Alternative titles: Chernoye More; Chorne More; Karadeniz; Marea Neagră; Pontus Axeinus; Pontus Euxinus

Black Sea, Russian and Bulgarian Chernoye More, Ukrainian Chorne More, Turkish Karadenız, Romanian Marea NeagrăBlack Sea [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]Black SeaEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.large inland sea situated at the southeastern extremity of Europe. It is bordered by Ukraine to the north, Russia to the northeast, Georgia to the east, Turkey to the south, and Bulgaria and Romania to the west.

The roughly oval-shaped Black Sea occupies a large basin strategically situated at the southeastern extremity of Europe but connected to the distant waters of the Atlantic Ocean by the Bosporus (which emerges from the sea’s southwestern corner), the Sea of Marmara, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea. The Crimean Peninsula thrusts into the Black Sea from the north, and just to its east the narrow Kerch Strait links the sea to the smaller Sea of Azov. The Black Sea coastline is otherwise fairly regular. The maximum east-west extent of the sea is about 730 miles (1,175 km), and the shortest distance between the tip of Crimea and Cape Kerempe to the south is about 160 miles (260 km). The surface area, excluding the Sea of Marmara but including the Sea of Azov, is about 178,000 square miles (461,000 square km); the Black Sea proper occupies about 163,000 square miles (422,000 square km). A maximum depth of more than 7,250 feet (2,210 metres) is reached in the south-central sector of the sea.

In ancient Greek myths, the sea—then on the fringe of the Mediterranean world—was named Pontus Axeinus, meaning “Inhospitable Sea.” Later explorations made the region more familiar, and, as colonies were established along the shores of a sea the Greeks came to know as more hospitable and friendly, its name was changed to Pontus Euxinus, the opposite of the earlier designation. It was across its waters that, according to legend, Jason and the Argonauts set out to find the Golden Fleece in the land of Colchis, a kingdom at the sea’s eastern tip (now Georgia). The Turks, when they came to control the lands beyond the sea’s southern shores, encountered only the sudden storms whipped up on its waters and reverted to a designation reflecting the inhospitable aspect of what they now termed the Karadenız, or Black Sea.


Physical features


The coastline of the Black Sea is only mildly indented, except for the northwestern and northern shores, which are low and furrowed by numerous ravines, valleys, and rivers, the mouths of which are often impeded by sandy spits. The mountains of southern Crimea form the only precipitous cliff areas. In the east and south, the coasts are steep and mountainous. Spurs of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges, separated by the Kolkhida lowland, confine the Black Sea in the east, while the Pontic Mountains run along the southern coast. Near the Bosporus outlet, the shoreline relief is moderate though still steep. Farther north, in the Burgaski Bay area, low mountains emerge where the Balkan Mountains of Bulgaria extend eastward. Continuing northward along the western shore, a flatter plateau region gives way to the great Danube River delta, which thrusts its mass out into the sea.

Sinop: citadel [Credit: R.V. Johnson/Shostal Associates]Sinop: citadelR.V. Johnson/Shostal AssociatesThe Black Sea contains only a few small islands, the largest being Zmiyinyy (Fidonisi) of Ukraine, east of the Danube delta, and Berezan at the mouth of the Dniester River estuary. The submarine relief may be visualized as a series of concentric and occasionally asymmetrical rings. Beyond the shoreline a shallow shelf zone occupies about one-fourth of the entire area. It is broadest in the west and at the head of Kerch Strait but elsewhere forms a rim about 6 to 7 miles (10 to 11 km) wide, and the depth of the edge is usually less than 360 feet (110 metres). The shelf gives way at its edge to a slope, which is broken by submarine valleys and is steep in its upper parts. Between the port cities of Sinop and Samsun (Turkey), the coastline is paralleled by a rugged range of underwater mountains extending for nearly 100 miles (160 km). The hollow forming the basin’s core covers about a third of the total area and is a completely featureless flat plain, with depths increasing evenly toward the centre to a little more than 7,200 feet (2,200 metres), with the axis of maximum depth displaced toward the Turkish coast.


Underlying rocks reflect a regional diversity of both type and age. The ancient Precambrian rocks of the southern tip of the structural block known as the Russian (or East European) Platform, dating from at least 540 million years ago, appear in the northwest. A second, related platform has a deep cover of sedimentary rocks that were laid later. The deepwater depression, generally considered to be a vast structural downwarp, is an unusual and significant feature of the Earth’s crust. The centre of the depression consists of a sedimentary and a basaltic crustal layer, with a granite layer thrust between them at the periphery. Seafloor deposits generally change from coarse pebbles and gravel at the periphery to fine silts at the centre of the basin.

The geologic history of the Black Sea is not fully known, but it seems to be a residual basin of the ancient Tethys Sea, dating roughly from 250 to 50 million years ago. The present form of the sea probably emerged at the end of the Paleocene Epoch (about 55 million years ago), when structural upheavals in Anatolia split off the Caspian basin from the Mediterranean. The newly created Black Sea basin became gradually isolated from the ocean, and its salinity was reduced; at that time the Crimean Peninsula and the Caucasus probably were islands.

