News Transport Context

Transport is highly dependent on oil. 95% of all kilometres travelled (both passenger and freight) in the EU are powered by oil derived fuels (TERM 2014 report).[1] The combustion of this oil releases pollution in the form of emissions, which place significant burdens on human health and the environment. In 2012, the transport sector (including bunker fuels) accounted for 24.3% of total EU GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions.

Emissions of air pollutants from transport have generally declined over the past two decades. However, around 90% of city dwellers in the European Union (EU) are still exposed to air pollutants at levels deemed harmful to health by the World Health Organization (WHO), and transport is a large contributor to this. Transport also causes noise impacts. Road traffic exposes more people to harmful levels of noise than any other source, followed by rail and aircraft (see SOER 2015 briefing on noise). Data also show that fragmentation due to transport infrastructure and urban sprawl constitutes a growing threat to many wildlife populations via reduced connectivity among habitats, becoming increasingly isolated.

Transport demand, fuel consumption, and transport-related GHG emissions have all increased since 1990. They peaked around the beginning of the economic crisis and have shown unstable trends since.

EU measures to reduce transport emissions have included the introduction of fuel-quality standards and exhaust-emission limits for air pollutants and CO2. They have also included the incorporation of the transport sector into national emission-limit calculations for both air pollutants[2] and GHGs (under the EU Effort Sharing Decision).[3]

The European Commission's White Paper on Transport[4] is a further political response to these issues. It was designed to guide future policy developments in the transport sector over the next decade and in accordance with the long-term EU objective to reduce GHG emissions by 80–95% by 2050.[5] The White Paper calls for a reduction of CO2 from transport of at least 60% by 2050 from 1990 levels. It envisages the target being met by a combination of new technology and more efficient use of existing technology.

Key trends

Transport demand

Transport volume growth and associated environmental pressures generally follow economic development (see Figure 1). International aviation has experienced the largest percentage increase in passenger kilometres from 1995 levels (+ 66%). Aviation in the EU showed annual increases of up to 7.5% until 2007, growing again by 10% between 2010 and 2011 and stabilising in 2012. Car travel has increased significantly in the last decades, but has remained below its 2009 peak in 2012. In recent decades, the growth in transport demand has often negated or limited many of the environmental benefits brought by improved technology. Europe's challenge is therefore to achieve future economic development without increasing pressures on the environment.

Figure 1: EU transport demand by mode compared with GDP

Greenhouse gases

EU transport (including international aviation but excluding international maritime) GHG emissions are currently 20.5% above 1990 levels (Figure 2).  Transport is the only sector of the economy to have seen such a large increase in emissions in this period. Emissions from international aviation in the EEA-33 countries have more than doubled since 1990, while international maritime emissions increased by 34%, and road transport emissions increased by 20%. Rail transport and inland navigation are the modes of transport to have seen a decrease in GHG emissions compared to 1990, falling by 46% and 17% respectively in the EEA-33 compared to 2012.

Figure 2: EU transport emissions of greenhouse gases

On a more positive note, the transport sector shows progress towards the goal of achieving a 10% share of renewable energy by 2020 in each Member State. The average EU-28 share of renewable energy in transport increased from 3.4% in 2011 to 5.1% in 2012.

The use of renewable electricity in road transport has also increased, but remains marginal compared to the amount of biofuels consumed. Pure electric vehicles currently comprise only 0.04% of the total fleet and the latest data show that their share in EU-27 new car registrations is only 0.22%.

The efficiency of new cars has also improved, encouraged by EU regulations.[6] The average CO2 emissions level of a new car sold in 2013 was 127 g of carbon dioxide per kilometre, significantly below the 2015 target of 130 g. However, manufacturers will have to keep reducing emissions levels to meet the target of 95g CO2/km by 2021. 

Figure 3: Trend in emissions of air pollutants from transport (EEA-33)

Air pollutants

Unlike the trend for GHGs, emissions of the main air pollutants from transport have generally declined over the past two decades (Figure 3). However, the decreases for certain pollutants (SOx, NOx and PM), are much less when emissions from international shipping are taken into account. The introduction of catalytic converters, progressively stricter Euro emission standards, and increasingly strict fuel quality standards are the main factors behind past reductions.

