The Info List - Helots

--- Advertisement ---

This article is part of the series: Spartan Constitution

Great Rhetra Laws of Lycurgus Politeia

List of Kings of Sparta Gerousia Ephorate Apella Spartiates Perioeci Helots Agoge Syssitia

Spartan army •   Other Greek city-states •  Law Portal

view talk edit

The helots (/ˈhɛləts, ˈhiːləts/; Ancient Greek: εἵλωτες, heílotes) were a subjugated population group that formed the main population of Laconia
and Messenia, the territory controlled by Sparta. Their exact status was already disputed in antiquity: according to Critias, they were "slaves to the utmost",[1] whereas according to Pollux, they occupied a status "between free men and slaves".[2] Tied to the land, they primarily worked in agriculture as a majority and economically supported the Spartan citizens. The number of helots in relation to Spartan citizens varied throughout the history of the Spartan state; according to Herodotus, there were seven helots for each Spartan at the time of the Battle of Plataea
Battle of Plataea
in 479 BC.[3] Thus the need to keep helot population in check and preventing rebellion was one of the main concerns of the Spartans. Helots
were ritually mistreated, humiliated and even slaughtered: every autumn the Spartans would declare war on the helots so they could be killed by a member of the Crypteia without fear of repercussion.[4][5][6] Uprisings and attempts to improve the lot of the helots did occur, such as the Conspiracy of Cinadon.


1 Etymology 2 System

2.1 Treatment by Spartans 2.2 Status 2.3 Helots
and klēroi 2.4 Demography 2.5 Emancipation 2.6 A special case: mothakes and mothones

3 Revolts

3.1 The Pausanias plot 3.2 Massacre at Taenarus 3.3 Third Messenian War 3.4 Athenian outposts

4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links

Etymology[edit] Several theories exist regarding the origin of the name "helot". According to Hellanicus, the word relates to the village of Helos, in the south of Sparta.[7] Pausanias thus states, "Its inhabitants became the first slaves of the Lacedaemonian state, and were the first to be called helots".[8] This explanation is however not very plausible in etymological terms.[9] Linguists have associated the word with the root ϝελ-, wel-, as in ἁλίσκομαι, halískomai, "to be captured, to be made prisoner". In fact, some ancient authors did not consider the term ethnic, but rather an indication of servitude: Antiochus of Syracuse writes: "those of the Lacedaemonians who did not take part in the expedition were adjudged slaves and were named helots",[10] while Theopompus (fragment 122), cited by Athenaeus
(VI, 416c), states, "...and the one nation called their slaves helots and the others called them penestae..." [11]

In all of these texts, the christening of the group as helots is the central and symbolic moment of their reduction to serfhood. By this name they are thus institutionally distinguished from the anonymous douloi (slaves).[12]

Certainly conquest comprised one aspect of helotism; thus Messenians, who were conquered in the Messenian Wars of the 8th century BC, become synonymous in Herodotus
with helots. The situation seems less clear in the case of the earliest helots, who, according to Theopompus, were descended from the initial Achaeans, whom the Dorians
had conquered. But not all Achaeans were reduced to helotism: the village of Amykles, home of the Hyacinthia festival, enjoyed special status, as did others. Contemporary authors propose alternative theories: according to Antiochus of Syracuse, helots were the Lacedaemonians who did not participate in the Messenian Wars; for Ephorus of Cyme, they were the perioeci ("dwellers in surrounding communities") from Helos, reduced to slavery after a failed revolt. System[edit] Treatment by Spartans[edit] From at least the classical period, the number of Spartans was very small in comparison to that of the helots. In a celebrated passage, Thucydides
stresses that "most Spartan institutions have always been designed with a view to security against the Helots".[13] Aristotle compares them to "an enemy constantly sitting in wait of the disaster of the Spartans".[14] Consequently, fear seems to be an important factor governing relations between Spartans and Helots. According to tradition, the Spartiates
always carried their spears, undid the straps of their bucklers only when at home lest the Helots
seize them, and locked themselves in their homes.[15] They also took active measures, subjecting them to what Theopompus describes as "an altogether cruel and bitter condition".[16] According to Myron of Priene, an anti-Spartan historian[17] of the middle 3rd century BC:

