Hundred Years' War

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Hundred Years' War
Hundred Years' War
Clockwise, from top left: John of Bohemia at the Battle of Crécy,
English and Franco-Castilian fleets at the Battle of La Rochelle,
Henry V and the English army at the Battle of Agincourt,
Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the Siege of Orléans
Date 1337–1453 (116 years)
Location France, the Low Countries, England, Spain

French victory

Edwardian War (1337–1360):
English victory: Treaty of Brétigny
Caroline War (1369–1389):
French victory: Treaty of Bruges
Lancastrian War, first phase (1415–1428):
English victory: Treaty of Troyes

Lancastrian War, 2nd phase (1429–1453):
French victory: House of Valois retains the throne of France
England gains the Pale of Calais but loses all other continental territory
Blason France moderne.svg Kingdom of France
Blason Castille Léon.svg Crown of Castile
Blason region fr Bretagne.svg Duchy of Brittany (Blois)
Royal arms of Scotland.svg Kingdom of Scotland
Armoiries Gênes.svg Republic of Genoa
Armoiries Jean de Luxembourg.svg Kingdom of Bohemia
Armas de Aragon.png Crown of Aragon
Arms of Edward III of England.svg Kingdom of England
Blason fr Bourgogne.svg Duchy of Burgundy
Blason region fr Bretagne.svg Duchy of Brittany (Montfort)
Armoiries Portugal 1247.svg Kingdom of Portugal
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg Kingdom of Navarre
Blason Nord-Pas-De-Calais.svg County of Flanders
Hainaut Modern Arms.svg County of Hainaut
Blason region fr Aquitaine.svg Duchy of Aquitaine
Casualties and losses
High High

The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, for control of the latter kingdom. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, wherein five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.

After the Norman Conquest, the kings of England were vassals of the kings of France for their possessions in France. The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce these possessions, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been part of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever the English were at war with the Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.

Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III of England was the grandson of Philip IV of France and nephew of Charles IV of France, the last king of the senior line of the House of Capet. In 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claim the French throne for herself, claimed it for her son. The French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess. For about nine years (1328–1337), the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne. But the interference of the French king, Philip VI, in Edward III's war against Scotland led Edward III to reassert his claim to the French throne. Several overwhelming English victories in the war—especially at Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt—raised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph. However, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive French victories at Patay, Formigny, and Castillon concluded the war in favor of France, with England permanently losing most of its major possessions on the continent.

Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces: the Edwardian Era War (1337–1360); the Caroline War (1369–1389); and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). Contemporary conflicts in neighbouring areas, which were directly related to this conflict, included the War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364), the Castilian Civil War (1366–1369), the War of the Two Peters (1356–1375) in Aragon, and the 1383–85 Crisis in Portugal. Later historians invented the term "Hundred Years' War" as a periodization to encompass all of these events, thus constructing the longest military conflict in history.

The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated. The war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire, composed largely of commoners and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the belligerents, English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). In France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit free-companies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. Shorn of its continental possessions, England was left with the sense of being an island nation, which profoundly affected its outlook and development for more than 500 years.[1]

Origin of the conflict[edit]

The root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic, economic and social crises of 14th century Europe. The outbreak of war was motivated by a gradual rise in tension between the Kings of France and England about Guyenne, Flanders and Scotland. The dynastic question, which arose due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians, was the official pretext.

Dynastic turmoil in France: 1314–28[edit]

The question of female succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son lived only a few days. Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that "women cannot succeed to the French throne". Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V of France. By the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1322.[2]

Philip III
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
r. 1270–1285
Philip IV
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg King of Navarre
r. 1285–1314
Charles of Valois
d. 1325
Louis X
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg King of Navarre
r. 1314–16
Philip V
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg King of Navarre
r. 1316–22
Charles IV
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg King of Navarre
r. 1322–28
Isabella Edward II
England COA.svg King of England
Philip VI
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King of France
r. 1328–50
Joan II
Blason Royaume Navarre.svg Queen of Navarre
b. 1312
Joan III of Burgundy
b. 1308
Edward III
England COA.svg King of England
b. 1312
Charles of Évreux
b. 1332
Philip of Burgundy
b. 1323


