Military of ancient Egypt

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For most parts of its long history, ancient Egypt was unified under one government. The main military concern for the nation was to keep enemies out. The arid plains they wanted to get rid of and deserts surrounding Egypt were inhabited by nomadic tribes who occasionally tried to raid or settle in the fertile Nile river valley. Nevertheless the great expanses of the desert formed a barrier that protected the river valley and was almost impossible for massive armies to cross. The Egyptians built fortresses and outposts along the borders east and west of the Nile Delta, in the Eastern Desert, and in Nubia to the south. Small garrisons could prevent minor incursions, but if a large force was detected a message was sent for the main army corps. Most Egyptian cities lacked city walls and other defenses.

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three kingdoms and two intermediate periods. During the three Kingdoms Egypt was unified under one government. During the Intermediate periods (the periods of time between Kingdoms) government control was in the hands of the various nomes (provinces within Egypt) and various foreigners. The geography of Egypt served to isolate the country and allowed it to thrive. This circumstance set the stage for many of Egypt's military conquests. They weakened their enemies by using small projectile weapons, like bows and arrows. They also had chariots which they used to charge at the enemy.


The Old Kingdom

The Old Kingdom was one of the most prosperous times in Egypt's history. Because of this affluence, it allowed the government to stabilize and in turn organize a functioning military. Before Egypt's New Kingdom, there were four major causes for military conflict.

  1. The Libyans from the Sahara to the west
  2. The Nubians from the south
  3. The Sinai and Canaanites to the northeast
  4. Internal conflict when the regions or nomes divided from the monarchy to form rival factions

All of the areas outside Egypt were connected in conflict either by raiding parties entering Egypt or Egypt maintaining a policy of eradication imperialism. The Old Kingdom's military was most marked by their construction of forts along the Nile River. At this time, the main conflict was with Nubia (to the south) and Egypt felt the urge to defend their borders by building forts deep into this country. These forts were never actually attacked, but they acted as a deterring factor towards potential invaders. Many are currently underwater in Lake Nasser, but while they were visible they were a true testament to the affluence and military prowess of ancient Egypt during this time. During the Old Kingdom there was no professional army in Egypt. Governors of each Nome (administrative division) had to raise their own volunteer army [4]. Then, all the armies would come together under the Pharaoh to battle. Because the army was not a very prestigious position, it was mostly made up of lower-class men, who could not afford to train in other jobs[5]

Old Kingdom soldiers were equipped with many types of weapons, including shields, spears, cudgels, maces, daggers, and bows and arrows. The most common Egyptian weapon was the bow and arrow. During the Old Kingdom, a single-arched bow was often used. This type of bow was difficult to draw, and there was less draw length. After the composite bow was introduced by the Hyksos, Egyptian soldiers used this weapon as well[6].

The First Intermediate Period

Pharaoh Pepy II lived to be 94 years old, but upon his death the country fell into civil war. The Intermediate Period came as a huge shock to the Egyptian government and military since they had been secure in the stability and prosperity of the Old Kingdom. A dramatic shift in the military ideology began at the fall of the Old Kingdom; Egypt was no longer the dominating faction in the ancient Near East. They had to shift from a position of complete supremacy to one of constant struggle to maintain their territories.

The Middle Kingdom

In the Middle Kingdom, the theory of equilibrium imperialism really began to develop. Egypt's control of the surrounding territories became something that the military was forced to be directly involved in. They needed to control their own borders for several reasons. First of all, Egypt was protecting her own strength, land, and resources. Also, she needed to control trade routes so Egypt could continue to be wealthy and powerful. Borders were also expanded during this time.

The Second Intermediate Period

After Menferre Ay fled his palace in at the end of the 13th dynasty, a Canaanite tribe called the Hyksos sacked Memphis (the Egyptians capital city) and claimed dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt. After the Hyksos took control, many Egyptians fled to Thebes, where they eventually began to oppose the Hyksos rule [7].

The Hyksos, Asiatics from the Northeast, set up a fortified capital at Avaris. The Egyptians were trapped at this time; their government had collapsed. They were literally in the middle of an 'enemy sandwich' between the Hyksos in the north and the Kushite Nubians in the south. This period marked a great change for Egypt's military. The Hyksos brought with them to Egypt the horse, the chariot, and the composite bow. These tools drastically altered the way Egypt's military functioned. The Hyksos introduced the Ourarit (Chariot) to the Egyptians.Although the Hyksos have been credited with these introductions, a fragment from a Stela shows Khonsuemwaset, son of Pharaoh Dudimose, one of the last rulers of the 13th Dynasty, with a pair of chariot gloves under his seat, which denote his status as Master of the Horse, as is seen in the tomb of Ay (18th Dynasty), with him depicted as Master of the Horse, wearing charioteer's gloves, like those depicted in the above stela fragment.[8]. Clearer evidence for the use of horses in the early SIP comes from Tell-el-Khebir, where Ali Hassan had excavated the complete skeleton of a horse, which he has dated, from associated finds, to the 13th Dynasty.[9] Kanawati has also uncovered a 12th Dynasty tomb at el-Rakakna containing an object engraved with the head of a horse'.[10] The Chariot was not invented by the Hyksos but was introduced in the north by the Hurrians.[5]. The composite bow allowed for more accuracy and kill distance with arrows. These advances ultimately worked against the Hyksos because they allowed the Egyptian military to mobilize and roust them from Egypt.

