Warehouse Management

Is it only a storage facility? 
A warehouse is typically viewed as a place to

store inventory. 
However, in many logistical system designs,

the role of the warehouse is more properly viewed as a switching facility as contrasted to a storage facility.


A Sample Warehouse



Benefits of Warehousing
Consolidation  Shipment consolidation is an economic benefit of warehousing.  With this arrangement, the consolidating warehouse receives and consolidates materials from a number of manufacturing plants destined to a specific customer on a single transportation shipment.  The benefits are the realization of the lowest possible transportation rate and reduced congestion at a customer's receiving dock.


Consolidation Warehouses


Consolidation Warehouses« 
The primary benefit of consolidation is that it

combines the logistical flow of several small shipments to a specific market area. 
Consolidation warehousing may be used by a single

firm, or a number of firms may join together and use a for-hire consolidation service. 
Through the use of such a program, each individua1

manufacturer or shipper can enjoy lower total distribution cost than could be realized on a direct shipment basis individually.

Break bulk warehouses 
Break bulk warehouse operations are similar to

consolidation except that no storage is performed.  A break bulk operation receives combined customer orders from manufacturers and ships them to individual customers.  The break bulk warehouse sorts or splits individual orders and arranges for local delivery.  Because the long-distance transportation movement is a large shipment, transport costs are lower and there is less difficulty in tracking.


Break bulk warehouses«


Processing/Postponement 
Warehouses can also be used to postpone, or delay,

production by performing processing and light manufacturing activities. 
A warehouse with packaging or labeling capability

allows postponement of final production until actual demand is known. 
For example, vegetables can be processed and

canned in "brights" at the manufacturer. 
Brights are cans with no pre-attached labels.

Processing/Postponement« 
The use of brights for a private label product

means that the item does not have to be committed to a specific customer or package configuration at the manufacturer's plant. 
Once a specific customer order is received,

the warehouse can complete final processing by adding the label and finalizing the packaging.

Processing/Postponement« 
Processing and postponement provide two economic

benefits: 
First, risk is minimized because final packaging is not

completed until an order for a specific label and package has been received. 
Second, the required level of total inventory can be

reduced by using the basic product (brights) for a variety of labeling and packaging configurations.

Stockpiling 
The economic benefit of stockpiling comes from the    

need of seasonal storage. For example, lawn furniture and toys are produced year-round and primarily sold during a very short marketing period. In contrast, agricultural products are harvested at specific times with subsequent consumption occurring throughout the year. Both situations require warehouse stockpiling to support marketing efforts. Stockpiling provides an inventory buffer, which allows production efficiencies within the constraints imposed by material sources and the customer.

Voice Directed Distribution: Talkman from Vocollect



Service Benefits 
Five basic service benefits are achieved

through warehousing: 
   

spot stock, assortment, mixing, production support, and market presence.


Spot Stock 
Under spot stocking, a selected amount of a firm's

product line is placed or "spot stocked" in a warehouse to fill customer orders during a critical marketing period.  In particular, manufacturers with limited or highly seasonal product lines are partial to this service. 
Rather than placing inventories in warehouse

facilities on a year-round basis or shipping directly from manufacturing plants, delivery time can be substantially reduced by advanced inventory commitment to strategic markets.

Spot Stock« 
Utilizing warehouse facilities for stock spotting allows

inventories to be placed in a variety of markets adjacent to key customers just prior to a maximum period of seasonal sales. 
Suppliers of agricultural products to farmers often use

spot stocking to position their products closer to a service-sensitive market during the growing season. 
Following the sales season, the remaining inventory

is withdrawn to a central warehouse.

Assortment 
An assortment warehouse stocks product

combinations in anticipation of customer orders.  The assortments may represent multiple products from different manufacturers or special assortments as specified by customers.  In the first case, for example, an athletic wholesaler would stock products from a number of clothing suppliers so that customers can be offered assortments.  In the second case, the wholesaler would create a specific team uniform including shirt, pants, and shoes.

Assortment vs. Spot Stock 
The differential between stock spotting and complete

line assortment is the degree and duration of warehouse utilization.  A firm following a stock spotting would typically warehouse a narrow product assortment and place stocks in a large number of small warehouses dedicated to specific markets for a limited time period.  Distribution assortment warehouse usually has a broad product line, is limited to a few strategic locations, and is functional year-round.  The combined assortments also allow larger shipment quantities, which in turn reduce transportation cost.


