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"Circumcision and "genital piercing: Two Kenyah-Dajaks, with "ampallang piercings - "Borneo, 1920 (left) and modern man with "Prince Albert piercing (right)

The terms genital modification and genital mutilation can refer to permanent or temporary changes to "human sex organs. Some forms of genital alteration are performed on adults with their informed consent at their own behest, usually for aesthetic reasons or to enhance stimulation. However, other forms are performed on people who do not give informed consent, including infants or children. Any of these procedures may be considered modifications or mutilations in different cultural contexts and by different groups of people.



Body modification[edit]

Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons. "Penile subincision, or splitting of the underside of the penis, is widespread in the traditional cultures of "Indigenous Australians. This procedure has taken root in Western "body modification culture, the "modern primitives. "Meatotomy is a form that involves splitting of the "glans penis alone, while bisection is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half.

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Contemporary, western women with "clitoral hood piercing and "genital tattooing (left) and "Hanabira (right)

"Genital piercings and "genital tattooing may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings have the benefit of increasing "sexual pleasure for the pierced individual or their "sex partners.[1][2]

Similarly, "Pearling involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina. Similar to tattooing, "genital scarification is primarily done for aesthetic reasons by adding cosmetic scars to the skin. The genital decoration by scars is an ancient tradition in many cultures, both for men and women.[3] The "Hanabira-style (Jap. for "petal) is a special form of scarification originating in Japan, it involves the decoration of the "mons pubis.[4][5]

"Clitoris enlargement may be achieved temporarily through the use of a "clitoral pump, or it may be achieved permanently through the "application or injection of testosterone. "Penis enlargement is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated.

Voluntary sex reassignment[edit]

People who are "transgender or "intersex may undergo "sex reassignment surgery in order to modify their bodies to match their "gender identity. Not all transgender people elect to have these surgeries, but those who do usually see an improvement in their sexual lives as well as their mental and emotional well-being.[6] Some of the surgical procedures are "breast augmentation and "vaginoplasty for "trans women and "mastectomy, "metoidioplasty, and "phalloplasty for "trans men. Trans women may also benefit from hair removal and facial feminization surgery, while some trans men may have "liposuction to remove fat deposits around their hips and thighs.

"Hijra, a "third gender found in the "Indian subcontinent, may opt to undergo "castration.[7]

Involuntary sex assignment[edit]

"Intersex children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to genital surgeries to "normalize" the appearance of the genitalia. These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic benefits. Most surgeries involving children with ambiguous genitalia are sexually damaging and may render them "infertile.[8] For example, in cases involving male children with "micropenis, doctors may recommend the child be reassigned as female.[9] The "Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) objects to elective surgeries performed on people without their informed consent on grounds that such surgeries subject patients to unnecessary harm and risk.[10]

In some cases, a child's gender may be reassigned due to genital injury. There have been at least seven cases of healthy male infants being reassigned as female due to "circumcision damaging their penises beyond repair,[11][12][13][14] including the late "David Reimer (born Bruce Reimer, later Brenda Reimer), who was the subject of "John Money's John/Joan case, an unnamed American child, who was awarded $750,000 by Judge "Walter McGovern of the "Federal District Court after a military doctor was found guilty of "medical malpractice in 1975, and an unnamed child who was circumcised at "Northside Hospital, who received an undisclosed amount of money from the hospital.

In "India, "Andhra Pradesh a 75 year old surgeon working at the kurnool government hospital in kadappa named as naganna was arrested by the "CB-CID for conducting forced sex change surgeries on kidnapped victims for nearly a decade by using a nationwide network of "hijras, "transgenders.[15][16][17]

As treatment[edit]

If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo "vaginectomy or "vulvectomy, while males may undergo "penectomy. "Reconstructive surgery may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in "sex reassignment surgery.

During "childbirth, an "episiotomy (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge. Advocates of "natural childbirth and "unassisted birth state that this intervention is often performed without medical necessity, with significant damage to the person giving birth.

"Hymenotomy is the surgical perforation of an "imperforate hymen. It may be performed to allow "menstruation to occur. An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate "sexual penetration of her vagina.

The world's first penis reduction surgery was performed in 2015, on a 17-year-old boy who had an "American football-shaped penis as a result of recurrent "priapism.[18]


A person may engage in self-inflicted genital injury or mutilation such as "castration, "penectomy, or "clitoridectomy. The motivation behind such actions vary widely; it may be done due to "skoptic syndrome, personal crisis related to "gender identity, "mental illness, "self-mutilation, "body dysmorphia, or social reasons.


