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This article is about the deliberate diet for human beings. For types of vegetarian foods, see vegetarian cuisine. For plant-based diets in non-human animals, see herbivore.
Origins Ancient India, ancient Greece; 6th century BCE and earlier
Varieties Ovo, lacto, ovo-lacto, veganism, raw veganism, fruitarianism, Buddhist vegetarianism, Jain vegetarianism
A variety of vegan and vegetarian deli foods.

Vegetarianism /ˈvɛətɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter.[2][3][4][5]


Various packaged or processed foods, including cake, cookies, candies, chocolate, yogurt and marshmallows, often contain unfamiliar animal ingredients, and may be a special concern for vegetarians due to the likelihood of such additions.[4][6] Often, products are reviewed by vegetarians for animal-derived ingredients prior to purchase or consumption.[6] Vegetarians vary in their feelings regarding these ingredients, however. For example, while some vegetarians may be unaware of animal-derived rennet's role in the usual production of cheese and may therefore unknowingly consume the product,[4][7][8] other vegetarians may not take issue with its consumption.[4][5]



The word vegetarian has been in use since 1839, referring to what was previously described as "vegetable diet". It is commonly believed to be a compound of vegetable and the suffix -arian (as in agrarian). (John Davis shows that it was probably not derived from the Latin word vegetus.[13]) The term was popularised with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester, UK in 1847.[14][15] The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House, a school on the north side of Ham Common, London, opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves, from 1841 known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet "The Healthian", which provides some of the earliest occurrences of the term "vegetarian".[16][17]


The earliest records of (lacto) vegetarianism come from ancient India and ancient Greece in the 5th century BCE.[18] In the Asian instance the diet was closely connected with the idea of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[19] Among the Hellenes, Egyptians and others, it had medical or Ritual purification purposes.

Indian emperor Ashoka asserted protection to fauna:


Labeling is mandatory in India[20] to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (red).

Following the Christianisation of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe as it was in other Continents, except India.[21] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[22] (The medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers.)[23]

It re-emerged during the Renaissance,[24] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;[25] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. The International Vegetarian Union, a union of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and more recently, environmental and economic concerns.


Roadside café near Kullu, India.

There are a number of vegetarian diets, which exclude or include various foods.

  • Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
  • Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
  • Veganism excludes all animal flesh and products, such as milk, honey, and eggs, as well as items refined or manufactured through any such product, such as bone-char refined white sugar or animal-tested baking soda.
  • Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Vegetables can only be cooked up to a certain temperature.[26]
  • Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.

Within the 'ovo-' groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilized eggs (with balut being an extreme example); however, such distinction is typically not specifically addressed.


Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet,[10][28][29] as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish, or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat,[9][30] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[12] In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[28][31] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:

  • Pollotarianism, which includes chicken and possibly other poultry;

Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society, who state that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[12]

Health effects[edit]



Compared to omnivores, vegetarian populations have a lower overall mortality rate and in particular benefit from a reduced incidence of many non-communicable diseases including heart disease, type 2 diabetes and cerebrovascular disease.[33] A vegetarian diet reduces cancer risk, except for breast cancer.[33]

A vegetarian diet which is badly planned can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia and platelet disorders; this risk may be offset by ensuring sufficient consumption of vitamin B 12 and polyunsaturated fatty acids.[33]

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada have stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet is "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provides health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases".[34] Large-scale studies have shown that mortality from ischaemic heart disease was 30% lower among vegetarian men and 20% lower among vegetarian women than in non-vegetarians.[35][36] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.[37][38]


The relationship between vegetarian diet and bone health remains unclear. According to some studies, a vegetarian lifestyle can be associated with vitamin B 12 deficiency and low bone mineral density.[40] However, a study of vegetarian and non-vegetarian adults in Taiwan found no significant difference in bone mineral density between the two groups.[41] Other studies, exploring animal protein's negative effects on bone health, suggest that vegetarians may be less prone to osteoporosis than omnivores, as vegetarian subjects had greater bone mineral density[42] and more bone formation.[43]



A fruit stall in Barcelona



Protein intake in vegetarian diets is lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.[49] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, confirmed vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[50] Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for ovo-lacto vegetarian, several vegetable sources have significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids, including lupin beans, soy,[51] hempseed, chia seed,[52] amaranth,[53] buckwheat,[54] pumpkin seeds[55] spirulina,[56] pistachios,[57] and quinoa.[58] However, the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice and beans, or hummus and whole wheat pita, though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary[citation needed]). A 1994 study found a varied intake of such sources can be adequate.[59]


Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents.[60] According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli, is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal.[61] Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, broccoli, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.[62] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.[47] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%,[63] and 58%[64] of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.[65]

Vitamin B12[edit]

According to the United States National Institutes of Health, vitamin B12 is not generally present in plants and is naturally found in foods of animal origin.[66] Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods (including some soy products and some breakfast cereals) and dietary supplements.[67][68][69][70][71] Vitamin B12 can also be obtained from fortified yeast extract products.[72]

The recommended dietary allowance of B12 in the United States is, per day, 0.4 mcg (0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female).[66] While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B12 is very small, deficiency of the vitamin is very serious leading to anemia and irreversible nerve damage.[73]

Fatty acids[edit]



Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.[78] Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.[79]

Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet.[80] The calcium found in broccoli, bok choy, and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in the body.[78][79][81] Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher.[79][81] Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens, mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini.[78][80] Though calcium can be found in Spinach, swiss chard, beans and beet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body.[79] Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates.[79] See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages,[79] the Vegetarian Resource Group[80] and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics[78] for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian and/or vegan diet.

Vitamin D[edit]

Main article: Vitamin D

Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.[82][83] Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of Vitamin D[84] For those who do not get adequate sun exposure and/or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

Vitamin D2[edit]

  • Plants
  • Fungus, from USDA nutrient database:[86]

Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol is found in fungus (except alfalfa which is a plantae) and created from viosterol, which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activates ergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as a sterol from ergot). Any UV-irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D2.[87] Human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement according to study.[88] For example, Vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable.[89] By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed[90] making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms,[91] or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested.[92]



In Mortality in British vegetarians,[94] a similar conclusion is drawn:






Medical use[edit]

In Western medicine, patients are sometimes advised to adhere to a vegetarian diet.[100] Vegetarian diets have been used as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis, but the evidence is inconclusive whether this is effective.[101] Certain alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure. Maya Tiwari notes that Ayurveda recommends small portions of meat for some people, though "the rules of hunting and killing the animal, practiced by the native peoples, were very specific and detailed". Now that such methods of hunting and killing are not observed, she does not recommend the use of "any animal meat as food, not even for the Vata types".[102]


Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.[103][104] Some nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.[105][106]

Animal-to-human disease transmissions[edit]

The consumption of meat can cause a transmission of a number of diseases from animals to humans.[107] The connection between infected animal and human illness is well established in the case of salmonella; an estimated one-third to one-half of all chicken meat marketed in the United States is contaminated with salmonella.[107] Only recently, however, have scientists begun to suspect that there is a similar connection between animal meat and human cancer, birth defects, mutations, and many other diseases in humans.[107][108] The rate of disease among chickens is so high that the Department of Labor has ranked the poultry industry as one of the most hazardous occupations.[107] 20% of all cows are afflicted with a variety of cancer known as bovine leukemia virus (BLV).[107] Studies have increasingly linked BLV with HTLV-1, the first human retrovirus discovered to cause cancer.[107] Scientists have found that a bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV), the equivalent of the AIDS virus in cows, can also infect human cells.[107] It is supposed that BIV may have a role in the development of a number of malignant or slow viruses in humans.[107][clarification needed]

The proximity of animals in industrial-scale animal farming leads to an increased rate of disease transmission.[109]

Transmission of animal influenza viruses to humans has been documented, but illness from such cases is rare compared to that caused by the now common human-adapted older influenza viruses,[110] transferred from animals to humans in the more distant past.[nb 1][111][112][113] The first documented case was in 1959, and in 1998, 18 new human cases of H5N1 influenza were diagnosed, in which six people died. In 1997 more cases of H5N1 avian influenza were found in chickens in Hong Kong.[110]

Whether tuberculosis originated in cattle and was then transferred to humans, or diverged from a common ancestor infecting a different species, is currently unclear.[114] The strongest evidence for a domestic-animal origin exists for measles and pertussis, although the data do not exclude a non-domestic origin.[115]

According to the 'Hunter Theory', the "simplest and most plausible explanation for the cross-species transmission" the AIDS virus was transmitted from a chimpanzee to a human when a bushmeat hunter was bitten or cut while hunting or butchering an animal.[116]

Historian Norman Cantor suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cites many forms of evidence including the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague.[117]

Eating disorders[edit]

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder".[118] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[nb 2][119]

Ethics and diet[edit]