Mixing 
In a typical mixing situation, truckloads of products

are shipped from manufacturing plants to warehouses.  Each large shipment enjoys the lowest possible transportation rate.  Upon arrival at the mixing warehouse, factory shipments are unloaded and the desired combination of each product for each customer or market is selected.  When plants are geographically separated, overall transportation charges and warehouse requirements can be reduced by mixing.

Production Support 
Production support warehousing provides a steady

supply of components and materials to assembly plants. 
Safety stocks on items purchased from outside

vendors may be justified because of long lead times or significant variations in usage. 
The operation of a production support warehouse is

to supply or "feed" processed materials, components, and subassemblies into the assembly plant in an economic and timely manner.

Market Presence 
While a market presence benefit may not be so

obvious, it is often cited by marketing managers as a major advantage of local warehouses. 
The market presence factor is based on the

perception or belief that local warehouses can be more responsive to customer needs and offer quicker delivery than more distant warehouses. 
As a result, it is also thought that a local warehouse

will enhance market share and potentially increase profitability.

Warehouse Operating Principles 
Once it has been determined to use a

warehouse, the next step is designing it.  Whether the warehouse is a small manual operation or a large automated facility, the following three principles are relevant: 
 

Design criteria, Handling technology, and Storage plan.


Design Criteria 
Warehouse design criteria address physical

facility characteristics and product movement.  Three factors to be considered in the design process are: 
 

the number of stories in the facility, height utilization, and product flow.


Number of stories in the facility 
The ideal warehouse design is limited to a single

story so that product does not have to be moved up and down.  The use of elevators to move product from one floor to the next requires time and energy.  The elevator is also often a bottleneck in product flow since many material handlers are usually competing for a limited number of elevators.  While it is not always possible, particularly in central business districts where land is restricted or expensive, warehouses should be limited to a single story.

Height utilization 
Regardless of facility size, the design should

maximize the usage of the available cubic space by allowing for the greatest use of height on each floor.  Most warehouses have 20- to 30-foot ceilings (1 foot = 12 inch; 1 inch = 2.54 cm), although modern automated and high-rise facilities can effectively use ceiling heights up to 100 feet.  Through the use of racking or other hardware, it should be possible to store products up to the building's ceiling.  Maximum effective warehouse height is limited by the safe lifting capabilities of material-handling equipment, such as forklifts.

Product flow 
Warehouse design should also allow for straight

product flow through the facility whether items are stored or not. 
In general, this means that product should be

received at one end of the building, stored in the middle, and then shipped from the other end. 
Straight-line product flow minimizes congestion and


Handling technology 
The second principle focuses on the

effectiveness and efficiency of materialhandling technology. 
The elements of this principle concern: 

movement continuity and movement scale economies.


Movement continuity 
Movement continuity means that it is better for a

material handler or piece of handling equipment to make a longer move than to have a number of handlers make numerous, individual, short segments of the same move. 
Exchanging the product between handlers or moving

it from one piece of equipment to another wastes time and increases the potential for damage. 
Thus, as a general rule, fewer longer movements in

the warehouse are preferred.

Movement scale economies 
Movement scale economies imply that all warehouse

activities should handle or move the largest quantities possible.  Instead of moving individual cases, warehouse activities should be designed to move groups of cases such as pallets or containers.  This grouping or batching might mean that multiple products or orders must be moved or selected at the same time.  While this might increase the complexity of an individual's activities since multiple products or orders must be considered, the principle reduces the number of activities and the resulting cost.

Storage Plan 
According to the third principle, a warehouse design   


should consider product characteristics, particularly those pertaining to volume, weight, and storage. Product volume is the major concern when defining a warehouse storage plan. High-volume sales or throughput product should be stored in a location that minimizes the distance it is moved, such as near primary aisles and in low storage racks. Such a location minimizes travel distance and the need for extended lifting. Conversely, low-volume product can be assigned locations that are distant from primary aisles or higher up in storage racks.

A Sample Storage Area


Storage Plan« 
Similarly, the plan should include a specific strategy    

for products dependent on weight and storage characteristics. Relatively heavy items should be assigned to locations low to the ground to minimize the effort and risk of heavy lifting. Bulky or low-density products require extensive storage volume, so open floor space or high-level racks can be used for them. On the other hand, smaller items may require storage shelves or drawers. The integrated storage plan must consider and address the specific characteristics of each product.

