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19 If You Are Interested in More …


light emerging from an illuminated point of the

retina encounters a grid of small lenses. If the

beam of light is completely parallel (plane wavefront), a uniform grid of points results at the sensor

CCD. Points that deviate from the ideal position

mean that the wavefront is locally inclined and,

from this, its spatial shape can be arithmetically


The detected aberrations are decomposed into

the Zernike circle polynomials4 by the instrument

and the respective terms are displayed in diopters.



Each term corresponds to a specific form of deviation from ideal imaging. The second-order

terms comprise the spherical and the two astigmatic deviations (Fig. 19.9). With the higher

orders, deviations with increasingly more complex dependence on location within the beam’s

cross-section are described.

With aberrometers, imaging errors beyond the

spherical and cylindrical terms can be obtained.

The success of refractive corrections can also be

checked. Another type of aberrometer is displayed in Fig. 19.10 (Tscherning aberrometer).

By means of an aperture mask, a grid of points is

projected onto the retina. In cases of perfect

imaging conditions, it should appear as a regular

pattern. Deviations from this permit the recognition of aberrations.









Fig. 19.8 Measuring a wavefront with the Hartmann–

Shack sensor by observing the light that emerges from an

illuminated point on the retina. A plane wave produces a

uniform pattern of points in the focal plane of an arrangement of small lenses. Deviations from the ideal pattern

allow one to make conclusions concerning the shape of the

wavefront in the cross-section of the beam. IB beam illuminating a point on the retina, S semi-transparent mirror,

W1 ideal wavefront (plane), W2 real wavefront (distorted)


Fig. 19.10 Aberrometer according to the Tscherning

principle. An aperture mask (1) is imaged using the objective lens (2) to form a pattern on the retina (4). Its observation (5) via a semitransparent mirror (3) reveals possible

deviations from perfect imaging. The observation (5)

takes place through a narrow aperture to avoid distortion

by the imperfections of the optics of the eye

Fig. 19.9 Zernike polynomials. 1a-b First-order terms (prismatic contributions). 2a-c Second-order terms (spherocylindrical contributions). 3a One of the third-order terms


Frits Zernike (1888–1966), Dutch physicist, received

the 1953 Nobel Prize for the development of the phasecontrast microscope. He introduced the classification

according to orthogonal circle polynomials into the mathematical description of optical system aberrations.



Fourier Analysis

Abbe’s Limit of Resolution

and the STED Microscope

Have we not always believed that object details

approximately smaller than one wavelength of light

cannot be resolved using a microscope? According

to Abbe,5 the smallest resolution of a diffractionlimited microscope amounts to roughly half a

wavelength. The reason is the wave nature of light,

similar to the Airy disk (Fig. 19.2). Fluorescence

microscopy is subject to the same limitation with

both the classical method (the whole field illuminated with stimulating light) and the confocal laser

scanning technology. Surprisingly, Stefan Hell discovered a way out. According to his idea – now

realized in the STED microscope6 – it has been

possible to achieve resolutions on the order of

roughly 10 nm, compared with Abbe’s limit of

200 nm with blue light (Fig. 19.11).

The principle can be understood in two steps.

First, we call to mind laser scanning fluorescence

microscopy. Interesting structures of an object are

marked with fluorescent molecules. The distribution of these molecules can be scanned line by line

with a fluorescence-stimulating beam focused down

as small as possible. The intensity of fluorescence is

continuously registered as a function of the beam

position. From this information, a picture is constructed containing the distribution of the fluorescing

molecules. Stimulating light and fluorescent light

are separated by colored filters. However, Abbe’s

limit of resolution is still applicable because the

diameter of the scanning beam cannot be made

smaller than approximately a wavelength.

The decisive step is the following: Figure 19.12

shows a spot of 200 nm in diameter illuminated by

a scanning beam (A). This beam overlaps with a

second laser beam (B) with the same axis. Its wavelength is chosen so that the stimulated molecules

are returned to a non-fluorescent state. However, its

profile is special: it illuminates a ring and the inten-



Ernst Abbe 1840–1905. Creator of the concepts of modern optics, such as the theory of the diffraction-limited

microscope. He was one of the founders of the German

optical industry, a social reformer, and the founder of the

Carl-Zeiss foundation (1889).


