Dalai Lama

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Dalai Lama
1st Dalai Lama.jpg
Reign 1391–1474
Tibetan ཏཱ་ལའི་བླ་མ་
Wylie transliteration tā la'i bla ma
Pronunciation [taːlɛː lama]
Conventional Romanisation Dalai Lama
House Dalai Lama
Tenzin Gyatso
The 14th Dalai Lama
Dalailama1 20121014 4639.jpg
Reign 17 November 1950 – present
Predecessor 13th Dalai Lama
Prime Ministers
Tibetan བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་
Wylie bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho
Pronunciation [tɛ̃ ́tsĩ càtsʰo]
Dainzin Gyaco
THDL Tenzin Gyatso
Pinyin Dānzēng Jiācuò
Father Choekyong Tsering the 9th
Mother Diki Tsering
Born (1935-07-06) 6 July 1935 (age 79)
Taktser, Qinghai
Signature Dalai Lama's signature


The Dalai Lama is considered to be the successor in a line of tulkus who are believed[1] to be incarnations of Avalokiteśvara,[2] the Bodhisattva of Compassion.[5] The name is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai meaning "ocean" and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ (bla-ma) meaning "guru, teacher, mentor". The Tibetan word "lama" corresponds to the better known Sanskrit word "guru".[6]

From 1642 until the 1950s the Dalai Lama or his regent headed the Tibetan government or Ganden Phodrang which, except for minor periods, ruled over all or most of the Tibetan plateau from Lhasa with varying degrees of autonomy, being generally subject to first Mongol (1642-1720) and then Manchu (1720-1912) patronage and protection.[7]


Main article: History of Tibet

In 1252, Qubilai, future Khagan of the Mongols and ruler of Yuan China, granted an audience to Drogön Chögyal Phagpa and Karma Pakshi, 2nd Karmapa Lama (1203-1283). Karma Pakshi, however, sought the patronage of Möngke Khan, the current ruler and Qubilai's political rival, and taught the court the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra. (Buswell & Lopez 2014:422)

Before his death in 1283, Karma Pakshi wrote a will to protect the established interests of his lineage, the Karma Kagyu, by advising his disciples to locate a boy to inherit the black hat. His instruction was based on the premise that the Dharma is eternal and that the Buddha would send emanations to complete the missions he had initiated. Karma Pakshi's disciples acted in accordance with the will and located the reincarnated boy of their master.[citation needed]

The formalisation of the succession of its incarnate teacher-tulku system by the Karma Kagyu in the early 13th century led to other schools of Tibetan Buddhism adopting the same practice by formalising their own tulku systems.[8]

Emergence of Dalai Lamas[edit]

Thus in 1546, some 336 years after the 2nd Karmapa was formally recognised, Sonam Gyatso was similarly recognised by the Gelug as the incarnation of their late teacher Gendun Gyatso, who had been, in turn, informally recognised in 1487 as the incarnation of his predecessor Gendun Drup, who had been the main disciple of Gelugpa founder Je Tsongkhapa.[9] After Sonam Gyatso, each Dalai Lama has been formally recognised and ceremonially enthroned as per the middle columns of the List of Dalai Lamas below. An individual detailed biography of each Dalai Lama is linked to the names given in this list. The Tulku recognition system, once formalised and made into an official institution also involves the legal inheritance by each successor of the predecessor’s monastic home, other former possessions, staff and so forth.[10]

In 1578, after this Sonam Gyatso had been invited to Mongolia and had converted Altan Khan, King of the Tümed Mongols to Buddhism along with his tribe (the first Mongol tribe to be so converted), the King conferred the title ‘Dalai’ on him, ‘Dalai’ being the Mongolian translation of his Tibetan name ‘Gyatso’, which means ‘sea’ or ‘ocean’.[11] Within 50 years nearly all Mongolians had become Buddhist, including tens of thousands of monks, almost all followers of the Gelug school and loyal to the Dalai Lama.[12]

This title was accorded retroactively to Gendun Drup and Gendun Gyatso, as they were considered to be Sonam Gyatso's previous incarnations, so they became known respectively as the First and Second Dalai Lamas, although neither of them had ever been formally recognised or enthroned.[13] Thus, when Sonam Gyatso was named as the Third Dalai Lama in 1578 the Dalai Lama Tulku system became officially established in validation of an already existing but informal mode of succession.[13]