They assign to the Helots

In keeping with the laconic phrasing of the ephors, this may simply have been a requirement that if a person keeps slaves, they must be clothed, beaten irrespective of whether or not it is deserved, on penalty of death for the owner - perhaps anti-slavery ideals dressed in the language of sarcasm. Plutarch
also states that Spartans treated the Helots
"harshly and cruelly": they compelled them to drink pure wine (which was considered dangerous —wine usually being diluted with water) "... and to lead them in that condition into their public halls, that the children might see what a sight a drunken man is; they made them to dance low dances, and sing ridiculous songs..." during syssitia (obligatory banquets).[19] However, he notes that this rough treatment was inflicted only relatively late, after the 464 BC earthquake. Some modern scholars advocate a reevaluation of ancient evidence about helots. It has been argued that the kunē was not actually made of dogskin,[20] and that the dipthera (literally, "leather") was the general attire of the poor peasant class.[21] The obligation of masters to prevent Kwashiorkor
(fatness) amongst their helots is deemed implausible: as the Spartiates
lived separately, dietary intake could not be rigorously controlled;[22] as manual labour was an important function of the Helots
(for example, being used to carry their master's arms and armour on campaign), it would make sense to keep them well nourished.[22] Besides, the rations mentioned by Thucydides[23] for the Helots
on Sphacteria
are close to normal.[24] Myron's evidence is interpreted as an extrapolation from actions performed on symbolic representatives.[25] In short, Grote writes that "the various anecdotes which are told respecting [Helot] treatment at Sparta
betoken less of cruelty than of ostentatious scorn".[26] He has been followed recently by J. Ducat (1974 and 1990),[27] who describes Spartan treatment of the Helots
as a kind of ideological warfare, designed to condition the Helots
to think of themselves as inferiors. This strategy seems to have been successful at least for Laconian Helots:[28] when the Thebans ordered a group of Laconian helot prisoners to recite the verses of Alcman
and Terpander (national poets of Thebes), they refused on the grounds that it would displease their masters.[29] Other modern scholars consider then, "although the details may be fanciful, [Myron's evidence] does reflect accurately the general Spartiate
attitude towards helots".[17] It has also been stressed that contempt alone could hardly explain the organized murder of Helots mentioned by several ancient sources.[30] According to Aristotle, the ephors annually declared war on the Helots, thereby allowing Spartans to kill them without fear of religious pollution.[31] This task was apparently given to the kryptes, graduates of the difficult agoge who took part in the crypteia.[32] This lack of judicial protection is confirmed by Myron of Priene, who mentions killing as a standard mode of regulation of the Helot population. Thus, 2,000 helots were massacred in 425 BC in a carefully staged event:


Thus Paul Cartledge claims that "the history of Sparta
(...) is fundamentally the history of the class struggle between the Spartans and the Helots".[34] Status[edit] Helots
and klēroi[edit] Helots
were assigned to citizens to carry out domestic work or to work on their klēroi, or portions. The klēroi, were the original divisions of Messenia
after its conquest by Sparta.[35] Various sources mention such servants accompanying this or that Spartan. Plutarch
has Timaia, the wife of King Agis II, "being herself forward enough to whisper among her helot maid-servants" that the child she was expecting had been fathered by Alcibiades, and not her husband, indicating a certain level of trust.[36] According to some authors, in the 4th century BC, citizens also used chattel-slaves for domestic purposes. However, this is disputed by others. Some helots were also servants to young Spartans during their agoge, the Spartan education; these were the μόθωνες / móthōnes (see below). Finally, helots, like slaves, could be artisans or tradesmen.[37]

Part of a series on Slavery


Child labour Child soldiers Conscription Debt Forced marriage

Bride buying Wife selling

Forced prostitution Human trafficking Peonage Penal labour Sexual slavery Wage slavery