Stimulated emission depletion.

Fig. 19.11 Ernst Abbe





Fig. 19.12 Profile of the laser beams in the STED microscope. A stimulating beam, B de-excitation beam, C

remaining profile of observed fluorescence. Its diameter

decreases with the larger intensity of the de-excitation

beam. The diameter of the beams (A) and (B) are diffractionlimited, that is, on the order of a wavelength

sity on the axis is zero. After this treatment, only the

molecules in a small neighborhood of the axis

remain in a stimulated state. A fluorescent light that

is still detectable stems from this small region. Its

peculiarity lies in the fact that this spot becomes

smaller with the larger intensity of the de-excitation

beam. With the combination of these two laser beams

and guidance with high mechanical precision, the

resolution can be reduced far below the Abbe limit.


Fourier Analysis

In its intuitively accessible content, Fourier analysis is a mathematical procedure that can be

explained without equations. The underlying

19 If You Are Interested in More …


642 nm

700 nm

493 nm






400 nm

572 nm

700 nm

470 nm

400 nm

Fig. 19.13 White composing and decomposing. Top: the

two monochromatic lights (1) with the 493 and 642 nm

wavelengths with suitable illuminance ratios produce white

light in additive mixing (2). The prism (4) decomposes the

combined wave form (3) into the original monochromatic

components (5). Bottom: a similar depiction for the wavelength pair 470/572 nm

question is: Which frequencies are hidden in a

complex signal? In a female voice, higher frequencies are present than in a male voice. But

what exactly does it mean to say that a certain

frequency is present in a signal?

An initial example from the world of light will

help to show the direction we are headed in somewhat more detail. Assume that you have various

lasers available, each with a specific wavelength

l and able to project its light onto a wall. It well

known that there are complementary colors (more

precisely, complementary lights) that can be combined to result in white light in the right illuminance ratios. Indeed, when the 642 nm (red) and

493 nm (blue-green) wavelengths are projected

onto a white wall simultaneously and the illuminances are suitably balanced, you actually see

white. With the wavelength pair 470 nm/572 nm,

you can also experience white. The eye is unable

to distinguish between the two white light combinations involved (Fig. 19.13, left).

However, a spectrograph, consisting of a prism

and a wavelength scale, can distinguish between

them very well (Fig. 19.13, right): after passing

through a prism, two monochromatic beams result

with the associated original wavelengths. The

prism decomposes the two white lights into their

spectral components and reveals the oscillations

out of which they are made. A mathematician

would tend to say that the prism has performed a

Fourier decomposition (or Fourier analysis) of the

white lights. In this situation, one understands that

a Fourier analysis, in the mathematical sense,

means the computational decomposition of the

waveforms (3) in Fig. 19.13 into monochromatic

components, that is, into sinusoidal oscillations.

The decomposition of a beam of light into its

monochromatic components has a very practical

meaning: the exact beam path of each component

can be followed individually and the refractive

indices of the associated colors can be taken into

account. This very successful method in optics has

a much more general mathematical background:

every complex oscillation (mathematically, any

function of time) can be decomposed computationally by a so-called Fourier analysis into a sum

of many sinusoidal oscillations. Fourier7 found this

important tool for the mathematical analysis of

heat diffusion. The mentioned example illustrates

that the decomposition of a complex function into

monochromatic components is more than simply a

mathematical curiosity. It was Fourier analysis that

made the development of many modern technologies, some of which are also discussed in this book,

possible. Another known example is the decomposition of a vocalized tone into the contributions of

the fundamental frequency and its harmonics. In

performing such analyses, one must regard the


Jean B. Fourier (1768–1830), French mathematician. His

turbulent life, during and after the French Revolution, is

documented on Wikipedia.


Fourier Analysis









8000 Hz

3 ms




800 Hz



5 ms

Fig. 19.14 Left: spectral decomposition of a vocalized

vowel (red) into the fundamental frequency and overtones.

