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United Kingdom

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This article is about the country. For its largest island, see Great Britain. For other uses, see United Kingdom (disambiguation) and UK (disambiguation).
Flag Royal coat of arms[nb 1]
Anthem: "God Save the Queen"[nb 2]
Location of the  United Kingdom  (dark green)

– in Europe  (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union  (green)

and largest city
Official language
and national language
Recognised regional
languages[nb 3]
Ethnic groups (2011)
Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional monarchy
 •  Monarch Elizabeth II
 •  Prime Minister Theresa May
Legislature Parliament
 •  Upper house House of Lords
 •  Lower house House of Commons
 •  Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 
 •  Union of the Crowns under James, King of Scots 24 March 1603 
 •  Acts of Union of England and Scotland 1 May 1707 
 •  Acts of Union of Great Britain and Ireland 1 January 1801 
 •  Irish Free State Constitution Act 5 December 1922 
 •  Total 242,495 km2[3] (78th)
93,628 sq mi
 •  Water (%) 1.34
 •  2016 estimate 65,110,000[4] (22nd)
 •  2011 census 63,181,775[5] (22nd)
 •  Density 255.6/km2 (51st)
661.9/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2015 estimate
 •  Total $2.679 trillion (9th)
 •  Per capita $41,159[6] (25th)
GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate
 •  Total $2.849 trillion (5th)
 •  Per capita $43,771[6] (13th)
Gini (2014)  31.6[7]
medium · 33rd
HDI (2014) Increase 0.907[8]
very high · 14th
Currency Pound sterling[nb 4] (GBP; £)
Time zone GMT[nb 5] (UTC​)
 •  Summer (DST) BST (UTC+1)
Date format dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on the left
Calling code +44[nb 6]
ISO 3166 code GB
Internet TLD .uk[nb 7]

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,[nb 8] is a sovereign state in Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, it includes the island of Great Britain (the name of which is also loosely applied to the whole country), the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and many smaller islands.[9] Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another state—the Republic of Ireland.[nb 9] Apart from this land border, the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to its east, the English Channel to its south and the Celtic Sea to its south-southwest, attributing to it having the 12th longest coastline in the world. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland. With an area of 242,500 square kilometres (93,600 sq mi), the UK is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants.[10] Together, this makes it the fourth most densely populated country in the European Union.[nb 10][11]

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance.[12][13] Its capital and largest city is London, a global city and financial centre with an urban population of 10,310,000, the fourth-largest in Europe and second-largest in the European Union.[14] The current monarch—since 6 February 1952—is Queen Elizabeth II. The UK consists of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland.[15] The latter three have devolved administrations,[16] each with varying powers,[17][18] based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff, and Belfast, respectively. The nearby Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey are not part of the United Kingdom, being Crown dependencies with the UK government responsible for defence and international representation.[19]


The United Kingdom is a developed country and has the world's fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. The UK is considered to have a high-income economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index, ranking 14th in the world. It was the world's first industrialised country and the world's foremost power during the 19th and early 20th centuries.[21][22] The UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific, and political influence internationally.[23][24] It is a recognised nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world.[25][26] The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946. It has been a leading member state of the European Union (EU) and its predecessor, the European Economic Community (EEC), since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a nationwide referendum on the UK's membership of the EU resulted in a 51.9% vote for exit. The UK is also a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Council of Europe, the G7 finance ministers, the G7 forum, the G20, NATO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Etymology and terminology

The 1707 Acts of Union declared that the kingdoms of England and Scotland were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain", though the new state is also referred to in the Acts as the "Kingdom of Great Britain", "United Kingdom of Great Britain" and "United Kingdom".[27][28][nb 12] However, the term "United Kingdom" is only found in informal use during the 18th century and the country was only occasionally referred to as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain"—its full official name, from 1707 to 1800, being merely Great Britain, without a "long form".[29][30][31][32][33] The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The name "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" was adopted following the independence of the Irish Free State, and the partition of Ireland, in 1922, which left Northern Ireland as the only part of the island of Ireland within the UK.[34]

Although the United Kingdom, as a sovereign state, is a country, England, Scotland, Wales, and to a lesser degree, Northern Ireland, are also regarded as countries, though they are not sovereign states.[35][36] Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government.[37][38] The British Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe the United Kingdom.[15] Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve NUTS 1 regions of the UK, also refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".[39][40] Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".[41][42] With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences."[43]

The term Britain is often used as synonym for the United Kingdom. The term Great Britain, by contrast, refers conventionally to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.[44][45][46] However, it is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.[47][48] GB and GBR are the standard country codes for the United Kingdom (see ISO 3166-2 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-3) and are consequently used by international organisations to refer to the United Kingdom. Additionally, the United Kingdom's Olympic team competes under the name "Great Britain" or "Team GB".[49][50]

The adjective British is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom. The term has no definite legal connotation, but is used in law to refer to UK citizenship and matters to do with nationality.[51] People of the United Kingdom use a number of different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being British; or as being English, Scottish, Welsh, Northern Irish, or Irish;[52] or as being both.[53]

In 2006, a new design of British passport was introduced. Its first page shows the long form name of the state in English, Welsh and Scottish Gaelic.[54] In Welsh, the long form name of the state is "Teyrnas Unedig Prydain Fawr a Gogledd Iwerddon" with "Teyrnas Unedig" being used as a short form name on government websites,[55] however, it is usually abbreviated to "DU" for the mutated form "Y Deyrnas Unedig". In Scottish Gaelic, the long form is "Rìoghachd Aonaichte Bhreatainn is Èireann a Tuath" and the short form "Rìoghachd Aonaichte".


Before 1707

Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.

Settlement by anatomically modern humans of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.[56] By the end of the region's prehistoric period, the population is thought to have belonged, in the main, to a culture termed Insular Celtic, comprising Brythonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland.[57] The Roman conquest, beginning in 43 AD, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain, was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brythonic area mainly to what was to become Wales and the historic Kingdom of Strathclyde.[58] Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.[59] Meanwhile, Gaelic-speakers in north west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century)[60][61] united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century.[62]


In 1066, the Normans invaded England from France and after its conquest, seized large parts of Wales, conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture.[63] The Norman elites greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, each of the local cultures.[64] Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and made an unsuccessful attempt to annex Scotland. Following the Declaration of Arbroath, Scotland maintained its independence, albeit in near-constant conflict with England. The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years War, while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period.[65]

The early modern period saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country.[66] Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England,[67] and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.[68] In what was to become Northern Ireland, the lands of the independent Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated and given to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.[69]


In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.[72][73] During the 17th and 18th centuries, British sailors were involved in acts of piracy (privateering), attacking and stealing from ships off the coast of Europe and the Caribbean.[74]

Although the monarchy was restored, the Interregnum ensured (with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689, and the Claim of Right Act 1689) that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system.[75] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power (and the interest in voyages of discovery) led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America.[76][77]

After the Acts of Union of 1707


On 1 May 1707, the united Kingdom of Great Britain came into being, the result of Acts of Union being passed by the parliaments of England and Scotland to ratify the 1706 Treaty of Union and so unite the two kingdoms.[78][79][80]


During the 18th century, Britain was involved in the Atlantic slave trade. British ships transported an estimated 2 million slaves from Africa to the West Indies before banning the trade in 1807, banning slavery in 1833, and taking a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide by pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties, and then formed the world's oldest international human rights organisation, Anti-Slavery International, in London in 1839.[82][83][84] The term "United Kingdom" became official in 1801 when the parliaments of Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.[85]

The Battle of Waterloo, 1815, marked the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the start of Pax Britannica.