Ancient Rome Babylonia Ancient Greece

Topics and practices

Atlantic slave trade

Middle Passage

Arab slave trade

Ghilman Mamluk Saqaliba

Aztec Blackbirding Byzantine Empire Coolie Corvée
labor Field slaves in the United States House slaves Kholop Medieval Europe Panyarring Thrall Serfs

History Russia

Slave market Slave raiding Child soldiers


Galley slave Impressment Pirates Shanghaiing Slave ship

By country or region

Sub-Saharan Africa

Contemporary Africa Slavery
on the Barbary Coast Barbary slave trade Slave Coast Angola Chad Ethiopia Mali Mauritania Niger Somalia South Africa Sudan Seychelles

North and South America

Americas indigenous

U.S. Natives


Lei Áurea

Canada Caribbean

Barbados Code Noir

Cuba Haiti

revolt Restavek

Latin America Puerto Rico Trinidad United States

colonial maps female partus penal labor Slave codes interregional Human trafficking

Virgin Islands

Central, East, and South Asia

Human trafficking
Human trafficking
in Southeast Asia Bhutan China

Booi Aha Laogai


Debt bondage Chukri System


comfort women

South Korea

Yankee princess

North Korea Vietnam

Australia and Oceania

in Australia Human trafficking
Human trafficking
in Australia Slave raiding
Slave raiding
in Easter Island Human trafficking
Human trafficking
in Papua New Guinea Blackbirding
in Polynesia

Europe and North Asia

Sex trafficking in Europe Britain Denmark Dutch Republic Germany in World War II Malta Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Spain



North Africa and West Asia

Iran Libya Human trafficking
Human trafficking
in the Middle East Ottoman Empire Yemen


Bible Christianity

Catholicism Mormonism


21st century

Judaism Bahá'í Faith

Opposition and resistance

Timeline Abolitionism

U.K. U.S.

Anti- Slavery
International Blockade of Africa

U.K. U.S.

Compensated emancipation Freedman


Freedom suit Abolitionists Slave Power Underground Railroad


Slave rebellion Slave Trade Acts International law 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution


Common law Indentured servitude Unfree labour Fugitive slaves

laws Great Dismal Swamp maroons

List of slaves


Slave narrative

films songs

Slave name Slave catcher Slave patrol Slave Route Project Treatment in U.S.

breeding court cases Washington Jefferson Adams Lincoln 40 acres Freedmen's Bureau bit

