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What is 'Mergers and Acquisitions - M&A'

Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is a general term that refers to the consolidation of companies or assets through various types of financial transactions. M&A can include a number of different transactions, such as mergers, acquisitions, consolidations, tender offers, purchase of assets and management acquisitions. In all cases, two companies are involved. The term M&A also refers to the department at financial institutions that deals with mergers and acquisitions.

'Mergers and Acquisitions - M&A'

Mergers and acquisitions (M&A) can include a number of different transactions and types. The following will review some of the different kinds of financial transactions that occur when companies engage in mergers and acquisitions activity.

Mergers & Acquisitions Overview

Merger: In a merger, the boards of directors for two companies approve the combination and seek shareholders' approval. After the merger, the acquired company ceases to exist and becomes part of the acquiring company. For example, in 2007 a merger deal occurred between Digital Computers and Compaq whereby Compaq absorbed Digital Computers.

Acquisition: In a simple acquisition, the acquiring company obtains the majority stake in the acquired firm, which does not change its name or legal structure. An example of this transaction is Manulife Financial Corporation's 2004 acquisition of John Hancock Financial Services, where both companies preserved their names and organizational structures.

Consolidation: A consolidation creates a new company. Stockholders of both companies must approve the consolidation, and subsequent to the approval, they receive common equity shares in the new firm. For example, in 1998 Citicorp and Traveler's Insurance Group announced a consolidation, which resulted in Citigroup.

Tender Offer: In a tender offer, one company offers to purchase the outstanding stock of the other firm at a specific price. The acquiring company communicates the offer directly to the other company's shareholders, bypassing the management and board of directors. Example: when Johnson & Johnson made a tender offer in 2008 to acquire Omrix Biopharmaceuticals for $438 million. While the acquiring company may continue to exist — especially if there are certain dissenting shareholders — most tender offers result in mergers.

Acquisition of Assets: In a purchase of assets, one company acquires the assets of another company. The company whose assets are being acquired must obtain approval from its shareholders. The purchase of assets is typical during bankruptcy proceedings, where other companies bid for various assets of the bankrupt company, which is liquidated upon the final transfer of assets to the acquiring firm(s).

Management Acquisition: In a management acquisition, also known as a management-led buyout (MBO), the executives of a company purchase a controlling stake in a company, making it private. Often, these former executives partner with a financier or former corporate officers in order to help fund a transaction. Such an M&A transaction is typically financed disproportionately with debt, and the majority of shareholders must approve it. For example, in 2013, Dell Corporation announced that it was acquired by its chief executive manager, Michael Dell.

What's the Difference Between a Merger and an Acquisition?


A merger occurs when two separate entities (usually of comparable size) combine forces to create a new, joint organization in which – theoretically – both are equal partners. For example, both Daimler-Benz and Chrysler ceased to exist when the two firms merged, and a new company, DaimlerChrysler, was created.

An acquisition refers to the purchase of one entity by another (usually, a smaller firm by a larger one). A new company does not emerge from an acquisition; rather, the acquired company, or target firm, is often consumed and ceases to exist, and its assets become part of the acquiring company. Acquisitions – sometimes called takeovers – generally carry a more negative connotation than mergers, especially if the target firm shows resistance to being bought. For this reason, many acquiring companies refer to an acquisition as a merger even when technically it is not.

Legally speaking, a merger requires two companies to consolidate into a new entity with a new ownership and management structure (ostensibly with members of each firm). An acquisition takes place when one company takes over all of the operational management decisions of another. The more common interpretive distinction rests on whether the transaction is friendly (merger) or hostile (acquisition).

In practice, friendly mergers of equals do not take place very frequently. It's uncommon that two companies would benefit from combining forces and two different CEOs agree to give up some authority to realize those benefits. When this does happen, the stocks of both companies are surrendered and new stocks are issued under the name of the new business identity.

Since mergers are so uncommon and takeovers are viewed in a derogatory light, the two terms have become increasingly conflated and used in conjunction with one another. Contemporary corporate restructurings are usually referred to as merger and acquisition (M&A) transactions rather than simply a merger or acquisition. The practical differences between the two terms are slowly being eroded by the new definition of M&A deals. In other words, the real difference lies in how the purchase is communicated to and received by the target company's board of directors, employees and shareholders. The public relations backlash for hostile takeovers can be damaging to the acquiring company. The victims of hostile acquisitions are often forced to announce a merger to preserve the reputation of the acquiring entity.

Varieties of Mergers


  • Congeneric mergers - Two businesses that serve the same consumer base in different ways, such as a TV manufacturer and a cable company.
  • Market-extension merger - Two companies that sell the same products in different markets.
  • Conglomeration - Two companies that have no common business areas.