Alternative Warehouse Strategies 
Warehouse alternatives include:  (1) Private warehouses,  (2) Public warehouses, and  (3) Contract warehouses.  A private warehouse facility is owned and managed

by the same enterprise that owns the merchandise handled and stored at the facility.  A public warehouse, in contrast, is operated as an independent business offering a range of services -such as storage, handling, and transportation- on the basis of a fixed or variable fee.  Public warehouse operators generally offer relatively standardized services to all clients.

Alternative Warehouse Strategies... 
Contract warehousing, which is evolving from the public

warehouse segment, provides benefits of both the private and public alternatives. 
Contract warehousing is a long term, mutually beneficial

arrangement which provides unique and specially tailored warehousing and logistics services exclusively to one client, where the vendor and client share the risks associated with the operation. 
Important dimensions that differentiate contract

warehousing operators from public warehouse operators are the extended time frame of the service relationship, tailored services, exclusivity, and shared risk.

Private Warehouses 
A private warehouse is operated by the firm owning

the product. 
The actual facility, however, may be owned or

leased. 
The decision as to which strategy best fits an

individual firm is essentially financial. 
Often it is not possible to find a warehouse for lease

that fits the exact requirements of a firm.

Private Warehouses« 
The major benefits of private warehousing include

control, flexibility, cost, and other intangible benefits. 
Private warehouses provide more control since the

enterprise has absolute decision-making authority over all activities and priorities in the facility. 
This control facilitates the ability to integrate

warehouse operations with the rest of the firm's internal logistics process.

Private Warehouses« 
Private warehousing is usually considered less costly    

than public warehousing because private facility costs do not have a profit markup. This perceived benefit, however, may be misleading since public warehouses often are more efficient or may operate at lower wage scales. Private warehousing has also some intangible benefits, particularly with respect to market presence. A private warehouse with a firm's name on it may produce customer perceptions of responsiveness and stability. This perception sometimes provides a firm with a marketing advantage over other enterprises.

Public Warehouses 
On the basis of the range of specialized operations

performed, public warehouses are classified as 
   

(1) general merchandise, (2) refrigerated, (3) special commodity, (4) bonded, and (5) household goods and furniture. 

Each warehouse type differs in its material handling

and storage technology as a result of the product and environmental characteristics.

Public Warehouses« 
General merchandise warehouses are designed to

handIe general package commodities such as paper, small appliances, and household supplies. 
Refrigerated warehouses (either frozen or chilled)

handle and maintain food, medical items, and chemical products with special temperature requirements. 
Commodity warehouses are designed to handle

bulk material or items with special handling considerations, such as tires or clothing.

Public Warehouses« 
Bonded warehouses are licensed by the

government to store goods prior to payment of taxes or duties.  They exert very tight control over all movements in and out of the facility since government documents must be filed with each move. 
For example, cigarettes are often stored in bonded

warehouses prior to having the tax stamp applied.  This tactic saves the firm money by delaying tax payments; it also reduces inventory value substantially.

Public Warehouses« 
Finally, a household goods or furniture

warehouse is designed to handle and store large, bulky items such as appliances and furniture. 
Of course, many public warehouses offer

combinations of these operations.


Public Warehouses« 
From a financial perspective, public warehousing

may have a lower variable cost than comparable privately operated facilities.  The lower variable cost may be the result of lower pay scales, better productivity, or economy of scale.  Public warehouses certainly result in lower capital costs.  When management performance is judged according to return on investment (ROI), the use of public warehousing can substantially increase enterprise return.

Public Warehouses« 
Public warehousing offers flexibility in that it is easy

to change the location, size, and number of facilities, allowing a firm to quickly respond to supplier, customer, and seasonal demands.  Private warehouses are relatively fixed and difficult to change because buildings have to be constructed or sold.  Public warehousing can also offer significant scale economies since the volume for each customer is leveraged with that of other users.  This results in high-volume operations that can spread fixed costs and justify more efficient handling equipment.

Public Warehouses« 
A public warehouse can also leverage

transportation by providing delivery of loads that represent many public warehouse customers. 
For example, rather than have vendor A and

vendor B each deliver to a retail store from their own warehouse, a public warehouse serving both vendors could deliver a single combined load more efficiently.

