Goldbach's conjecture

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The even integers from 4 to 28 as sums of two primes. Goldbach's conjecture is that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes in at least one way.
The even integers from 4 to 28 as sums of two primes. Goldbach's conjecture states that every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.

Goldbach's conjecture is one of the oldest and best-known unsolved problems in number theory and in all of mathematics. It states:

Every even integer greater than 2 can be expressed as the sum of two primes.[1]

The conjecture has been shown to hold up through 4 × 1018,[2] but remains unproven despite considerable effort.

Goldbach number[edit]

The number of ways an even number can be represented as the sum of two primes.[3]

A Goldbach number is a positive integer that can be expressed as the sum of two odd primes.[1] Therefore, another statement of Goldbach's conjecture is that all even integers greater than 4 are Goldbach numbers.

The expression of a given even number as a sum of two primes is called a Goldbach partition of that number. The following are examples of Goldbach partitions for some even numbers:

4 = 2 + 2
6 = 3 + 3
8 = 3 + 5
10 = 3 + 7 = 5 + 5
100 = 3 + 97 = 11 + 89 = 17 + 83 = 29 + 71 = 41 + 59 = 47 + 53

The number of ways in which 2n can be written as the sum of two primes (for n starting at 1) is:

0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 3, 5, 3, 4, 6, 3, 5, 6, 2, 5, 6, 5, 5, 7, 4, 5, 8, 5, 4, 9, 4, 5, 7, 3, 6, 8, 5, 6, 8, 6, 7, 10, 6, 6, 12, 4, 5, 10, 3, ... (sequence A045917 in OEIS).


Letter from Goldbach to Euler dated on 7. June 1742 (Latin-German).[4]

On 7 June 1742, the German mathematician Christian Goldbach wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler (letter XLIII)[5] in which he proposed the following conjecture:




He considered 1 to be a prime number, a convention subsequently abandoned.[6] The two conjectures are now known to be equivalent, but this did not seem to be an issue at the time. A modern version of Goldbach's marginal conjecture is:


Euler replied in a letter dated 30 June 1742, and reminded Goldbach of an earlier conversation they had ("…so Ew vormals mit mir communicirt haben…"), in which Goldbach remarked his original (and not marginal) conjecture followed from the following statement


which is, thus, also a conjecture of Goldbach. In the letter dated 30 June 1742, Euler stated:

“Dass … ein jeder numerus par eine summa duorum primorum sey, halte ich für ein ganz gewisses theorema, ungeachtet ich dasselbe nicht demonstriren kann.” ("That … every even integer is a sum of two primes, I regard as a completely certain theorem, although I cannot prove it.")[7][8]

Goldbach's third version (equivalent to the two other versions) is the form in which the conjecture is usually expressed today. It is also known as the "strong", "even", or "binary" Goldbach conjecture, to distinguish it from a weaker corollary. The strong Goldbach conjecture implies the conjecture that all odd numbers greater than 7 are the sum of three odd primes, which is known today variously as the "weak" Goldbach conjecture, the "odd" Goldbach conjecture, or the "ternary" Goldbach conjecture. While the weak Goldbach conjecture appears to have been finally proved in 2013,[9][10] the strong conjecture has remained unsolved.

Verified results[edit]

For small values of n, the strong Goldbach conjecture (and hence the weak Goldbach conjecture) can be verified directly. For instance, Nils Pipping in 1938 laboriously verified the conjecture up to n ≤ 105.[11] With the advent of computers, many more values of n have been checked; T. Oliveira e Silva is running a distributed computer search that has verified the conjecture for n ≤ 4 × 1018 (and double-checked up to 4 × 1017). One record from this search is that 3325581707333960528 is the smallest number that has no Goldbach partition with a prime below 9781.[12]

Heuristic justification[edit]

Statistical considerations that focus on the probabilistic distribution of prime numbers present informal evidence in favour of the conjecture (in both the weak and strong forms) for sufficiently large integers: the greater the integer, the more ways there are available for that number to be represented as the sum of two or three other numbers, and the more "likely" it becomes that at least one of these representations consists entirely of primes.

