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Jewish laws
Alternative Titles: Mishnah, Mishnayot

Mishna, also spelled Mishnah (Hebrew: “Repeated Study”), plural Mishnayot, the oldest authoritative postbiblical collection and codification of Jewish oral laws, systematically compiled by numerous scholars (called tannaim) over a period of about two centuries. The codification was given final form early in the 3rd century ad by Judah ha-Nasi. The Mishna supplements the written, or scriptural, laws found in the Pentateuch. It presents various interpretations of selective legal traditions that had been preserved orally since at least the time of Ezra (c. 450 bc).

Intensive study of the Mishna by subsequent scholars (called amoraim) in Palestine and Babylonia resulted in two collections of interpretations and annotations of it called the Gemara, or Talmud. In the broader sense of the latter terms, the Mishna and Gemara together make up the Talmud.

The Mishna comprises six major sections, or orders (sedarim), that contain 63 tractates (massekhtaot) in all, each of which is further divided into chapters.

Zeraʿim (“Seeds”), the first order of the Mishna, has 11 tractates. It begins by discussing daily prayer and then devotes 10 tractates to religious laws involving agriculture. Zeraʿim discusses the prescription that fields must periodically lie fallow, the prohibition on plant hybridization, and regulations governing what portion of a harvest is to be given to priests, to Levites (a priestly clan), and to the poor.

The second order, Moʿed (“Festival”), consists of 12 tractates that deal with ceremonies, rituals, observances, and prohibitions related to the Sabbath, to religious festivals, to fast days, and to such other days as are marked by regular religious observance—e.g., periodic contributions to the Temple of Jerusalem.

Nashim (“Women”), the third order of the Mishna, discusses married life in seven tractates. It thus explains religious laws concerning betrothals, marriage contracts, divorce, bills of divorce, and certain ascetic vows that affect married life.

The fourth order, Neziqin (“Damages”), has 10 tractates covering civil and criminal law as related to damages, theft, labour relations, usury, real estate, partnerships, tenant relations, inheritance, court composition, jurisdiction and testimony, erroneous decisions of the Sanhedrin (high court), and physical punishments, including death. Idolatry, which is punishable by death, is also discussed. The tractate Avot (“Fathers”) seems to have been included in the fourth order to teach a moral way of life that would preclude serious transgressions of the law and thereby diminish the necessity of punishment. It became one of the most popular pieces of Talmudic literature; in English translations it is usually called The Ethics of the Fathers.

Qodashim (“Holy Things”), the fifth order, provides a detailed description of the Temple of Jerusalem complex and discusses laws regulating Temple sacrifices, other offerings, and donations. It has 11 tractates.

The last of the Mishna orders is Ṭohorot (“Purifications”), divided into 12 tractates. It considers laws regarding the ritual purity of vessels, dwellings, foods, and persons and deals with various rituals of purification. The text also provides considerable information on ritual objects.

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in Judaism

Even the destruction of the Jewish commonwealth in the 1st and 2nd centuries ce did not alienate Jews from these responsibilities, as the elaborate system of Mishna and Gemara reveals. The gradual but consistent exclusion of the Jews from immediate connection with large segments of the natural world, through legislation in Christendom and Islam, tended to dull their awareness of it. The...
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