Rashidun Caliphate

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Rashidun Caliphate

الخلافة الراشدة
The Rashidun Caliphate reached its greatest extent under Caliph Uthman, in 654.
CapitalMedina (632–656)
Kufa (656–661)
Common languagesArabic (official), Aramaic/Syriac, Armenian, Baloch, Berber, Coptic, Georgian, Greek, Middle Persian, Kurdish, Vulgar Latin, Prakrit, Semitic languages, Iranian languages
• 632–634
Abu Bakr (first)
• 634–644
• 644–656
• 656–661
Ali (last)
Succeeded by Hasan (661), then Muawiyah I (661–680)
• Established
8 June 632
• First Fitna (internal conflict) ends
28 July 661
655[1]6,400,000 km2 (2,500,000 sq mi)
CurrencyDinar, Dirham
Preceded by
Succeeded by
Muhammad in Medina
Byzantine Empire
Sasanian Empire
Exarchate of Africa
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Umayyad Caliphate

The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدة‎, al-Khilāfa al-Rāšidah; 632–661) was the first of the four major caliphates established after the death of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs (successors) of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE (AH 11). These caliphs are collectively known in Sunni Islam as the Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs (اَلْخُلَفَاءُ ٱلرَّاشِدُونَ al-Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn). This term is not used in Shia Islam as Shia Muslims do not consider the rule of the first three caliphs as legitimate.[2]

The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five year period of rapid military expansion, followed by a five-year period of internal strife. The Rashidun Army at its peak numbered more than 100,000 men. By the 650s, the caliphate in addition to the Arabian Peninsula had subjugated the Levant, to the Transcaucasus in the north; North Africa from Egypt to present-day Tunisia in the west; and the Iranian plateau to parts of Central Asia and South Asia in the west.

The caliphate arose out of the death of Muhammad in 632 CE and the subsequent debate over the succession to his leadership. Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad from the Banu Taym clan, was elected the first Rashidun leader and began the conquest of the Arabian Peninsula. He ruled from 632 to his death in 634. Abu Bakr was succeeded by Umar, his appointed successor from the Banu Adi clan, who began the conquest of Persia from 642 to 651, leading to the defeat of the Sassanid Empire. Umar was assassinated in 644[3] and was succeeded by Uthman, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman began the conquest of Armenia, Fars and Khorasan.[4] Uthman was assassinated in 656[5] and succeeded by Ali, who presided over the civil war known as the First Fitna (656–661). The war was primarily between those who supported Uthman's cousin and governor of the Levant, Muawiyah, and those who supported the caliph Ali. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad.[6] A third faction in the war supported the governor of Egypt, Amr ibn al-As. The war was decided in favour of the faction of Muawiyah, who established the Umayyad Caliphate in 661.


Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent (orthographic projection)

After Muhammad's death in 632 CE, his Medinan companions debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraysh soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalīfaṫu Rasūli l-Lāh (خَـلِـيْـفَـةُ رَسُـوْلِ الله, "Successor of the Messenger of God"), or Caliph, and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon merit.[7][8][9][10]

Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam,[11] were among ten who were explicitly promised paradise, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community.

According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous[12] hadith of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years[13] (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship.[14][15] Furthermore, according to other hadiths in Sunan Abu Dawood and Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God.[16]


Succession to Muhammad[edit]




In Medina, after the Farewell Pilgrimage and the event of Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad ordered an army under the command of Usama bin Zayd. He commanded all the companions, except for his family, to go with Usama to Syria to avenge the Muslims’ defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah.[21] Muhammad gave Usama the banner of Islam on the 18th day of the Islamic month of Safar in the year 11 A.H. Abu Bakr and Umar were among those that Muhammad commanded to join Usama's army.[22][23]

However, Abu Bakr and Umar resisted going under the command of Usama because they thought that he, who was 18 or 20 at the time, was too young to lead an army,[24] despite Muhammad's teachings that age and standing in society did not necessarily correspond to being a good general.[25][26]

In response to these worries, Muhammad said: "O Arabs! You are miserable because I have appointed Usama as your general, and you are raising questions if he is qualified to lead you in war. I know you are the same people who had raised the same question about his father. By God, Usama is qualified to be your general just as his father was qualified to be a general. Now obey his orders and go."[27] Whenever Muhammad felt any relief from his fatal sickness, he would inquire as to whether Usama's army had left for Syria yet, and would continue urging his companions to leave for Syria.[27] Muhammad even said, "Usama's army must leave at once. May Allah curse those men who do not go with him."[28][29][30] However, while a few companions were ready to join Usama's army, many other companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, disobeyed Muhammad's orders. It is also noted that this was the only battle expedition where Muhammad urged his companions to go to the battle no matter what; for other battles, if someone was unable to go to the fight, Muhammad would let them stay at home. It has been pointed out in history that the fact that Muhammad ordered his companions, but not his family, to leave Medina right before he knew he was about to die[31] is proof that he did not intend for his companions to decide on his succession.[32] This has served as an indication that, as Muhammad did not want his companions to be in Medina when he died, he did not want his companions to decide among themselves who would be his successor. That matter had already been decided at Ghadir Khumm.