After the defeat of France at the end of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the UK emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830).[86] Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace in Europe and the world (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman.[87][88][89][90] By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Britain was described as the "workshop of the world".[91] The British Empire was expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.[92][93] Domestically, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the century, the population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, causing significant social and economic stresses.[94] To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions.[95] After the turn of the century, the UK's industrial monopoly was challenged by Germany and the United States.[citation needed]



The UK fought with France, Russia and (after 1917) the US, against Germany and its allies in World War I (1914–18).[97] The UK armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western front.[98] The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order.[citation needed]

After the war, the UK received the League of Nations mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. The British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.[99] However, the UK had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.[98]

The rise of Irish Nationalism and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921.[100] The Irish Free State became independent with Dominion status in 1922. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.[101] A wave of strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the UK General Strike of 1926. The UK had still not recovered from the effects of the war when the Great Depression (1929–32) occurred. This led to considerable unemployment and hardship in the old industrial areas, as well as political and social unrest in the 1930s, with rising membership in communist and socialist parties. A coalition government was formed in 1931.[102]


Since 1945

Territories that were at one time part of the British Empire. Names of current British Overseas Territories are underlined in red.

After the end of World War II in 1945, the UK was one of the Big Four powers (the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the U.S. and China) who met to plan the post-war world;[103][104] it was an original signatory to the Declaration of the United Nations. The UK became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. However, the war left the UK severely weakened and depending financially on the Marshall Plan.[105] In the immediate post-war years, the Labour government initiated a radical programme of reforms, which had a significant effect on British society in the following decades.[106] Major industries and public utilities were nationalised, a Welfare State was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service, was created.[107] The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's now much-diminished economic position, so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.[108] Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence. Many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations.[109]

Although the UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal (with its first atomic bomb test in 1952), the new post-war limits of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. The international spread of the English language ensured the continuing international influence of its literature and culture.[110][111] As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the UK government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries. In the following decades, the UK became a more multi-ethnic society than before.[112] Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the UK's economic performance was not as successful as many of its competitors, such as West Germany and Japan.[citation needed]

Leaders of member states of the European Union in 2007. The UK entered the European Economic Community in 1973. In a referendum held in 1975, 67% of voters voted to remain in the EEC,[113] but 52% voted to leave the EU in 2016.[114]

In the decade-long process of European integration, the UK was a founding member of the alliance called Western European Union, established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Economic Community (EEC). When the EEC became the European Union (EU) in 1992, the UK was one of the 12 founding members. The Treaty of Lisbon was signed in 2007, which forms the constitutional basis of the European Union since then.[citation needed]




The 2008 global financial crisis severely affected the UK economy. The coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits which resulted.[122] In 2014 the Scottish Government held a referendum on Scottish independence, with 55% of voters rejecting the independence proposal and opting to remain within the United Kingdom.[123] In 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the European Union.[124] As a result of this, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that he would resign;[125] he was replaced by Theresa May.


The topography of the UK

The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately 243,610 square kilometres (94,060 sq mi). The country occupies the major part of the British Isles[126] archipelago and includes the island of Great Britain, the northeastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and some smaller surrounding islands. It lies between the North Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea with the south-east coast coming within 22 miles (35 km) of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the English Channel.[127] In 1993 10% of the UK was forested, 46% used for pastures and 25% cultivated for agriculture.[128] The Royal Greenwich Observatory in London is the defining point of the Prime Meridian.[129]

The United Kingdom lies between latitudes 49° to 61° N, and longitudes 9° W to 2° E. Northern Ireland shares a 224-mile (360 km) land boundary with the Republic of Ireland.[127] The coastline of Great Britain is 11,073 miles (17,820 km) long.[130] It is connected to continental Europe by the Channel Tunnel, which at 31 miles (50 km) (24 miles (38 km) underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.[131]

England accounts for just over half of the total area of the UK, covering 130,395 square kilometres (50,350 sq mi).[132] Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,[128] with mountainous terrain north-west of the Tees-Exe line; including the Cumbrian Mountains of the Lake District, the Pennines, Exmoor and Dartmoor. The main rivers and estuaries are the Thames, Severn and the Humber. England's highest mountain is Scafell Pike (978 metres (3,209 ft)) in the Lake District. Its principal rivers are the Severn, Thames, Humber, Tees, Tyne, Tweed, Avon, Exe and Mersey.[128]

Scotland accounts for just under a third of the total area of the UK, covering 78,772 square kilometres (30,410 sq mi)[133] and including nearly eight hundred islands,[134] predominantly west and north of the mainland; notably the Hebrides, Orkney Islands and Shetland Islands. The topography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault—a geological rock fracture—which traverses Scotland from Arran in the west to Stonehaven in the east.[135] The faultline separates two distinctively different regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including Ben Nevis which at 1,343 metres (4,406 ft) is the highest point in the British Isles.[136] Lowland areas—especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt—are flatter and home to most of the population including Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, and Edinburgh, its capital and political centre, although upland and mountainous terrain lies within the Southern Uplands.


Wales accounts for less than a tenth of the total area of the UK, covering 20,779 square kilometres (8,020 sq mi).[137] Wales is mostly mountainous, though South Wales is less mountainous than North and mid Wales. The main population and industrial areas are in South Wales, consisting of the coastal cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport, and the South Wales Valleys to their north. The highest mountains in Wales are in Snowdonia and include Snowdon (Welsh: Yr Wyddfa) which, at 1,085 metres (3,560 ft), is the highest peak in Wales.[128] The 14, or possibly 15, Welsh mountains over 3,000 feet (910 metres) high are known collectively as the Welsh 3000s. Wales has over 2,704 kilometres (1,680 miles) of coastline.[130] Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is Anglesey (Ynys Môn) in the northwest.

Northern Ireland, separated from Great Britain by the Irish Sea and North Channel, has an area of 14,160 square kilometres (5,470 sq mi) and is mostly hilly. It includes Lough Neagh which, at 388 square kilometres (150 sq mi), is the largest lake in the British Isles by area.[138] The highest peak in Northern Ireland is Slieve Donard in the Mourne Mountains at 852 metres (2,795 ft).[128]


The United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round.[127] The temperature varies with the seasons seldom dropping below −11 °C (12 °F) or rising above 35 °C (95 °F).[139] The prevailing wind is from the south-west and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean,[127] although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions the eastern parts are therefore the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the Gulf Stream, bring mild winters;[140] especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the south-east of England, being closest to the European mainland, and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.