Female genital mutilation[edit]

Prevalence of FGM by country, according to a 2013 UNICEF report[19]

"Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external "female genitalia or other surgery of the female "genital organs whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons."[20] It is not the same as the procedures used in "gender reassignment surgery or the "genital modification of "intersex persons. It is practised in several parts of the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, parts of the Middle East, and some other parts of Asia. Over 125 million women and girls have experienced FGM in the 29 countries in which it is concentrated.[21] Over eight million have been "infibulated, a practice found largely in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan.[22] "Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM (known as Type III), consists of the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, while a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood; afterwards the vagina will be opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth (see "episiotomy). In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice. However, because of its importance in traditional life, it continues to be practised in many societies.[23]


"Hymenorrhaphy refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly created vaginal tissue. This new hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina. This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female "virginity at the time of marriage. In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not virginal at the time of "consummation of her marriage.["citation needed] Individuals who are victims of "rape, who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy.

Labia stretching[edit]

"Labia stretching is the act of elongating the "labia minora through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights).[24][25] It is a familial "cultural practice in Rwanda,[24] common in "Sub-Saharan Africa,[26] and a "body modification practice elsewhere.[25] It is performed for sexual enhancement of both partners, aesthetics, symmetry and gratification.[24][25]

Labiaplasty and vaginoplasty[edit]

Vulva with labia minora surgically removed

"Cosmetic surgery of female genitalia, known as elective genitoplasty, has become pejoratively known as ″designer vagina″. In May 2007, an article published in the "British Medical Journal strongly criticised this craze, citing its popularity being rooted in commercial and media influences.[27][28] Similar concerns have been expressed in Australia.[27]

Some women undergo "vaginoplasty or "labiaplasty procedures to alter the shape of their "vulvas to meet personal or societal "aesthetic standards.[29] The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".[30][31][32]


Clitoral hood reduction[edit]

"Clitoral hood reduction is a form of hoodplasty. When performed with the consent of the adult individual, it can be considered an "elective "plastic surgery procedure for reducing the size and the area of the "clitoral hood (prepuce) in order to further expose the "clitoral glans of the "clitoris; the therapeutic goal is thought to improve the sexual functioning of the woman, and the aesthetic appeal of her "vulva. The reduction of the clitoral prepuce tissues usually is a sub-ordinate surgery within a "labiaplasty procedure for reducing the "labia minora; and occasionally within a "vaginoplasty procedure. When these procedures are performed on individuals without their consent, they are considered a form of "female genital mutilation.



Castration in the genital modification and mutilation context is the removal of the "testicles. Sometimes the term (meaning "cutting") is also used to refer to penis removal, but that is less common.




Prevalence of male circumcision by country
Before and after circumcision, in this case done to treat "phimosis

"Circumcision is the surgical removal of part or all of the "foreskin. It is usually performed for "religious, cultural or medical reasons and leaves some or all of the glans permanently exposed. "Jews and many "Americans typically have their infants circumcised during the "neonatal period, while "Filipinos, most Muslims and African tribes such as the "Maasai and "Xhosa circumcise in teenage years or childhood as an initiation into adulthood.

In modern medicine, circumcision may be used as treatment for severe "phimosis or recurrent "balanitis. Advocacy is often centered on "preventive medicine while opposition is often centered on "human rights (particularly the "bodily integrity of the infant when circumcision is performed in the neonatal period) and the potentially harmful side effects of the procedure.[35][36][37] Neonatal circumcision is generally safe when done by an experienced practitioner, with complications being rare, though death has been reported in some cases.[38]

The "World Health Organization estimates that one-third of the world's men are circumcised.[39]

Foreskin restoration[edit]

Foreskin restoration is the partial recreation of the "foreskin after its removal by "circumcision. Surgical restoration involves grafting skin taken from the "scrotum onto a portion of the penile shaft. Nonsurgical methods involve "tissue expansion by stretching the penile skin forward over the "glans penis with the aid of "tension. Nonsurgical restoration is the preferred method as it is less costly and typically yields better results than surgical restoration. A foreskin restoration device may be of help to men pursuing nonsurgical foreskin restoration. While restoration cannot recreate the nerves or tissues lost to circumcision, it can recreate the appearance and some of the function of a natural foreskin.


The Greek poet "Anacreon (582 BCE – 485 BCE), showing "kynodesmē

Infibulation literally means to close with a clasp or a pin. The word is used to include "suturing of the foreskin over the "head of the penis.