However, after Muhammad passed away, a group of Muslims left Ali and gathered at Saqifa. In what has been described as a coup d'état,[33] Umar pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, after which Abu Bakr assumed power. This was followed by an attack on the house of Ali and Fatimah in an attempt to defeat any opposition to Abu Bakr.

Islamic conquests 622–750:
  Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632
  Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661
  Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Abu Bakr's rule[edit]

Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Apostasy spread to every tribe in the Arabian Peninsula with the exception of the people in Mecca and Medina, the Banu Thaqif in Ta'if and the Bani Abdul Qais of Oman. In some cases, entire tribes apostatised. Others merely withheld zakat, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet Aswad Ansi arose and invaded South Arabia;[34] he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim.[35] The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of al-Yamama was led by another supposed prophet, Musaylimah,[36] who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the Najd, Eastern Arabia (known then as al-Bahrayn) and South Arabia (known as al-Yaman and including the Mahra). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended.[36] Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an ummah (أُمَّـة, community) of which he was the new head.[36] The result of this situation was the Ridda wars.[36]


Once the rebellions had been put down, Abu Bakr began a war of conquest. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. Abu Bakr began with Iraq, the richest province of the Sasanian Empire.[38] He sent general Khalid ibn Walid to invade the Sasanianan Empire in 633.[38] He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of Syria,[39] but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634.[40]

Abu Bakr's death[edit]

Ali ibn Abi-Talib gave the following speech when Abu Bakr died:

O Abu Bakr, may Allah have Mercy upon you. You were the closest companion and friend of the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam); you were a comfort to him; you were the one he trusted most. If he had a secret, he would tell it to you; and if he needed to consult someone regarding a matter, he would consult you. You were the first of your people to embrace Islam, and you were the most sincere of them in your faith. Your faith was stronger than any other person's, as was the degree to which you feared Allah. And you were wealthier then anyone else in terms of what you acquired from the religion of Allah 'Azza Wa-Jall (The Posessor of Might and Majesty). You cared most for both the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) and Islam. Of all people, you were the best Companion to the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam); you possessed the best qualities; you had the best past; you ranked the highest; and you were closest to him. And of all people you resembled the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) the most in terms of his guidance and demeanor. Your ranking was higher than anyone else's, and the Prophet (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) honored you and held you in higher esteem than anyone else. On behalf of the Messenger of Allah and Islam, may Allah reward you with the best of rewards. When the people disbelieved in the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) you believed in him. Throughout his life, you were both his eyes with which he (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam), and his ears with which he heard. Allah has named you truthful in his book when He said:

'And he (Muhammad) who has brought the truth and (those who) believed therein, those are Al-Muttaqun (the pious and righteous persons)' (Qur'an 39:33)

When people were stingy in their support for the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) you comforted him. And when people sat still, you stood side by side with the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam), facing the same hardships that he faced. In times of hardship, you were truly a good and noble Companion of his. You were the 'second of two', his Companion in the Cave; and the one upon whom As-Sakeenah descended. You were his Companion during the migration and you were his successor regarding the religion of Allah and His nation. And truly good successor you proved to be when the people apostatized. You did what no other Khaleefah of a Prophet did before you. You stood up firmly and bravely when his other Companions lost their resolve and became soft. And when they became weak, you adhered to the methodology of the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam). You truly were as the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) said: weak in your body, but strong regarding the commands of Allah; humble in yourself, but lofty in your ranking with Allah; well-esteemed in the eys of people, honored and great in their hearts. Not a single one of them had any reason to dislike you, to be suspicious of you, or to hold you in contempt.... The weak and humble you have always treated as strong and honorable, making sure you gave them what was rightfully theirs. And in this regard, you have treated relatives and strangers equally. Of all people, you respect those who are most obedient to Allah and who fear Him the most. In your overall character, you embody truth and compassion. Your speech has always been characterized by the qualities of wisdom and decisiveness. And you have always struck a noble balance between gentleness and firmness. You have always based your decisions on knowedge, and once you have made your decisions, you have always kept a firm resolve to execute them... Verily to Allah do we belong, and to Him is our return. We are pleased with, and we submit to, Allah's decree. And by Allah, other than the death of the Messenger of Allah (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) Muslims have never been afflicted with a greater calamity than the calamity of your death. You have always been a protector, a sanctuary, and source of honor for this religion. May Allah 'Azza Wa-Jall make you join the company of His Prophet, Muhammad (salAllaahu 'alayhi wa sallam) and may he not deprive us of your reward. And may He not lead us astray after you.'

