Alternative titles: fundamental constant; universal constant

Physical constant, any of a set of fundamental invariant quantities observed in nature and appearing in the basic theoretical equations of physics. Accurate evaluation of these constants is essential in order to check the correctness of the theories and to allow useful applications to be made on the basis of those theories.

The speed of light in a vacuum (c) appears in electromagnetic theory and in relativity theory; in the latter it relates energy to mass through the equation E = mc2. Its value does not depend on any particular experimental conditions such as would affect the speed of a sound wave in air (for which air temperature and the direction and speed of any wind would matter). It is a universal constant of nature.

The charge on the electron (ε) is a fundamental property of a physical particle; it is the smallest unit of electric charge found free in nature. Knowledge of its numerical value is required in many areas of physics and chemistry—e.g., in calculating the mass of an element or compound liberated by passage of a certain amount of current through an electrochemical cell.

Planck’s constant (h) is not itself a property of a fundamental particle but is a constant appearing in the equations of quantum mechanics. It relates the energy (E) of a photon (a quantum of electromagnetic radiation) to its frequency (ν) through the equation E = hν.

The universal gravitational constant (G) relates the magnitude of the gravitational attractive force between two bodies to their masses and the distance between them. Its value is extremely difficult to measure experimentally. It has been suggested that G has varied with time throughout the history of the universe and that it is scale-dependent. If so, values determined in the laboratory would not be appropriate for terrestrial or astronomical problems, but there is presently no convincing evidence that this is the case.

Precise values of physical constants are determined at various laboratories throughout the world, such as the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST; formerly the National Bureau of Standards), and are refined as experimental methods and techniques are improved.

The numerical values of the physical constants depend on the system of units in which they are expressed. For example, the speed of light can be expressed (approximately) as 30,000,000,000 cm per second or 186,000 miles per second. In recent times, however, the units tend to be defined in terms of the physical constants. Thus, the metre is now defined as the distance light travels in a certain time. Such definitions are arrived at by international agreement. See also International System of Units.

The table presents a list of important physical constants.

Values of some selected fundamental constants
quantity symbol value
constant of gravitation G 6.67384 × 10−11 cubic metre per second squared per kilogram
speed of light (in a vacuum) c 2.99792458 × 108 metres per second
Planck’s constant h 6.62606957 × 10−34 joule per second
Boltzmann constant k 1.3806488 × 10−23 joule per kelvin
Faraday constant F 9.64853365 × 104 coulombs per mole
electron rest mass me 9.10938291 × 10−31 kilogram
proton rest mass mp 1.672621777 × 10−27 kilogram
neutron rest mass mn 1.674927351 × 10−27 kilogram
charge on electron e 1.602176565 × 10−19 coulomb
Rydberg constant R 1.0973731568539 × 108 per metre
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σ 5.670373 × 10−8 watt per square metre per kelvin4
fine-structure constant α 7.2973525698 × 10−3

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