Administrative divisions

There is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the United Kingdom.[141] Each country of the United Kingdom has its own arrangements, whose origins often pre-date the UK's formation. Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function,[142] most significantly the devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The organisation of local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. Legislation concerning local government in England is the responsibility of the UK parliament and the [[Government of the United Kingdom]|UK government], as England has no devolved parliament. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine Government office regions or European Union government office regions.[143] One region, Greater London, has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a referendum.[144] It was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies, but a proposed assembly in the North East region was rejected by a referendum in 2004.[145] Below the regional tier, some parts of England have county councils and district councils and others have unitary authorities; while London consists of 32 London boroughs and the City of London. Councillors are elected by the first-past-the-post system in single-member wards or by the multi-member plurality system in multi-member wards.[146]


Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport which are unitary authorities in their own right.[150] Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system.[150] The most recent elections were held in May 2012, except for the Isle of Anglesey. The Welsh Local Government Association represents the interests of local authorities in Wales.[151]

Local government in Northern Ireland has since 1973 been organised into 26 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as collecting waste, controlling dogs and maintaining parks and cemeteries.[152] On 13 March 2008 the executive agreed on proposals to create 11 new councils and replace the present system.[153] The next local elections were postponed until 2016 to facilitate this.[154]


Locations of UK dependencies (crown dependencies alphabetised, overseas territories numbered)

The United Kingdom has sovereignty over seventeen territories which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself: fourteen British Overseas Territories[20] and three Crown dependencies.[20][155]

The fourteen British Overseas Territories are: Anguilla; Bermuda; the British Antarctic Territory; the British Indian Ocean Territory; the British Virgin Islands; the Cayman Islands; the Falkland Islands; Gibraltar; Montserrat; Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha; the Turks and Caicos Islands; the Pitcairn Islands; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; and Sovereign Base Areas on Cyprus.[156] British claims in Antarctica are not universally recognised.[157] Collectively Britain's overseas territories encompass an approximate land area of 1,727,570 square kilometres (667,018 sq mi) and a population of approximately 260,000 people.[158] They are the remnants of the British Empire and several have specifically voted to remain British territories (Bermuda in 1995, Gibraltar in 2002 and the Falkland Islands in 2013).[159]

The Crown dependencies are possessions of the Crown, as opposed to overseas territories of the UK.[160] They comprise three independently administered jurisdictions: the Channel Islands of Jersey and Guernsey in the English Channel, and the Isle of Man in the Irish Sea. By mutual agreement, the UK government manages the islands' foreign affairs and defence and the UK parliament has the authority to legislate on their behalf. However, internationally, they are regarded as "territories for which the United Kingdom is responsible".[161] The power to pass legislation affecting the islands ultimately rests with their own respective legislative assemblies, with the assent of the Crown (Privy Council or, in the case of the Isle of Man, in certain circumstances the Lieutenant-Governor).[162] Since 2005 each Crown dependency has had a Chief Minister as its head of government.[163]



The United Kingdom is a unitary state under a constitutional monarchy. Queen Elizabeth II is the head of state of the UK as well as monarch of fifteen other independent Commonwealth countries. The monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[164] The Constitution of the United Kingdom is uncodified and consists mostly of a collection of disparate written sources, including statutes, judge-made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions.[165] As there is no technical difference between ordinary statutes and "constitutional law", the UK parliament can perform "constitutional reform" simply by passing Acts of Parliament, and thus has the political power to change or abolish almost any written or unwritten element of the constitution. However, no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change.[166]



The position of prime minister,[nb 13] the UK's head of government,[167] belongs to the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The prime minister chooses a cabinet and its members are formally appointed by the monarch to form UK government. By convention, the monarch respects the prime minister's decisions of government.[168]


The cabinet is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister's party or coalition and mostly from the House of Commons but always from both legislative houses, the cabinet being responsible to both. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, and become Ministers of the Crown. The current Prime Minister is Theresa May, who has been in office since 13 July 2016. May is also the leader of the Conservative Party. For elections to the House of Commons, the UK is divided into 650 constituencies,[169] each electing a single member of parliament (MP) by simple plurality. General elections are called by the monarch when the prime minister so advises. Prior to the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 required that a new election must be called no later than five years after the previous general election.[170]

The Conservative Party, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats (formerly as the Liberal Party) have, in modern times, been considered the UK's three major political parties,[171] representing the British traditions of conservatism, socialism and social liberalism, respectively. However, at the 2015 general election, the Scottish National Party became the third-largest party by number of seats won, ahead of the Liberal Democrats. Most of the remaining seats were won by parties that contest elections only in one part of the UK: Plaid Cymru (Wales only); and the Democratic Unionist Party, Ulster Unionist Party, Social Democratic and Labour Party and Sinn Féin (Northern Ireland only[nb 14]).[172] In accordance with party policy, no elected Sinn Féin members of parliament have ever attended the House of Commons to speak on behalf of their constituents because of the requirement to take an oath of allegiance to the monarch.[173]

Devolved administrations


The Scottish Government and Parliament have wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK parliament, including education, healthcare, Scots law and local government.[177] At the 2011 elections the Scottish National Party won re-election and achieved an overall majority in the Scottish parliament, with its leader, Alex Salmond, as First Minister of Scotland.[178][179] In 2012, the UK and Scottish governments signed the Edinburgh Agreement setting out the terms for a referendum on Scottish independence in 2014, which was defeated 55% to 45%.

The Welsh Government and the National Assembly for Wales have more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.[180] The Assembly is able to legislate on devolved matters through Acts of the Assembly, which require no prior consent from Westminster. The 2011 elections resulted in a minority Labour administration led by Carwyn Jones.[181]

The Northern Ireland Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland. The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly. Arlene Foster (Democratic Unionist Party) and Martin McGuinness (Sinn Féin) are First Minister and deputy First Minister respectively.[182] Devolution to Northern Ireland is contingent on participation by the Northern Ireland administration in the North-South Ministerial Council, where the Northern Ireland Executive cooperates and develops joint and shared policies with the Government of Ireland. The British and Irish governments co-operate on non-devolved matters affecting Northern Ireland through the British–Irish Intergovernmental Conference, which assumes the responsibilities of the Northern Ireland administration in the event of its non-operation.

The UK does not have a codified constitution and constitutional matters are not among the powers devolved to Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly or Northern Ireland Assembly.[183][184] Indeed, in 1972, the UK Parliament unilaterally prorogued the Parliament of Northern Ireland, setting a precedent relevant to contemporary devolved institutions.[185] In practice, it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly, given the political entrenchment created by referendum decisions.[186] The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are even greater than in relation to Scotland and Wales, given that devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland.[187]

Law and criminal justice

The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system, as Article 19 of the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system.[188] Today the UK has three distinct systems of law: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords.[189][190] The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies.[191]


Scots law is a hybrid system based on both common-law and civil-law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session, for civil cases,[195] and the High Court of Justiciary, for criminal cases.[196] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.[197] Sheriff courts deal with most civil and criminal cases including conducting criminal trials with a jury, known as sheriff solemn court, or with a sheriff and no jury, known as sheriff summary Court.[198] The Scots legal system is unique in having three possible verdicts for a criminal trial: "guilty", "not guilty" and "not proven". Both "not guilty" and "not proven" result in an acquittal.[199]

