10m communication systems


Published on

1 Like
  • Be the first to comment

No Downloads
Total views
On SlideShare
From Embeds
Number of Embeds
Embeds 0
No embeds

No notes for slide

10m communication systems

  2. 2. BASICS OF COMMUNICATION1. Communication: Processing, sending and receiving of information2. Information: Intelligence, signal, data or any measurable physical quantity3. Basic Communication System: i) Wire Links ii) Wireless iii) Optic Fibres Source of Transmitter information Linki) Speech i) Oscillators ii) Amplifiersii) Pictures iii) Filters iv) Antennaiii) Wordsiv) Codesv) Symbols Destination Receivervi) Commandsvii) Data i) Radio ii) TV iii) Computer iv) Telephone v) Teleprinter vi) Telegraph vii) Fax viii) Internet
  3. 3. Forms of Communication: Types of communication: 1. Radio Broadcast 1. Cable 2. Television Broadcast communication 3. Telephony 2. Ground wave communication 4. Telegraphy 3. Sky wave 5. Radar communication 6. Sonar 4. Satellite 7. Fax (Facsimile Telegraphy) communication 8. E-mail 5. Optic fibre communication 9. Teleprinting 10. Telemetering 11. Mobile Phones 12. Internet
  4. 4. Analogue signal Digital signal A continuous signal value A discontinuous signal value which at any instant lies within which appears in steps in pre- the range of a maximum and a determined levels rather than minimum value. having the continuous change. E = E0 sin ωtE ,I I = I0 sin ωt E0 I0 V 101 010101 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 5π/2 3π 7π/2 4π θ = ωt T/4 T/2 3T/4 T 5T/4 3T/2 7T/4 2T t 0 t
  5. 5. MODULATION:Modulation is the process of variation of some characteristicof a high frequency wave (carrier wave) in accordance with theinstantaneous value of a modulating signal. Modulator A.F. Signal Amp. Modulated Signal H.F. Signal Types of Modulation: Oscillator 1. Amplitude Modulation 2. Frequency Modulation 3. Pulse Modulation 4. Phase Modulation
  6. 6. AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM): e m= Em sin ωmt ec = Ec sin ωct (Courtesy: Internet) e = (Ec + Em sin ωmt) sin ωct e = Ec sin ωct + (maEc/2) cos (ωc - ωm)t - (maEc/2) cos (ωc + ωm)t ω ω Modulation Index (ma)= kaEm/Ec If ka=1, then ma= Em/Ec
  7. 7. Inferences from equation for e: 1. The Amplitude Modulated wave is the summation of three sinusoidal waves with the frequencies νc, νc-νm and νc+νm ν ν namely Original frequency, Lower Side Band frequency and Upper Side Band frequency respectively. 2. The Bandwidth required for AM, BW = 2 νm 3. The amplitude Ec of the unmodulated carrier wave is made proportional to the instantaneous voltage (e m= Em sin ωmt) of the modulating wave.VoltageAmplitude νc-νm νc νc+νm ν ν Frequency (Courtesy: Internet)
  8. 8. Significance of Modulation Index: Emax = Ec + maEc e maEc= kaEm Emax Ec Emin Emin = Ec - maEc 0 Emax - Emin On manipulating, we get ma = Emax + Emin AF signal ma = 0 (No modulation) ma = 0.5 or 50% ma = 1 or 100% Generally, 0 < ma < 1 ma > 1 or 100%
  9. 9. Power Relation in the AM wave:If the modulated wave is applied to a resistor of resistance R(say antenna circuit), then the r.m.s. power dissipated in theform of heat is, [{E √ }Pr.m.s = (1/R)[{ c /2√2}2 + {maEc /2√2}2 + {maEc /2√2}2] [{ √ } √ }Prms = (Ec 2 /2R) [1 + (ma2 /2)] = Pc[1 + (ma2 /2)] ] ] (where Pc is power dissipated by unmodulated carrierwave)If ma = 1, then Prms → Pmax and Pmax = 3 Pc /2Similarly, Power carried by both side bands PSB = Prms / 3which is wasted.
