylor and Francis. ISBN 0-900868-95-3. 
  27. ^ "Higher education: Agreement reached with Glasgow for 'sandwich' Ph.D. (February 11, 2012). Express Tribune.
  29. ^ a b c "Doctoral degrees: The disposable academic". The Economist. 2010-12-18. Retrieved 25 December 2012. 
  30. ^ a b Faris Alikhan, "The Peril of Credential Creep in Foreign Policy", U.S. News, October 2, 2013.
  31. ^ Julie Hare, "More Ph.D.s enter public service", The Australian, April 3, 2014.
  36. ^ "Paragraph 262 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011". 
  37. ^ "Scholarships in Argentina". Retrieved 2010-04-28. 
  39. ^ "Comisión Nacional de Evaluación y Acreditación Universitaria" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on August 25, 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-28. 
  44. ^ "Matemaattis-luonnontieteellinen tiedekunta". 
  45. ^ a b "N E T, Inside H E, University Grants Commission". 1988-07-22. Retrieved 2010-02-07. 
  47. ^ Bestandene Prüfungen, Statistisches Bundesamt, retrieved 2016-03-30 
  58. ^ Статистика Российского образования
  60. ^ Молодому специалисту на заметку: образование/аспирантура
  61. ^ Student Guidebook, Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa
  63. ^ "Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28". 
  64. ^ "Presidential Decree No. 382 of 11 July 1980". 
  65. ^ Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28
  66. ^ "Decreto Presidente Repubblica 11 luglio 1980, n. 382". 
  67. ^ a b "ResearchItaly, Pagina di transizione". 
  69. ^ "Scuole, Scuole di Eccellenza". 
  71. ^ Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) Decree
  72. ^ Università in Italia, Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR)
  73. ^ Medical Centre of Postgraduate Education in Warsaw,
  74. ^ Over 600 years of Jagiellonian University in Cracow,
  75. ^ "Energetyka w programach partii - Uniwersytet Warszawski". 
  76. ^ [1],
  77. ^ Warsaw University of Technology
  78. ^ "Polish Academy of Sciences". 
  79. ^ "The Sejm of the Republic of Poland". 
  81. ^ Кабінет Міністрів України. Постанова від 23 березня 2016 р. № 261 / Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine. Decree from 23 of March 2016 #261 (Ukrainian)
  84. ^ Boletín Oficial del Estado 30/10/2007 (Spanish)
  85. ^ Boletín Oficial del Estado 10/02/2011 (Spanish)
  86. ^ Base de Datos TESEO
  90. ^ "University of Oxford". Retrieved 2010-04-28. 
  92. ^ a b Postgrad checks worry scientists BBC News, 12 March 2007
  93. ^ Arts and Humanities Research Council[dead link]
  95. ^ "The Ph.D. is in need of revision". 
  97. ^ "Professional Doctorate". Retrieved 2010-04-28. 
  100. ^ Columbia University in the City of New York Archived October 19, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.



External links[edit]