A less positive development is the increase in the fraction of NOx emitted as NO2 by diesel vehicles, leading to exceedances of NO2 values in many European cities. Increasing traffic volumes, coupled with the promotion of diesel vehicles in many EU Member States, have thus become one of the main reasons why countries do not meet EU air quality regulations.

To make matters worse, NOx emissions from diesel vehicles under real-world driving conditions often exceed the test-cycle limits specified in the Euro emission standards, a problem that also affects official fuel consumption and CO2-emission values. In general, an average diesel car emits more PM and NOX than petrol, but less CO2. Recent data show that the CO2 difference is decreasing.


Before the economic crisis, Europeans were travelling more than ever before (see SOER 2015 briefing on tourism). Based on past trends, the European Commission's 60% transport GHG reduction target by 2050 will not be met. Meeting these targets will therefore require fundamental transitions in the European transport sector.

One of these transitions is the shift to alternative fuel vehicles. However, too few alternative fuel vehicles (electric, plug-in hybrid and hydrogen vehicles) are currently being sold. Consumers are reluctant to purchase these vehicles, and manufacturers are deterred from investing further in them. The European Commission has recently submitted a proposal to significantly develop the infrastructure for alternative fuels as a way of addressing the problem of low uptake of vehicles and lack of infrastructure.[7] As well as delivering clear environmental benefits (reducing average CO2 emissions and reducing air pollutant emissions etc.), the uptake of new technologies will also reduce Europe's dependency on oil.

However, changes in the transport sector — such as renewing an entire country's fleet of vehicles — require time to take effect. Delivery of benefits from an uptake of new vehicle technologies also depends on developments in other sectors, such as clean electricity production to cope with increasing demand (while complying with the Emissions Trading System (ETS) agreements). Moreover, alternative fuel vehicles will not on their own solve other existing problems such as congestion levels, accidents and road safety, or noise levels. For this reason, additional fundamental changes in the way Europe transports passengers and goods are needed.

These additional changes include avoiding the use of transportation where possible; shifting necessary transport from environmentally harmful modes to more environmentally friendly modes; and improving the efficiency of all modes of transport. It is essential for the public to accept the need for these changes. Public acceptance is critical to overcoming the two main barriers for implementation of these changes: lack of political will and lack of funding.[8]

Fortunately, signs of a potential cultural change have already been identified in recent research. In countries such as Germany, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan and the USA, car travel demand appears to be decreasing, remaining at the same level, or growing only slowly.[9][10][11] A number of reasons have been suggested for this change, including improved public transport, fuel prices, and changes in the symbolic value attached to vehicles.[12][11][13]

Aviation is another source of environmental pressures, and there has been extensive debate in recent years over whether international aviation should be included in the EU ETS. ICAO, the UN agency responsible for International Civil Aviation, recently agreed to develop by 2016 a global market-based mechanism to tackle emissions, to come into force in 2020. Nevertheless, the aviation sector remains exempt from fuel taxation, and ticket purchases are not subject to VAT, neither of which helps to address aviation transport demand.

In the longer-term, Europe will need a coordinated approach, which integrates all of the above policy measures: alternative-fuel vehicles, transport avoidance, shifting to less environmentally damaging modes of transport, new infrastructure, and financial measures. In order to gain public support, this coordinated approach must aim to address not just the environmental impacts of the transport system. It must also create better health and improved quality of life for Europe's citizens.

No publisher transport emissions vehicles health transport noise air pollutants socio-economy 2015/02/18 00:00:00 GMT+1 Briefing
Transport — passenger transport demand and modal split Setting the scene

Transport is fundamental to society and the economy. Passenger transport is necessary for personal mobility and access to goods and services. The accessibility and affordability of passenger transport and the amount of time spent commuting are important contributors to quality of life.[1]

Transport also contributes to a range of environmental pressures and health impacts, including greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, poor air quality and noise levels in urban areas. Transport infrastructure contributes directly to habitat fragmentation, ecosystem degradation, and biodiversity loss. In combination with food, housing, and utilities, transport accounts for more than two thirds of the direct and indirect environmental pressures caused by household consumption.[2]

The SOER 2015 briefing on transport provides an overview of the status, trends and prospects for transport at a European level. This SOER 2015 cross-country comparison focuses on passenger transport demand and use of different transport modes.