  10. 10. Advantages:1. AM is an easier method of transmitting and receiving speech signals.2. It requires simple and inexpensive receivers.3. It is a fairly efficient system of modulation.Drawbacks:1. AM is more likely to suffer from noise.2. Appreciable energy is contained by three components of AM wave. Sufficient energy can be saved by suppressing carrier wave and one of the side bands. This process makes the equipment complex.3. Cost of such transmitters and receivers becomes practically more.
  11. 11. Space CommunicationThis Chapter includes:1. Space Communication2. Power Density, Attenuation3. Range of Electromagnetic Waves4. Ground Wave Propagation5. Sky Wave Propagation6. Space Wave Propagation7. TV Transmission and Height of TV Antenna8. Satellite Communication9. Remote Sensing Satellites
  12. 12. Space Communication: Space Communication means free space communication. A free space does not have solid particles or ionised particles and it has no gravitational or other fields of its own. When the frequency of transmitted wave is very high the actual space is considered nearly a free space.Power Density: Power density is radiated power per unit area and is inversely proportional to the square of distance from the source.Antenna: Antenna is a device which acts as an emitter of electromagnetic waves and it also acts as a first receiver of energy.Attenuation: Attenuation is the loss of power of radiation due to absorption of energy in space and power density goes on decreasing as the electromagnetic waves go away from their source. It is proportional to the square of the distance travelled and is generally measured in decibel (dB).
  13. 13. Range of Electromagnetic Waves: S. Name of the frequency Short Frequency Range No. range (Band) Form 1 Very Low Frequency VLF 3 kHz to 30 kHz 2 Low Frequency LF 30 kHz to 300 kHz 3 Medium Frequency or MF or 300 kHz to 3 MHz Medium Wave MW 4 High Frequency or Short HF or 3 MHz to 30 MHz Wave SW 5 Very High Frequency VHF 30 MHz to 300 MHz 6 Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 MHz to 3,000 MHz 7 Super High Frequency or SHF 3,000 MHz to 30,000 Micro Waves MHz (3 GHz to 30 GHz) 8 Extremely High Frequency EHF 30 GHz to 300 GHz
  15. 15. Ground waves progress along the surface of the earth and must be verticallypolarised to prevent from short-circuiting the electric component.A wave induces currents in the earth over which it passes and thus losessome energy by absorption. This is made up by energy diffracted downwardfrom the upper portions of the wavefront.Another way of attenuation is dueto diffraction and gradual tiltingof the wavefront. Direction ofThe increasing tilt of the propagation of wavewavefront causes greater short-circuiting of electric fieldcomponents of the wave. θEventually, at some distancefrom the antenna, the wave “liesdown and dies”. NThe maximum range of a Earthtransmitter depends on its Tfrequency as well as its power.In MF band, the range can not beincreased only by increasing itspower because propagation is θ – Angle of Successivedefinitely limited by its tilt. diffraction Wavefronts
  16. 16. 2. Sky wave propagation or Ionospheric wave propagation: (AM Radio waves)Sky waves are the AM radio waves which are received after being reflectedfrom ionosphere. The propagation of radio wave signals from one point toanother via reflection from ionosphere is known as sky wave propagation.The sky wave propagation is a consequence of the total internal reflection ofradiowaves. Higher we go in the ionosphere, free electron density increasesand refractive index decreases.The UV and high energy radiations from the Sun are absorbed by the airmolecules and they get ionised to form the ionised layer or electrons andions. Ionosphere extends from 80 km to 300 km in the atmosphere abovethe earth’s surface.The oscillating electric field of electromagnetic wave (frequency ω) does notaffect the velocity of the ions (negligible change because the em wave fieldis weak) in the ionosphere but changes the velocity of the electrons.This changes the effective dielectric constant ε’ and hence the refractiveindex n’ as compared to the free space values ε0 and n0.ε’ and n’ are related to ε0 and n0 as n’ = √(ε’n0) or n’ = n0 [1 – (Ne2 / ε0mω2)]½ where e is the electronic charge, m is the mass of the electron and N is the electron density in the ionosphere.