The sum of the blue functions yields the red function. The

red signal represents the electrical voltage beyond the

microphone as a function of time in a recording of a vocalized “u.” Period length: 5 ms. Repetition frequency:

200 Hz. The blue monochromatic components have frequencies of 200, 400, 600, and 800 Hz. That no higher

overtones are present in this particular signal lies in the

associated voice. The amplitudes and phases of the individual contributions must be chosen correctly so that the

sum of the blue functions exactly reproduces the red one.

Right: spectrum, i.e., the contributing frequencies and

their amplitudes

Fourier analysis of periodic signals and of nonperiodic signals separately. We turn our attention

now to these two cases.

19.5.1 Fourier Decomposition

of Periodic Functions

Figure 19.14 portrays a periodic function (red

curve). It is said to be periodic because it always

repeats itself in the same way. Here, a section

from a recording of a vocalized “u” is involved;

more precisely, the electrical voltage beyond the

microphone is displayed as a function of time.

The length of a period is 5 ms, implying that the

signal has a repetition frequency of 200 Hz.

Fourier decomposition means representing the

function shown in red as a sum of sinusoidal

oscillations – or, put differently, decomposing it

into its spectral components. Fourier’s theorem

indicates which frequencies appear in the decomposition in periodic functions, namely the fundamental frequency (here, 200 Hz, given by the

Fig. 19.15 A non-periodic function (here, a section,

3 ms in duration, from a recording of the sibilant “sh,” as

in “ship”) exhibits a continuous spectrum. In this example, the main contributions lie in the frequencies between

1 and 8 kHz. Left: microphone signal (pressure amplitude)

as a function of time. t time. Right: spectrum. I intensity

(amplitude squared). f frequency

repetition rate) and whole-number multiples of

the fundamental (400, 600 Hz, …). The amplitudes and phases of the individual components

are chosen aptly. The equations of Fourier analysis indicate how, from the behavior of the function that is to be decomposed, the amplitude and

phase of each component are to be calculated.

This decomposition is distinct, meaning that it

succeeds only with the right amplitude and phase

(horizontal displacement) of each sine curve.

An essential concept in the analysis of any

given oscillation is its spectrum, which indicates

the frequencies hidden in the signal and their

relative contribution. The spectrum of a periodic

function is discrete because, in the Fourier

decomposition, only very specific frequencies

appear: the fundamental frequency and its wholenumber multiples. In the example of Fig. 19.14,

the spectrum consists of the 200, 400, 600, and

800 Hz frequencies. Often, instead of the amplitudes in a spectral plot, their squared values are

shown because they correlate with the energies of

the associated contributions.

19.5.2 Fourier Decomposition

of Non-periodic Functions

The spectrum of a non-periodic function is continuous, meaning that every possible frequency

can contribute a specific amount. For example,

Fig. 19.15 shows a short section from a microphone recording of the sibilant “sh” (as in “ship”).


The decomposition into monochromatic functions yields mainly contributions in the frequency

range of 1–8 kHz.

19.5.3 Applications

One application in optics has already been mentioned: Fourier decomposition allows the behavior

of every light frequency (or every wavelength) to


If You Are Interested in More …

be looked at individually. More precisely, before

the light enters the system, we think about it in

terms of its colors, study the alterations that the

system makes on the individual color components,

and then put the altered components back together

again. Mathematically, this is possible because, in

the interaction of light with lenses, prisms, absorbers, scattering media, etc., almost exclusively socalled linear systems are involved, which permit

the viewing of things in terms of components.


Appendix: Units and Constants


Some Physical Units

20.1.2 Frequency

The standard international (SI) units are

summarized in Table 20.1. Alternate units frequently used in medicine are indicated in subsequent comments. Often, units are given with a

prefix, such as 1 mJ = 1 milliJoule = 10–3 J. Metric

prefixes are listed in Table 20.2. Photometric units

are dealt with in a separate section (Sect. 20.2).

20.1.1 Length

A frequency denotes a number of events per unit

time or the number of cycles of an oscillation per

unit time. Unit: 1 Hz = 1 s−1.

20.1.3 Mass

1 g = 10−3 kg.

20.1.4 Force

Wavelengths are often given in mm (micrometer,

10−6 m), in nm (nanometer, 10−9 m), or in Å

(angstrom, 10−10 m).