By proximity of blood, the nearest male relative of Charles IV was his nephew Edward III of England. Edward was the son of Isabella, the sister of the dead French king, but the question arose whether she should be able to transmit a right to inherit that she did not herself possess. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the prospect of being ruled by the English king. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decided that he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon papacy confirmed that under Salic law males should not be able to inherit through their mothers.[2][3]


The dispute over Guyenne: a problem of sovereignty[edit]

Further information: Peerage of France

The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end when the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda, Henry (great-grandson of William the Conqueror), became the first of the Angevin kings of England in 1154 as Henry II.[4] The Angevin kings directly ruled over more French territory than the kings of France. However they still owed homage for these territories to the French king. From the 11th century onward, the Angevins had autonomy within their French domains, effectively neutralising the issue.[5]

John of England inherited the Angevin domains from Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted decisively to exploit the weaknesses of John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of most of the Angevin continental possessions. Following John's reign, the Battle of Bouvines (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and finally the War of Saint-Sardos (1324) resulted in the complete loss of Normandy and the reduction of England's holdings on the continent to a few provinces in Gascony.[6]

The dispute over Guyenne is even more important than the dynastic question in explaining the outbreak of the war. Guyenne posed a significant problem to the kings of France and England: Edward III was a vassal of Philip VI of France and must recognize the sovereignty of the King of France over Guyenne. In practical terms, a judgment in Guyenne might be subject to an appeal to the French royal court. The King of France had the power to revoke all legal decisions made by the King of England in Aquitaine, which was unacceptable to the English. Therefore, sovereignty over Guyenne was a latent conflict between the two monarchies for several generations.



Beginning of the war: 1337–60[edit]

Gascony under the King of England[edit]

In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous.[7][8] At the beginning of Edward III's reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.[8][9]

For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that, as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of any French suzerainty. However, this line of argument could not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 the 17-year-old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals should approach their liege unarmed with heads uncovered, however Edward demonstrated his reluctance by attending the ceremony by wearing his crown and sword.[10] Despite Edward complying, albeit reluctantly, the French continued to pressure the English administration.[11]

Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court.[12]

Franco-Scot alliance[edit]

See also: Auld Alliance

The Kings of England had attempted to subjugate the Scots for some time, which made Scotland a natural ally of France. In 1295 a treaty was signed between France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that if England invaded then France would support the Scots. Similarly, the French would find Scottish support if their own kingdom was attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland if they could count on French support.[11]

Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy Land. However the plan was abandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to the English Channel of Normandy in 1336, threatening England.[12] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time", the other to proceed at once to Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[13]

End of homage[edit]




Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany[edit]

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript of Froissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470

Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June 1340, and arrived the next day off the Zwyn estuary. The French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluis. The English fleet apparently tricked the French into believing they were withdrawing. However, when the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.[16] At this point, Edward's funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the duke's half brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI.[21]


Battle of Crécy and the taking of Calais[edit]

Battle of Crécy, 1346
Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crécy

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing in Normandy's Cotentin, at St. Vaast. The English army captured the completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and hold territory. He reached the river Seine to find most of the crossings destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the crossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued on his way to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, leaving Philip's army stranded. Edward, assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more, until, finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle and Philip's army attacked. The Battle of Crécy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready.[22] Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his army was defeated and he was captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from Scotland.[21][23] In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowing them to safely keep troops in northern France.[22] Calais would remain under English control, even after the end of the Hundred Years' War, until the successful French siege in 1558.[24]

Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty of Brétigny[edit]

In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris, began to ravage Europe.[25] In 1356, after the plague had passed and England was able to recover financially, Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers.[21] During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led a flanking movement with his horsemen cutting off the French retreat and succeeding in capturing King John II of France (known as John the Good) and many of his nobles.[26][27] With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of France) took over as regent.[28]