  17. 17. It is clear that the refractive index of ionosphere n’ is less than its free spacevalue n0. So, it acts as rarer medium. Therefore, for the angle of incidenceabove the critical angle, the electromagnetic waves undergo total internalreflection and reach the earth back.Since n’ depends on ω and N, the waves of different frequencies will bereflected back from the different depths of ionosphere depending onelectron density N in that region.If the frequency ω is too high, then the electron density N may never be sohigh as to produce total internal reflection. This frequency is called‘critical frequency’ (fc). If the maximum electron density of the ionosphere isNmax per m3, then the critical frequency is given by: fc ≈ 9(Nmax)½The critical frequency ranges approximately from 5 to 10 MHz.The frequencies higher than this cross the ionosphere and do not returnback to the earth.The sky wave propagation is limited to the range of 2 MHz to 30 MHz. Thisregion is called ‘short wave band’.The communication in AM band below 200 m wavelength is via thesky wave only.
  18. 18. Virtual Height Actual Height Ionospheric Layer Upper Ray Lower Rays Skip Distance Ground SurfaceT
  19. 19. Important Terms used in Sky wave propagation:Critical Frequency (fc):It is the highest frequency for a given ionospheric layer that can be returneddown to the earth by that layer after having been beamed straight up at it. fc ≈ 9(Nmax)½Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF):It is the limiting frequency but for some specific angle of incidence other thanthe normal. Critical Frequency MUF = = fc sec θ cos θThis is called ‘secant law’ and is very useful in making preliminarycalculations for a specific MUF. Strictly speaking, it applies only to the flatearth and the flat reflecting layer.Skip Distance:It is the shortest distance from a transmitter, measured along the surface ofthe earth, at which a sky wave of fixed frequency (more than fc) will bereturned to earth, but nevertheless a definite minimum also exists for anyfixed transmitting frequency.
  20. 20. At the skip distance, only the normal or lower ray can reach the destination,whereas at greater distances, the upper ray can be received as well, causinginterference. This is a reason why frequencies not much below the MUF areused for transmission.Another reason is the lack of directionality of high-frequency antennas.If the frequency used is low enough, it is possible to receive lower rays bytwo different paths after either one or two hops. But this will result ininterference again. Ionospheric Layer Repeater Transmitter Maximum Single Hop Distance Receiver
  21. 21. 3. Space wave propagation or Tropospheric wave propagation: (AM Radio waves)Space waves travel in (more or less) straight lines. But they depend on line-of-sight conditions. So, they are limited in their propagation by the curvatureof the earth.They propagate very much like electromagnetic waves in free space.This mode is forced on the waves because their wavelengths are too short forreflection from the ionosphere, and because the ground wave disappears veryclose to the transmitter, owing to tilt.Radio Horizon:The radio horizon for space waves is about four-thirds as far as the opticalhorizon. This beneficial effect is caused by the varying density of theatmosphere, and because of diffraction around the curvature of the earth.It is given with good approximation, by the empirical formula dt =4 √ht where dt = distance (in km) from the transmitting antenna, ht = height (in m) of transmitting antenna above the groundThe same formula applies to the receiving antenna.