Public Warehouses« 
A public warehouse charges clients a basic fee for    

handling and storage. In the case of handling, the charge is based on the number of cases or pounds handled. For storage, the charge is assessed on the number of cases or weight in storage during the month. Such charges normally exceed the cost of private warehousing if adequate private facility volume exists. However, when economies of scale are not possible in a private facility, public warehousing may be a lowcost alternative.

Contract Warehouses 
Contract warehousing combines the best

characteristics of both private and public operations. 
The long-term relationship and shared risk result in

lower cost than typical public warehouse arrangements. 
Contract warehouse operations can provide benefits

of expertise, flexibility, and economies of scale by sharing management, labor, equipment, and information resources across a number of clients.

Contract Warehouses« 
Although it is common for contract warehouse

operators to share resources across clients in the same industry such as grocery products, it is not common that direct competitors will want to share resources. 
Contract warehouse operators are also expanding

the scope of their services to include other logistics activities such as transportation, inventory control, order processing, customer service, and returns processing.

Contract Warehouses« 
For example, Rich Products, a frozen food

manufacturer in Buffalo, New York, has increasingly utilized contract warehousing. 
Since 1992, Rich has had a long term commitment

with a refrigerated warehousing and distribution company, Christian Salvesen, for storage, handling, and distribution services at its facilities in New York. 
The nature of the arrangement benefits both parties

and allows Rich to expand its distribution network without incurring any fixed facility cost.

Contract Warehouses« 
Rich is assured that there will always be storage

space for its products. 
Christian Salvesen doesn't have to be concerned

with filling space in its warehouses and can focus on providing service. 
Moreover, the longer Rich Products utilizes Christian

Salvesen's services, the better the contract warehousing firm will be able to understand Rich's business needs and provide customized services.

Warehousing Strategy 
Many firms utilize a combination of private, public,

and contract facilities.  A private or contract facility may be used to cover basic year round requirements, while public facilities are used to handle peak seasons.  In other situations, central warehouses may be private, while market area or field warehouses are public facilities. 
Each use of warehouse combinations will be

discussed now.

Warehousing Strategy« 
Full warehouse utilization throughout a year is a

remote possibility.  As a planning rule, a warehouse designed for fullcapacity utilization will in fact be fully utilized between 75 and 85 percent of the time.  Thus from 15 to 25 percent of the time, the space needed to meet peak requirements is not utilized.  In such situations, it may be more efficient to build private facilities to cover the 75 percent requirement and use public facilities to accommodate peak demand.

Warehousing Strategy«



Warehousing Strategy« 
The second form of combined public warehousing

may result from market requirements. 

A firm may find that private warehousing is justified at

specific locations on the basis of distribution volume. cost option. 

In other markets, public facilities may be the least- 

In logistical system design the objective is to

determine whatever combination of warehouse strategies most economically meets customer service objectives.

Warehousing Strategy« 
An integrated warehouse strategy focuses on two

questions.  The first concerns how many warehouses should be employed.  The second question concerns which warehouse types should be used to meet market requirements. 
For many firms, the answer is a combination that can

be differentiated by customer and product.  Specifically, some customer groups may be served best from a private warehouse, while a public warehouse may be appropriate for others.

Warehousing Strategy«
Other qualitative factors that should be considered include:
(1) presence synergies, (2) industry synergies, (3) operating flexibility, (4) location flexibility, and (5) scale economies.

Each consideration and its rationale will be discussed.

Presence synergies 
Presence synergies refer to the marketing benefits

of having inventory located nearby in a building that is clearly affiliated with the enterprise (e.g., the building has the firm's name on the door). 
It is widely thought that customers are more

comfortable when suppliers maintain inventory in nearby locations. 
Products and customers that benefit from local

presence should be served from private or contract facilities.

Industry synergies 
Industry synergies refer to the operating benefits of

collocating with other firms serving the same industry. 

For example, firms in the grocery business often

receive substantial benefits when they share public warehouse facilities with other suppliers serving the same industry.  Reduced transportation cost is the major benefit since joint use of the same public warehouse allows frequent delivery of consolidated loads from multiple suppliers.  Public and contract warehousing increase the potential for industry synergy.

Operating flexibility 
Operating flexibility refers to the ability to adjust

internal policies and procedures to meet product and customer needs. 