After the Battle of Poitiers, chaos ruled, as many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged. A contemporary report said:

From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette[29]

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne. The Dauphin's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However Edward wanted the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city).[30] However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences before Edward and his army arrived.[31] Edward besieged the city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation.[30] Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. The French made contact with him and forced him to negotiate.[32] A conference was held at Brétigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brétigny (8 May 1360). The treaty was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reducing King John's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown of France.[26][28][33]

First peace: 1360–69[edit]


The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354 and in 1363 the Navarrese used John II's captivity in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.[34] Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves particularly as there was a prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.[35] In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable captivity.[36] Charles V succeeded him as king of France.[28][37] On 6 May 1364, one month after the dauphin's accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Cocherel.[38]

French ascendancy under Charles V: 1369–89[edit]

Aquitaine and Castile[edit]

Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin in Dinan

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The ruler Peter of Castile's forces were pitched against those of his half-brother Henry of Trastámara. The English crown supported Peter and the French, Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their head, to support Trastámara in his invasion of Castile.[39]

Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine's Black Prince for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed to support Peter's claims but concerns over the terms of the treaty of Brétigny led him to assist Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led an Anglo-Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power after Trastámara's army was defeated at the Battle of Najera.[40]

Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suffering from ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine. To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign, the prince instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud-Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's side during the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and the Black Prince to hear the case in his parlement in Paris. The Black Prince's answer was that he would go to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of France.[41] Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited and before the end of 1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt.[41][42]

With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de Trastámara led a second invasion that ended with Peter's death at the Battle of Montiel in March, 1369. The new Castilian regime provided naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.[40]

English turmoil[edit]

With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black Prince returned to England in January 1371, where by now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's illness was debilitating. He died on 8 June 1376.[43] Edward III only just outlived his son and died the following year on 21 June 1377;[44] he was succeeded by the Black Prince's second son Richard II who was still a child.[45] The treaty at Brétigny left Edward III and England with enlarged holdings in France, however a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by the time of Charles V's death in 1380, the English only held Calais.[46]


Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, an Anglo-Scottish war in 1384–85. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.[45]

Second peace: 1389–1415[edit]

The war became increasingly unpopular with the English public largely due to the high taxes needed to sustain it. These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peasants revolt.[47] Richard's increasing disinterest in the war together with his preferential treatment of a select few close friends and advisors angered an alliance of lords that included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords Appellant, managed to successfully press charges of treason against five of Richard's advisors and friends in the Merciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to gain control of the council in 1388 and tried, unsuccessfully, to reignite the war. Although the will was there, the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumn of 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with the French crown, beginning on 18 June 1389 with the signing of a three-year truce at Leulinghen.[47][48]


In Scotland, the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 and the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill.[50] A dispute over the spoils between Henry and Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction of the Percy family by 1408.[51][52]

In Wales, Owain Glyndŵr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the most serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 1282–3. The rebellion was finally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.[53]

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending into madness and an open conflict for power began between his cousin John the Fearless and his brother, Louis of Orléans. After Louis's assassination, the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English forces in a civil war.[49] In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massacred the Count of Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers.[54]

Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy. There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He used such privateering campaigns to pressure enemies without risking open war.[55] The French responded in kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.[56]


Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. Charles VI of France's mental illness allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgundy.[57]


Resumption of the war under Henry V: 1415–29[edit]

Burgundy alliance and the taking of Paris[edit]

Battle of Agincourt (1415)[edit]

Main article: Battle of Agincourt
Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt.

In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather than march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raiding expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crécy, he found himself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near-total; the French defeat was catastrophic, costing many of the Armagnac leaders. About 40% of the French nobility was killed.[58] Henry was apparently concerned that the large number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were more French prisoners than the entire English army) and he ordered their deaths.[57]

Treaty of Troyes (1420)[edit]

Main article: Treaty of Troyes
Clan Carmichael crest with broken spear commemorating the unseating of the Duke of Clarence.