Emancipation Day

v t e

They were required to hand over a predetermined portion of their harvest (ἀποφορά / apophorá), with the helots keeping the surplus. According to Plutarch, this portion was 70 medimnoi of barley for a man, 12 for a woman, as well as a quantity of oil and wine corresponding to an amount reasonable for the needs of a warrior and his family, or a widow, respectively.[38] The existence of the apophorá is contested by Tyrtaeus: "Secondly, though no fixed tribute was imposed on them, they used to bring the half of all the produce of their fields to Sparta.... Like asses worn by their great burdens, bringing of dire necessity to their masters the half of all the fruits the corn-land bears."[39] Pausanias is describing the period immediately after the first Messenian War, when conditions were probably more severe.[40] Having paid their tribute, the helots could often live rather well; the lands of Laconia
and Messenia
were very fertile, and often permitted two crops per year.[41] It seems they could enjoy some private property:[42] in 425 BC, some helots had their own boats.[43] A certain amount of wealth was achievable: in 223 BC, 6,000 helots purchased their freedom for 500 drachmas each, a considerable sum at the time.[44] Demography[edit] Helots
lived in family units and could, at least de facto, contract unions among themselves.[45] Since helots were much less susceptible than other slaves in Greek antiquity to having their family units dispersed, they could reproduce themselves, or at least maintain their number.[42] Probably not insignificant to begin with, their population increased in spite of the crypteia, other massacres of helots (see below), and losses in war. Simultaneously, the population of Spartiate citizens declined. The absence of a formal census prevents an accurate assessment of the helot population, but estimates are possible. According to Herodotus, helots were seven times as numerous as Spartans during the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC.[46] The long Peloponnesian War
Peloponnesian War
drained Sparta
of so many of its citizens that by the time of the conspiracy of Cinadon, the beginning of the 4th century BC, only forty Peers, or citizens, could be counted in a crowd of 4000 at the agora (Xenophon, Hellenica, III, 3, 5). The total population of helots at that time, including women, is estimated as 170,000 – 224,000.[47] Since the helot population was not technically chattel, their population was reliant on native birth rates, as opposed to prisoners of war or purchased slaves. Helots
were encouraged by the Spartans to impose a eugenics doctrine similar to that which they, themselves, practiced. This would, according to Greek beliefs of the period, ensure not only genetic but also acquired favourable characteristics be passed along to successive generations. Tempering these selective factors was the crypteia, during which the strongest and fittest helots were the primary targets of the kryptes; to select soft targets would be interpreted as a sign of weakness. This theoretically removed the strongest and most able potential rebels while keeping the general populace fit and efficient.[citation needed] What is more, the Spartans used helot women to satisfy the state's human personnel needs: the 'bastards' (nothoi) born of Spartan fathers and helot women held an intermediary rank in Lacedaemonian society (cf. mothakes and mothones below) and swelled the ranks of the citizen army. It is difficult to determine whether these births were the results of voluntary liaisons (at least on the part of the father) or part of a formal state program. Girls born of such unions, serving no military purpose, were likely abandoned at birth and left to die.[48] Emancipation[edit] According to Myron of Priene, cited by Athenaeus,[49] the emancipation of helots was "common" (πολλάκις / pollákis). The text suggests that this is normally associated with completion of military service. The first explicit reference to this practice in regards to the helots occurs in Thucydides
(IV, 26, 5). This is on the occasion of the events at Sphacteria, when Sparta
had to relieve their hoplites, who were besieged on the island by the Athenians:

"The fact was, that the Lacedaemonians had made advertisement for volunteers to carry into the island ground corn, wine, cheese, and any other food useful in a siege; high prices being offered, and freedom promised to any of the helots who should succeed in doing so".[33]

reports that the request met with some success, and the helots got supplies through to the besieged island. He does not mention whether or not the Spartans kept their word; it is possible that some of the helots later executed were part of the Sphacterian volunteers.[citation needed] The second such call came during the Theban invasion of Laconia. Xenophon
in Hellenica (VI, 5, 28) states that the authorities agreed to emancipate all the helots who volunteered. He then estimates that 6,000 heeded the call, leading to some embarrassment for the Spartans. All the same, in 424 BC, the 700 helots who served Brasidas
in Chalcidice
were emancipated, and they were henceforth known as the "Brasidians". It was also possible to purchase freedom, or achieve it by undergoing the traditional Spartan education. Generally, emancipated helots were referred to as "neodamodes" (νεοδαμώδεις / neodamōdeis): those who rejoined the δῆμος / dễmos (Deme) of the Perioeci. Moses Finley underscores that the fact helots could serve as hoplites constituted a grave flaw in the system. In effect, the hoplite system was a strict method of training to ensure that discipline was maintained in the phalanx. The Spartans gained considerable reputation as hoplites, due to tactical capabilities developed through constant training. In addition to this military aspect, to be a hoplite was a key characteristic of Greek citizenship. To introduce helots to this system thus led to inevitable social conflict.[citation needed] A special case: mothakes and mothones[edit] Phylarchus mentions a class of men that were at the same time free and non-citizens: the μόθακες / mothakes, who had undergone the 'agoge', the Spartan educational system.[50] Classical historiography recognizes that the helots comprised a large portion of these mothakes. Nevertheless, this category poses a number of problems, firstly that of vocabulary. The classical authors used a number of terms which appear to evoke similar concepts:

μόθακες / mothakes: a connotation of freedom, Phylarchos affirmed that they were free (eleutheroi), Claudius Aelianus
Claudius Aelianus
(Varia Historia, 12, 43) that they could be citizens; μόθωνες / mothōnes: a connotation of servility, the word designates slaves born to the home; τρόφιμοι / trophimoi: pupils, adopted children, whom Plutarch classified among the xenoi (strangers); σύντροφοι / syntrophoi: literally, "they who were raised with", that is to say, milk-siblings, given by Phylarchus as equivalent to mothakes; παρατρέφονοι / paratrephonoi : literally, "those who were fed near you", signification rather different from the preceding (this word also applied to domestic animals).

