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  1. 1. SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING ERRORS THEIR TYPES, CAUSES, AND TREATMENT Hanna Y. Touchie Abstract Recent research in applied linguistics emphasizes the significance of learners errors in second language learn- ing. In this article, major types of errors in second language learning are first briefly mentioned. This is followed by tracing the sources of second language learning errors to both interlingual and intralingual or developmental factors. While interlingual errors are caused mainly by mother tongue interference, intra- lingual or developmental errors originate in the follow- ing factors: simplification, overgeneralization, hyper- correction, faulty teaching, fossilization, avoidance, inadequate learning, and false concepts hypothesized. The article concludes with some general guidelines for teachers in correcting errors in second language learning. Language learning, like any kind of human learning, involvescommitting errors. In the past, language teachers considerederrors committed by their stud en ts as something undesirablewhich they diligently sought to prevent from occurring.During the past fifteen years, however, researchers in the fieldof applied linguistics came to view errors as evidence for acreative process in language learning in which learners employhypothesis testin~ and various strategies in learning a second Dr Hanna Touchie received his Ph.D. from the University of Texas atAustin. He is now Assistant Professor of Linguistics and ESL at the An-Najah National University, Nablus in the West Bank, via Israel. He wasa presenter at JALT 85. 75
  2. 2. JALT Journal, Volume 8, No. I (1986)language. Far from being a nuisance to be eradicated, errors are, asSelinker (1969) indicates, significant in three respects: (1)errors are important for the language teacher because theyindicate the learners progress in language learning; (2) errorsare also important for the language researcher as they provideinsights into how language is learnt; and (3) finally, errors aresignificant to the language learner himself/herself as he/she gets involved in hypothesis testing. In this article, I am going to discuss briefly the types of errors made by second language learners, the causes of these errors, and finally how teachers should correct them. Types of Errors Researchers in the field of applied linguistics usually dis-tmguish between two types of errors: performance errors andcompetence errors. Performance errors are those errors madeby learners when they are tired or hurried. Normally, this typeof error is not serious and can be overcome with little effortby the learner. Competence errors, on the other hand, aremore serious than performance errors since competenceerrors reflect inadequate learning. In this connection, it isimportant to note that researchers (cf. Gefen 1979) distinguishbetween mistakes which are lapses in performance and errorswhich reflect inadequate competence. Other researchers (cf. Burt and Kiparsky 1974) distinguishbetween local and global errors. Local errors do not hindercommunication and understanding the meaning of an utter-ance. Global errors, onthe other hand, are more serious thanlocal errors because global errors interfere with communica-tion and disrupt the meaning of utterances. Local errorsinvolve noun and verb inflections, and the use of articles,prepositions, and auxiliaries. Global errors, for example, in-volve wrong word order in a sentence. Finally, language learning errors involve all language com- 76
  3. 3. Second Language Learning Errorsponents: the phonological, the morphological, the lexical,and the syntactic. An example of a phonological error is thehick of distinction between the phoneme /p / and the phon-eme /b/ among Arab ESL learners; so we hear them sayingpird and brison, for example, instead of bird and prison. Anexample of a morphological error is the production of sucherrors as womans, sheeps, and furnitures. A lexical errorinvolves inappropriate direct translation from the learnersnative language or the use of wrong lexical items in the secondlanguage. Examples of lexical errors are: This is the home thatmy father built, and The clock is now ten. Finally, examplesof syntactic errors are errors in word order, subject-verbagreement, and the use of the resumptive pronoun in Englishrelative clauses produced by Arab ESL learners as illustratedin: The boy that I saw him is called Ali. Causes of Errors There are mainly two major sources of errors in secondlanguage learning. The first source is interference from thenative language while the second source can be attributed tointralingual and developmental factors. The native language of learners plays a significant role inlearning a second language. Errors due to the influence of thenative language are called interlingual errors. Interlingualerrors are also called transfer or interference errors. The viewthat the native language plays a mostly negative role wasemphasized as early as the forties and tile fifties by Fries(1945) and Lado (1957). Althougll recently researchers tendto minimize interlingual errors and emphasize intralingualand developmental ~rrors (cf. Dulay and Burt 1974), negativetransfer or interference is still acknowledged as an inlportantfactor in second language learning (cf. J ordens 1977; Keller-man 1979; Touchie 1983). Intralingual and developmental errors are due to the diffi-culty of the second/target language. Intralingual and develop-mental factors include the following: 77