About the indicator

The EEA publishes a range of transport indicators. The TERM (Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism) report series provides an annual assessment of developments using a core set of indicators.[3]

The EEA indicator passenger transport demand[4] provides information on trends in volume of passenger transport, modal split and decoupling from economic growth. Passenger transport demand is defined as the volume of inland passenger-kilometres travelled every year.

Modal split is defined as the percentage share of different transport modes in total inland passenger transport. These include transport by passenger cars, buses, coaches, and trains, but do not include air travel, tram and metro, cycling, and walking due to lack of availability of comparable data. Although longer time series are available for some countries, 2005 to 2012 is used as it is the best available in terms of country coverage. 

Data on passenger transport are regularly published by the European Commission as part of transport statistics.[5] Further information on methodology, quality assurance and country-specific differences is published by Eurostat.[6]

Policies, targets and progress

Transport demand has risen in recent decades and is strongly linked to economic activity. One of the objectives of European transport policy and many national policies is a decoupling of the environmental pressures and impacts from transport and economic growth. The European Commission White Paper on Transport also sets a goal of reducing CO2 emissions from transport by at least 60% by 2050 from 1990 levels.[7]

The Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe has an objective to improve overall efficiency in the transport sector in order to deliver greater value in terms of optimal use of resources and reduced impacts.[8] Therefore, optimising transport demand, technological improvements, and a shift in transport modes are essential to meeting these objectives.

There was an overall increase in passenger transport demand in European countries between 2005 and 2012. Demand increased constantly until 2007–2008, but has been stable in recent years.[4] National trends varied significantly during this period, with demand increasing in 23 countries and decreasing in 10 (Figure 1). The largest percentage increases were recorded in Turkey, Bulgaria and Cyprus and the largest decreases were recorded in Lithuania, Italy and Latvia. 

Figure 1: Percentage change in total passenger transport demand in 33 European countries (2005 to 2012)

As different modes of transport have differing environmental effects, it is important not just to look at trends in total demand but also to consider the modal split of transport (Figure 2).

In 2012, the car was the dominant mode of transport in all countries, comprising on average 81% of all passenger transport. The share of car transport varied from a high of 96% in Montenegro to a low of 62% in Turkey. The share of bus transport comprised on average 13% of all passenger transport, ranging from a high of 37% in Turkey to a low of around 3% in Montenegro. The average share of rail transport was around 5%, reaching a high of 17% in Switzerland. 

Figure 2: Modal split of passenger transport in 35 European countries in 2012

There have also been changes over time in the use of different modes of transport. Total car passenger-kilometres for countries as a whole increased from 2005 to 2012 by over 2%. However, national trends varied significantly, with car passenger transport increasing in 25 countries and decreasing in 8 (Figure 3). The largest increases were recorded in Turkey, Bulgaria and Poland, and the largest reductions were recorded in Italy, Lithuania and the Netherlands.

Figure 3: Percentage change in car passenger transport demand in 33 European countries (2005 to 2012)

Those countries that recorded the highest increases in total passenger transport demand also recorded the highest increases in car passenger transport over the same period. Conversely, countries that recorded a decrease in total passenger transport demand also recorded a decrease in car passenger transport over the same period (with the exception of Slovakia). This highlights the dominant role of car transport in shaping overall passenger transport demand.


Given the synergies between transport policy and a range of other areas such as climate, air pollution, biodiversity and health, there are many benefits to be gained from more sustainable passenger transport. Meeting short-term and particularly long-term goals (see [9] for an overview) will require the establishment of new transport patterns in which the greatest number of passengers are carried by the most efficient combination of modes. 