The situation is somewhat complicated by a gloss of Hesychios of Alexandria which attests that mothakes were slave children (δοῦλοι / doũloi) raised at the same time as the children of citizens. Philologists resolve this quandary in two ways:

they insist on reading μoθᾶνες / mothãnes, as a hapax for μόθωνες (Arnold J. Toynbee); the hypothesis that douloi has been interpolated by a copyist who confounded mothakes and mothônes.

In any case, the conclusion needs to be treated carefully:

the mothônes were young servants charged with domestic tasks for young Spartans during their education (Aristotle, I, 633c), they remained slaves on reaching adulthood; the mothakes were an independent freeborn group of helots.

Revolts[edit] The Pausanias plot[edit] The first helot attempt at revolt which is historically reported is that provoked by general Pausanias in the 5th century BC. Thucydides reports:[51]

Besides, they were informed that he was even intriguing with the helots; and such indeed was the fact, for he promised them freedom and citizenship if they would join him in insurrection, and would help him to carry out his plans to the end.[33]

These intrigues did not however lead to a helot uprising; Thucydides indeed implies that Pausanias was turned in by the helots (I, 132, 5 - ...the evidence even of the helots themselves.) Perhaps the promises made by Pausanias were too generous to be believed by the helots; not even Brasidas, when he emancipated his helot volunteers, offered full citizenship.[52] Massacre at Taenarus[edit] The massacre of Cape Taenarus, the promontory formed by the southernmost tip of Taygetus, is also reported by Thucydides:[53]

The Lacedaemonians had once raised up some helot suppliants from the temple of Poseidon at Taenarus, led them away and slain them; for which they believe the great earthquake at Sparta
to have been a retribution.[33]

This affair, recalled by the Athenians in responding to a Spartan request to exile Pericles—who was an Alcmaeonid on his mother's side—is not dated. We know only that it happened before the disastrous earthquake of 464 BC. Thucydides
here is the only one to implicate the helots: Pausanias speaks rather about Lacedaemonians who had been condemned to death.[54] Nor does the text allow us to conclude that this was a failed uprising of helots, only that there was an attempt at escape. Additionally, a helot revolt in Laconia
is unlikely, and Messenians would not likely have taken refuge at Cape Taenarus.[55] Third Messenian War[edit] The uprising coincident with the earthquake of 464 BC is soundly attested to, although Greek historians do not agree on the interpretation of this event. According to Thucydides,[56] the helots and perioeci of Thouria and Aithaia took advantage of the earthquake to revolt and establish a position on Mt.Ithome. He adds that most of the rebels were of Messenian ancestry—confirming the appeal of Ithome
as a historical place of Messenian resistance—and focuses attention on the perioeci of Thouria, a city on the Messianian coast. Conversely, we can deduce that a minority of the helots were Laconian, thus making this the one and only revolt of their history. Commentators such as Stephanus of Byzantium suggest that this Aithaia was in Laconia, thus indicating a large-scale uprising in the region. The version of events given by Pausanias is similar. Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus
(XI, 63,4 – 64,1), probably influenced by Ephorus of Cyme, attributed the uprising equally to the Messenians and the helots.[57] This version of events is supported by Plutarch.[58] Finally, some authors make responsibility for the uprising with the helots of Laconia. This is the case of Plutarch
in his Life of Cimon:[59] the helots of the Eurotas River valley want to use the earthquake to attack the Spartans whom they think are disarmed. The intervention of Archidamus II, who calls the Lacedaemonians to arms, simultaneously saves them from the earthquake and the helot attack. The helots fold, but revert to open warfare joined by the Messenians. It is difficult to reconcile these versions. It is nevertheless clear that in any case the revolt of 464 BC represented a major traumatic event for the Spartans. Plutarch
indicates that the Crypteia and other poor treatments of the helots were instituted after this revolt. If there is any doubt in these affirmations, they at least underscore the immediate Spartan reaction: allies are gathered and war ensues with the same Athens that would be faced later in the Peloponnesian War. Athenian outposts[edit] During the same war and after the capitulation of the Spartans besieged in Sphacteria, the Athenians installed a garrison in Pylos composed of Messenians from Naupactus. Thucydides
underlines that they had hoped to exploit the patriotism of the latter in order to pacify the region.[60] Though the Messenians may not have triggered full-blown guerrilla warfare, they nevertheless pillaged the area and encouraged helot desertion. Sparta
was forced to dedicate a garrison to controlling this activity; this was the first of the ἐπιτειχισμοί / epiteikhismoí ("ramparts"), outposts planted by the Athenians in enemy territory. The second such outpost was at Kythera. This time, the Athenians set their sights on the helots of Laconia. Again, pillaging and desertion did occur, but not on the scale hoped for by the Athenians or feared by the Spartans: there was no uprising like that which accompanied the earthquake. See also[edit]