Main article: Ethics of eating meat



Ethics of killing for food[edit]

Main article: Bioethics



According to Buddhist philosophy, using pesticides in field crops cause many animals to be killed, probably more so than all meat eaters combined. Clearing large areas for crops also causes hardship to many animals who are displaced as a result of this. Being vegetarian does not mean that no animals have been killed in cultivating crops and any ethical arguments to support this perception does not hold up.[122]

Milk and eggs[edit]

One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering and/or a premature death.[123]

To produce milk from dairy cattle, calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and slaughtered or fed milk replacer in order to retain the cows milk for human consumption.[124] Vegans state that this breaks the natural mother and calf bond.[124] Unwanted male calves are either slaughtered at birth or sent for veal production.[124] To prolong lactation, dairy cows are almost permanently kept pregnant through artificial insemination.[124] After about five years, once the cows milk production has dropped, they are considered "spent" and sent to slaughter for hamburger meat and their hides. A dairy cow's natural life expectancy is about twenty years.[123]


Treatment of animals[edit]

Main article: Animal rights


Classical Greek and Roman philosophy[edit]

Pythagoras advocating vegetarianism, painting by Rubens




Religion and diet[edit]

Indian cuisine offers a wide range of vegetarian delicacies because the two main sects of Hinduism, practiced by the majority of India's population, encourages vegetarian diet. Shown here is a vegetarian thali.

Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct as do some major[127] sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion.[128] Other denominations that advocate a vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement, the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas. Sikhism[129][130][131] does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[132]

Bahá'í Faith[edit]

While there are no dietary restrictions in the Bahá'í Faith, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[133] He stated that there are no requirements that Bahá'ís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.[133][134][135] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.[133] While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[136] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Bahá'ís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Bahá'í practice and that Bahá'ís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[133]


A vegetarian dinner at a Japanese Buddhist temple

Theravadins in general eat meat.[137] If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense.[138] However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant meat, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh[139]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.[140][141]

In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.[142][143][144][145] However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, do eat meat, while many Chinese Buddhist branches do not.




At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet.[149] Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[150] Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.[151]

Seventh-day Adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and ova-lacto-vegetarian diets are recommended by the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Nutrition Council (GCNC). They have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes.[152] The GCNC has in addition adapted the USDA's food pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach.[152][153] However, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the SDA health message are unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.[154]

Additionally, some monastic orders follow a vegetarian diet, and members of the Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.[155] There is also a strong association between the Quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[156]

According to Canon Law, Roman Catholics are required to abstain from meat (defined as all animal flesh excluding water animals) on Ash Wednesday, Good Friday, all Fridays of Lent, and all other Fridays (subject to the local bishop) as an act of penance.


Vegetable Shop in Meppadi
Main article: Diet in Hinduism

Paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. There are three main reasons for this: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[157] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad; and the conviction that a sentient diet is beneficial for a healthy body and mind and that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.

However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community and according to regional traditions. Historically and currently, those Hindus who eat meat prescribe Jhatka meat.[158]


Followers of Islam, or Muslims, have the freedom of choice to be vegetarian for medical reasons or if they do not personally like the taste of meat. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[159]


In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[161]



Main article: Jain vegetarianism



Main article: Jewish vegetarianism
Basket of fresh fruit and vegetables grown in Israel




Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[170] "Ital", which is derived form the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.[171] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[172]


Main article: Diet in Sikhism

The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,[173][174][175][176] but leave the decision of diet to the individual.[177] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)[178] from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way . This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.[173][177]

"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari[179] and Rarionwalay,[180] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).[181] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts.[177] In response to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[182][183] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[177] The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[176][177]

Environment and diet[edit]



Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[186] Reactions of vegetarians vary.[187] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment.[188]


Labor conditions and diet[edit]

Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.[190] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[191][192][193] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[194] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[195] According to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.[196]

Economics and diet[edit]


Taiwanese Buddhist cuisine


A research study conducted on more than 8,000 people, and published in the British Medical Journal, suggested that children with an above-average IQ may have a higher chance of becoming vegetarians in their adulthood.[198] Vegetarians had an average childhood IQ of 105 compared with 100 for non-vegetarians. No difference in IQ score was found between strict vegetarians and those who reported eating fish or chicken.[199]

Prejudice researcher Gordon Hodson observes that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination because eating meat is held as a cultural norm, as do atheists and asexuals because religion and sex hold similar status.[200]




Country-specific information[edit]

See also[edit]




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