Establishing new transport patterns will require systemic change, as improving the energy efficiency of vehicles will not be enough on its own. Changing the mobility system requires a combination of a new concept of mobility, technologies, and more sustainable behaviour. Changes can take time to implement, as opportunities and developments are influenced by the infrastructure and vehicle fleet already in place. There is evidence of public recognition of the damage caused by current travel patterns and of the need for change. Europeans consider the use of public transport to be one of the top three priorities for protecting the environment, and they report using their cars less and choosing more environmentally-friendly ways of travelling.[10]

European countries have implemented a range of measures and initiatives aimed at minimising the impacts of transport, which include reducing the need for travel and supporting modal shifts. One important contribution to optimising demand will be ensuring the external costs of transport are internalised. This is particularly true in the case of road transport, for which there is increasing evidence that the costs of climate change, air and noise pollution, and health impacts outweigh existing taxes and charges.[3]

In relation to passenger transport, increasing vehicle occupancy through car sharing can reduce overall car transport. The development of high speed rail linking major cities can encourage passengers on long journeys to shift from car to rail. EU-15 Member States have invested heavily in high speed rail since 2000, increasing track capacity by 150% and passenger-kilometres by almost 80%.[4] Public bicycle hire schemes can encourage passengers on shorter journeys to also shift away from car use.[9] The TERM 2014 report provides further country specific information on passenger transport with a focus on long distance transport.[11]

While European policy sets a common framework and shared goals, national and local action is essential to achieving many of these. The variability in trends in passenger transport demand across European countries highlights the potential for greater understanding of the underlying drivers and potential barriers to change. This could be combined with exchange of good practices to facilitate faster uptake of effective measures and initiatives such as the development of Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans for European cities.

Understanding of trends in passenger transport demand would also be improved with better information on vehicle occupancy rates, complementing data on passenger-kilometres with vehicle-kilometres. This would enable determination of what share of the trends observed in overall distance travelled is caused by changes in the average number of passengers in the vehicle. Improved country coverage for data on non-motorised modes of transport would also provide better information on the shift towards more sustainable transport modes across Europe.

No publisher michimau transport emissions transport modes road transport passenger transport vehicles 2015/02/18 00:00:00 GMT+1 Briefing
Trend in emissions of air pollutants from transport No publisher transport emissions air pollution 2014/12/12 12:27:08 GMT+1 Daviz Visualization Change in total GHG emissions from transport No publisher transport emissions ghg emissions 2014/12/12 12:25:45 GMT+1 Daviz Visualization CO2 emissions from passenger transport Grams of CO2 per passenger kilometre No publisher transport emissions co2 emissions passenger transport 2014/12/10 15:14:08 GMT+1 Infographic Reducing environmental impacts of transport Several EU targets have been set to reduce the environmental impacts of transport in Europe, including its greenhouse gas emissions. The transport sector’s targets are part of the EU’s overall goal to reduce greenhouse gas emission by 80-95% by 2050. No publisher transport emissions impacts of transport 2014/12/10 15:13:01 GMT+1 Infographic Change in total GHG emissions from transport No publisher transport emissions ghg emissions 2013/12/12 10:25:13 GMT+1 Daviz Visualization New cars sold in 2011 were 3.3 % more fuel efficient than those sold in 2010 Europeans are buying cars that are more efficient. Average carbon dioxide emissions per kilometre continue to fall in Europe, according to preliminary figures released today. The 2011 data from the European Environment Agency (EEA) also show that car manufacturers are mostly on track to meeting European Union (EU) targets. There were 12.8 million new vehicles registered in the EU in 2011. The average CO2 emissions for these cars was 135.7 grams CO2 per kilometre, which is 4.6g CO2/km less than in 2010 – a reduction of 3.3 %. A combination of changes in buying behaviour, improved technology and engine efficiency was mostly responsible for this reduction, according to EEA analysis.

In addition, the long-term reduction of emissions has been influenced by an increasing uptake of diesel cars, an ongoing trend which continued in 2011. The gap between average CO2 emissions of new diesel and petrol vehicles has been narrowing in recent years – in 2011 it was just 3.2g CO2/km. In 2011, 55.2 % of the vehicles registered in 2011 in Europe were diesel vehicles, an increase from 51.3% in 2010.

Jacqueline McGlade, Executive Director of the EEA said: “We can see new cars becoming more efficient year-on-year – a good example of regulation helping industry to make real improvements. It is also encouraging to see sales of electric cars starting to climb.”