Details of Acquisitions

In an acquisition, as in some mergers, a company can buy another company with cash, stock or a combination of the two. Another possibility, which is common in smaller deals, is for one company to acquire all the assets of another company. Company X buys all of Company Y's assets for cash, which means that Company Y will have only cash (and debt, if any). Of course, Company Y becomes merely a shell and will eventually liquidate or enter another area of business.


Valuation Matters

Naturally, both sides of an M&A deal will have different ideas about the worth of a target company: Its seller will tend to value the company at as high of a price as possible, while the buyer will try to get the lowest price that he can.


  1. Comparative Ratios. The following are two examples of the many comparative metrics on which acquiring companies may base their offers:

The Premium for Potential Success



This equation for minimum synergy can help business determine if a merger or acqusition deal is a good one


What to Look For


  • A reasonable purchase price. A premium of, say, 10% above the market price seems within the bounds of level-headedness. A premium of 50%, on the other hand, requires a synergy of stellar proportions for the deal to make sense. Stay away from companies that participate in such contests.
  • Cash transactions. Companies that pay in cash tend to be more careful when calculating bids and valuations come closer to target. When stock or equity is used as the currency for acquisition, discipline can go by the wayside.

Why Merge?

Regardless of their category or structure, all mergers and acquisitions have one common goal: they are all meant to create synergies that make the value of the combined companies greater than the sum of the two parts. The success of a merger or acquisition depends on whether this synergy is achieved.


  • Becoming bigger: Many companies use M&A to grow in size and leapfrog their rivals. While it can take years or decades to double the size of a company through organic growth, this can be achieved much more rapidly through mergers or acquisitions.
  • Preempted competition: This is a very powerful motivation for mergers and acquisitions, and is the primary reason why M&A activity occurs in distinct cycles. The urge to snap up a company with an attractive portfolio of assets before a rival does so generally results in a feeding frenzy in hot markets. Some examples of frenetic M&A activity in specific sectors include dot-coms and telecoms in the late 1990s, commodity and energy producers in 2006-07, and biotechnology companies in 2012-14.
  • Domination: Companies also engage in M&A to dominate their sector. However, since a combination of two behemoths would result in a potential monopoly, such a transaction would have to run the gauntlet of intense scrutiny from anti-competition watchdogs and regulatory authorities.
  • Tax benefits: Companies also use M&A for tax purposes, although this may be an implicit rather than an explicit motive. For instance, since the U.S. has the highest corporate tax rate in the world, some of the best-known American companies have resorted to corporate “inversions.” This technique involves a U.S. company buying a smaller foreign competitor and moving the merged entity’s tax home overseas to a lower-tax jurisdiction, in order to substantially reduce its tax bill.
  • Staff reductions: As every employee knows, mergers tend to mean job losses. Consider all the money saved from reducing the number of staff members from accounting, marketing, and other departments. Job cuts will also probably include the former CEO, who typically leaves with a compensation package.
  • Economies of scale: Yes, size matters. Whether it's purchasing stationery or a new corporate IT system, a bigger company placing the orders can save more on costs. Mergers also translate into improved purchasing power to buy equipment or office supplies—when placing larger orders, companies have a greater ability to negotiate prices with their suppliers.
  • Improved market reach and industry visibility: Companies buy companies to reach new markets and grow revenues and earnings. A merger may expand two companies' marketing and distribution, giving them new sales opportunities. A merger can also improve a company's standing in the investment community: bigger firms often have an easier time raising capital than smaller ones.

Sadly, synergy opportunities may exist only in the minds of the corporate leaders and the deal makers. Where there is no value to be created, the CEO and investment bankers – who have much to gain from a successful M&A deal – will try to create an image of enhanced value. The market, however, eventually sees through this and penalizes the company by assigning it a discounted share price.

Mergers and Acquisitions-Prone Industries

Mergers and acquisitions are most common in the health care, technology, financial services, retail and, lately, the utilities sectors.





Since 2000, M&As have picked up in the utilities sector. After a brief downturn in the immediate wake of the financial crisis of 2008, the pace of acquisitions has risen, especially between 2012 and 2015, driven primarily by a basic focus on operational efficiency and resulting profitability. The fallout from the 2008 financial crisis saw a number of weaker firms, but ones with significant assets, become ripe as takeover targets, especially in Europe. Utility companies in many of the developed markets became busy supplementing or realigning their portfolios. Low wholesale prices, resulting from dramatic declines in the prices of oil and natural gas, and new regulatory frameworks to deal with, have both been factors as firms seek to align themselves in the most advantageous position. Some companies have undertaken significant divestitures, looking to rid themselves of less-profitable divisions or subsidiaries. Regulatory changes and the simple recognition that renewable energy sources will be an increasing portion of the utilities business moving forward have been the impetus for several firms to acquire promising wind power companies. The rapid economic growth in emerging market economies, especially the rapid expansion of utility infrastructure and tens of millions of brand-new customers, has kept many utility companies focused on acquisitions in China, India, and Brazil.