Identification with Avalokiteshvara[edit]

The belief in Tibet and other Central Asian Buddhist countries that the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara, has a special relationship with the people of Tibet and intervenes in their fate by incarnating as benevolent rulers and teachers such as the Dalai Lamas had already taken root in Tibet in the 11th and 12th centuries, according to textual evidence such as The Book of Kadam,[14] the main text of the Kadampa sect to which Gendun Drub first belonged. In fact, this text is said to have ‘laid the foundation’ for the Tibetans later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteshvara;[15] it traces the legend of the bodhisattva’s incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songsten Gampo and later as Dromtönpa (1004-1064).[16] This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to the Dalai Lamas.[17]

Origins in myth and legend[edit]

Thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteshvara stretches back much further than Gendun Drub. The Book of Kadam,[18] the compilation of Kadampa teachings largely composed around discussions between the Indian sage Atisa (980-1054) and his Tibetan host Dromtönpa[19][20] and ‘Tales of the Previous Incarnations of Arya Avalokiteshvara’,[21] nominate as many as sixty persons prior to Gendun Drub who are enumerated as earlier incarnations of Avalokiteshvara and predecessors in the same lineage leading up to him. In brief, these include a mythology of thirty six Indian personalities plus ten early Tibetan kings and emperors, all said to be previous incarnations of Dromtönpa, and fourteen further Nepalese and Tibetan yogis and sages in between him and the first Dalai Lama.[22]

4th Dalai Lama[edit]

The Fourth Dalai Lama, Yonten Gyatso (1589-1617) was a Mongolian, the great-grandson of Altan Khan who was a descendant of Kublai Khan and King of the Tümed Mongols who had already been converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588).[23] This strong connection caused the Mongols to zealously support the Gelugpa sect in Tibet, strengthening their status and position but also arousing intensified opposition from the Gelugpa's rivals, particularly the Tsang Karma Kagyu in Shigatse and their Mongolian patrons and the Bönpo in Kham and their allies.[23] Being the newest school, unlike the older schools the Gelugpa lacked an established network of Tibetan clan patronage and were thus more reliant on foreign patrons.[24] At the age of 10 with a large Mongol escort he travelled to Lhasa where he was enthroned. He studied at Drepung and became its abbot but being a non-Tibetan he met with opposition from some Tibetans, especially the Karma Kagyu who felt their position was threatened by these emerging events; there were several attempts to remove him from power.[25] Yonten Gyatso died at the age of 27 under suspicious circumstances and his chief attendant Sonam Rapten went on to discover the 5th Dalai Lama and then to be his regent, the Desi.[26]

5th Dalai Lama[edit]

Map showing the extent of the Khoshut Khanate, 1642-1717, after Unification of Tibet under Güshi Khan
'Greater Tibet' as claimed by exiled groups

The death of the Fourth Dalai Lama in 1617 led to open conflict breaking out. In 1618, the Tsang Karma Kagyu of Shigatse, who were conspiring with the Bönpo chief of Beri in western Kham and whose Mongol patron was Choghtu Khong Tayiji of the Khalkha, attacked the Gelugpa in Lhasa. This caused the Gelugpa to seek more active Mongol patronage and military assistance during the minority of the Fifth Dalai Lama.[24]

By the 1630s Tibet was deeply entangled in rivalry, power struggles and conflicts, not only between the Tibetan religious sects but also between the rising Manchus and the various rival Mongol and Oirat factions, who were also vying for supremacy amongst themselves and on behalf of the religious sects they patronised.[24] For example, Ligdan Khan of the Chahars, a Mongol subgroup who supported the Tsang Karmapas, after retreating from advancing Manchu armies headed for Kokonor intending destroy the Gelug. He died on the way, in 1634[27] but his vassal Choghtu Khong Tayiji, continued to advance against the Gelugpas, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed sides. In the meantime, by the mid-1630s the Fifth Dalai Lama, Lobsang Gyatso (1617-1682) and his Gelugpas had found a powerful new patron in Güshi Khan of the Khoshut Mongols, a subgroup of the Dzungars, who had recently migrated to the Kokonor area from Dzungaria.[24] He attacked Choghtu Khong Tayiji at Kokonor in 1637 and defeated and killed him, thus eliminating the Tsang Karma Kagyu's main Mongol patron and protector.[24]