1 N is the force required to accelerate 1 kg of

mass at 1 m/s2. A mass of 0.102 kg has a weight

of 1 N (on earth).

Table 20.1 Some standard international units










meter (m)

second (s)

kilogram (kg)

newton (N)

joule (J)

watt (W)

pascal (Pa)

hertz (Hz)

kelvin (K)

20.1.5 Energy

The unit calorie (cal) is sometimes used for heat

energy. Formerly, the calorie was defined as the

quantity of heat required to raise the temperature

of 1 g of water by 1 °C. The conversion into

standard units is 1 cal = 4.18 J.

Table 20.2 Metric prefixes































J. Flammer et al., Basic Sciences in Ophthalmology,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-32261-7_20 © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013













1 electronvolt (1 eV = 1.6 · 10−19 J) is frequently

used in atomic/molecular physics and chemistry. It

is the energy required to move an electron (or any

elementary electric charge) across an electric potential difference of 1 volt (1 V). Photons of light in the

visible range have energies between 1.6 and 3 eV.

Energy density (or fluence) is given in units of J/m2

or, in laser applications, often in J/cm2. In typical

applications, it is the energy delivered to an absorbing area divided by the area. Example: An energy of

1 mJ absorbed by a spot of 1 mm2 corresponds to a

fluence of 10−3 J/10−6 m2 = 103 J/m2 = 0.1 J/cm2.

20.1.6 Power

Power is energy per unit time. An energy of 1 J

delivered within 1 s corresponds to a power of

1 W. Very high powers can be achieved by the

delivery of moderate energy within a short pulse,

such as a laser pulse of energy of 1 mJ and a duration of 1 ns, which corresponds to 1 MW.

Irradiance (power density) is power per area,

such as the power of a laser beam divided by its

cross-section. Standard unit: 1 W/m2. Example:

A laser pointer of 1 mW power with a cross-section of 1 mm2 has an irradiance of 103 W/m2.

Sunlight (outside the atmosphere) has an irradiance of 1300 W/m2.


Appendix: Units and Constants















Fig. 20.1 Relationship between temperature scales

−273.16 °C on the Celsius scale and −459.67 °F

on the Fahrenheit scale. The melting and boiling

of water under standard pressure occur at 0 °C

and 100 °C, respectively. The relations between

temperature differences are 1 K = 1 °C = 1.8 °F.

The relation between the scales (Fig. 20.1) is

given by the following formulae:

Kelvin temperature = Celsius temperature

+ 273.16

Celsius temperature = Kelvin temperature

− 273.16

Kelvin temperature = (Fahrenheit temperature

+ 459.67)·(5/9)

Fahrenheit temperature = (9/5)·(Kelvin

temperature) − 459.67

20.1.9 Viscosity

20.1.7 Pressure

The standard unit 1 Pa is a very small pressure,

defined by a force of 1 N acting on an area of

1 m2. Frequently used units are:

• 1 bar = 105 Pa; about equal to the atmospheric

pressure on the earth at sea level.

• 1 mmHg = 133.3 Pa: the pressure exerted at

the base of a column of mercury 1 mm high.

• 1 atm = 101,325 Pa.

• 1 Torr = 1 atm/760, about the same as 1 mmHg

(the difference is negligible for most applications).

20.1.8 Temperature

The absolute temperature scale (given in K) starts

at 0 at the absolute zero temperature, which is

Viscosity, a measure of internal fluid friction, is mentioned in Sect. 18.7. The standard unit of dynamic

viscosity is 1 Pa·s = 1 kg/(m s). Usually, viscosity is

expressed in units of 1 mPa·s (milli-pascal second),

which is about the viscosity of water at 20 °C. The

dynamic viscosity is used in the Hagen–Poiseuille

formula for the flux in a pipe (see Sect. 18.7).

Other units frequently used in tables include:

1 poise = 0.1 Pa·s or 1 cp = 10−2 poise (centipoise).

The viscosity of water at 20 °C is about

1 cp = 1 mPa·s.