Penestae Slavery
in Ancient Greece Neodamodes Trophimoi Perioeci Sciritae


^ Apud Libanios, Orationes 25, 63 = Frag. 37 DK; see also Plutarch, Li hi Lycurgus 28, 11. ^ Pollux 3, 83. The expression probably originates in Aristophanes of Byzantium; Cartledge, p.139. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 8, 28-29. ^ Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus, 28, 3–7. ^ Herakleides Lembos Fr. Hist. Gr. 2, 210. ^ Athenaeus, 657 D. ^ Hellanicos, Frag. 188 J. ^ Trans. by W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918), Accessed: 11 June 2006. Pausanias. Description of Greece, 3, 20, 6. ^ P. Chantraine, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque, s.v. Εἵλωτες. ^ Geography Trans. by H.L. Jones (1924), Accessed: 11 June 2006. Apud Strabo
6, 3, 2. ^ Athenaeus
of Naucratis. Yonge, C.D., Editor. The Deipnosophists, or Banquet of the Learned, of Athenæus. Accessed: 11 June 2006. ^ Ducat (1990), p.7. ^ Trans. by Cartledge, Annex 4, p. 299; The sentence can also be translated quite differently: "as far as the Helots
are concerned, most Spartan institutions have always been designed with a view to security" (ibid.). Thycydides 4, 80, 3. ^ Politics 1269 a 37-39. ^ Critias, Frag. B 37; see also Xenophon, Rep. Lac. 12, 4. ^ FGH 115 F 13. ^ a b Talbert, p. 26. ^ Apud Athenaeus, 14, 647d = FGH 106 F 2. Trans. by Cartledge, p.305. ^ Life of Lycurgus 28, 8-10. See also, Life of Demetrios, 1, 5; Constitution of the Lacedemonians 30; De Cohibenda Ira 6; De Commmunibus Notitiis 19. ^ The word κυνῆ / kunễ is used in Greek literature, especially by Homer
in the Iliad, to mean a helmet; in Athens, and in the Odyssey (XXIV, 231), it also means a leather or skin hat. ^ Pollux (7, 70) defines it as a "thick chiton with a hood". Ducat (1990), p. 114; Lévy, p. 122. ^ a b Ducat (1990), p. 120. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 4, 6, 1. ^ Ducat (1990), p. 120. The besieged Spartan hoplites on Sphacteria received two khoinikes of barley flour, two kotyloi of wine and an unquantified portion of meat. The helots were on half-rations. An Attic koinix is 698 gr. which, according to calculations (L. Foxhall and H.  A. Forbes, "Sitometria: The Role of Grain as a Staple Food in Classical Antiquity" in Chiron Number 12 (1982), pp. 41–90), was far from miserable: it corresponds to 81% of daily nutritional needs for a moderately active man, according to FAO standards. Complemented with the wine and meat, it can be considered as close to normal, given that the fighting had subsided and that the said helots were only attending to their domestic duties. ^ Ducat, pp. 119-121. ^ Quoted by Cartledge, p. 151. ^ Partially followed by Lévy, pp. 124–126. ^ Lévy, p. 12, with a warning that this evidence should not be worked too hard. ^ Plutarch. Life of Lycurgus, 28, 10. ^ P. Cartledge, review of Ducat (1990), Classical Philology, Vol. 87, No. 3 (July 1992), pp. 260-263. ^ Aristotle, frag. 538 Rose = Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus 28, 7 = frag. 538 R. ^ Herakleides Lembos, Frag. 370,10 Dilts = Frag. 538 Rose. ^ a b c d Thucydides. The Peloponnesian War. London, J. M. Dent; New York, E. P. Dutton. 1910. Online at the Perseus project. Accessed: 11 June 2006. ^ Cartledge. Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta, p. 13. ^ Sarah B. Pomeroy et al. Ancient Greece. Oxford University Press, 1998: pp. 68 & 148. ^ Plutarch. Life of Agesilaus, 3, 1. ^ Lévy, p. 119. ^ Plutarch. Life of Lycurgus, 8, 7 and 24, 2. ^ Apud Pausanias 4, 14, 4–5. ^ Lévy, pp. 120-121. ^ Lévy, p.121. ^ a b Cartledge, p.141. ^ Thucydides. History of the Peloponnesian War, 4, 26, 6. ^ Plutarch. Life of Cleomeles, 23. ^ Tyrtaeus, Frag. 7. ^ Herodotus. Histories, 8, 28-29. ^ Paul Cartledge, Agesilaos and the Crisis of Sparta. London: Johns Hopkins University, 1994, p. 174. ^ (in French) J. Tregaro, "Les bâtards spartiates" ("Spartan Bastards"), in Mélanges Pierre Lévêque, 1993. ^ Athenaeus. The Deipnosophists, VI, 271F. ^ Apud Athenaeus, 6, 271e. ^ Thucydides, 1.132, 4. ^ Ducat (1990), p.130. ^ Thucydides, 1.128, 1. ^ Pausanias, 4, 24, 5. ^ Ducat (1990), p.131. ^ Thucydides, 1.101, 2. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 11.63, 4-64,1. ^ Plutarch. Life of Lycurgus, 28, 12. ^ Plutarch. Life of Cimon, 17, 8. ^ Thucydides, 4.41, 2-3.