Crime in England and Wales increased in the period between 1981 and 1995, though since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66% in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,[200] according to crime statistics. The prison population of England and Wales has increased to 86,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 148 per 100,000.[201][202] Her Majesty's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. The murder rate in England and Wales has stabilized in the first half of the 2010s with a murder rate around 1 per 100,000 which is half the peak in 2002 and similar to the rate in the 1980s.[203][unreliable source] More sexual offences have been reported to the police since 2002.[204][205] Crime in Scotland fell slightly in 2014/2015 to its lowest level in 39 years in with 59 killings for a murder rate of 1.1 per 100,000. Scotland's prisons are overcrowded but the prison population is shrinking.[206]

Foreign relations



Main article: British Armed Forces



According to various sources, including the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute and the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the United Kingdom has the fourth- or fifth-highest military expenditure in the world. Total defence spending amounts to 2.0% of national GDP.[25][26]


The Bank of England—the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based

The UK has a partially regulated market economy.[215] Based on market exchange rates the UK is today the fifth-largest economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe after Germany. HM Treasury, led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is responsible for developing and executing the UK government's public finance policy and economic policy. The Bank of England is the UK's central bank and is responsible for issuing notes and coins in the nation's currency, the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. Pound sterling is the world's third-largest reserve currency (after the US Dollar and the Euro).[216] Since 1997 the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee, headed by the Governor of the Bank of England, has been responsible for setting interest rates at the level necessary to achieve the overall inflation target for the economy that is set by the Chancellor each year.[217]

The UK service sector makes up around 73% of GDP.[218] London is one of the three "command centres" of the global economy (alongside New York City and Tokyo),[219] it is the world's largest financial centre alongside New York,[220][221][222] and it has the largest city GDP in Europe.[223] Edinburgh is also one of the largest financial centres in Europe.[224] Tourism is very important to the British economy and, with over 27 million tourists arriving in 2004, the United Kingdom is ranked as the sixth major tourist destination in the world and London has the most international visitors of any city in the world.[225][226] The creative industries accounted for 7% GVA in 2005 and grew at an average of 6% per annum between 1997 and 2005.[227]

The Industrial Revolution started in the UK with an initial concentration on the textile industry,[228] followed by other heavy industries such as shipbuilding, coal mining and steelmaking.[229][230] British merchants, shippers and bankers developed overwhelming advantage over those of other nations allowing the UK to dominate international trade in the 19th century.[231][232] As other nations industrialised, coupled with economic decline after two world wars, the United Kingdom began to lose its competitive advantage and heavy industry declined, by degrees, throughout the 20th century. Manufacturing remains a significant part of the economy but accounted for only 16.7% of national output in 2003.[233]

The automotive industry is a significant part of the UK manufacturing sector and employs over 800,000 people, with a turnover of some £52 billion, generating £26.6 billion of exports. In 2008, the UK produced around 1.45 million passenger vehicles and 203,000 commercial vehicles. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing and in 2008 around 3.16 million engines were produced in the country. The UK has a significant presence in auto racing and the UK motorsport industry employs around 38,500 people, comprises around 4,500 companies and has an annual turnover of around £6 billion.[234]


The aerospace industry of the UK is the second- or third-largest national aerospace industry in the world depending upon the method of measurement and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion.[235] The wings for the Airbus A380 and the A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK's world-leading Broughton facility, whilst over a quarter of the value of the Boeing 787 comes from UK manufacturers including Eaton (fuel subsystem pumps), Messier-Bugatti-Dowty (the landing gear) and Rolls-Royce (the engines). Other key names include GKN Aerospace—an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures that's involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production and development today.[236][237][238][237][239][238][239]

BAE Systems plays a critical role in some of the world's biggest defence aerospace projects. The company makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub-assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the Royal Air Force at its Warton Plant, near Preston. It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter—the world's largest single defence project—for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage, vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system. As well as this it manufactures the Hawk, the world's most successful jet training aircraft.[239] Airbus UK also manufactures the wings for the A400 m military transporter. Rolls-Royce, is the world's second-largest aero-engine manufacturer. Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft and it has more than 30,000 engines in service in the civil and defence sectors. Rolls-Royce is forecast to have more than 50% of the widebody market share by 2016, ahead of General Electric.[240] Agusta Westland designs and manufactures complete helicopters in the UK.[239]

The UK space industry was worth £9.1bn in 2011 and employed 29,000 people. It is growing at a rate of 7.5% annually, according to its umbrella organisation, the UK Space Agency. Government strategy is for the space industry to be a £40bn business for the UK by 2030, capturing a 10% share of the $250bn world market for commercial space technology.[239] On 16 July 2013, the UK government pledged £60 m to the Skylon project: this investment will provide support at a "crucial stage" to allow a full-scale prototype of the SABRE engine to be built. On 2 November 2015, BAE Systems announced they have bought a 20% stake in Reaction Engines ltd. The working partnership will draw on BAE Systems' extensive aerospace technology development and project management expertise and will provide Reaction Engines with access to critical industrial, technical and capital resources to help progress the development of the SABRE engine.[241]



The City of London is one of the world's largest financial centres[220][221][222]

In the final quarter of 2008, as a result of the Great Recession, the UK economy officially entered recession for the first time since 1991.[245] Unemployment increased from 5.2% in May 2008 to 7.6% in May 2009 and by January 2012 the unemployment rate among 18- to 24-year-olds had risen from 11.9% to 22.5%, the highest since current records began in 1992, although it had fallen to 14.2% by November 2015.[246][247][248] Total UK government debt rose quickly from 44.4% of GDP in 2007 to 82.9% of GDP in 2011, then increased more slowly to 87.5% of GDP in 2015.[249][250] Following the likes of the United States, France and many major economies, in February 2013, the UK lost its top AAA credit rating for the first time since 1978 with Moodys and Fitch credit agency while, unlike the other major economies retained their triple A rating with the largest agency Standard & Poor's.[251][252] However, by the end of 2014, UK growth was the fastest in both the G7 and in Europe,[253][254] and by September 2015, the unemployment rate was down to a seven-year low of 5.3%.[255]

As a direct result of the Great Recession between 2010 and the third quarter of 2012 wages in the UK fell by 3.2%[256] but as of 2015, real wages are growing by 3%, having grown faster than inflation since 2014.[257] Since the 1980s, UK economic inequality, like Canada, Australia and the United States has grown faster than in other developed countries.[258][259]

The poverty line in the UK is commonly defined as being 60% of the median household income.[nb 15] In 2007–2008 13.5 million people, or 22% of the population, lived below this line. This is a higher level of relative poverty than all but four other EU members.[260] In the same year 4.0 million children, 31% of the total, lived in households below the poverty line after housing costs were taken into account. This is a decrease of 400,000 children since 1998–1999.[261] The UK imports 40% of its food supplies.[262] The Office for National Statistics has estimated that in 2011, 14 million people were at risk of poverty or social exclusion, and that one person in 20 (5.1%) was now experiencing "severe material depression",[263] up from 3 million people in 1977.[264][265]