Meanwhile, Donyo Dorje, the Bönpo king of Beri in Kham to the east of Lhasa, had been caught conspiring with the ruler of Tsang, Karma Tenkyong, the main Tibetan patron of the Karma Kagyu in Shigatse to the west of Lhasa, when the former's letter to the latter, proposing a co-ordinated attack on the Gelugpa in Lhasa from two sides, east and west, was intercepted and forwarded to Güshi Khan. He used this as a pretext to invade central Tibet in 1639 to attack these enemies of the Gelugpa and by 1642 he had eliminated both of them: in 1641 he defeated Donyo Dorje and his allies in Kham and then he marched on Shigatse where after laying siege to their strongholds he defeated Karma Tenkyong and broke the power of the Tsang Karma Kagyu in 1642.[28]

Re-unification of Tibet[edit]

Having thus defeated all the Gelugpa's rivals and resolved all regional and sectarian conflicts Güshi Khan became the undisputed overlord of a unified Tibet and acted as a "Protector of the Gelug",[29] establishing the Khoshut Khanate which covered almost the entire Tibetan plateau, an area corresponding roughly to 'Greater Tibet' including Kham and Amdo, as claimed by exiled groups (see maps). At an enthronement ceremony in Shigatse he conferred temporal authority on the Fifth Dalai Lama over Central Tibet and Kham, unified for the first time since the collapse of the Tibetan Empire exactly eight centuries earlier.[24][30] Güshi Khan then retired to Kokonor with his armies[24] and ruled Amdo himself directly. This created the precedent for the later separation of Amdo from Central Tibet.[30]



Visit to Beijing[edit]

In 1636 the Manchu proclaimed their dynasty as the Qing Dynasty and by 1644 they had completed their conquest of China under quasi Emperor Dorgon. The following year their forces approached Amdo on northern Tibet, causing the Oirat and Khoshut Mongols there to submit in 1647 and send tribute. In 1648 after quelling a rebellion of Tibetans of Kansu-Xining the Qing invited the Fifth Dalai Lama to visit their court at Beijing since they wished to engender Tibetan influence in their dealings with the Mongols. The Qing were aware the Dalai Lama had extraordinary influence with the Mongols and saw relations with the Dalai Lama as a means to facilitate submission of the Khalka Mongols, traditional patrons of the Karma Kagyu sect. Similarly, since the Tibetan Gelugpa were keen to revive a priest-patron relationship with the dominant power in China and Inner Asia, the Qing invitation was accepted. After five years of complex diplomatic negotiations about whether the emperor or his representatives should meet the Dalai Lama inside or outside the Great Wall, when the meeting would be astrologically favourable, how it would be conducted and so on, it eventually took place in Beijing in 1653. The Shunzi Emperor was then 16 years old, having in the meantime ascended the throne in 1650 after the death of Dorgon. For the Qing, although the Dalai Lama was not required to kow-tow to the emperor, who rose from his throne and advanced 30 feet to meet him, the significance of the visit was that of nominal political submission by the Dalai Lama since Inner Asian heads of state did not travel to meet each other but sent envoys. For Tibetan Buddhist historians however it was interpreted as the start of an era of independent rule of the Dalai Lamas, and of Qing patronage alongside that of the Mongols.[32]

Relations with the Qing[edit]

The 17th century struggles for domination between the Manchu Qing dynasty and the various Mongol groups spilled over to involve Tibet because of the Fifth Dalai Lama's strong influence over the Mongols as a result of their general adoption of Tibetan Buddhism and their consequent deep loyalty to the Dalai Lama as their guru. Until 1674 the Fifth Dalai Lama had mediated in Dzungar Mongol affairs whenever they required him to do so, and the Manchu Emperor, Kangxi, who had succeeded Sunzhi in 1661, would accept and confirm his decisions automatically. For the Kangxi Emperor however, the alliance between the Dzungar Mongols and the Tibetans was unsettling because he feared it had the potential to unite all the other Mongol tribes together against the Qing empire, including those tribes who had already submitted. Therefore, in 1674 Kangxi, annoyed by the Fifth's less than full cooperation in quelling a rebellion against the Qing in Yunnan, ceased deferring to him as regards Mongol affairs and started dealing with them directly.[33]