Infibulation is seen in rock art in Southern Africa.[40][41]

Early Greek infibulation consisted of piercing the foreskin and applying a gold, silver or bronze ring (annulus), a metal clasp (fibula) or pin. This was done for aesthetic reasons. The Greeks also used a nonsurgical form of infibulation by wearing a "kynodesme.[42] Infibulation in Romano-Greek culture is attested as early as Aulus Cornelius Celcus (25 BC-50 AD) and as late as Oribasisus (325-405 AD).[43]


In modern times, male infibulation may be performed for personal preferences or as part of "BDSM.


Also known as total castration or nullification, emasculation is the combination of castration and penectomy.

Due to the high risk of death from bleeding and infection, it was often considered a punishment equivalent to a death sentence. It was part of the eunuch making of the Chinese court, and it was widespread in the Arab slave trade. A castrated slave was worth more, and this offset the losses from death.[45]

"Nullification is the term used by the modern body modification community.





Male genital area after partial "penectomy

Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of "penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with "castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on "eunuchs and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a "harem. The "Hijra of India may remove their penis as an expression of their "gender identity. In the medical field, removal of the penis may be performed for reasons of "gangrene or "cancer. Penis removal may occur through unintentional genital injury.

In the "ulwaluko circumcision ceremony, which is performed by spear, accidental penectomy is a serious risk.[46]

"Penis removal for purposes of assault or revenge is overwhelmingly a female-on-male crime, particularly in "Thailand. "Lorena Bobbit infamously removed her husband's penis in 1993. In some circumstances it may be possible to reattach the penis.

Penile subincision[edit]

Penile subincision

Penile subincision is a form of genital modification involves a "urethrotomy and vertically slitting the underside of the penis from the "meatus towards to the base. It is performed by people of many cultures, such as the "Indigenous Australians, the "Arrente, the "Luritja, the "Samburu, the "Samoans, and the "Native Hawaiians. It may also be performed for personal preference. Penile subincision may leave a man with an increased risk of "sexually transmitted diseases, issues with fertility (due to lack of control over what direction the sperm goes after "ejaculation), and may require a man to sit down while "urinating.[47] When the surgery is not performed in a hospital or by a licensed medical professional, complications such as infection, "exsanguination, or permanent damage are major concerns.

Penile superincision[edit]

A dorsal slit (also known as superincision) is an incision made along the upper length of the foreskin with the intention to expose the "glans penis without removing skin or tissue.



It may be performed as a part of traditional customs, such as those in the "Pacific Islands and the "Philippines. In the medical field, it may be performed for as an alternative to "circumcision when circumcision is undesired or impractical. It remains a rare surgery and practice overall.

See also[edit]


  1. ^ Neluis T., Armstrong M. L., Young C., Roberts A. E., Hogan L., Rinard K. (2014). "Prevalence and implications of genital tattoos: A site not forgotten". British Journal of Medical Practitioners. 7 (4). 
  2. ^ "Penises, Piercings and Pleasure". 
  3. ^ Angulo J. C., García-Díez M., Martínez M. (2011). "Phallic decoration in paleolithic art: genital scarification, piercing and tattoos". The Journal of Urology. 186 (6): 2498–2503. "doi:10.1016/j.juro.2011.07.077. 
  4. ^ Schnittiger Trend? Scarification statt Tattoo - Stylight
  5. ^ Cutting Tattoos: Ziernarben statt Tinte - Erdbeerlounge
  6. ^ Cuypere G.; T'Sjoen G.; Beerten R.; Selvaggi G.; Sutter P.; Hoebeke P.; Monstrey S.; Vansteenwegen A.; Rubens R. (2005). "Sexual and physical health after sex reassignment surgery". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 34 (6): 679–690. "doi:10.1007/s10508-005-7926-5. "PMID 16362252. 
  7. ^ Nanda, Serena (1999). Neither Man nor Woman: the Hijras of India (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. "ISBN "9780534509033. 
  8. ^ ISNA's Amicus Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery "The Intersex Society of North America, Dated February 7, 1998
  10. ^ What's ISNA's position on surgery? - "The Intersex Society of North America
  11. ^ Gearhart JP, Rock JA (1989). "Total ablation of the penis after circumcision with electrocautery: a method of management and long-term followup". J Urol. 142 (3): 799–801. "doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)38893-6. 
  12. ^ "David Reimer, 38, Subject of the John/Joan Case" "The New York Times, New York, USA, Published May 12, 2004
  13. ^ "Family Is Awarded $850,000 For Circumcision Accident" "The New York Times, New York, USA, Published November 2, 1975
  15. ^ "End of the line for sex-change doctor | Latest News & Updates at Daily News & Analysis". dna. 8 April 2009. 
  16. ^ "CB-CID instructs probe into begging rackets - Times of India". The Times of India. 
  17. ^ "CBCID to seek custody of Kadapa doctor". The Hindu. 8 April 2009. 
  18. ^ "Penis Reduction Surgery Is No Laughing Matter". 
  20. ^ Definition of the "World Health Organization