People had gathered around 'Ali and listened to his speech until he was finished. Then they all cried with raised voices, and they all responded in unison to 'Ali's speech, saying, 'Indeed, you have spoken the truth.' [41]

Succession of Umar[edit]




Umar was killed in an assassination by the Persian slave Piruz Nahavandi during morning prayers in 644.[42][43]

Election of Uthman[edit]


The committee narrowed down the choices to two: Uthman and Ali. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraish tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the Umayyad clan of the Quraish. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.




Siege of Uthman[edit]

After a protest turned into a siege, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims, and preferred negotiations.[citation needed] After the negotiations, the protestors returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute the protestors. The protestors returned and Uthman swore that he did not write the order. He refuted the claim and tried to talk it through. The protestors demanded he retire from being a caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room. This emboldened the protestors and they broke into Uthman's house and killed him while he was reading the Qur'an.[42][43] It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels were not from Uthman. It was rather a conspiracy to overthrow the Caliph.

Crisis and fragmentation[edit]





Illustration of the Battle of Siffin, from a 14th-century manuscript of the Tarikh-i Bal'ami.


Ali's son Hasan ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad, briefly assumed the caliphate and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic World choose the next leader (This treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he names his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya gained control of the Caliphate and founded the Umayyad Caliphate, marking the end of the Rashidun Caliphate.[42][43]

Military expansion[edit]

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years of conquest, a vast territory was conquered comprising Mesopotamia, the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and most of the Sasanian Empire.


Conquest of the Persian empire[edit]

Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's conquest of Iraq
Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of Sasanid Empire ruler Khosrau II type. BYS (Bishapur) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating Khosrau II right; bismillah in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.







Wars against the Byzantine empire[edit]

Conquest of Byzantine Syria[edit]

Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the Levant



Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn Walid's invasion of Syria


Byzantine-era temple in Idlib, Syria.


On 22 August 634 Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he relieved Khalid of command of the Islamic armies and appointed Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while Abu Ubaida relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, and kept him beside him as much as possible.[47]

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria


Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria


Abu Ubaida ordered all the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes that they previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk.[49] Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk. The Muslim armies reached it in July 636. A week or two later, around mid July, the Byzantine army arrived.[50] Khalid's mobile guard defeated Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a skirmish.




Occupation of Anatolia[edit]




Conquest of Egypt[edit]

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt





Conquest of North Africa[edit]

The Roman ruins of Sbeitla (Sufetula)



Campaign against Nubia (Sudan)[edit]
The Grand Mosque of Khartoum, Sudan, 2013


Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea[edit]


Treatment of conquered peoples[edit]

Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Pseudo-Byzantine types. Struck circa 647-670. Imperial Byzantine figure (Constans II) standing facing, holding cross-tipped staff and globus cruciger.


Dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.[54] Dhimmis were also subject to pay jizya.[55]


Political administration[edit]

The Great Mosque at Kufah, the empire's second capital, in Iraq, 2016



Districts or provinces[edit]



  4. Syria was a province;


During Uthman's reign the empire was divided into twelve provinces. These were:

  1. Medina
  2. Mecca
  3. Yemen
  4. Kufa
  5. Basra
  6. Jazira
  7. Fars
  8. Azerbaijan
  9. Khorasan
  10. Syria
  11. Egypt
  12. North Africa



  1. Katib, the Chief Secretary.
  2. Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.
  3. Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.
  4. Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police chief.
  6. Qadi, the Chief Judge.



Umar's general instructions to his officers were:


During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary that the officers be treated in a strict way as to prevent the possible greed for money that may lead them to corruption. During his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to make the oath:

  2. That he would not wear fine clothes.
  3. That he would not eat sifted flour.

Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of Uthman the state become more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economical condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the 2nd and 3rd postulates of the oath.


Judicial administration[edit]



Electing or appointing a caliph[edit]

The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen through shura (شُـوْرَى), a process of community consultation has been described as a form of "Islamic democracy".[57]




Sunni belief[edit]


Majlis al-Shura: Parliament[edit]






Accountability of rulers[edit]





Rule of law[edit]

The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability:[59]






During the Rashidun Caliphate there was an economic boom in the lives of the ordinary people due to the revolutionary economic policies developed by Umar ( 634-644 CE/AD) and his successor Uthman ( 644-656 ). At first it was Umar who introduced these reforms on strong bases, his successor Uthman who himself was an intelligent businessman, further reformed them. During Uthman's reign the people of the empire enjoyed a prosperous life.[citation needed]




Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal[edit]







Economic resources of the State[edit]

The economic resources of the State were:

  1. Zakāt
  2. Ushr
  3. Jazya
  4. Fay
  5. Khums
  6. Kharaj




Jizya or jizyah (جزْية; Ottoman Turkish: cizye). It was a per capita tax imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt. The tax was not supposed to be levied on slaves, women, children, monks, the old, the sick,[65] hermits and the poor.[66] It is important to note that not only were some non-Muslims exempt (such as sick, old), they were also given stipends by the state when they were in need.[66]






Kharaj was a tax on agricultural land.