Since private warehouses operate under the

complete control of the enterprise, they are usually perceived to demonstrate more operating flexibility.  On the other hand, a public warehouse often employs policies and procedures that are consistent across its clients to minimize operating confusion.  There are many public and contract warehouse operations that have demonstrated substantial flexibility and responsiveness.

Location flexibility 
Location flexibility refers to the ability to quickly

adjust warehouse location and number in accordance with seasonal or permanent demand changes. 

For example, in-season demand for agricultural

chemicals requires that warehouses be located near markets that allow customer pickup.  Outside the growing season, however, these local warehouses are unnecessary.  Thus, the desirable strategy is to be able to open and close local facilities seasonally.  Public and contract warehouses offer the location flexibility to accomplish such requirements.

Scale economies 
Scale economies refer to the ability to reduce

material-handling and storage through application of advanced technologies. 
High-volume warehouses generally have greater

opportunity to achieve these benefits because they can spread technology's fixed cost over larger volumes.  In addition, capital investment in automated equipment can reduce direct variable cost.  Public and contract warehouses are generally perceived to offer better scale economies since they are able to design operations and facilities to meet higher volumes of multiple clients.

Qualitative Decision Factors

Presence synergy and Operating flexibility is higher in Private Warehouses. Other factors are higher in Public Warehouses.

Planning the Distribution Warehouse 
The initial decisions of warehousing are related to

planning. 
A master plan of the layout, space requirements, and

material-handling design should be developed first and a specific site for the warehouse selected. 
These decisions establish the character of the

warehouse, which, in turn determines the degree of attainable handling efficiency.

Site Selection 
Location analysis techniques are available to assist in

selecting a general area for warehouse location.  Once location analysis is completed, a specific building site must be selected.  Three areas in a community may be considered for location: 

1) commercial zones, 2) outlying areas served by motor truck only, and 3) central or downtown areas. 

The primary factors in site selection are the

availability of services and cost.  The cost of procurement is the most important factor governing site selection.

Site Selection« 
A warehouse need not be located in a major

industrial area. 
In many cities, one observes warehouses among

industrial plants and in areas zoned for light or heavy industry. 
Interestingly, this is not a legal necessity because

most warehouses can operate under the restrictions placed on commercial property.

Site Selection« 
Beyond procurement cost, setup and operating

expenses such as rail sidings, utility expenses, taxes, insurance rates, and highway access require evaluation.  These expenses vary between sites. 
For example, a food distribution firm recently rejected

what otherwise appeared to be a totally satisfactory site because of insurance rates. 
The site was located near the end of a water main.

Site Selection« 
During most of the day, adequate water supplies

were available to handle operational and emergency requirements.  The only possible water problem occurred during two short periods each day.  From 6:30 to 8:30 in the morning and from 5 to 7 in the evening, the demand for water along the line was so great that a sufficient supply was not available to handle emergencies.  Because of this deficiency, abnormally high insurance rates were required and the site was rejected.

Site Selection« 
Several other requirements must be satisfied

before a site is purchased.  The location must offer adequate room for expansion.  Necessary utilities must be available.  The soil must be capable of supporting the structure, and the site must be sufficiently high to afford proper drainage (su ak na izin

Product-Mix Considerations 
The design and operation of a warehouse are related

directly to the character of the product mix. 
Each product should be analyzed in terms of annual sales,

stability of demand, weight, and packaging. 
It is also desirable to determine the total size and weight

of the average order processed through the warehouse. 
These data provide necessary information for determining

requirements in warehouse space, design and layout, material-handling equipment operating procedures, and controls.

Expansion 
Future expansion is often neglected when an

enterprise consider initial establishment of its warehouse facilities.  Inclusion of a warehouse into the logistical system should be based partially on estimated requirements for future operations.  Well-managed organizations often establish five- to ten-year expansion plans.  Such expansion considerations may require purchase or option of a site three to five times the size of the initial structure.

Expansion« 
Special construction is often considered to

ease expansion without seriously affecting normal operations. 
Some walls may be constructed of semi-

permanent materials to allow easy removal. 
Floor areas, designed to support heavy

movements, are extended to these walls in a manner that facilitates expansion.

Selection of Material-Handling System 
A material-handling system is one of the initial

considerations of warehouse planning. 
Movement is the main function within a warehouse.  Consequently, the warehouse is viewed as a

structure designed to facilitate maximum product flow. 
It is important to stress that the material-handling

system should be selected early in the warehouse design stage.

