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Primary human somatic cells grown in culture divide a finite number

Primary human somatic cells grown in culture divide a finite number of times, exhibiting progressive changes in metabolism and morphology before cessation of cycling. ability to grow in culture) can be averted if human telomerase (hTERT) is ectopically expressed, which demonstrates that telomere shortening is the primary cause of replicative senescence. However, oxidative damage to telomeric DNA can also play an important role in determining senescence kinetics [21C23]. The precise relationship between replicative senescence observed in cell culture and natural human and animal aging is a subject of much debate. In both intact organisms and in cultured cells progressive telomere shortening occurs, cell stress responses Notch1 are elevated, and intracellular levels of both iron and oxidative byproducts become increased with age (passage) [6,15,21,24,25]. Cells with many of the characteristics of senescent cells have been found in the tissues of aged animals, accounting for between 1% and 226929-39-1 manufacture 15% of the total cell population in different reports. Such cells are detectable at higher levels in older animals than in younger ones [21,26,27], another indication that the study of senescence of cultured cells has relevance to aging. A similar process of replicative senescence with associated telomere shortening is observed in cultured cells of other organisms, including telomerase-defective cells of the widely studied model eukaryote (budding yeast) [28C30]. Yeast cells produce a telomerase complex analogous to human telomerase that is composed of both RNA and protein subunits. These components include Est1, Est2 (the polymerase subunit), Est3 and RNA contains an internal 17 nucleotide sequence (CACCACACCCACACACA) that is used as a template by the enzyme to synthesize new telomeric DNA repeats. The essential telomere-associated protein Cdc13 is also critical for telomerase function [31]. Inactivation of or leads to progressive telomere shortening, degradation of DNA ends by Exo1 and possibly other nucleases, gross cell enlargement and loss of growth capability after approximately 60 cell divisions [29,30,32]. During senescence in liquid culture most yeast cells also undergo cell cycle arrest in G2 phase that is dependent upon the checkpoint genes and a subset of other genes known to be involved in normal DNA damage responses [29,30]. Interestingly, although telomerase-deficient cells that also have the checkpoint genes and inactivated do not arrest strongly in G2, they still undergo senescence (loss of growth capability). Senescence kinetics is also dependent on functional DNA repair genes, especially the RAD52 group of homologous recombination genes [28,33C35]. Rare cells called survivors that bypass senescence have been detected in aging yeast cell cultures. Mechanisms for producing such telomerase-independent survivors include epigenetic effects leading to elevation of recombination between telomeric repeats, circularization of chromosomes to eliminate all ends (observed in fission yeast), and an unusual mechanism detected in mutants that involves formation of expanded palindromes near chromosome ends [34,36C38]. In the current study we have expanded the utility of the yeast model for studying cellular senescence by placing expression of the polymerase subunit under control of a modified galactose-inducible promoter (containing plasmid pLKL82Y [gene from plasmid pVL999 (promoter cloned into pRS316 (mutants were incubated for longer times because they grow more slowly than wt cells. 226929-39-1 manufacture Colonies on each plate were counted and plating efficiencies were calculated. Plating efficiency was defined as the titer (cells per ml) determined from colonies divided by the titer determined microscopically using a hemacytometer. For plate senescence assays, cells were streaked from synthetic galactose plates without uracil onto synthetic glucose plates lacking uracil essentially as 226929-39-1 manufacture previously described [34]. After incubation at 30 C for 3 days, cells divided approximately 20 times and formed colonies. Individual colonies were picked and restreaked onto fresh plates and incubated at 30 C as before. This process was repeated until senescence (loss of ability to grow) was observed. The senescent phenotype was visible by the fourth streak in cells (~ 60 generations) and by the third streak (~ 40 generations) in certain DNA repair mutants.