Number of ways to write an even number n as the sum of two primes (4 ≤ n ≤ 1,000), (sequence A002375 in OEIS)
Number of ways to write an even number n as the sum of two primes (4 ≤ n ≤ 1,000,000)

A very crude version of the heuristic probabilistic argument (for the strong form of the Goldbach conjecture) is as follows. The prime number theorem asserts that an integer m selected at random has roughly a 1/\ln m\,\! chance of being prime. Thus if n is a large even integer and m is a number between 3 and n/2, then one might expect the probability of m and n − m simultaneously being prime to be 1 \big / \big [\ln m \,\ln (n-m)\big ]. If one pursues this heuristic, one might expect the total number of ways to write a large even integer n as the sum of two odd primes to be roughly

\sum_{m=3}^{n/2} \frac{1}{\ln m} {1 \over \ln (n-m)} \approx \frac{n}{2 \ln^2 n}.

Since this quantity goes to infinity as n increases, we expect that every large even integer has not just one representation as the sum of two primes, but in fact has very many such representations.

This heuristic argument is actually somewhat inaccurate, because it assumes that the events of m and n − m being prime are statistically independent of each other. For instance, if m is odd then n − m is also odd, and if m is even, then n − m is even, a non-trivial relation because, besides the number 2, only odd numbers can be prime. Similarly, if n is divisible by 3, and m was already a prime distinct from 3, then n − m would also be coprime to 3 and thus be slightly more likely to be prime than a general number. Pursuing this type of analysis more carefully, Hardy and Littlewood in 1923 conjectured (as part of their famous Hardy–Littlewood prime tuple conjecture) that for any fixed c ≥ 2, the number of representations of a large integer n as the sum of c primes n=p_1+\cdots +p_c with p_1 \leq \cdots \leq p_c should be asymptotically equal to

 \left(\prod_p \frac{p \gamma_{c,p}(n)}{(p-1)^c}\right)
\int_{2 \leq x_1 \leq \cdots \leq x_c: x_1+\cdots+x_c = n} \frac{dx_1 \cdots dx_{c-1}}{\ln x_1 \cdots \ln x_c}

where the product is over all primes p, and \gamma_{c,p}(n) is the number of solutions to the equation n = q_1 + \cdots + q_c \mod p in modular arithmetic, subject to the constraints q_1,\ldots,q_c \neq 0 \mod p. This formula has been rigorously proven to be asymptotically valid for c ≥ 3 from the work of Vinogradov, but is still only a conjecture when c=2. In the latter case, the above formula simplifies to 0 when n is odd, and to

 2 \Pi_2 \left(\prod_{p|n; p \geq 3} \frac{p-1}{p-2}\right) \int_2^n \frac{dx}{\ln^2 x}
\approx 2 \Pi_2 \left(\prod_{p|n; p \geq 3} \frac{p-1}{p-2}\right) \frac{n}{\ln^2 n}

when n is even, where \Pi_2 is the twin prime constant

 \Pi_2 := \prod_{p \geq 3} \left(1 - \frac{1}{(p-1)^2}\right) = 0.6601618158\ldots.

This is sometimes known as the extended Goldbach conjecture. The strong Goldbach conjecture is in fact very similar to the twin prime conjecture, and the two conjectures are believed to be of roughly comparable difficulty.

The Goldbach partition functions shown here can be displayed as histograms which informatively illustrate the above equations. See Goldbach's comet.[13]

Rigorous results[edit]

The strong Goldbach conjecture is much more difficult. Using Vinogradov's method, Chudakov,[14] Van der Corput,[15] and Estermann[16] showed that almost all even numbers can be written as the sum of two primes (in the sense that the fraction of even numbers which can be so written tends towards 1). In 1930, Lev Schnirelmann proved[17][18] that any natural number greater than 1 can be written as the sum of not more than C prime numbers, where C is an effectively computable constant, see Schnirelmann density. Schnirelmann's constant is the lowest number C with this property. Schnirelmann himself obtained C < 800000. This result was subsequently enhanced by many authors; currently, the best known result is due to Olivier Ramaré, who in 1995 showed that every even number n  ≥ 4 is in fact the sum of at most six primes. In fact, the proof (released, but not yet published) of the weak Goldbach conjecture by Harald Helfgott directly implies that every even number n  ≥ 4 is the sum of at most four primes.[19]

Chen Jingrun showed in 1973 using the methods of sieve theory that every sufficiently large even number can be written as the sum of either two primes, or a prime and a semiprime (the product of two primes).[20] See Chen's theorem for more.

In 1975, Hugh Montgomery and Robert Charles Vaughan showed that "most" even numbers were expressible as the sum of two primes. More precisely, they showed that there existed positive constants c and C such that for all sufficiently large numbers N, every even number less than N is the sum of two primes, with at most C N^{1-c} exceptions. In particular, the set of even integers which are not the sum of two primes has density zero.