Warehouse Layout 
Layout of a warehouse depends on the proposed

material handling system and requires development of a floor plan to facilitate product flow. since they must be refined to fit specific needs. 

It is difficult to generalize about warehouse layouts 

If pallets are to be utilized, the first step is to

determine the pallet size.  A pallet of nonstandard size may be desirable for specialized products, but whenever possible, standardized pallets should be used because of their lower cost.

Warehouse Layout« 
The most common sizes are 40 by 48 inches and 32

by 40 inches. 
In general, the larger the pallet load, the lower the

cost of movement per package over a given distance. 
The packages to be placed on the pallet and the

related patterns will determine, to a certain extent, the size of pallet best suited to the operation. 
Regardless of the size finally selected, management

should adopt one size for the total operation.

Warehouse Layout« 
The second step in planning a layout involves the

pallet positioning. 
The basic method of positioning pallets in a

mechanized warehouse is a ninety-degree, or square, placement. 
Square placement means that the pallet is positioned

perpendicular to the aisle. 
The square method is widely used because of layout


Pilferage Protection 
Protection against theft of merchandise has become

a major factor in warehouse operations.  Such protection is required as a result of the increased vulnerability of firms to riots and civil disturbances.  All normal precautions employed throughout the enterprise should be strictly enforced at each warehouse. 

Security begins at the fence.  As standard procedure, only authorized personnel

should be permitted into the facility and surrounding grounds and entry to the warehouse yard should be controlled through a single gate.

Pilferage Protection« 
Without exception, no private automobile-regardless

of management rank or customer status-should be allowed to penetrate the yard adjacent to the warehouse. 
To illustrate the importance of the stated guidelines,

the following actual experience may be helpful.  A particular firm enforced the rule that no private vehicles should be permitted in the warehouse yard.  Exceptions were made for two handicapped office employees.

Pilferage Protection« 
One night after work, one of these employees

accidentally discovered a bundle taped under one fender of his car. 

Subsequent checking revealed that the car was

literally a delivery truck.  The matter was promptly reported to security, which informed the employee not to alter any packages taped to the car and to continue parking inside the yard.  Over the next several days, the situation was fully uncovered, with the ultimate arrest and conviction of several warehouse employees who confessed to stealing over $100,000 of company merchandise.

Pilferage Protection« 
The firm would have been better off purchasing a

small vehicle to provide transportation for the handicapped employees from the regular parking lots to the office. 

Shortages are always a major consideration in

warehouse operations.  Many are honest mistakes in order selection and shipment, but the purpose of security is to restrict theft from all angles. 
The majority of thefts occur during normal working



Pilferage Protection« 
Computerized inventory control and order processing

systems help protect merchandise from being carried out of the warehouse doors. 
No items should be released from the warehouse

unless accompanied by a computer release document. 
If samples are authorized for use by salespersons,

the merchandise should be separate from other inventory.

Pilferage Protection« 
Not all pilferage occurs on an individual basis.  Numerous instances have been discovered where

organized efforts between warehouse personnel and truck drivers resulted in deliberate over-picking or high-for-low-value product substitution in order to move unauthorized merchandise out of the warehouse. 
Employee rotation, total case counts, and occasional

complete line-item checks can reduce vulnerability to such collaboration.

Product Deterioration 
Within the warehouse, a number of factors can

reduce a product or material to a non-usable or nonmarketable state. 
The most obvious form of product deterioration is

damage from careless transfer or storage. 
Another major form of deterioration is non-

compatibility of products stored in the same facility.


Product Deterioration« 
The primary concern is deterioration that results from

improper warehouse work procedures. 
A constant concern is the carelessness of warehouse

employees. 
In this respect, the forklift truck may well be

management's worst enemy. 
Regardless of how often operators are warned

against carrying overloads, some still attempt such shortcuts when not properly supervised.

Product Deterioration« 
In one situation, a stack of four pallets was dropped

off a forklift truck at the receiving dock of a food warehouse.  Standard procedure was to move two pallets per load.  The value of the damaged merchandise exceeded the average daily profit of two supermarkets. 
Product deterioration from careless handling within

the warehouse is a form of loss that cannot be insured against and constitutes a 100 percent cost with no compensating revenue.

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