The UK has an external debt of $9.6 trillion dollars which is second highest in the world after the US which has an external debt of 18.5 trillion dollars. As a percentage of GDP, external debt is 408% which is third highest in the world after Luxembourg and Iceland.[266][267][268][269][270]

Science and technology


England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century[271] and the United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century,[228] and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances.[272] Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton, whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science;[273] from the 19th century Charles Darwin, whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell, who formulated classical electromagnetic theory; and more recently Stephen Hawking, who has advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology, quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes.[274]

Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish;[275] from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming,[276] and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others.[277] Famous British engineers and inventors of the Industrial Revolution include James Watt, George Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.[278] Other major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian;[279] from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan,[280] and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell;[281] and in the 20th century the world's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others,[282] the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.[283]

Scientific research and development remains important in British universities, with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.[284] Between 2004 and 2008 the UK produced 7% of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8% share of scientific citations, the third and second highest in the world (after the United States and China, respectively).[285] Scientific journals produced in the UK include Nature, the British Medical Journal and The Lancet.[286]


A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads.[127] The M25, encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.[289] In 2009 there were a total of 34 million licensed vehicles in Great Britain.[290]


The UK has a railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km) in Great Britain and 189 miles (304 km) in Northern Ireland. Railways in Northern Ireland are operated by NI Railways, a subsidiary of state-owned Translink. In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, which was followed by a rapid rise in passenger numbers following years of decline, although the factors behind this are disputed. Network Rail owns and manages most of the fixed assets (tracks, signals etc.). About 20 privately owned Train Operating Companies operate passenger trains, which carried 1.68 billion passengers in 2015.[291][292] There are also some 1,000 freight trains in daily operation.[when?][127] The UK government is to spend £30 billion on a new high-speed railway line, HS2, to be operational by 2026.[293] Crossrail, under construction in London, is Europe's largest construction project with a £15 billion projected cost.[294][295]

In the year from October 2009 to September 2010 UK airports handled a total of 211.4 million passengers.[296] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (65.6 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (31.5 million passengers) and London Stansted Airport (18.9 million passengers).[296] London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world[287][288] and is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways, as well as Virgin Atlantic.[297]


An oil platform in the North Sea

In 2006, the UK was the world's ninth-largest consumer of energy and the 15th-largest producer.[298] The UK is home to a number of large energy companies, including two of the six oil and gas "supermajors"—BP and Royal Dutch Shell—and BG Group.[299][300] In 2011, 40% of the UK's electricity was produced by gas, 30% by coal, 19% by nuclear power and 4.2% by wind, hydro, biofuels and wastes.[301]

In 2013, the UK produced 914 thousand barrels per day (bbl/d) of oil and consumed 1,507 thousand bbl/d.[302][303] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of oil since 2005.[304] In 2010 the UK had around 3.1 billion barrels of proven crude oil reserves, the largest of any EU member state.[304] In 2009, 66.5% of the UK's oil supply was imported.[305]

In 2009, the UK was the 13th-largest producer of natural gas in the world and the largest producer in the EU.[306] Production is now in decline and the UK has been a net importer of natural gas since 2004.[306] In 2009, half of British gas was supplied from imports as domestic reserves are depleted.[301]

Coal production played a key role in the UK economy in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the mid-1970s, 130 million tonnes of coal was being produced annually, not falling below 100 million tonnes until the early 1980s. During the 1980s and 1990s the industry was scaled back considerably. In 2011, the UK produced 18.3 million tonnes of coal.[307] In 2005 it had proven recoverable coal reserves of 171 million tons.[307] The UK Coal Authority has stated there is a potential to produce between 7 billion tonnes and 16 billion tonnes of coal through underground coal gasification (UCG) or 'fracking',[308] and that, based on current UK coal consumption, such reserves could last between 200 and 400 years.[309] However, environmental and social concerns have been raised over chemicals getting into the water table and minor earthquakes damaging homes.[310][311]


The total of all renewable electricity sources provided for 14.9% of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2013,[312] reaching 53.7 TWh of electricity generated. The UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply, in 2014 it generated 9.3% of the UK's total electricity.[313][314][315]

Water supply and sanitation

Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It is estimated that 96.7% of households are connected to the sewer network.[316] According to the Environment Agency, total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007.[317] In England and Wales the economic regulator of water companies is the Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat). The Environment Agency is responsible for environmental regulation, and the Drinking Water Inspectorate for regulating drinking water quality. The economic water industry regulator in Scotland is the Water Industry Commission for Scotland and the environmental regulator is the Scottish Environment Protection Agency. Drinking water standards and wastewater discharge standards in the UK, as in other countries of the European Union, are determined by the EU (see Water supply and sanitation in the European Union).




A census is taken simultaneously in all parts of the UK every ten years.[318] The Office for National Statistics is responsible for collecting data for England and Wales, the General Register Office for Scotland and the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency each being responsible for censuses in their respective countries.[319] In the 2011 census the total population of the United Kingdom was 63,181,775.[320] It is the third-largest in the European Union, the fifth-largest in the Commonwealth and the 22nd-largest in the world. In mid-2014 and mid-2015 net long-term international migration contributed more to population growth. In mid-2012 and mid-2013 natural change contributed the most to population growth.[321] Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased by an average annual rate of approximately 0.7%.[320] This compares to 0.3% per year in the period 1991 to 2001 and 0.2% in the decade 1981 to 1991.[322] The 2011 census also confirmed that the proportion of the population aged 0–14 has nearly halved (31% in 1911 compared to 18 in 2011) and the proportion of older people aged 65 and over has more than tripled (from 5 to 16%).[320] It has been estimated that the number of people aged 100 or over will rise steeply to reach over 626,000 by 2080.[323]

England's population in 2011 was found to be 53 million.[324] It is one of the most densely populated countries in the world, with 420 people resident per square kilometre in mid-2015.[325] with a particular concentration in London and the south-east.[326] The 2011 census put Scotland's population at 5.3 million,[327] Wales at 3.06 million and Northern Ireland at 1.81 million.[324] In percentage terms England has had the fastest growing population of any country of the UK in the period from 2001 to 2011, with an increase of 7.9%.

In 2012 the average total fertility rate (TFR) across the UK was 1.92 children per woman.[328] While a rising birth rate is contributing to current population growth, it remains considerably below the 'baby boom' peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,[329] below the replacement rate of 2.1, but higher than the 2001 record low of 1.63.[328] In 2012, Scotland had the lowest TFR at only 1.67, followed by Wales at 1.88, England at 1.94, and Northern Ireland at 2.03.[328] In 2011, 47.3% of births in the UK were to unmarried women.[330] A government figure estimated that there are 3.6 million homosexual people in Britain comprising 6% of the population.[331]

Ethnic groups


Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be descended from the various ethnic groups that settled there before the 11th century: the Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the Normans. Welsh people could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.[335] A 2006 genetic study shows that more than 50% of England's gene pool contains Germanic Y chromosomes.[336] Another 2005 genetic analysis indicates that "about 75% of the traceable ancestors of the modern British population had arrived in the British isles by about 6,200 years ago, at the start of the British Neolithic or Stone Age", and that the British broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people.[337][338][339]