In the same year, 1674, the Dalai Lama, then at the height of his powers and conducting a foreign policy independent of the Qing, caused Mongol troops to occupy the border post of Dartsedo between Kham and Sichuan, further annoying the Kangxi Emperor who already considered Tibet as part of the Qing empire. It also increased Qing suspicion about Tibetan relations with the Mongol groups and led him to seek strategic opportunities to oppose and undermine Mongol influence in Tibet and eventually, within 50 years, to defeat the Mongols militarily and to establish the Qing as sole 'patrons and protectors' of Tibet in their place.[33]



6th Dalai Lama[edit]

The Sixth Dalai Lama (1683-1706) was born near Tawang, now in India, and discovered in 1685 but not enthroned until 1697 when the death of the Fifth was announced. After 16 years of study as a novice monk, in 1702 in his 20th year he rejected full ordination and gave up his monk's robes and monastic life, preferring to enjoy a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing poetry and love songs.[34][35]


Having discredited and deposed the Sixth Dalai Lama, whom he considered an imposter, and having removed the regent, Lhazang Khan pressed the Lhasa Gelugpa lamas to endorse a new Dalai Lama in Tsangyang Gyatso's place as the true incarnation of the Fifth. They eventually nominated one Pekar Dzinpa, a monk but also rumoured to be Lhazang's son,[39] and Lhazang had him installed as the 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, endorsed by the Panchen Lama and named Yeshe Gyatso in 1707.[40] This choice was in no way accepted by the Tibetan people, however, nor by Lhazang's princely Mongol rivals in Kokonor who resented his usurpation of the Khoshut Tibetan throne as well as his meddling in Tibetan affairs. The Kangxi Emperor concurred with them, after sending investigators, initially declining to recognise Yeshe Gyatso. He did recognise him in 1710, however, after sending a Qing official party to assist Lhazang in 'restoring order'; these were the first Chinese representatives of any sort to officiate in Tibet.[41] At the same time, while this puppet 'Dalai Lama' had no political power, the Kangxi emperor secured from Lhazang Khan in return for this support the promise of regular payments of tribute; this was the first time tribute had been paid to the Manchu by the Mongols in Tibet and the first overt acknowledgement of Qing supremacy over Mongol rule in Tibet.[42]

7th Dalai Lama[edit]

In 1708, in accordance with an indication given by the Sixth Dalai lama when quitting Lhasa a child called Kelzang Gyatso had been born at Lithang in eastern Tibet who was soon found by local Tibetans to be his incarnation. After going into hiding, he was installed in Lithang monastery. Along with some of the Kokonor Mongol princes, rivals of Lhazang, in defiance of the situation in Lhasa the Tibetans of Kham duly recognised him as the Seventh Dalai Lama in 1712, retaining his birth-name of Kelzang Gyatso. For security reasons he was moved to Derge monastery and eventually, in 1716, now also backed and sponsored by the Kangxi emperor he was taken to Amdo at the age of 8 to be installed in Kumbum Monastery with great pomp and ceremony.[43]

According to Smith, the Kangxi Emperor now arranged to protect the child and keep him in Amdo in reserve just in case his ally Lhasang Khan and his 'real' Sixth Dalai Lama, were overthrown.[44] According to Mullin however, the emperor's support came from genuine spiritual recognition and respect rather than being politically motivated.[45]

The Dzungars invaded Tibet in 1717 and deposed Lhazang Khan's candidate. They also began to loot the holy places of Lhasa, which brought a swift response from the Kangxi Emperor in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated in the Battle of the Salween River not far from Lhasa.[46][47]

A larger expedition sent by the Kangxi Emperor expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721.[48]

8th to 12th Dalai Lamas[edit]




13th and 14th Dalai Lamas[edit]




The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the Battle of Chamdo with the People's Republic of China. In 1951, the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan government were forced to accept the Seventeen Point Agreement for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet by which it became formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India, from where he led a government in exile.[49][50]