Death of Clarence (1421)[edit]


English success[edit]

Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gâtinais before returning to Paris. From there he decided to attack the Dauphin-held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally falling on 11 May 1422.[57]

At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis. While there it became apparent that he was ill (possibly dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire he diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where he died on 31 August 1422.[57] The elderly and insane Charles VI of France died two months later, on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine-month-old son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[61]

On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was only an infant). The war in France continued under Bedford's generalship and several battles were won. The English won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil, (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baugé, Clarence had rushed into battle without the support of his archers. At Verneuil the archers fought to devastating effect against the Franco-Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin's field army and to eliminate the Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.[61][62]

French victory: 1429–53[edit]

Joan of Arc and French revival[edit]

Joan of Arc (c.1450–1500)

Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French spirit and the tide began to turn against the English.[61]

In 1428, the English laid siege to Orléans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out the English. She raised the morale of the troops and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on the Loire.[63]

The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the village of Patay, French cavalry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that had been sent to block the road, then swept through the retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles VII (16 July 1429).[63][64]

After the coronation, Charles VII's army fared less well. An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8 September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew back to the Loire Valley.[65]

Henry's coronations and the desertion of Burgundy[edit]



Joan was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiegne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians transferred her to the English, who organised a trial headed by Pierre Cauchon, a pro-English clergyman. Joan was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431.[63] (She was rehabilitated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III).

After Joan of Arc's death the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English.[66] Most of Henry's royal advisers were against making peace. Among the factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator, the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of Burgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was a major blow to English sovereignty in France.[61] The Duke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was replaced by a lesser man.[66]

French resurgence[edit]

The Battle of Formigny (1450)

Burgundy's allegiance remained fickle, but the English focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries left them little energy to intervene in France.[67] The long truces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise the French state and reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillery developed a reputation as the best in the world.[66]

By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen and in 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it. The English army had been attacked from the flank and rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army.[68]

Fall of Gascony[edit]


End of the war[edit]

Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War,[69] England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners complained vociferously about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of the Wars of the Roses, that started in 1455.[66][70]

The Hundred Years' War almost resumed in 1474, when the duke Charles of Burgundy, counting on English support, took up arms against Louis XI of France. Louis managed to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV of England off with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne of France. However, future Kings of England (and later of Great Britain) continued to claim the title until 1803, when they were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence, titular King Louis XVIII of France, who was living in England after the French Revolution.[71]

Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477,[72] leaving a daughter, Mary, who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy and Burgundy to Louis XI's armies.[72]



The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught.The feudal system was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.

Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry (knights) was considered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the war's end, this belief had shifted. The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later, another long-distance weapon: firearms). Edward III was famous for dismounting his men-at-arms and having them and his archers stand in closely integrated battle lines; the horses only being used for transport or pursuit.[73] The English began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been developed against the Scots, in the Anglo-Scottish wars of the 14th century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, enabling them to move through difficult or boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than fight while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage the enemy.[74][75][76]

By the end of the Hundred Years' War, these various factors caused the decline of the expensively outfitted, highly trained heavy cavalry and the eventual end of the armoured knight as a military force and of the nobility as a political one.[76]

The war stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastated France as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism. The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised state.[77] In 1445 the first regular standing army since Roman times was organised in France partly as a solution to marauding free companies. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the Royal army as compagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors.[76]

The conflict developed such that it was not just between the Kings of England and France but also between their respective peoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meant to invade and destroy the English language. National feeling that emerged from such rumours unified both France and England further. The Hundred Years' War basically confirmed the fall of the French language in England, which had served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest until 1362.[77]

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders).


Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half its population during the Hundred Years' War.[58] Normandy lost three-quarters of its population, and Paris two-thirds.[79] The population of England was reduced by 20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.[80]

When the war ended, England was bereft of its Continental possessions (with the exception of the Pale of Calais), leaving it an island nation on the periphery of Europe, which greatly affected the English mind-set.[81] Although this fate could have consigned England to the margins of history, it came just as the Age of Exploration was about to begin. The nation of maritime islanders found itself well-suited to take advantage of its location and seafaring abilities to explore, and later conquer, much of the remaining world.