In the EU, CO2 emissions from road transport have increased by 23 % between 1990 and 2010, becoming responsible for approximately one fifth of the EU's total emissions. In order to cut greenhouse gas emissions from transport, carmakers have a collective target for the average car sold in the EU to emit a maximum of 130g CO2/km by 2015 and 95g CO2/km by 2020. Last year the EEA reported that manufacturers had some distance to go to meet the 2015 target.  However, on present trends, the industry as a whole is on track to meeting the 2015 CO2 target.

The preliminary figures will now be verified by car manufacturers before they are confirmed by the European Commission later this year.

Other findings

  • Registration of new cars in the EU increased constantly between 2001 and 2007, peaking at 15.5 million cars, but has fallen continuously since. Between 2010 and 2011 the number of new car registrations increased in many Member States, notably Latvia (71%), Lithuania (68%) and Estonia (66%) , but fell in others, including Greece (-31 %), Portugal (-31%) and Spain (-17 %).
  • The mass of new cars increased slightly in 2011 and is now back to the level seen in 2007 before the economic crisis. Nonetheless, engine capacity, measured in cm3, has decreased by 5 % compared to 2007.
  • Registrations of vehicles using liquefied petroleum gas fell by 76% between 2010 and 2011. This was mostly due to a sharp decline in uptake in France and Italy, countries where this fuel is most commonly used.
  • There were 8,700 pure electric cars registered in 2011. While this number is only 0.07 % of new cars registered, so did not significantly influence the EU average emissions, it is a 10-fold increase on 2010. 
  • Portugal, Malta and Denmark had registered the most carbon-efficient cars on average, with emissions of 125g CO2/km or less. At the less efficient end of the spectrum, new cars registered in Estonia, Latvia and Bulgaria had more than 150g CO2/km on average.

Figure: Evolution of CO2 emissions from new passenger cars by fuel (EU‑27 *)

CO2 from cars

Click for larger figure

Source: Monitoring of CO2 emissions from passenger cars

About this data

For the second year, EEA has collected Member States’ data on passenger cars registrations, in accordance with the Regulation 443/2009, and collated them in a database which covers all passenger vehicles registered in Europe in 2011.

Data collected includes information on CO2 emissions and mass of the vehicles, reported by all Member States in order to evaluate the performance of the new vehicle fleet towards the CO2 emission target (130g CO2/km by 2015).

According to Article 8 of the Regulation 443/2009, Member States must submit information to the European Commission for each new passenger car registered on their territory. There were some late submissions this year, although the EEA has noted improvements in the data submitted for some Member States.

No publisher climate change carbon dioxide road transport transport emissions cars 2012/06/20 10:45:00 GMT+1 Highlight
Reducing speed limits on motorways: how good is it for the environment? Lower speed limits on motorways are generally associated with road safety. But several European countries are now debating whether they also benefit the environment and, if so, how much. There is no simple way of measuring the environmental benefits of lower speed limits but several factors clearly play a key role.  

The theory is simple enough. Lower speed limits on motorways should reduce fuel consumption and pollutant emissions, particularly for passenger cars. Assuming smooth driving (little acceleration and braking), current technology passenger cars and total compliance with speed limits, it is estimated that cutting the motorway speed limit from 120 to 110 km per hour would reduce fuel consumption by 12 % for diesel cars and 18 % for gasoline cars.

Of course, these assumptions are quite artificial. In reality, a variety of factors are likely to limit the fuel savings, including the energy efficiency levels of the vehicle fleet, driving patterns, speeding and traffic congestion. In a more realistic scenario — including speed limit exceedances and frequent fluctuations in driving speeds — the actual fuel savings would be just 2–3 %.


Transport emissions must be cut

The debate around motorway speed limits is timely, given the urgent need to address global warming and air pollution.

Compared to 1990, the EU has significantly reduced its total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with policy and technology helping break the link between economic growth and GHG emissions in almost all sectors. The only clear exception is transport, where GHG emissions actually rose by 25 % between 1990 and 2008 in the 32 EEA member countries (these numbers exclude the international maritime and aviation sectors).