Beginning of the allowance[edit]







  1. The widows of Muhammad received 12,000 dirhams each;





Welfare works[edit]

The mosques were not mere places for offering prayers; these were community centers as well where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the west. Al-Masjid an-Nabawi and Masjid al-Haram were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan who not only extended them to many thousand square meters but also beautified them on a large scale.






"Rashidun elite soldier"[citation needed] equipped for infantry warfare. He wears an iron-bronze helmet, a hauberk and lamellar leather armour. His sword is hung from a baldric, and he carries a leather shield.



The standard form of protective body armor was chainmail. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail (dir’ayn), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. Hauberks and large wooden or wickerwork shields were used as a protection in combat.[69] The soldiers were usually equipped with swords that were hung in a baldric. They also possessed spears and daggers.[71][page needed] Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department. This reform was introduced in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraish and the Ansar and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.

The basic strategy of early Muslim armies sent out to conquer foreign lands was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy army in order to achieve victory. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels. The camels were used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert (Khalid bin Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus utilized camels as both food and transport). The cavalry was the army's main striking force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy forces while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged.


Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and the resources that could be made available for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Caliph Umar in the latter part of his Caliphate used to direct his generals as to where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right wing of the army in each particular battle. This made the phase of conquest comparatively slower but provided well-organized campaigns. Caliph Uthman used the same method as Abu Bakr: he would give missions to his generals and then leave it to them how they should accomplish it. Caliph Ali also followed the same method.

List of Rashidun caliphs[edit]

Period Caliph Calligraphic Relationship with Muhammad Parents House Notes
8 June 632 – 22 August 634 Abū Bakr
(أبو بكر)
Rashidun Caliph Abu Bakr as-Șiddīq (Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa) - أبو بكر الصديق عبد الله بن عثمان التيمي القرشي أول الخلفاء الراشدين.svg Father of Aisha, Muhammad's wife Banu Taim
  • Commonly known as Aṣ-Ṣiddīq (الصديق, "The Truthful")
  • Reigned until his death[42][43]
23 August 634 – 3 November 644 'Umar ibn al-Khattab
(عمر بن الخطاب)
Amir al-Mu'minin
Rashidun Caliphs Umar ibn Al-Khattāb - عُمر بن الخطّاب ثاني الخلفاء الراشدين.svg Father of Hafsa, Muhammad's wife Banu Adi
  • Also known with his epithet Al-Farooq ("the one who distinguishes between right and wrong")
  • Assassinated by Persians in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia[42][43]
11 November 644 – 20 June 656 'Uthman ibn 'Affan
(عثمان بن عفان)
Dhun Nurayn
Amir al-Mu'minin

Muhammad's daughters, Ruqayya and later Umm Kulthum.

Muhammad's Second cousin.

Banu Ummaya
  • Also known as Dhun-Nurayn (Possessor of Two Lights) because he married two Muhammad's daughters
  • Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house[42][43]
20 June 656 – 29 January 661 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib
(علي بن أبي طالب)
Amir al-Mu'minin

See also[edit]


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  11. ^ Catharina Raudvere, Islam: An Introduction (I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51-54.
  17. ^ The Last Sermon of Muhammad by Shia Accounts
  18. ^ "A Shi'ite Encyclopedia". Al-Islam.org. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Retrieved 27 February 2018.
  19. ^ Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal, Volume 4. p. 281.
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  26. ^ Kelen, Betty. Muhammad, Messenger of God.
  28. ^ Shahristani. Kitab al-Milal wan-Nihal. p. 8.
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  33. ^ "Saqifah: A Sunni View". Retrieved 10 May 2018.
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  37. ^ Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518
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  39. ^ Battle of Yarmouk River, Spencer Tucker, Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92.
  40. ^ Khalid ibn Walid, Timothy May, Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458.
  41. ^ At-Tabsirah, by ibn Al-Jawzee (1/477-479); and Ashaab Ar-Rasool (1/108)
  42. ^ a b c d e f g شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). First Islamic Arab State (1 – 41 AH/ 623 – 661 CE). 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370.
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
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  48. ^ "Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl". Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from the original on January 10, 2003. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
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  71. ^ Augus Mcbride