In some applications, kinematic viscosity is used,

which is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density of the fluid. Its standard unit is 1 m2/s. Example:

from the dynamic viscosity of water (1.0·10−3 Pa·s,

20 °C) and its density (103 kg/m3), the kinematic

viscosity results in 1.0·10−6 m2/s. Kinematic viscosity can be expressed in stokes (1 St = 10−4 m2/s) or in


Photometric Units

centistokes (1 cSt = 10−6 m2/s), which is approximately the kinematic viscosity of water.


Surface tension and interfacial tension are

explained in Sect. 18.5. The standard unit is J/m2,

which is the same as N/m.

its efficiency in converting electric energy into

light, and its spectrum.

• How well is the street illuminated by the street

lamp? (illuminance, given in lux). Apart from

the luminous flux of the lamp, the answer

depends on the lamp’s height above the ground.

• How bright does the street appear? (luminance, given in asb). The answer depends not

only on the illuminance but also on the absorption of light by the street.

20.1.11 Room Angle

20.2.1 Luminous Flux

When viewed from the center of a sphere with a 1 m

radius, an area of 1 m2 on its surface is said to subtend a room angle of 1 sr (steradian, sterad). Our

view into all directions corresponds to a room angle

of 4p = 12.56. The moon and sun subtend a room

angle of 6·10−5 according to their diameter of 0.5°.

The basic photometric unit is the lumen (lm).

In short, 1 lm is the luminous flux that is provided

by 1.5 mW of monochromatic light with a wavelength of 0.556 mm, i.e., at the maximum of the photopic luminosity function.1 Figure 20.2 explains the

definition of the unit lumen more generally. The

same luminous flux of 1 lm can be realized by 3 mW

of monochromatic orange light (wavelength

0.61 mm) or with 10.5 mW of thermal light produced at a temperature of 6000 K, similar to sunlight. In all three situations, the same brightness is

achieved when the light illuminates the same area of

a white paper (white to reflect all colors equally).

The luminous flux emitted by low-power light emitting diodes is on the order of magnitude of 1 lm.

A 100-W incandescent bulb emits about 2000 lm.

20.1.10 Surface Tension, Interfacial



Photometric Units

Light is a form of energy. The energy that a laser

pointer emits in the form of light per unit time is

a form of power and can be expressed in watts.

The power of a beam of light is one of the socalled radiometric values. Its definition has nothing to do with the sensitivity of our eyes. A further

example of a radiometric value is irradiance. It

expresses the power per unit area that falls onto

an illuminated desk in units of W/m2.

Photometric values and units take into account

the sensitivity of the eye (see Fig. 1.19). A laser

pointer with a green beam of 1 mW power produces a brighter spot than a red beam of the same

power. A photometric statement that accommodates this difference could be that this green beam

of light has a five-times-larger luminous flux than

the red one. Luminous flux is a photometric concept. We shall now proceed to define three basic

quantities and associated units that are used in photometry in response to the following questions:

• How much light is emitted by a certain street

lamp? (luminous flux, given in lumens).

Among other factors, the answer depends on

the electrical power consumption of the lamp,

20.2.2 Illuminance

A further photometric value that can be

explained with the same situation is illuminance

(Fig. 20.3). When light of 1 lm falls on an area

of 1 m2, the illuminance is 1 lm/m2 = 1 lx (lux).

The illuminance is a measure of the strength of

the illumination, independent of the color or

reflectance of the illuminated object. Let’s take

a simple example, where an LED designed to

produce a luminous flux of 1 lm shines all of it

onto a surface of 100 cm2. The luminous flux

amounts to 1 lm/0.01 m2 = 100 lx. Table 20.3

gives some typical scene illuminances.


More precisely, at 0.556 mm, a power of 1/683 W = 1.46 mW

corresponds to a luminous flux of 1 lm.