TimeLine100YearsWar (cropped).png


Important figures[edit]


Arms Historical Figure Life Notes
Blason pays fr FranceAncien.svg King Philip VI 1293–1350, reigned 1328–50 Charles of Valois' son
King John II 1319–1364, reigned 1350–64 Philip VI's son
King Charles V 1338–1380, reigned 1364–80 John II's son
Blason du Guesclin.svg Bertrand du Guesclin 1320–80 Commander
Blason comte fr Valois.svg Louis I, Duke of Anjou 1339–1384, regent 1380–82 John II's son
King Charles VII 1403–1461, reigned 1422–61 Charles VI's son
Blason comte fr Longueville (ancien).svg Jean de Dunois 1402–68 Commander
Blason JeanBureau.svg Jean Bureau 1390–1463 Master Gunner
Blason Gilles de Rais.svg Gilles de Rais 1405–40 Commander
Blason Jeanne-d-Arc.svg Joan of Arc 1412–31 Religious visionary


Arms Historical Figure Life Notes
Royal Arms of England (1198-1340).svg King Edward III 1312–1377, reigned 1327–77 Philip IV's grandson
Arms of Edmund Crouchback, Earl of Leicester and Lancaster.svg Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster 1310–61 Commander
Arms of the Prince of Wales (Ancient).svg Edward, the Black Prince 1330–76 Edward III's son
Arms of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster.svg John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster 1340–99 Edward III's son
Royal Arms of England (1395-1399).svg King Richard II 1367–1400, reigned 1377–99 Edward III's grandson
Royal Arms of England (1399-1603).svg King Henry V 1387–1422, reigned 1413–22 Henry IV's son
Arms of Catherine of Valois.svg Catherine of Valois 1401–37 Queen consort of England, daughter of Charles VI of France, mother of Henry VI of England and by her second marriage grandmother of Henry VII
Arms of John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford.svg John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford 1389–1435, regent 1422–1435 Henry IV's son
Coat of Arms of Sir John Fastolf, KG.png Sir John Fastolf[64] 1380–1459 Commander
Coat of Arms of Sir John Talbot, 7th Baron Talbot, KG.png John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury 1384–1453 Commander
Royal Arms of England (1470-1471).svg King Henry VI 1421–1471, reigned 1422–61 Henry V's son
Arms of Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York.svg Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York 1411–60 Commander


Arms Historical Figure Life Notes
John the Fearless Arms.svg John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy 1371–1419, duke 1404–19 Son of Philip the Bold
Philip the Good Arms.svg Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy 1396–1467, duke 1419–67 Son of John the Fearless

See also[edit]