  4. 4. JALT JournaL Volume 8, No. I (1986)1. Simplification: Learners often choose simple forms and constructions instead of more complex ones. An example of simplification might involve the use of simple present instead of the present perfect continuous.2. Overgeneralization: This is the use of one form or con- struction in one context and extending its application to other contexts where it should not apply. Examples of overgeneralization include the use of corned and goed as the past tense forms of corne and go and the omission of the third person singular s under the heavy pressure of all other endless forms as in I,e go. It should be noted that simplification and overgeneraliza- tion are used by learners in order to reduce their linguistic burden.3. Hypercorrection: Sometimes the zealous efforts of teachers in correcting their students errors induce the students to make errors in otherwise correct forms. Stenson (1978) calls this type of error "induced errors." For example, the teachers insistence that Arab ESL learners produce the phoneme IpI correctly prompts them to always produce IpI where the phoneme Ibl is required. Thus Arab ESL learners say piTd and pattie instead of bird and battle.4. Faulty teaching: Sometimes it happens that learners errors are teacher-induced ones, i.e., caused by the teacher, teach- ing materials, or the order of presentation. This factor is closely related to hypercorrection above. Also, it is interest- ing to note that some teachers are even influenced by their pupils errors in the course of long teaching.5. Fossilization: Some errors, specially errors in pronuncia- tion, persist for long periods and become quite difficult to get rid of. Examples of fos.silized errors in Arab ESL learn- ers are the lack of distinction between IpI and Ibl in English and the insertion of the resumptive pronoun in English relative clauses produced by these learners.6. Avoidance: Some syntactic structures are difficult to produce by some learners. Consequently, these learners 78
  5. 5. Second Language Learning Errors avoid these structures and use instead simpler structures. Arab ESL learners avoid the passive voice while Japanese learners avoid relativization in English.7. Inadequate learning: TItis is mainly caused by ignorance of rule restrictions or underdifferentiation and incomplete learning. An example is omission of the third person singu- lar s as in: He want.8. False concepts hypothesized: Many learners errors can be attributed to wrong hypotheses formed by these learners about the target language. For example, some learners think that is is the marker of the present tense. So, they produce: He is talk to the teacher. Similarly, they think that was is the past tense marker. Hence they say: It was happened last night. Error Treatment Teachers cannot and should not correct all errors com-mitted by their students. Besides, the frequent correction oforal errors disrupts the process of language learning anddiscourages shy students from communicating in the targetlanguage. The following are general guidelines in correctingsecond language learning errors:I. Teachers should correct errors affecting intelligibility, i.e.,errors that interfere with the general meaning and under-standability of utterances. In this connection, teachers shouldconcentrate on correcting global errors more than local errors.2. High frequency and generality errors should be correctedmore often than less frequent errors. For example, the omis-sion of the third person Singular s is an error of high frequencyand generality.3. Teachers should put more emphasis on correcting errorsaffecting a large percentage of their students. This factor isclearly related to the second factor above.4. Stigmatizing or irritating errors should be paid more atten-tion to. This factor is related to the socioliguistic aspect of 79
  6. 6. JALT Journal, Volume 8, No, 1 (1986)language learning. Pupils who come from lower socioeconomicclasses are conscious of and very sensitive to ridicule abouttheir informal variety of language from students from highersocioeconomic classes who speak a more formal and prestig-ious variety of the language.5. Finally, errors relevant to a pedagogical focus should receivemore attention from the teacher than other errors. Forexample, if the focus of the lesson is the use of the presentperfect tense, the correction of errors involving prepositions,articles, and demonstratives in this lesson should not beemphasized by the teacher because if he/she did, the attentionof the students would be distracted from the focus of thelesson which, in this instance, is the use of the present perfecttense. ReferencesBurt, M., & Kiparsky, C. 1978. Global and local mistakes, in J. Schu· mann & N. Stenson (Eds.). New frontiers in second language learning. Rowley. Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishing, Inc.Duly, H" & Burt, M. 1974. Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning, 24, 23-40.Fries, C. (I 945). Teaching and learning English as a foreign language. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Gefen, R. 1979. The analysis of pupils errors. English Teachers Journal, 22,16·24.Jordens, P. 1977. Rules, grammatical intuitions, and strategies in foreign language learning. Interianguage Studies Bulletin, 2, 5-76.Kellerman, E. 1979. Transfer and non-transfer: Where we are now. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 2, 37-57.Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics acrOss cultures. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Selinker, L. 1969.lnterlanguage, IRAL, 3, 114·132.Stenson, N. 1978. Induced Errors. In J. Schumann & N. Stenson, (Eds.), ,New frontiers in second language learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishing, Inc.Touchie, H. 1983. Transfer alld related strategies in the acquisition of English relative clauses by adult Arab learners. Unpublished doc- toral dessertation, The University of Texas at Austin. 80