With the aim of launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the Central Intelligence Agency funded the Dalai Lama with US$1.7 million a year in the 1960s.[51] In 2001 the 14th Dalai Lama ceded his absolute power over the government to an elected parliament of selected Tibetan exiles. His original goal was full independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s he was seeking high-level autonomy instead.[52] He continued to seek greater autonomy from China, but Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the parliament-in-exile, stated: "If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for complete independence or self-determination as per the UN charter".[53]




Searching for the reincarnation[edit]








Once the High Lamas have found the home and the boy they believe to be the reincarnation, the boy undergoes a battery of tests to affirm the rebirth. They present a number of artifacts, only some of which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, and if the boy chooses the items which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, this is seen as a sign, in conjunction with all of the other indications, that the boy is the reincarnation.[63]



List of Dalai Lamas[edit]

There have been 14 recognised incarnations of the Dalai Lama:

1 Gendun Drup 1stDalaiLama.jpg 1391–1474 N/A[65] དགེ་འདུན་འགྲུབ་
dge 'dun 'grub
Gêdün Chub
Gedun Drub
Gedün Drup
2 Gendun Gyatso 2Dalai.jpg 1475–1542 N/A[65] དགེ་འདུན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་
dge 'dun rgya mtsho
Gêdün Gyaco
Gedün Gyatso
Gendün Gyatso
bsod nams rgya mtsho
Soinam Gyaco
Sönam Gyatso
yon tan rgya mtsho
Yoindain Gyaco
Yontan Gyatso, Yönden Gyatso
blo bzang rgya mtsho
Lobsang Gyaco
Lobzang Gyatso
Lopsang Gyatso
tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho
Cangyang Gyaco
Tsañyang Gyatso
bskal bzang rgya mtsho
Gaisang Gyaco
Kelsang Gyatso
Kalsang Gyatso
byams spel rgya mtsho
Qambê Gyaco
Jampel Gyatso
Jampal Gyatso
lung rtogs rgya mtsho
Lungdog Gyaco
Lungtog Gyatso
tshul khrim rgya mtsho
Cüchim Gyaco
Tshültrim Gyatso
mkhas grub rgya mtsho
Kaichub Gyaco
Kedrub Gyatso
'phrin las rgya mtsho
Chinlai Gyaco
Trinle Gyatso
thub bstan rgya mtsho
Tubdain Gyaco
Thubtan Gyatso
Thupten Gyatso
14 Tenzin Gyatso Dalai Lama at WhiteHouse (cropped).jpg born 1935 1939[66] 1940[66]
(currently in exile)
bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho
Dainzin Gyaco
Tenzin Gyatso


Future of the position[edit]

Main article: 15th Dalai Lama
The main teaching room of the Dalai Lama in Dharamshala, India
14th Dalai Lama



During September 2007 the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso.[citation needed] Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control.[citation needed]


The 14th Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not".[72] He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth.[73] In response to the possibility that the PRC might attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama said he would not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China or any other country which is not free.[55][74] According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could mean that "the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across northern India, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and anti-Chinese".[75]

The 14th Dalai Lama supported the possibility that his next incarnation could be a woman.[76] As an "engaged Buddhist" the Dalai Lama has an appeal straddling cultures and political systems making him one of the most recognized and respected moral voices today.[77] "Despite the complex historical, religious and political factors surrounding the selection of incarnate masters in the exiled Tibetan tradition, the Dalai Lama is open to change," author Michaela Haas writes.[78] "Why not? What's the big deal?"[79]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