  1. ^ As noted in, e.g., Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and the American Approach to Foreign Policy, Bucknell University Press, 1989; p. 87 ("the English Channel gave the nation a sense of geographical remoteness", while its "navy fostered a sense of physical unassailability" that lasted until the early 20th century).
  2. ^ a b Brissaud 1915, pp. 329–330
  3. ^ Previte-Orton 1978, p. 872
  4. ^ Bartlett 2000, p. 22
  5. ^ Bartlett 2000, p. 17
  6. ^ Gormley 2007 [1] Ohio State University
  7. ^ Harris 1994, p. 8
  8. ^ a b Prestwich 1988, p. 298
  9. ^ Prestwich 2005, pp. 292–293
  10. ^ Wilson 2011, p. 194
  11. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 394
  12. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 306
  13. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 180
  14. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 184
  15. ^ Prestwich 2003, pp. 149–150
  16. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, pp. 307–312
  18. ^ R.E.Glassock. England circa 1334 in Darby 1976 New Edition, p. 160
  19. ^ Sumption 1991, pp. 188–189
  20. ^ Sumption 1991, pp. 233–234
  21. ^ a b c d Rogers 2010, pp. 88–89
  22. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, pp. 318–319
  23. ^ Rogers 2010, pp. 55–45
  24. ^ Grummitt 2008, p. 1
  26. ^ a b Le Patourel 1984, pp. 20–21
  27. ^ Wilson 2011, p. 218
  29. ^ de Venette 1953, p. 66
  30. ^ a b Prestwich 2005, p. 326
  31. ^ Le Patourel 1984, p. 189
  32. ^ Le Patourel 1984, p. 32
  33. ^ a b  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Brétigny". Encyclopædia Britannica 4 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 501. 
  34. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 102–103
  35. ^ Ormrod. Edward III. p. 384
  37. ^ Britannica. Treaty of Brétigny. Retrieved 21 September 2012
  38. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 86
  39. ^ Curry 2002, pp. 69–70
  40. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 78
  41. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 122
  42. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 3–4
  43. ^ Barber, Richard (2008). "Edward , prince of Wales and of Aquitaine (1330–76) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 3 October 2012. 
  44. ^ Omrod, W. M (2008). "Edward III (1312–1377) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 3 October 2012. 
  45. ^ a b c d e Tuck, Richard (2008). "Richard II (1367–1400 in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 3 October 2012. 
  46. ^ Francoise Autrand. Charles V King of France in Vauchéz. Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Volume 1. pp. 283–284
  47. ^ a b Baker 2000, p. 6
  48. ^ a b Neillands 1990, pp. 182–184
  49. ^ a b Curry 2002, pp. 77–82
  50. ^ Mortimer 2008, pp. 253–254
  51. ^ Mortimer 2008, pp. 263–264
  52. ^ Bean, J.M.W (2008). "Percy, Henry, first earl of Northumberland (1341–1408) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 8 October 2012. 
  53. ^ Smith, Llinos (2008). "Glyn Dŵr , Owain (c.1359–c.1416) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 8 October 2012. 
  55. ^ Ian Friel. The English and War at Sea. c.1200-c1500 in Hattendorf. War at Sea. pp. 76–77
  56. ^ a b Nolan. The Age of Wars of Religion. p. 424
  57. ^ a b c d e f g Allmand, C.T (2008). "Henry V (1386–1422) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required". Retrieved 8 October 2012. 
  58. ^ a b Turchin 2003, pp. 179–180Historical dynamics: why states rise and fall
  59. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 44–45
  60. ^ G. L. Harriss, ‘Thomas , duke of Clarence (1387–1421)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2010 accessed 14 May 2013 Subscription required.
  61. ^ a b c d e Griffiths 2004
  62. ^ Wagner 2006, pp. 307–308
  63. ^ a b c Davis 2003, pp. 76–80
  64. ^ a b "Sir John Fastolf". Norwich: Norfolk Record Office. Retrieved 20 December 2012. 
  65. ^ Jaques, Tony. 2007. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 777. Retrieved January 21, 2015. 
  66. ^ a b c d Lee 1998, pp. 145–147
  67. ^ Sumption 1991, p. 562
  68. ^ Nicole 2012, pp. 26–35
  69. ^ a b Wagner 2006, p. 79
  70. ^ Webster 1998, pp. 39–40: "Every version of the complaints put forward by the rebels in 1450 harps on the losses in France."
  71. ^ Neillands 1990, pp. 290–291
  72. ^ a b Charles Derek Ross, Edward IV, (University of California Press, 1974), 249–250.
  73. ^ Powicke 1962, p. 189
  74. ^ Colm McNamee. Hobelars in Rogers 2010, pp. 267–268
  75. ^ Jones 2008, pp. 1–17
  76. ^ a b c Preston, Wise & Werner 1991, pp. 84–89
  77. ^ a b Holmes, Urban & Schutz 1948, p. 61
  78. ^ Lowe 1997, pp. 147–195
  79. ^ Ladurie 1987, p. 32The French peasantry, 1450–1660
  80. ^ Neillands 1990, pp. 110–111


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External links[edit]