Transport accounts for nearly 20 % of the European Union's greenhouse gas emissions with carbon dioxide (CO2) comprising the main component of transport emissions (99 %). Road transport is, in turn, the largest contributor to CO2 emissions from the transport sector (around 94 % in 2008), thus accounting for more than 18 % of the EU-27's total emissions. As such, Europe must tackle transport emissions if it is to achieve significant reductions in its overall GHG emissions.

Evidently, transport sector's impact on the environment is not limited to GHG emissions. Notwithstanding recent reductions in air pollutant emissions, road transport remains the largest emitter of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and the second largest contributor of pollutants forming particulate matter (PM). Lowering speed limits (thereby reducing fuel consumption) and cleaner technology, in particular for diesel vehicles, would reduce NOx and PM emissions and consequently help improve Europe’s air quality.

Cleaner technology is not enough

New vehicles are, on average, more energy-efficient than older vehicles. The recent EU regulation on cars and CO2 and the agreement on similar legislation for light commercial vehicles will improve this further. Unfortunately, however, full fleet penetration of these new technologies is expected to take almost two decades. Moreover, reductions in GHG emissions are likely to be offset by the expected growth in transport volumes. Other measures must therefore be considered to achieve cut GHG emissions and energy consumption in the short term.

Europeans favour slower journeys — at least in theory

Setting a speed limit requires striking a balance between mobility, safety and the environment. On a 200 km long trip, the reduction of the speed limit from 120 to 110 km/hour would mean an extra travel time of around eight to nine minutes, assuming perfect traffic flow.

Are European drivers ready to accept slightly longer travel times? The answer is probably "yes". According to a recent public poll (Flash Eurobarometer Report, no. 312, Future of Transport), about two thirds of EU citizens were willing to compromise a car's speed in order to reduce emissions.

The reality on the roads, however, appears to be quite contradictory. Around 40–50 % of drivers (up to 80 % depending on the country and type of roads) drive above legal speed limits ([1]). Clearly, drivers' theoretical support for lower limits is not enough. Compliance and tighter enforcement are also essential to achieve concrete results.

More information


[1] Speed management OECD-ECMT 2006

No publisher air pollutant emissions GHG emissions greenhouse gas emissions Air Pollution climate change road transport fuel consumption motorways emissions transport emissions technology transport speed limits emissions reduction 2011/03/29 14:06:50 GMT+1 Article



The EU is acting on transport emissions



Emission trading for transport?




Cleaner cars but more of them




The electric car — a green transport revolution in the making? The electric car finally seems to be on the verge of breaking through, offering significant environmental benefits, especially in urban areas. Innovative business models are on the way which should boost consumer acceptance and overcome the remaining barriers, such as high battery costs, green electricity supply and charging infrastructure. Several European countries as well as the US, Japan, China and others, have recently announced bold plans for the introduction of electric vehicles. These include fiscal incentives, funding research on batteries and electric vehicles and plans for the deployment of a charging infrastructure. Major cities such as London and Paris have announced electric car-sharing systems, while public administrations and companies using large captive fleets are purchasing electric vehicles.

At the same time, utilities, car manufacturers, battery producers and academics are joining forces on initiatives such as the EURELECTRIC Task Force on Electric Vehicles and EpoSS, the European Technology Platform on Smart Systems Integration. Together with the European Investment Bank the European Commission has launched the European Green Cars Initiative, with EUR 5 billion partly dedicated to the research, development and manufacturing of batteries and electric cars and to demonstration projects.

This flurry of activity seems to indicate that the electric car is heading for a major breakthrough at last - but is it here to stay this time? History calls for caution. The production of electric vehicles began as far back as 1838 – 52 years before combustion engine vehicles. However, after 1913 the mass commercialisation of the combustion engine led to a rapid decline in electric vehicles. Attempts to reintroduce electric vehicles in past decades have for the most part been unsuccessful and they still represent a very small, niche market.

Yet today the future looks brighter. A great deal of progress has been made in battery technology and electric vehicles are expected to re-enter the market on a large scale within the next couple of years. Based on a moderate growth scenario, by 2050, electric vehicles could represent more than 60 % of new sales and constitute up to 25 % of the global car fleet. However, estimates of the extent of future deployment vary greatly, as there is still some uncertainty in relation to the development of technology and future consumer behaviour.