  3. ^ Dr Alexander Berzin (November 2014). "Special Features of the Gelug Tradition - para. on Administration". The Buddhist Archives of Dr Alexander Berzin. Berzin Archives. Retrieved 8 May 2015. The Dalai Lamas are not the heads of the Gelug tradition 
  6. ^ "lama" from Encyclopædia Britannica
  8. ^ Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism (2014 ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 421. ISBN 9780691157863. Retrieved 28 May 2015. In the history of Tibetan Buddhism, the lineage of the Karmapas is considered to be the first to institutionalize its succession of incarnate lamas, a practice later adopted by the other sects 
  9. ^ Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 239. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1
  10. ^ Alexander Berzin (2000). Wise Teacher, Wise Student. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion Publications. p. 20. ISBN 9781559393478. 
  11. ^ McKay 2003, p. 18
  12. ^ Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama, p. 144. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1
  13. ^ a b McKay 2003, p. 19
  14. ^ Thubten Jinpa. "Introduction". The Book of Kadam. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 9780861714414. Available textual evidence points strongly toward the eleventh and twelfth centuries as the period during which the full myth of Avalokiteśvara special destiny with Tibet was established. During this era, the belief that this compassionate spirit intervenes in the fate of the Tibetan people by manifesting as benevolent rulers and teachers took firm root 
  18. ^ Thubten Jinpa. The Book of Kadam. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 9780861714414. 
  21. ^ Mullin 2001, p.39
  23. ^ a b Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 106. ISBN 0813331552. 
  24. ^ a b c d e f g Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 107. ISBN 0813331552. 
  25. ^ Mullin (2001), p. 172-181.
  26. ^ Mullin (2001), p. 182.
  27. ^ Michael Weiers, Geschichte der Mongolen, Stuttgart 2004, p. 182f
  28. ^ Shakabpa, Tsepon W.D. (1967). Tibet: A Political History. New Haven & London: Yale University Press, p. 105-111.
  30. ^ a b Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 108. ISBN 0813331552. 
  31. ^ Karmay, Samten C. (2005). "The Great Fifth" (PDF). The Newsletter. Research (Leiden, the Netherlands: International Institute for Asian Studies). Winter 2005 (39): 2. Retrieved 14 June 2015. Over time the region’s Mongols were completely Tibetanized but continued to enjoy prestige among the Tibetans as Gushri Khan’s descendants and played a significant role in the Gelug Order’s expansion in Amdo. 
  32. ^ Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. pp. 108–113. ISBN 0813331552. 
  33. ^ a b Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. pp. 116–117. ISBN 0813331552. 
  34. ^ Mullin 2001, pp.245-256
  36. ^ Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 121. ISBN 0813331552. 
  37. ^ Mullin 2001, p.260-271
  38. ^ Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 122. ISBN 0813331552. 
  39. ^ McKay 2003, p. 569.
  40. ^ Mullin 2001, p.274
  42. ^ Richardson (1984), pp. 48.
  43. ^ Mullin 2001, p.276-281
  44. ^ Smith, Warren W. Jr. (1997). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: HarperCollins. p. 123. ISBN 0813331552. 
  45. ^ Mullin 2001, p.281
  46. ^ Richardson (1984), pp. 48–9.
  47. ^ a b Stein (1972), p. 85.
  48. ^ Schirokauer, 242
  56. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/12/world/asia/chinas-tensions-with-dalai-lama-spill-into-the-afterlife.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&module=second-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news
  57. ^ Laird (2006), pp. 139, 264–265.
  58. ^ Dowman (1988), p. 260.
  60. ^ Laird (2006), p. 139.
  61. ^ Norbu & Turnbull (1968), pp. 228–230. Reprint: p. 311.
  68. ^ Mullin 2001, p. 276
  70. ^ Verhaegen (2002), p. 5.
  72. ^ "Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control". Government of Tibet in Exile. [dead link]
  74. ^ "Dalai's reincarnation will not be found under Chinese control". Government of Tibet in Exile ex Indian Express July 6, 1999. [dead link]
  75. ^ Kaplan Robert, Foreign Affairs, "The Geography of Chinese Power"
  77. ^ Puri, Bharati (2006) "Engaged Buddhism - The Dalai Lama's Worldview" New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006


  • Laird, Thomas (2006). The story of Tibet : conversations with the Dalai Lama (1st ed. ed.). New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-1827-1. 
  • Silver, Murray (2005). When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama (1st ed. ed.). Savannah, GA: Bonaventture. ISBN 978-0972422444. 
  • Sheel, R N Rahul (1989). "The Institution of the Dalai Lama". The Tibet Journal 15 (3). 
  • Ya, Hanzhang (1991). The biographies of the Dalai Lamas (1st ed. ed.). Beijing: Foreign Language Press. ISBN 978-7119012674. 

Further reading[edit]


External links[edit]