Cartledge, Paul. Sparta
and Lakonia. A Regional History 1300 to 362 BC. Routledge, New York, 2002 (2nd edn). ISBN 0-415-26276-3 Ducat, Jean:

(in French) "Le Mépris des Hilotes", in Annales ESC, Number 29 (1974), p. 1451–1564 (in French) "Aspects of Helotism", in Ancient Society, Number 9 (1978), p. 5-46 (in French) Les Hilotes. Athènes : École française d'Athènes, Bulletin de correspondence hellénique, suppl. XX, 1990. ISBN 2-86958-034-7

(in French) Finley, Moses. "Sparte et la société spartiate", Économie et société en Grèce ancienne, Seuil, "Points Histoire" collection, 1984. ISBN 2-02-014644-4 Garlan, Yvon:

(in French) "Greek slaves in time of war", in Actes du Colloque d'histoire, Besançon, 1970 (in French) Slaves in Ancient Greece, La Découverte, coll. "Textes à l'appui" collection, Paris, 1995. ISBN 2-7071-2475-3

(in French) Lévy, Edmond. Sparte : histoire politique et sociale jusqu’à la conquête romaine. Seuil, "Points Histoire" collection, Paris, 2003. ISBN 2-02-032453-9 Oliva, Pavel. Sparta
and her Social Problems, Academia, Prague, 1971 Pomeroy, Sarah B. Spartan Women, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002. ISBN 0-19-513067-7 Talbert, R.J.A. "The Role of the Helots
in the Class Struggle at Sparta", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 38, No. 1 (1st Qtr., 1989), p. 22-40.

Plutarch, Lycurgus 28 External links[edit]

has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Helots.

by Jona Lendering A Prosperous Economy: Spartiates, Perioikoi, And Helots
In One Of The Richest City-States