  22. 22. The distance between the Transmitter and the Receiver is d = dt + dr = 4 √ht + 4 √hr T RIf the transmitting and receiving ht dt dr hrantennas are 225 m and 16 m abovethe ground, then the distancebetween them can be 76 km Earth(= 60 + 16).Commercially, links more than 100km are hardly used.Frequency Modulated Communication (TV Signals): The TV signals are frequency – modulated. They employ frequency greater than 80 MHz. They can not be propagated by ground wave because the signals get absorbed by ground due to their high frequency. The propagation by sky wave is also not possible because the ionosphere can not reflect the frequencies higher than 40 MHz. The only way for the transmission of TV signals is that the receiving antenna should directly intercept the signal from the transmitting antenna. (Space-wave or line of sight propagation)
  23. 23. Height of TV Transmitting Antenna: TThe TV signals (frequency modulatedelectromagnetic waves) travelling ina straight line directly reach thereceiver end and are then picked up htby the receiving antenna.Due to the finite curvature of theearth, the waves cannot be seen Fbeyond the tangent points P and Q. d d P Q EarthThe effective range of reception ofthe broadcast is essentially the R Rregion from P to Q which is coveredby the line of sight. OLet h be the height of the transmitting antenna, d be the distance (radius) ofcoverage from the foot of the tower and R be the radius of the earth. OT2 = OQ2 + QT2 The antenna of height (R + h)2 = R2 + d2 (Note: QT ≈ FQ = d) 80 m can transmit the or d2 = h2 + 2hR signal with coverage d = √(h2 + 2hR) radius of 32 km and or d ≈ √(2hR) area of 3217 sq. km.
  24. 24. Satellite Communication: Communication Satellite S1 Transponder Earth Up-link Down-link S3 S2 IonosphereTransmitter Receiver
  25. 25. Satellite communication uses UHF / Microwave regions. Microwaves carryingaudio, video, telephone, telex, FAX signals, etc. are transmitted from the earthto the satellites orbiting in the space and retransmitted from the satellites todifferent parts of the earth (world).The special devices used for this purpose in satellites are called‘transponders’.Satellite communication is mainly done through ‘geostationary satellites’.Three geostationary satellites placed in equatorial orbits at 120° from oneanother can cover practically the whole populated land area of the world.Frequency modulation is used for both ‘up channel’ and ‘down channel’transmission. Though FM needs a larger bandwidth, it offers good immunityfrom interference and requires less power in the satellite transmitter.Orbit of Communication Satellite:For global communication, a satellite should move uniformly round a circularorbit with a period of 84.4[r / R]3/2 minutes, where r is the radius of the orbit ofthe satellite and R is the radius of the earth.The circular orbit of the communication satellite is specified in terms of:(i) The orbit radius (ii) The angle of inclination of the orbit’s plane to the Earth’sequatorial plane (iii) The position of the ascending mode(iv) The phase angle of the satellite.
  26. 26. Height of Communication Satellite:The area of the earth from which a satellite is visible increases with the altitude.At altitudes below 10,000 km, the number of satellites required for globalcoverage would be excessive.At altitudes above 20,000 km, the time taken by signals may be large enough tocause confusion in telephonic conversation.If time-delay difficulties are ignored, then a synchronous satellite at 36,000 kmheight can be advantageously used.Earth-Track Integral System for Communication Satellites:If several satellites are spaced around the same orbit in space, the tracks ofthe satellites will be different due to Earth’s rotation about its own axis.If four satellites are placed into different orbits with their ascending modesdisplaced successively by 30°intervals to the east direction, the difference, ineffects of Earth’s rotation, can be counteracted and the paths of all thesatellites relative to the Earth will be the same.Such Earth-Track integral systems can be arranged to have the satellite periodan integral factor of the sidereal day in order to have the same track repeatedday after day.
  27. 27. Remote Sensing Satellites:‘Remote Sensing’ is obtaining information about an object by observing it froma distance and without coming into actual contact with it.The orbit of a remote sensing satellite is such that the satellite passes over aparticular latitude at approximately the same local time. i.e. the position of theSun with respect to a point on the Earth remains approximately the same as thesatellite passes over it. Such orbits are called Sun-synchronous orbits.A remote sensing satellite takes photographs of a particular region with nearlythe same illumination every time it passes through that region.Applications: 9. In Flood Damage Assessment1. In Geology 10. In the Field of Defence2. In Agriculture 11. In Mapping Wastelands3. In Forestry 12. In Early Warning Systems4. In Land Mapping (Natural Calamities)5. In Ocean and Coastal Data 13. In Management of Water Resources6. In Monitoring Environmental 14. In Fisheries Sectors Conditions 15. In Tourism Industry7. In Biodiversity 16. In Planning Pipeline Routs, Ring8. In Ground Water Management Roads and Urban Settlements