The UK has a history of small-scale non-white immigration, with Liverpool having the oldest Black population in the country dating back to at least the 1730s during the period of the African slave trade,[340] and the oldest Chinese community in Europe, dating to the arrival of Chinese seamen in the 19th century.[341] In 1950 there were probably fewer than 20,000 non-white residents in Britain, almost all born overseas.[342]

Since 1948 substantial immigration from Africa, the Caribbean and South Asia has been a legacy of ties forged by the British Empire.[343] Migration from new EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe since 2004 has resulted in growth in these population groups, although some of this migration has been temporary.[344] Since the 1990s, there has been substantial diversification of the immigrant population, with migrants to the UK coming from a much wider range of countries than previous waves, which tended to involve larger numbers of migrants coming from a relatively small number of countries.[345][346][347]

Academics have argued that the ethnicity categories employed in British national statistics, which were first introduced in the 1991 census, involve confusion between the concepts of ethnicity and race.[348][349] In 2011, 87.2% of the UK population identified themselves as white, meaning 12.8% of the UK population identify themselves as of one of number of ethnic minority groups.[350] In the 2001 census, this figure was 7.9% of the UK population.[351]

Because of differences in the wording of the census forms used in England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, data on the Other White group is not available for the UK as a whole, but in England and Wales this was the fastest growing group between the 2001 and 2011 censuses, increasing by 1.1 million (1.8 percentage points).[352] Amongst groups for which comparable data is available for all parts of the UK level, there was considerable growth in the size of the Other Asian category, which increased from 0.4 to 1.4% of the population between 2001 and 2011.[350][351] There was also considerable growth in the Mixed category. In 2001, people in this category accounted for 1.2% of the UK population;[351] by 2011, the proportion was 2%.[350]

Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. 30.4% of London's population and 37.4% of Leicester's was estimated to be non-white in 2005,[353][354] whereas less than 5% of the populations of North East England, Wales and the South West were from ethnic minorities, according to the 2001 census.[355] In 2011, 26.5% of primary and 22.2% of secondary pupils at state schools in England were members of an ethnic minority.[356]

Ethnic group Population, 2001[357] Population, 2011 Percentage of total population, 2011[350]
White 54,153,898 55,010,359 87.1
White: Gypsy/Traveller/Irish Traveller[nb 16] 63,193 0.1
Asian/Asian British: Indian 1,053,411 1,451,862 2.3
Asian/Asian British: Pakistani 747,285 1,174,983 1.9
Asian/Asian British: Bangladeshi 283,063 451,529 0.7
Asian/Asian British: Chinese 247,403 433,150 0.7
Asian/Asian British: Other Asian 247,664 861,815 1.4
Black/African/Caribbean/Black British 1,148,738 1,904,684[nb 17] 3.0
Mixed/multiple ethnic groups 677,117 1,250,229 2.0
Other ethnic group 230,615 580,374 0.9
Total 58,789,194 63,182,178 100


The English-speaking world. Countries in dark blue have a majority of native speakers; countries where English is an official but not a majority language are shaded in light blue. English is one of the official languages of the European Union[360] and the United Nations[361]

The UK's de facto official language is English.[362][363] It is estimated that 95% of the UK's population are monolingual English speakers.[364] 5.5% of the population are estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of relatively recent immigration.[364] South Asian languages, including Punjabi, Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Tamil and Gujarati, are the largest grouping and are spoken by 2.7% of the UK population.[364] According to the 2011 census, Polish has become the second-largest language spoken in England and has 546,000 speakers.[365]

Four Celtic languages are spoken in the UK: Welsh, Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Cornish. All are recognised as regional or minority languages, subject to specific measures of protection and promotion under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages[2][366] and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.[367] In the 2001 Census over a fifth (21%) of the population of Wales said they could speak Welsh,[368] an increase from the 1991 Census (18%).[369] In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh speakers live in England.[370] In the same census in Northern Ireland 167,487 people (10.4%) stated that they had "some knowledge of Irish" (see Irish language in Northern Ireland), almost exclusively in the nationalist (mainly Catholic) population. Over 92,000 people in Scotland (just under 2% of the population) had some Gaelic language ability, including 72% of those living in the Outer Hebrides.[371] The number of schoolchildren being taught through Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish is increasing.[372] Among emigrant-descended populations some Scottish Gaelic is still spoken in Canada (principally Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island),[373] and Welsh in Patagonia, Argentina.[374]


It is compulsory for pupils to study a second language up to the age of 14 in England,[376] and up to age 16 in Scotland. French and German are the two most commonly taught second languages in England and Scotland. All pupils in Wales are taught Welsh as a second language up to age 16, or are taught in Welsh.[377]


Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the United Kingdom for over 1400 years.[378] Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in many surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,[379] while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of other faiths, most notably Islam.[380] This has led some commentators to variously describe the UK as a multi-faith,[381] secularised,[382] or post-Christian society.[383]

In the 2001 census 71.6% of all respondents indicated that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being Islam (2.8%), Hinduism (1.0%), Sikhism (0.6%), Judaism (0.5%), Buddhism (0.3%) and all other religions (0.3%).[384] 15% of respondents stated that they had no religion, with a further 7% not stating a religious preference.[385] A Tearfund survey in 2007 showed only one in ten Britons actually attend church weekly.[386] Between the 2001 and 2011 census there was a decrease in the amount of people who identified as Christian by 12%, whilst the percentage of those reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of Muslims increasing by the most substantial margin to a total of about 5%.[387] The Muslim population has increased from 1.6 million in 2001 to 2.7 million in 2011,[388] making it the second-largest religious group in the United Kingdom.[389]

In a 2015 survey conducted by BSA (British Social Attitudes) on religious affiliation; 49% of respondents indicated 'no religion', while 42% indicated they were Christians, followed by 8% who affiliated with other religions (e.g. Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, etc.).[390] Among Christians, adherents to the Church of England constituted 17%, Roman Catholic Church - 8%, other Christians (including Presbyterians, Methodists, other Protestants, as well as Eastern Orthodox) - 17%. Amid other religions, Islam accounted for 5%.[391][392]

The Church of England is the established church in England.[393] It retains a representation in the UK parliament and the British monarch is its Supreme Governor.[394] In Scotland, the Church of Scotland is recognised as the national church. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Government" upon his or her accession.[395][396] The Church in Wales was disestablished in 1920 and, as the Church of Ireland was disestablished in 1870 before the partition of Ireland, there is no established church in Northern Ireland.[397] Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62% of Christians are Anglican, 13.5% Catholic, 6% Presbyterian, 3.4% Methodist with small numbers of other Protestant denominations such as Open Brethren, and Orthodox churches.[398]



The United Kingdom has experienced successive waves of migration. The Great Famine in Ireland, then part of the United Kingdom, resulted in perhaps a million people migrating to Great Britain.[399] Unable to return to Poland at the end of World War II, over 120,000 Polish veterans remained in the UK permanently.[400] After World War II, there was significant immigration from the colonies and newly independent former colonies, partly as a legacy of empire and partly driven by labour shortages. Many of these migrants came from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent.[401] In 1841, 0.25% of the population of England and Wales was born in a foreign country. By 1931, this figure had risen to 2.6%, and by 1951 it was 4.4%.[402]