Fig. 20.2 Definition of the luminous flux F and its unit

(lumen, 1 lm). The three light sources differ by their spectra (green, orange, white light). In the three situations, the

luminous flux is the same (1 lm), but the physical power P

differs (1.5, 3.0, and 10.5 mW). The luminous flux depends

1 lm

1 m2

Fig. 20.3 Definition of the unit of illuminance. A luminous

flux of 1 lm falling onto 1 m2 (or 2 lm falling onto 2 m2)

produces an illuminance of 1 lx, irrespective of color and

absorption of the illuminated object. The illuminance characterizes the illuminating light level, not the brightness of

the object

20.2.3 Luminance

The concept of luminance is qualitatively simple

to explain, but the exact definition is somewhat

more difficult. Luminance indicates how bright

an illuminated surface appears. First, we state

that the brightness of a surface – say, a wall –

does not change when we view it from different

distances (this has a simple geometric reason: the

power that enters the pupil from a given object

changes by the same factor as the area on the

retina). Moreover, it does not whether we concentrate on a small part of the wall or see it in its


Appendix: Units and Constants

on the (physical) power carried by the light and on the

spectrum. In all three situations, the same brightness is

achieved when the light illuminates the same area of a

piece of white paper

Table 20.3 Typical scene illuminance (ground illumination by some sources). Values are orders of magnitude

Direct sunlight

Full daylight

Overcast day


Full moon

105 lx

104 lx

103 lx

5·102 lx

0.3 lx

Sometimes, a wall has the additional property

such that it appears to have the same brightness

when seen from any direction. In this typical

case, one speaks of a Lambertian reflector.

A whitewashed wall or a matte sheet of paper of

any color is typical examples of Lambertian

reflectors. For a start, we will discuss only this

special situation (Fig. 20.4). A white Lambertian

source, which absorbs no light but reflects all of

it, when illuminated by an illuminance of 1 lx,

has, by definition, a luminance of 1 asb (Apostilb).

A gray wall, absorbing 60 % and illuminated

with the same illuminance of 1 lx, has a lower

luminance (0.4 asb).

An interesting equation in view of applications

refers to the situation in Fig. 20.5: a camera with an

objective lens of diameter D and focal length f is

aimed at the wall. Assuming that one knows the

luminance L of the lit wall, how large is the illuminance ES of the sensor in the camera? The equation

is provided in the figure. The distance of the camera


Some Physical Constants


E = 1lx


Fig. 20.4 An eye looks at a whitewashed wall that is

assumed to be a Lambertian reflector. For an illuminance

E = 1 lx, the eye sees a luminance L = 1 asb from any


Above, we spoke about how the luminance L

for a Lambertian reflector can be calculated from

its illuminance E (for a white reflector, an illuminance = 1 lx → luminance = 1 asb). We could also

determine the luminance directly in accordance

with Fig. 20.5, where one measures the illuminance ES at the sensor and then calculates L using

the equation. Conceivably, the result might

depend on the angle of view. In this case, it is not

a Lambertian reflector.






ES = (1/4) (D /f )2 L

Fig. 20.5 Observing the luminance using a measuring

instrument. The luminance L follows from the measured

illuminance ES in the sensor in the focus of the objective

lens. D diameter of the objective lens, f focal length

from the wall plays no role; only the f-number (the

focal length divided by the diameter of the aperture,

f-number = f / D) does. Since we have assumed a

Lambertian reflector, the angle from which one

photographs the wall does not play a role.

The literature presents a variety of units for

luminance. Here are the conversions:

1 asb (Apostilb) = 0.318 cd/m2,

1 sb (Stilb) = 104 cd/m2,

1 L (Lambert) = (1/p) 104 cd/m2,

1 fL (Foot-Lambert) = 3.426 cd/m2.

Some Physical Constants

1 Mol of a substance consists of 6.022·1023 particles (Avogadro’s constant).

The vacuum velocity of light c = 3.0·108 m/s is

exactly the same for all wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. In a transparent medium with an

index of refraction n, the speed of light is reduced

to c¢ = c / n and may depend on the wavelength (dispersion). The frequency f and wavelength l of light

in a medium with the speed of light c¢ are related by

f = c¢ / l. At the wavelength of 0.58 mm of yellow

light, the frequency amounts to 5·1014 Hz.

The Boltzmann constant k = 1.38·10−23 J/K can

be used to estimate the order of magnitude of the

mean thermal energy per atom by k · T, where T is

the absolute temperature. For noble gases, the

mean thermal energy per atom is given exactly by

3 k · T/2. At room temperature, k · T » 0.026 eV.