Linnik proved in 1951 the existence of a constant K such that every sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes and at most K powers of 2. Roger Heath-Brown and Jan-Christoph Schlage-Puchta in 2002 found that K = 13 works.[21] This was improved to K=8 by Pintz and Ruzsa in 2003.[22]

As with many famous conjectures in mathematics, there are a number of purported proofs of the Goldbach conjecture, none accepted by the mathematical community.

Considerable work has been done on Goldbach's weak conjecture, culminating in a 2013 claim by Harald Helfgott[9][10][23][24] to fully prove the conjecture for all odd integers greater than 7 (rather than the much larger e^{3100}\approx 2 \times 10^{1346} that was implied by previous results).

Similar questions[edit]

One can pose similar questions when primes are replaced by other special sets of numbers, such as the squares.


  1. ^ a b Weisstein, Eric W., "Goldbach Number", MathWorld.
  2. ^ “Goldbach conjecture verification"
  3. ^ “Goldbach's Conjecture" by Hector Zenil, Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007.
  4. ^ Correspondance mathématique et physique de quelques célèbres géomètres du XVIIIème siècle (Band 1), St.-Pétersbourg 1843, S. 125–129
  5. ^
  6. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Goldbach Conjecture", MathWorld.
  7. ^ Ingham, AE. "Popular Lectures" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-23. 
  8. ^ Caldwell, Chris (2008). "Goldbach's conjecture". Retrieved 2008-08-13. 
  9. ^ a b Helfgott, H.A. (2013). "Major arcs for Goldbach's theorem". arXiv:1305.2897 [math.NT].
  10. ^ a b Helfgott, H.A. (2012). "Minor arcs for Goldbach's problem". arXiv:1205.5252/ [math.NT].
  11. ^ Pipping, Nils (1890-1982), "Die Goldbachsche Vermutung und der Goldbach-Vinogradovsche Satz." Acta. Acad. Aboensis, Math. Phys. 11, 4–25, 1938.
  12. ^ Tomás Oliveira e Silva, Goldbach conjecture verification. Retrieved 20 July 2013
  13. ^ Fliegel, Henry F.; Robertson, Douglas S.; "Goldbach's Comet: the numbers related to Goldbach's Conjecture”; Journal of Recreational Mathematics, v21(1) 1–7, 1989.
  14. ^ Chudakov, Nikolai G. (1937). "О проблеме Гольдбаха" [On the Goldbach problem]. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR 17: 335–338. 
  15. ^ Van der Corput, J. G. (1938). "Sur l'hypothèse de Goldbach". Proc. Akad. Wet. Amsterdam (in French) 41: 76–80. 
  16. ^ Estermann, T. (1938). "On Goldbach's problem: proof that almost all even positive integers are sums of two primes". Proc. London Math. Soc. 2 44: 307–314. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-44.4.307. 
  17. ^ Schnirelmann, L.G. (1930). "On the additive properties of numbers", first published in "Proceedings of the Don Polytechnic Institute in Novocherkassk" (in Russian), vol XIV (1930), pp. 3-27, and reprinted in "Uspekhi Matematicheskikh Nauk" (in Russian), 1939, no. 6, 9–25.
  18. ^ Schnirelmann, L.G. (1933). First published as "Über additive Eigenschaften von Zahlen" in "Mathematische Annalen" (in German), vol 107 (1933), 649-690, and reprinted as "On the additive properties of numbers" in "Uspekhi Matematicheskikh Nauk" (in Russian), 1940, no. 7, 7–46.
  19. ^ Sinisalo, Matti K. (Oct 1993). "Checking the Goldbach Conjecture up to 4 1011". Mathematics of Computation 61 (204): 931–934. doi:10.2307/2153264. 
  20. ^ Chen, J. R. (1973). "On the representation of a larger even integer as the sum of a prime and the product of at most two primes". Sci. Sinica 16: 157–176. 
  21. ^ Heath-Brown, D. R.; Puchta, J. C. (2002). "Integers represented as a sum of primes and powers of two". Asian Journal of Mathematics 6 (3): 535–565. arXiv:math.NT/0201299. 
  22. ^ Pintz, J.; Ruzsa, I. Z. (2003). "On Linnik's approximation to Goldbach's problem, I". Acta Arithmetica 109 (2): 169–194. doi:10.4064/aa109-2-6. 
  23. ^
  24. ^ Proof that an infinite number of primes are paired - physics-math - 14 May 2013. New Scientist. Retrieved on 2014-05-11.
  25. ^ Margenstern, M. (1984). "Results and conjectures about practical numbers". Comptes-Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences Paris 299: 895–898. 

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