In 2014 the net increase was 318,000: immigration was 641,000, up from 526,000 in 2013, while the number of people emigrating (for more than 12 months) was 323,000.[403] One of the more recent trends in migration has been the arrival of workers from the new EU member states in Eastern Europe, known as the A8 countries.[344] In 2010, there were 7.0 million foreign-born residents in the UK, corresponding to 11.3% of the total population. Of these, 4.76 million (7.7%) were born outside the EU and 2.24 million (3.6%) were born in another EU Member State.[404] The proportion of foreign-born people in the UK remains slightly below that of many other European countries.[405] However, immigration is now contributing to a rising population[406] with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. Analysis of Office for National Statistics (ONS) data shows that a net total of 2.3 million migrants moved to the UK in the 15 years from 1991 to 2006.[407][408] In 2008 it was predicted that migration would add 7 million to the UK population by 2031,[409] though these figures are disputed.[410] The ONS reported that net migration rose from 2009 to 2010 by 21% to 239,000.[411]

In 2013, approximately 208,000 foreign citizens were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since records began in 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of people granted British citizenship per year was 195,800. The main countries of previous nationality of those naturalised in 2014 were India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, South Africa, Poland and Somalia.[412] The total number of grants of settlement, which confers permanent residence in the UK without granting British citizenship,[413] was approximately 154,700 in 2013, compared to 241,200 in 2010 and 129,800 in 2012.[412]

Over a quarter (27.0%) of live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK, according to official statistics released in 2015.[414]

Citizens of the European Union, including those of the UK, have the right to live and work in any EU member state.[415] The UK applied temporary restrictions to citizens of Romania and Bulgaria, which joined the EU in January 2007.[416] Research conducted by the Migration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, two-thirds of them Polish, but that many subsequently returned home, resulting in a net increase in the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK of some 700,000 over that period.[417][418] The late-2000s recession in the UK reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK,[419] the migration becoming temporary and circular.[420] In 2009, for the first time since enlargement, more nationals of the eight central and eastern European states that had joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived.[421] In 2011, citizens of the new EU member states made up 13% of the immigrants entering the country.[422]

Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country, 2006

The UK government has introduced a points-based immigration system for immigration from outside the European Economic Area to replace former schemes, including the Scottish Government's Fresh Talent Initiative.[423] In June 2010 the UK government introduced a temporary limit of 24,000 on immigration from outside the EU, aiming to discourage applications before a permanent cap was imposed in April 2011.[424]

Emigration was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930 around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland. Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe.[425] Today, at least 5.5 million UK-born people live abroad,[426][427][428] mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.[426][429]



Education in the United Kingdom is a devolved matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 percent of United Kingdom population has a university or college degree, which is the highest percentages in the Europe, and among the highest percentages in the world.[430][431]

Whilst education in England is the responsibility of the Secretary of State for Education, the day-to-day administration and funding of state schools is the responsibility of local authorities.[432] Universally free of charge state education was introduced piecemeal between 1870 and 1944.[433][434] Education is now mandatory from ages five to sixteen, and in England youngsters must stay in education or training until they are 18.[435] In 2011, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) rated 13–14-year-old pupils in England and Wales 10th in the world for maths and 9th for science.[436] The majority of children are educated in state-sector schools, a small proportion of which select on the grounds of academic ability. Two of the top ten performing schools in terms of GCSE results in 2006 were state-run grammar schools. In 2010, over half of places at the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge were taken by students from state schools,[437] while the proportion of children in England attending private schools is around 7% which rises to 18% of those over 16.[438][439] England has the two oldest universities in English-speaking world, Universities of Oxford and Cambridge (jointly known as "Oxbridge") with history of over eight centuries. The United Kingdom trails only the United States in terms of representation on lists of top 100 universities.[440][441][442][443]

Education in Scotland is the responsibility of the Cabinet Secretary for Education and Lifelong Learning, with day-to-day administration and funding of state schools the responsibility of Local Authorities. Two non-departmental public bodies have key roles in Scottish education. The Scottish Qualifications Authority is responsible for the development, accreditation, assessment and certification of qualifications other than degrees which are delivered at secondary schools, post-secondary colleges of further education and other centres.[445] The Learning and Teaching Scotland provides advice, resources and staff development to education professionals.[446] Scotland first legislated for compulsory education in 1496.[447] The proportion of children in Scotland attending private schools is just over 4%, and it has been rising slowly in recent years.[448] Scottish students who attend Scottish universities pay neither tuition fees nor graduate endowment charges, as fees were abolished in 2001 and the graduate endowment scheme was abolished in 2008.[449]

The Welsh Government has responsibility for education in Wales. A significant number of Welsh students are taught either wholly or largely in the Welsh language; lessons in Welsh are compulsory for all until the age of 16.[450] There are plans to increase the provision of Welsh-medium schools as part of the policy of creating a fully bilingual Wales.






Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has been increased significantly to bring it closer to the European Union average.[458] The UK spends around 8.4% of its gross domestic product on healthcare, which is 0.5 percentage points below the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development average and about one percentage point below the average of the European Union.[459]




Main article: British literature
The Chandos portrait, believed to depict William Shakespeare


The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time,[461][462][463] and his contemporaries Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson have also been held in continuous high esteem. More recently the playwrights Alan Ayckbourn, Harold Pinter, Michael Frayn, Tom Stoppard and David Edgar have combined elements of surrealism, realism and radicalism.


A photograph of Victorian era novelist Charles Dickens


Britain's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin, was composed in Yr Hen Ogledd (The Old North), most likely in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur.[466] From around the seventh century, the connection between Wales and the Old North was lost, and the focus of Welsh-language culture shifted to Wales, where Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth.[467] Wales's most celebrated medieval poet, Dafydd ap Gwilym (fl.1320–1370), composed poetry on themes including nature, religion and especially love. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.[468] Until the late 19th century the majority of Welsh literature was in Welsh and much of the prose was religious in character. Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best-known of the Anglo-Welsh poets are both Thomases. Dylan Thomas became famous on both sides of the Atlantic in the mid-20th century. He is remembered for his poetry—his "Do not go gentle into that good night; Rage, rage against the dying of the light" is one of the most quoted couplets of English language verse—and for his "play for voices", Under Milk Wood. The influential Church in Wales "poet-priest" and Welsh nationalist R. S. Thomas was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts.[469][470]



See also: British rock
The Beatles are the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed band in popular music, selling over a billion records.[473][474][475]


The Beatles have international sales of over one billion units and are the biggest-selling and most influential band in the history of popular music.[473][474][475][479] Other prominent British contributors to have influenced popular music over the last 50 years include; The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Queen, the Bee Gees, and Elton John, all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more.[480][481][482][483][484][485] The Brit Awards are the BPI's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include; The Who, David Bowie, Eric Clapton, Rod Stewart and The Police.[486] More recent UK music acts that have had international success include Coldplay, Radiohead, Oasis, Spice Girls, Robbie Williams, Amy Winehouse and Adele.[487]