The Thebans started to rebel against the Hyksos when Pharaoh Sekenre (or Senakhtenre) Taa became Pharaoh. Sekenre called the Thebans to a battle against the Hyksos, a battle that claimed his own life. Sekenre was succeeded by Kamose, who also attempted to battle the Hyksos, but spent only three years on the throne, before probably being killed in battle. Kamose’s brother Ahmose was far more successful than his predecessors. He battled the Hyksos, and drove them from Egypt[7]. This marked the beginning of the New Kingdom.

The New Kingdom

In the New Kingdom new threats emerged. However, the military contributions of the Hyksos allowed Egypt to defend themselves from these foreign invasions successfully. The Hittites hailed from further northeast than had been previously encountered. They attempted to conquer Egypt, yet were defeated and a peace treaty was made. Also, the mysterious Sea Peoples invaded the entire ancient Near East during this time. The Sea Peoples caused many problems, but ultimately the military was strong enough at this time to prevent a collapse of the government.

Old & Middle Kingdom Armies

Before the New Kingdom the Egyptian armies were composed of conscripted peasants and artisans, who would then mass under the banner of the pharaoh[4]. During the Old and Middle Kingdom Egyptian armies were very basic. The Egyptian soldiers carried a simple armament consisting of a spear with a copper spearhead and a large wooden shield covered by leather hides. A stone mace was also carried in the Archaic period, though later this weapon was probably only in ceremonial use, and was replaced with the bronze battle axe. The spearmen were supported by archers carrying a simple curved bow and arrows with arrowheads made of flint or copper. No armor was used during the 3rd and early 2nd Millennium BC. Foreigners were also incorporated into the army, Nubians (Medjay), entered Egyptian armies as mercenaries and formed the best archery units.[6].

New Kingdom Armies

The major advance in weapons technology and warfare began around 1600 BC when the Egyptians fought and finally defeated the Hyksos people who had made themselves lords of Lower Egypt[4]. It was during this period the horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt, which the Egyptians had no answer to until they introduced their own version of the war chariot at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty[4]. The Egyptians then improved the design of the chariot to suit their own requirements. That made the Egyptian chariots lighter and faster than those of other major powers in the Middle East. Egyptian war chariots were manned by a driver holding a whip and the reigns and a fighter, generally wielding a composite bow or, after spending all his arrows, a short spear of which he had a few[6]. The charioteers wore occasionally scale armour, but many preferred broad leather bands crossed over the chest or carried a shield. Their torso was thus more or less protected, while the lower body was shielded by the chariot itself. The pharaohs often wore scale armour with inlaid semi-precious stones, which offered better protection, the stones being harder than the metal used for arrow tips[11]. The principal weapon of the Egyptian army was the bow and arrow; it was transformed into a formidable weapon with the introduction by the Hyksos of the composite bow. These bows, combined with the war chariot, enabled the Egyptian army to attack quickly and from a distance[12]. Other new technologies included the khopesh[12], which temple scenes show being presented to the king by the gods with a promise of victory, body armour, in the 19th Dynasty soldiers began wearing leather or cloth tunics with metal scale coverings[13], and improved bronze casting. Their presence also caused changes in the role of the military in Egyptian society and so during the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military changed from levy troops into a firm organization of professional soldiers[4][14]. Conquests of foreign territories, like Nubia, required a permanent force to be garrisoned abroad. The encounter with other powerful Near Eastern kingdoms like Mitanni, the Hittites, and later the Assyrians and Babylonians, made it necessary for the Egyptians to conduct campaigns far from home.

Late Period Armies

The next leap forwards came in the Later Period (712-332 BC), when mounted troops and weapons made of stone came into use. After the conquest by Alexander the Great, Egypt was heavily hellenised and the main military force became the infantry phalanx. The ancient Egyptians were not great innovators in weapons technology, and most weapons technology innovation came from Eastern Asia and the Greek world.

Military Organization

As early as the Old Kingdom (c.2686-2160 BC) Egypt used specific military units, with military hierarchy appearing in the Middle Kingdom (c.2055-1650 BC). By the New Kingdom (c.1550-1069 BC), the Egyptian military consisted of three major branches: the infantry, the chariotry, and the navy[15].