Early in the Miocene Epoch (about 20 million years ago), the Black Sea flowed into a chain of sea lakes but gradually became separated from the Caspian region. As mountains—the Pontic, Caucasus, Crimean, and Carpathians—rose around it, outwashed sediments filled the basin. Further earth movements and changes in sea level associated with Pleistocene glaciers then occurred and led to intermittent connections with the Mediterranean. During the last of the great glaciations, the Black Sea became a large freshwater lake. The present connection to the Mediterranean Sea—and to salt water—is believed to have emerged some 6,500 to 7,500 years ago. Strong earthquakes—such as the Crimean earthquake of 1927—remain associated with the area.


steppe: Bulgaria [Credit: Oleg Polunin]steppe: BulgariaOleg PoluninThe climate of the landlocked Black Sea can be characterized generally as continental (i.e., subject to pronounced seasonal temperature variations), although climatic conditions in some parts of the basin are controlled to a great extent by the shoreline relief. A steppe climate, with cold winters and hot, dry summers, is found in the northwestern part of the basin exposed to the influence of air masses from the north. The southeastern portion of the sea, sheltered by high mountains, experiences a humid subtropical climate, with abundant precipitation, warm winters, and humid summers. In winter, spurs of the Siberian anticyclone (a clear, dry, high-pressure air mass) create a strong current of cold air, and the northwestern Black Sea cools down considerably, with regular ice formation. The winter invasion of polar continental air (which prevails for an average of 185 days annually) is accompanied by strong northeasterly winds, a rapid temperature drop, and frequent precipitation, with the air becoming warm and moist after passing over the milder eastern portions of the sea. Tropical air from the Mediterranean regions (87 days affected on average) is always warm and moist. Occasionally, winds from the Atlantic via eastern Europe bring rain and sharp squalls.

The average January air temperature over the central portion of the sea is about 46 °F (8 °C) and decreases to between 36 and 37 °F (2 and 3 °C) to the west. Spring air temperature everywhere approaches 61 °F (16 °C), rising to about 75 °F (24 °C) in the summer. Minimum temperatures occur in the northwest, approaching −22 °F (−30 °C) during the winter cold spells, while maximum temperatures occur in Crimea, sometimes reaching 99 °F (37 °C) in summer. Winds are strongest everywhere in the winter, with the bitter northeasterlies reaching hurricane force in the Russian coastal region of Novorossiysk (Novorossiyskaya), just to the east of the Kerch Strait, and gale force on the sea itself.


The temperature of the Black Sea’s upper layer has a marked yearly periodicity. In winter, water temperature ranges from 31 °F (−0.5 °C) in the northwest to about 48 to 50 °F (9 to 10 °C) in the southeast. The winter cooling forms an upper mixed layer extending to depths of about 160 to 330 feet (50 to 100 metres), with temperatures at the lower boundary of about 44 to 46 °F (6.5 to 8 °C). In summer the surface layer is warmed to between 73 and 79 °F (23 and 26 °C). At depths of about 160 to 240 feet (50 to 75 metres), a cold layer remains at 45 °F (7 °C), and lower depths do not change from their winter levels.

The salinity of the surface waters in the open sea averages between 17 and 18 parts per thousand, which is approximately half that of the oceans. A marked increase in salinity, up to 21 parts per thousand, occurs at depths of roughly 160 to 500 feet (50 to 150 metres), below which the salinity increase is much more gradual. The sea’s deepest parts (below about 1,300 feet [400 metres]) are distinguished by highly stable temperatures between 47 and 48 °F (8.5 and 9 °C) and salinities of 28 to 30 parts per thousand. Salinity increases to 38 parts per thousand at the Bosporus, where waters from the Sea of Marmara intrude. The chemical composition of Black Sea water is almost the same as that of the oceans.

A most important feature of the Black Sea is that oxygen is dissolved (and a rich sea life is made possible) only in the upper water levels. Below a depth of about 230 to 330 feet (70 to 100 metres) at the centre and 330 to 500 feet (100 to 150 metres) near the edge, there is no oxygen; in those reaches the sea is contaminated by hydrogen sulfide, which results in a saturated, gloomy “dead” zone frequented only by adapted bacteria.

Currents in the Black Sea are wind-generated, with the main current running counterclockwise, its branches forming gyres (eddies) and sometimes large closed rotations. The current is relatively slow on the surface in the open sea, but near the shore it reaches 16 to 20 inches (40 to 50 cm) per second; its speed is only 1 inch (2.5 cm) or so per second in the depths. Flows in the Bosporus are complex, with surface Black Sea water going out and deep saltier water coming in from the Sea of Marmara. Surface winds are an important complicating factor, especially in the shallow sill, or threshold, between the two basins. This situation also holds for flows to and from the Sea of Azov through the Kerch Strait. Water exchange through the Bosporus is relatively slow, and a complete recycling of Black Sea waters takes about 2,500 years.