A number of UK cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had more UK chart number one hit singles per capita (54) than any other city worldwide.[488] Glasgow's contribution to music was recognised in 2008 when it was named a UNESCO City of Music, one of only three cities in the world to have this honour.[489]

Visual art





Alfred Hitchcock has been ranked as one of the greatest and most influential British filmmakers of all time.[491]

The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock, whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time,[492] and David Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all-time.[493] Other important directors including Charlie Chaplin,[494] Michael Powell,[495] Carol Reed[496] and Ridley Scott.[497] Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success, including: Julie Andrews,[498] Richard Burton,[499] Michael Caine,[500] Charlie Chaplin,[501] Sean Connery,[502] Vivien Leigh,[503] David Niven,[504] Laurence Olivier,[505] Peter Sellers,[506] Kate Winslet,[507] Anthony Hopkins,[508] and Daniel Day-Lewis.[509] Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises (Harry Potter and James Bond).[510] Ealing Studios has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world.[511]


In 2009, British films grossed around $2 billion worldwide and achieved a market share of around 7% globally and 17% in the United Kingdom.[512] UK box-office takings totalled £944 million in 2009, with around 173 million admissions.[512] The British Film Institute has produced a poll ranking of what it considers to be the 100 greatest British films of all time, the BFI Top 100 British films.[513] The annual British Academy Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.[514]


Broadcasting House in London, headquarters of the BBC, the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[515][516][517]

The BBC, founded in 1922, is the UK's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.[515][516][517] It operates numerous television and radio stations in the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence.[518][519] Other major players in the UK media include ITV plc, which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network,[520] and News Corporation, which owns a number of national newspapers through News International such as the most popular tabloid The Sun and the longest-established daily "broadsheet" The Times,[521] as well as holding a large stake in satellite broadcaster British Sky Broadcasting.[522] London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales respectively.[523] The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs around 167,000 people.[524]

In 2009, it was estimated that individuals viewed a mean of 3.75 hours of television per day and 2.81 hours of radio. In that year the main BBC public service broadcasting channels accounted for an estimated 28.4% of all television viewing; the three main independent channels accounted for 29.5% and the increasingly important other satellite and digital channels for the remaining 42.1%.[525] Sales of newspapers have fallen since the 1970s and in 2010 41% of people reported reading a daily national newspaper.[526] In 2010, 82.5% of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.[527]


Main article: British philosophy






A 2003 poll found that football is the most popular sport in the United Kingdom.[534] England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and The Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley.[535][536] Each of the Home Nations has its own football association, national team and league system. The English top division, the Premier League, is the most watched football league in the world.[537] The first-ever international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872.[538] England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland compete as separate countries in international competitions.[539] A Great Britain Olympic football team was assembled for the first time to compete in the London 2012 Olympic Games. However, the Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish football associations declined to participate, fearing that it would undermine their independent status—a fear confirmed by FIFA.[540]

In 2003, rugby union was ranked the second most popular sport in the UK.[534] The sport was created in Rugby School, Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland.[541][542] England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship; the premier international tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sport governing bodies in England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately.[543] If any of the British teams or the Irish team beat the other three in a tournament, then it is awarded the Triple Crown.[544]

Cricket was invented in England, and its laws were established by Marylebone Cricket Club in 1788.[545] The England cricket team, controlled by the England and Wales Cricket Board,[546] is the only national team in the UK with Test status. Team members are drawn from the main county sides, and include both English and Welsh players. Cricket is distinct from football and rugby where Wales and England field separate national teams, although Wales had fielded its own team in the past. Irish and Scottish players have played for England because neither Scotland nor Ireland have Test status and have only recently started to play in One Day Internationals.[547][548] Scotland, England (and Wales), and Ireland (including Northern Ireland) have competed at the Cricket World Cup, with England reaching the finals on three occasions. There is a professional league championship in which clubs representing 17 English counties and 1 Welsh county compete.[549]


The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England in the 1860s, before spreading around the world.[550] The world's oldest tennis tournament, the Wimbledon championships, first occurred in 1877, and today the event takes place over two weeks in late June and early July.[551]




Golf is the sixth most popular sport, by participation, in the UK. Although The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews in Scotland is the sport's home course,[554] the world's oldest golf course is actually Musselburgh Links' Old Golf Course.[555] In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes.[553] The oldest golf tournament in the world, and the first major championship in golf, The Open Championship, is played annually on the weekend of the third Friday in July.[556]

Rugby league originated in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire in 1895 and is generally played in Northern England.[557] A single 'Great Britain Lions' team had competed in the Rugby League World Cup and Test match games, but this changed in 2008 when England, Scotland and Ireland competed as separate nations.[558] Great Britain is still retained as the full national team. Super League is the highest level of professional rugby league in the UK and Europe. It consists of 11 teams from Northern England, 1 from London, 1 from Wales and 1 from France.[559]

The 'Queensberry rules', the code of general rules in boxing, was named after John Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry in 1867, that formed the basis of modern boxing.[560] Snooker is another of the UK's popular sporting exports, with the world championships held annually in Sheffield.[561] In Northern Ireland Gaelic football and hurling are popular team sports, both in terms of participation and spectating, and Irish expatriates in the UK and the US also play them.[562] Shinty (or camanachd) is popular in the Scottish Highlands.[563] Highland games are held in spring and summer in Scotland, celebrating Scottish and celtic culture and heritage, especially that of the Scottish Highlands.[564]






See also


  1. ^ An alternative variant of the Royal coat of arms is used in Scotland: [click to view image].
  3. ^ Under the Council of Europe's European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Scots, Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic and Irish are officially recognised as regional or minority languages by the UK government for the purposes of the Charter.[2] See also Languages of the United Kingdom.
  5. ^ This excludes some of the UK's dependencies. See Time in the United Kingdom#British territories
  6. ^ Excludes most overseas territories
  7. ^ The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states. Other TLDs are used regionally
  8. ^ IPA transcriptions
    • "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland"
    RP: Listeni/juːˈntɪd ˈkɪŋdəm əv ɡrt ˈbrɪtən ən ˈnɔːðən ˈələnd/
  9. ^ Although Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another state, two of its Overseas Territories also share land borders with other states. Gibraltar shares a border with Spain, while the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia share borders with the Republic of Cyprus, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the UN buffer zone separating the two Cypriot polities.
  10. ^ In the referendum of 23 June 2016, a majority voted for the UK to withdraw from the EU, but the process and date for Brexit have yet to be determined.
  17. ^ In the 2011 Census, for the purpose of harmonising results to make them comparable across the UK, the ONS includes individuals in Scotland who classified themselves in the "African" category (29,638 people), which in the Scottish version of the census is separate from "Caribbean or Black" (6,540 people),[358] in this grouping. The ONS note that "the African categories used in Scotland could potentially capture White/Asian/Other African in addition to Black identities".[359]


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Further reading

  • Hitchens, Peter (2000). The Abolition of Britain: From Winston Churchill to Princess Diana. Second ed. San Francisco, Calif.: Encounter Books. xi, 332 pp. ISBN 1-893554-18-X.
  • Lambert, Richard S. (1964). The Great Heritage: A History of Britain for Canadians. House of Grant, 1964 (and earlier editions and printings).

External links

General information