We encountered Planck’s constant h = 6.626

10−34 J·s in the formula E = h·f = h·c / l for the energy

of photons (l = wavelength, f = frequency). For

wavelengths in the visual range (l = 0.4 … 0.7 mm),

E = 2 … 3 eV. According to quantum mechanics, the

formula E = h·f is applicable more generally to the

energy of quanta of any vibration of frequency f.



Abbe’s limit, 235

Aberrations, 27, 28, 63, 231–234

Aberrometer, 234

Absolute threshold, 2

Absorption, 1, 2, 9, 10, 13–16, 21–23, 30, 34–35, 37,

41, 47, 49, 53, 55, 83, 84, 98, 101, 105, 107,

109–115, 123–125, 135, 156, 162, 195, 196,

205, 213, 215, 238, 240–242

ACE. See Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)

Acetylcholine, 144–146, 153

Achromats, 230–232

Acoustic lens, 87

Adaptive optics, 10, 232–234

Adenosine-triphosphate (ATP), 126

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), 147

Aerobic respiration, 122, 125

After-cataract, 112, 113, 130

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), 159, 215

AGEs. See Advanced glycation end products (AGEs)

Airy disk, 39, 229, 230, 235

Alternative splicing, 184, 185

AMD. See Age-related macular degeneration (AMD)

Amino acids, 34, 109, 145, 166, 179, 191–181, 185,

188, 196, 197, 199

Aminoguanidine, 147, 153

Amyloid, 189

Analog radiography, 95–96, 98

Anesthesia, 153, 154

Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), 203, 205

Angiotensin I, 200, 203, 205

Angiotensin II, 200, 203, 205

Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, 132, 133

Anthocyanins, 160, 165, 166

Antibodies, 184, 187, 191, 194, 206–207

Antioxidant, 157, 160–167

Aquaporins, 137, 138

ArF excimer laser. See Argon fluoride (ArF) excimer laser

Argon fluoride (ArF) excimer laser, 50, 105, 113, 114

Argon laser, 105–108

A-scan, 67, 77, 89, 90

Astrocytes, 127, 152, 153

atm, 240

Atmosphere, 14, 31, 123, 125, 126, 156, 172, 232

ATP. See Adenosine-triphosphate (ATP)

Autofluorescence, 38, 213, 214


Bar, 240

Beam divergence, 16, 17, 20

Bevacizumab, 207

Big Bang, 80, 119, 120, 217

Binocular indirect ophthalmoscope (BIOM), 60, 61

BIOM. See Binocular indirect ophthalmoscope (BIOM)

Blepharitis, 209, 211

Blood–brain (blood-retinal) barrier, 200

Boltzmann constant, 218, 219, 243

Branch retinal artery occlusion, 132, 133

B-scan, 89–93


Carbon dioxide (CO2), 123, 125, 126, 128,

138–141, 220, 221

Carbonic anhydrase, 128, 139–141

Carotenoids, 165, 215

Cataract, 1, 32, 33, 94, 112, 113, 130, 158,

159, 161, 190, 194

Celsius temperature, 240

cGMP. See Cyclic guanine monophosphate (cGMP)

Chaperones, 161, 192

Chlorophyll, 34, 124, 125

Chocolate, 162–165

Chromatic aberration, 27, 231, 232

Ciliary body, 94, 130, 137, 138, 141, 147, 148

Circularly polarized light, 15, 16

Coagulation, 105, 107–110

Coherence, 16–20, 51, 101

Coherence length, 51, 75, 76

Color, 1–5, 7, 9–13, 17, 21, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 38, 39,

44, 45, 53, 55, 58, 68, 69, 72, 77, 79, 92, 93, 105,

110, 118, 124, 125, 133, 135, 139, 152, 162–164,

169, 173, 194, 196, 197, 205, 232, 235, 236, 238,

241, 242

Color duplex sonography, 92, 93

Combustion, 117, 123, 125, 139

Comet assay, 175–177

Complement H, 159

Computed tomography (CT), 95, 97–99, 102

Cone vision, 12, 13

Confocal scanning, 67–69, 235

Contact lenses, 29, 30, 36, 53, 59–60, 64, 108,

109, 112, 132

J. Flammer et al., Basic Sciences in Ophthalmology,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-32261-7, © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013


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