Electric cars: the silver environmental bullet?

Electric vehicles have zero tailpipe emissions, but there are, of course, emissions involved in the production of electricity. One major benefit of electric vehicles is the "displacement" of harmful air pollutants from urban to rural areas, where population exposure is lower. Noise levels are also lower, particularly in urban driving conditions.

Another major advantage of electric vehicles is their energy efficiency. With a tank-to-wheel efficiency in the range of 60 to 80 %, they outperform conventional cars four-fold. Generally, electric vehicles show greatest energy savings at low speeds and in situations involving frequently-changing driving dynamics, which is another reason why cities are a prime target market.

Thanks to their energy efficiency, and assuming that electricity generation will be even greener in the future, electric vehicles could contribute to a considerable reduction in greenhouse gases. Given the ongoing debate on climate change, this could prove to be an important factor. Indeed, transport is responsible for more than a fifth of the EU's greenhouse gas emissions and it is the only sector with growing emissions. While the improvement of internal combustion engines still offers considerable potential for reducing emissions per kilometre driven, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions over and above 50 % will require new technological solutions, such as the electric vehicle.

Compared to conventional vehicles, and based on the current average European electricity supply, electric vehicles have 50 % less emissions. Further benefits can be achieved if the carbon intensity of power generation continues to decrease with further greener and renewable energy sources.

There are, however, still some obstacles related to green electricity supply, the as yet expensive battery technology, the limited driving range and the need for a dense network of electric charging facilities. To overcome these obstacles, innovative business models are being developed to help transform automotive transport.

Integrated transport and energy concepts

To be a success, the electric car has to be introduced onto the market as part of an overall transport and energy concept rather than stand-alone technology. If millions of vehicles are to be connected to electricity grids without a negative impact on the environment, there must be an integrated approach to power supply and demand (from electric vehicles), to ensure the use of green electricity sources. Otherwise, the anticipated increase in peak load demand would require new investments in electricity generation and grid capacity.

Scientists and engineers from the automobile industry and electricity supply companies are already working on 'smart electricity grids' for the vehicle-to-grid connection interface. This will enable electric vehicles to become an inherent part of the electricity supply and distribution system. Electric cars would not only run on green electricity, but could also be used to store and supply electricity back to the grid when needed. In this way, electric transport would also boost the further development of green electricity.

Battery leasing and smart electricity grids

Today's battery costs have a price premium of EUR 15,000 to 40,000. As technological progress is made and economies of scale begin to kick in, this could decrease to under EUR 10,000 in the mid-term and EUR 5,000 in the longer-term. To compensate for these higher costs, some countries and cities have announced important incentives, such as tax rebates and subsidies, free parking in urban areas and exemption from congestion charges and road taxes.

Another promising way of limiting battery costs is the battery leasing formula, whereby the electricity company owns the batteries and leases them to car owners. The Norwegian THINK City electric vehicle initiative already offers such a battery-leasing concept. The vehicle manufacturer retains the ownership of the batteries, which also guarantees the supply of the most advanced battery technology and replacement in the event of deteriorating performance.

Currently, the driving range of electric vehicles is limited to around 200 kilometres. A dense charging infrastructure is needed in public spaces to permit frequent recharging during idle hours. There is also the time element to consider; recharging a battery can take from 3 to 8 hours, assuming a conventional plug-in to the electric grid. Given that vehicles are parked an average of 95 % of the time, this should not pose a problem if charging points are widely available.

In addition, innovative charging solutions are in the pipeline. High-power, fast charging stations could reduce the charging time to less than 30 minutes. Smart grid systems for the vehicle-to-grid connection interface could allow an optimisation of battery charging. This, in turn, could become attractive to utility companies with regard to the management of the electric grid and the fluctuating supply and demand of energy.

An important frontrunner in this regard is 'Better Place', a US start-up company that plans to build a dense network of battery charging and exchange stations for electric vehicles. Together with a Renault-Nissan alliance, Better Place has been developing prototype electric vehicles on which battery exchange takes only a few minutes. A leasing scheme will provide both the battery system and the energy supply. The subscription model, similar to that for mobile phones, would charge drivers of electric vehicles according to the distance travelled. The first charging networks are due to begin operating in 2010/11 in Denmark, Israel and Portugal. Similar projects are planned in other countries, including the US (California and Hawaii), Canada (Ontario) and Australia.