    UNICEF 2013, p. 182, identifies "sewn closed" as most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia for 15–49 age group (survey in 2000 for Sudan was not included), and for daughters, Djibouti, Eritrea, Niger and Somalia. UNICEF statistical profiles on FGM, showing type of FGM: Djibouti Archived 2014-10-30 at the "Wayback Machine. (December 2013), Eritrea Archived 2014-10-30 at the "Wayback Machine. (July 2014), Somalia Archived October 30, 2014, at the "Wayback Machine. (December 2013).


  23. ^ nthWORD Magazine. "nthWORD Magazine Interview with Liz Canner, filmmaker of Orgasm, Inc". Nthword.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-14. Retrieved 2010-11-07. 
  28. ^ Liao, Lih Mei; Sarah M Creighton (2007-05-26). "Requests for cosmetic genitoplasty: how should healthcare providers respond?". BMJ. "British Medical Journal. 334 (7603): 1090–1092. "doi:10.1136/bmj.39206.422269.BE. "PMC 1877941Freely accessible. "PMID 17525451. Retrieved 2007-05-29. 
  29. ^ The Perfect Vagina Documentary Retrieved 13 February 2011.
  30. ^ Green Fiona (2005). "From clitoridectomies to 'designer vaginas': The medical construction of heteronormative female bodies and sexuality through female genital cutting". Sexualities, Evolution & Gender. 7 (2): 153–187. "doi:10.1080/14616660500200223. 
  31. ^ Essen B, Johnsdotter S (2004). "Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery". Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 83: 611–613. "doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. 
  32. ^ Braun Virginia (2005). "In search of (better) sexual pleasure: female genital 'cosmetic' surgery". Sexualities. 8 (4): 407–424. "doi:10.1177/1363460705056625. 
  34. ^ Rodrigues Sara (2012). "From Vaginal Exception to Exceptional Vagina: The Biopolitics of Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery". Sexualities. 15: 778–94. "doi:10.1177/1363460712454073. 
  35. ^ Svoboda, J. S. (2013). "Circumcision of male infants as a human rights violation". Journal of Medical Ethics. 39 (7): 469–474. "doi:10.1136/medethics-2012-101229. "ISSN 0306-6800. 
  36. ^ Dekkers (June 2009). "Routine (non-religious) neonatal circumcision and bodily integrity: a transatlantic dialogue". Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal. 19 (2): 125–46. "doi:10.1353/ken.0.0279. "PMID 19623819. 
  37. ^ Fadel, Petrina (Spring 2003). "Respect for Bodily Integrity: A Catholic Perspective on Circumcision in Catholic Hospitals". The American Journal of Bioethics. 3 (2): 1f–3f. "doi:10.1162/152651603766436379. "PMID 12859800. 
  38. ^ Krill, Aaron J.; Palmer, Lane S.; Palmer, Jeffrey S. (26 December 2011). "Complications of Circumcision". The Scientific World Journal. 11: 2458–2468. "doi:10.1100/2011/373829. "ISSN 2356-6140. "PMC 3253617Freely accessible. "PMID 22235177. 
  39. ^ "Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability" (PDF). "World Health Organization. 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-04. 
  42. ^ a b Hodges FM (2001). "The ideal prepuce in ancient Greece and Rome. male genital aesthetics and their relation to lipodermos, circumcision, foreskin restoration, and the kynodesme". Bull Hist Med. 75: 375–405. "doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. "PMID 11568485.  Hodges draws a strong distinction between the kynodesme and infibulation "Tethering the akroposthion with the kynodesme is frequently confused with preputial infibulation, which had different objectives and was achieved by surgically piercing the prepuce and using the holes so created for the insertion of a metal clasp (fibula) in order to fasten the prepuce shut."
  43. ^ a b D. Schultheiss; J.J. Mattelaer; F.M. Hodges (2003). "Preputial infibulation: from ancient medicine to modern genital piercing". BJU International. 92 (7): 758–763. "doi:10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04490.x. 
  45. ^ Murray Gordon (1989). Slavery in the Arab World. Rowman & Littlefield. "ISBN "978-0-941533-30-0. 
  46. ^ Rijken, D.J. (2014). Description of the problems accompanying the ritual of Ulwaluko. Ulwaluko.co.za. Retrieved 2014-03-28.
  47. ^ "Meatotomy - BME Encyclopedia". wiki.bme.com. Retrieved 2017-12-13. 

External links[edit]