Wooden figures found in the tomb of Mesehti: Egyptian army of the 11th Dynasty

Infantry troops were partially conscripted, partially voluntary [16]. Egyptian soldiers worked for pay, both natives and mercenaries [17]. Of mercenary troops, Nubians were used beginning in the late Old Kingdom, Asiatic maryannu troops were used in the Middle and New Kingdoms, and the Sherden, Libyans, and the "Na'arn" were used in the Ramesside Period [18] (New Kingdom, Dynasties XIX and XX, c.1292-1075 BC[19]).


Chariotry, the main backbone of the Egyptian army, was introduced into ancient Egypt from Western Asia at the end of the Second Intermediate Period (c.1650-1550 BC) / the beginning of the New Kingdom (c.1550-1069 BC)[20]. Charioteers were drawn from the upper classes in Egypt. Chariots were generally used as a mobile platform from which to use projectile weapons, and were generally pulled by two horses[21] and manned by two charioteers: a driver who carried a shield, and a man with a bow or javelin. Chariots also had infantry support[22].


Model of a warship fleet of Ramses III

Before the New Kingdom, the Egyptian military was mainly aquatic, and the high ranks were composed of the elite middle class[23]. Egyptian troops were transported by naval vessels as early as the Late Old Kingdom [24]. By the later intermediate period, the navy was highly sophisticated, and used complicated naval maneuvers, e.g. Kamose's campaign against the Hyksos in the harbor of Avaris (c.1555-1550 BC)[25]

Projectile Weapons


The Throw Stick

The throw stick does appear to have been used to some extent during Egypt's predynastic period as a weapon, but it seems to have not been very effective for this purpose. Because of their simplicity, skilled infantry continued to use this weapon at least with some regularity through the end of the New Kingdom. It was used extensively for hunting fowl through much of Egypt's dynastic period. Most of the Egyptians were intent on using this weapon for it had a holy effect as well.

The Spear






Bow and arrow

Egyptian archer on a chariot, from an ancient engraving at Thebes.







The Composite Bow


However, the composite bows needed more care than simple bows, and were much more difficult and expensive to produce. They were more vulnerable to moisture, requiring them to be covered. They had to be unstrung when not in use and re-strung for action, a feat which required not a little force and generally the help of a second person. Hence, they were not used as much as one might expect. The simple, stave bow never therefore disappeared from the battlefield even during the New Kingdom. The simpler bows were used by the bulk of the archers, while the available composite bows went first to the chariotry, where their penetrative power was necessary to pierce scale armor.


The Sling

Hurling stones with the help of a sling demanded little equipment or practice in order to be effective. Secondary to the bow and arrow in battle, the sling was rarely depicted. The first drawings date to the 20th century BC. Made of perishable materials, few ancient slings have survived. It relied on the impact the missile made and like most impact weapons was relegated to play a subsidiary role. In the hands of lightly armed skirmishers it was used to distract the attention of the enemy. One of its main advantages was the easy availability of ammunition in many locations. When lead became more widely available during the Late Period, sling bullets were cast. These were preferred to pebbles because of their greater weight which made them more effective[27]. They often bore a mark.


  2. ^ Dodson (2004) p. 46
  3. ^ Clayton (1994) p. 217
  4. ^ a b c d e Egyptology Online
  5. ^ a b Benson, Douglas S. “Ancient Egypt’s Warfare: A survey of armed conflict in the chronology of ancient Egypt, 1600 BC-30 BC”, Bookmasters Inc., Ashland, Ohio, 1995
  6. ^ a b c Ancient Egyptian Weapons
  7. ^ a b Tyldesley, Joyce A. “Egypt’s Golden Empire”, Headline Book Publishing, London, 2001. ISBN 0-7472-5160-6
  8. ^ W. Helck"Ein indirekter Beleg fur die Benutzung des liechten Streitwagens in Agypten zu ende der 13 Dynastie", in JNES 37, pp. 337-40
  9. ^ see Egyptian Archaeology 4, 1994
  10. ^ see KMT 1:3 (1990), p. 5
  11. ^ Body armour
  12. ^ a b Pharaoh's Military
  13. ^ Evolution of Warfare
  14. ^ ncient Egyptian Army
  15. ^ Darnell, John Colemen; Menassa, Colleen. TutanKhamun's Armies. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey: 2007. p.60
  16. ^ Darnell, John Colemen; Menassa, Colleen. TutanKhamun's Armies. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey: 2007. pp.60-63
  17. ^ Spangler, Anthony J.. War in Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA: 2005. p.7
  18. ^ Spangler, Anthony J.. War in Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA: 2005. pp.6-7
  19. ^ Hornung, Erik. History of Ancient Egypt. trans. Lorton, David. Cornell University Press, Ithica, New York: 1999. p.xvii
  22. ^ Darnell, John Colemen; Menassa, Colleen. TutanKhamun's Armies. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey: 2007. pp.63-65
  25. ^ Darnell, John Colemen; Menassa, Colleen. TutanKhamun's Armies. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New Jersey: 2007. pp.65-66
  26. ^ Edged Weapons: The Spear
  27. ^ Projectiles

Further reading

External links