Getting the buy-in from consumers

For the electric car to achieve a large-scale breakthrough, technology and smart transport - energy systems alone will not suffice. Electric vehicles will only have a positive impact on the environment if they replace a significant amount of the mileage driven in conventional cars. A fundamental change in purchasing and mobility behaviour is therefore crucial. This is where lifestyle choices and mobility planning come in.

In Europe, more than 80 % of car journeys average below 20 km and Europeans drive less than 40 km per day. This means that most of our trips can be perfectly accommodated by a mid-size electric car. Yet people still tend to buy cars that greatly exceed their daily requirements, preferring to buy large cars that can also cover the occasional long distance holiday, for example.

To change this consumer behaviour, alternatives must be made available. For instance, electric vehicles could be used for short distances and daily trips, while a supplementary conventional or hybrid vehicle (rented or owned) could be used for the occasional longer journey. Recent research also shows that people are likely to become more open to flexible access to transport as time goes on and by 2020 they should be less dependent on their own car. Electric car-sharing services could further foster this development, and are already being piloted in cities such as Paris (Autolib) and Oslo (Move About).

Finally, electric transport also needs to be tied into an overall mobility concept that provides new links between different means of transport. A combination of electric car-sharing with mass transit services (e.g. train) would extend the network coverage of public transport providers far beyond their traditional nodes.

Policy-makers, researchers, car manufacturers and utilities will have to ensure that smart technology and new business models are available to ensure that electric mobility can deliver its potential environmental benefits to the full. Informed and supportive consumers are needed to make this happen.


Environmental impacts and impact on the electricity market of a large scale introduction of electric cars in Europe - Critical Review of Literature. ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2009/4

No publisher transport emissions GHG emissions greenhouse gas emissions cars energy road transport consumer behaviour cities transport vehicles hybrid vehicles electric cars taxes 2010/01/18 09:19:56 GMT+1 Article
Transport at a crossroads. TERM 2008: indicators tracking transport and environment in the European Union The TERM 2008 report examines the performance of the transport sector vis-a-vis environmental performance. It concludes that there are plenty of options for synergies between different policy initiatives but also a risk of measures counteracting each other. No publisher transport emissions policy integration noise air quality air pollution climate change freight transport transport demand global warming modal split transport noise habitat fragmentation transport passenger transport fuel prices greenhouse gas emissions biofuels 2009/03/31 10:00:00 GMT+1 Publication Beyond transport policy – exploring and managing the external drivers of transport demand No publisher carbon footprint sustainable transport car ownership climate change transport demand pork road capacity migration transport consumption transport emissions food consumption freight transport rail education based travel passenger transport shopping journey tourism food transport road safety CO2 emissions food production air transport low-cost flights greenhouse gas emissions 2008/12/19 00:00:00 GMT+1 Publication Greenhouse gas emission trends and projections in Europe 2008 No publisher transport emissions climate change combined heat and power Kyoto targets CHP climate change mitigation emissions trends and projections Kyoto protocol emissions from agriculture global warming waste EU ETS policy measures Kyoto Protocol emissions from industry greenhouse gas emissions emissions trading scheme greenhouse gases 2008/10/16 11:00:00 GMT+1 Publication Clean air for Europe Air pollution is a growing concern in the area of public health. Scientific research shows that air pollutants are behind a higher number of diseases such as respiratory allergies, asthma and inflammatory conditions. It is the most vulnerable segments of populations, the elderly and children, who are the first to be affected by this phenomenon. In May 2001, the European Commission launched its " Clean Air for Europe " (CAFE) programme. This is a three-year programme intended to investigate all sources of air pollution and provide solutions to reduce them. No publisher transport emissions hydrocarbons air quality air pollution industry road transport diesel shipping human health exhaust gas nitrous oxide CAFE agriculture carbon monoxide ground-level ozone fuel cells ultrafine particles electric cars 2008/02/27 10:53:36 GMT+1 File