The overall water balance of the sea results from a combination of the factors of precipitation, inflow from the continental mass and the Sea of Azov, surface evaporation, and exit through the Bosporus. The annual water level, therefore, varies slightly according to factors influencing any one or more of these components. Tides are virtually nonexistent, their range being exceeded by 1 foot (0.3 metre) or so of variation induced by seiches (the changes in water level resulting from rapid movements of atmospheric pressure).

Vertical intermixing of water, except at or near the wind-whipped surface, is limited because of the compact, and hence stratified, nature of the sea. It has been estimated that hundreds of years are required to bring water in a cycle from depth to surface, although there is some limited bottom turbulence caused by the warmth of the Earth’s crust and by chemical reactions in the seabed.

Marine life

Flora and fauna in the Black Sea derive primarily from the Mediterranean, the result of a series of invasions from that area; Caspian elements dominate in freshwater estuaries and river mouths. The sea has a rich biological productivity in some zones.

All the main groups of microorganisms, which in total biomass are one and a half times larger than that of the groups of phytoplankton and zooplankton combined, are found in the sea. Most of them occur in a thin surface layer, with a few anaerobic bacteria in the hydrogen sulfide zone (which otherwise is lifeless). The tiny phytoplankton number some 750 species; compared with numbers in the Mediterranean, however, the zooplankton are poorer, with but 80 species, including jellyfish. In coastal areas are found eggs and larvae of invertebrates and fish. The diffusion of sea-bottom (benthic) plants and animals is four to five times poorer than in the Mediterranean, again because of the effects of the hydrogen sulfide layer. In the shallow northwest section, there was a notable extensive field of the water plant known as phillophora, but since the 1960s this field has been drastically reduced by deterioration of the water quality.

There are about 180 species of fish, a fifth of them of commercial importance. The most important are khamsa, sprat, horse mackerel, and others, including the spiny dogfish, a type of small shark that is especially prolific in the Black Sea. Some seasonal migration of fish occurs, notably through the Bosporus.

Economic aspects

Varna [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]VarnaEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The Black Sea is an important year-round transportation artery, linking the eastern European countries with world markets. Odessa, the historic Ukrainian city, together with the nearby port of Illichivsk, account for most of the sea’s freight turnover. The ports of Novorossiysk and, to a lesser extent, Tuapse (both in Russia) and Batumi (Georgia) farther to the east specialize in petroleum. In Bulgaria, Varna and Burgas are the main ports. Constanța, in Romania, connects oil-bearing regions with foreign markets. Istanbul on the Sea of Marmara is Turkey’s main port, while the Danube acts as a huge trade artery for the Balkan countries.

Fish constitute the most widely utilized biological resource of the Black Sea. Conservation and antipollution measures have included the banning of dolphin fishing, enacted by Soviet authorities in 1966, as well as restrictions on oil tankers and the disposal of industrial wastes. In the 1990s the six Black Sea countries signed the Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against Pollution (also called Bucharest Convention), a comprehensive agreement to implement an array of additional programs to control pollution, sustain the fisheries, and protect marine life.

Swallow’s Nest Castle [Credit: Jerry Kobalenko—The Image Bank/Getty Images]Swallow’s Nest CastleJerry Kobalenko—The Image Bank/Getty ImagesFinally, the magnificent climate and mineral springs around the Black Sea have made it a major recreational and recuperative centre, with Crimea being the most important region. The sandy beaches of Bulgaria and Romania also have attracted an increasing number of tourists.

Study and exploration

Herodotus: Herodotus’ map of the world [Credit: Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.]Herodotus: Herodotus’ map of the worldLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C.Navigation on the Black Sea has been known from the time of the ancient Phoenicians. The Greek historian Herodotus described the northern coasts of the sea in the 5th century bce, while the first navigational guides, called peripli (singular: periplus), were written by Greeks in the 4th century bce. The shores of the Black Sea were settled by a number of peoples, including Slavs, Turks, and Genoese; by the 15th century the Turks were in control of the entire shoreline.

Russian sailors began hydrographic explorations of the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea in the 18th century, and these investigations were mostly complete by the end of the 19th century. Regular meteorological observations were initiated in the first quarter of the 19th century, and a biological station at Sevastopol (on the Crimean Peninsula) was founded in 1871. In 1881–82 the Russian naval commander and oceanographer Stepan Osipovich Makarov investigated in detail the two-layer exchange of water through the Bosporus.

The first multidisciplinary expedition (1890–91) conducted pioneering hydrologic observations in the deep layers of the sea, in the process discovering the presence of hydrogen sulfide in those layers. The oceanographic investigations of the Black Sea were largely completed during expeditions organized in the mid-1920s. A variety of complex investigations of the sea were conducted by the countries of the Black Sea basin and other regions in the second half of the 20th century. More recently, underwater archaeological surveys combining acoustic mapping with physical sampling of marine mollusks and extinct freshwater mollusks have suggested that the inundation of the Black Sea followed the collapse of a natural dam between it and the Mediterranean.

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