Doing The Deal

1. The Opening Offer


A letter of intent, or LOI, is used to set forth the terms of a proposed merger or acquisition. It provides a general overview of the proposed deal. The LOI may include the purchase price, whether it is a stock or cash deal and other elements of the proposed deal. After the LOI is submitted, the buyer performs significant due diligence on the seller’s business.

An LOI does not have to be legally binding upon the parties unless the terms of the LOI specifically state it is, or it may include both binding and non-binding provisions. There may be provisions stating the buyer agrees to keep all confidential information it sees during due diligence secret.

2. The Target's Response

  • Accept the Terms of the Offer – If the target firm's top managers and shareholders are happy with the terms of the transaction, they will go ahead with the deal.
  • Execute a Takeover Defense or Find Another Acquirer – There are several strategies to fight off a potential acquirer (see Defensive Maneuvers, below).


3. Closing the Deal




When the deal is closed, investors usually receive a new stock in their portfolios – the acquiring company's expanded stock. Sometimes investors will get new stock identifying a new corporate entity that is created by the M&A deal.

What Merger And Acquisition Firms Do

The merger or acquisition deal process can be intimidating and this is where the merger and acquisition firms step in, to facilitate the process by taking on the responsibility for a fee. These firms guide their clients (companies) through these transformative, multifaceted corporate decisions. The various types of merger and acquisition firms are discussed below. The role of each type of firm is to successful seal a deal for its clients, but each does differ in its approach and duties.

  • Investment Banks

Investment banks perform a variety of specialized roles. They carry out transactions involving huge amounts, in areas such as underwriting. They act as a financial advisor (and/or broker) for institutional clients, sometimes playing the role of an intermediary. They also facilitate corporate reorganizations including mergers and acquisitions. The finance division of investment banks manages the merger and acquisition work, right from the negotiation stage until the deal's closure. The work related to the legal and accounting issues is outsourced to affiliate companies or impaneled experts.

The role of an investment bank in the procedure typically involves vital market intelligence in addition to preparing a list of prospective targets. Then once the client is sure of the targeted deal, an assessment of the current valuation is done to know the price expectations. All the documentation, management meetings, negotiation terms and closing documents are handled by the representatives of the investment bank. In cases where the investment bank is handling the selling side, an auction process is conducted with several rounds of bids to determine the buyer. Some of the major investment banks are Goldman Sachs (NYSE: GS), Morgan Stanley (NYSE: MS), JPMorgan Chase (NYSE: JPM), Bank of America Merrill Lynch (NYSE: BAC), Barclays Capital, Citigroup (NYSE: C), Credit Suisse Group.

  • Law Firms

Corporate law firms are popular among companies looking to expand externally through a merger or acquisition, especially companies with international borders. Such deals are more complex as they involve different laws governed by different jurisdictions thus requiring very specialized legal handling. The international law firms are best suited for this job with their expertise on multi-jurisdiction matters. Some of the leading law firms engaging in mergers and acquisitions are Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz, Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom LLP (“Skadden”), Cravath, Swaine & Moore LLP, Sullivan & Cromwell LLP, Simpson Thacher & Bartlett LLP and Davis Polk & Wardwell LLP.

  • Audit & Accounting Firms

These companies also handle merger and acquisitions deals with obvious specialization in auditing, accounting, and taxation. These companies are experts in evaluating assets, conducting audits and advising on taxation aspects. In cases where cross-border merger or acquisition is involved, the understanding of the taxation part becomes critical and such companies fit well in such situations. In addition to audit and account expects these companies have other experts on the panel to manage any aspect of the deal well. Some of the well-known firms from this category with specialized services in mergers and acquisitions are KPMG, Deloitte, PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) and Ernst & Young (EY); these companies together are tagged as the Big Four.

  • Consulting & Advisory Firms

The leading management consulting and advisory firms guide clients through all stages of a merger or acquisition process – cross-industry or cross-border deals. These firms have a team of experts who work towards the success of the deal right from the initial phase to the successful closure of the deal. The bigger companies in this business have a global footprint which helps in identifying targets based on suitability in all aspects. The firms work on the acquisition strategy followed by screening to due diligence and advising on price valuations making sure that the clients are not overpaying and so on. Some of the well-known names in the business are: AT Kearney, Bain and Company, The Boston Consulting Group (BCG), McKinsey and L.E.K. Consulting.

M&A Effects – Capital Structure and Financial Position

M&A activity obviously has longer-term ramifications for the acquiring company or the dominant entity than it does for the target company in an acquisition or the firm that is subsumed in a merger.

For the target company, an M&A transaction gives its shareholders the opportunity to cash out at a significant premium, especially if the transaction is an all-cash deal. If the acquirer pays partly in cash and partly in its own stock, the target company’s shareholders would hold a stake in the acquirer and thus have a vested interest in its long-term success.

For the acquirer, the impact of an M&A transaction depends on the deal size relative to the company’s size. The larger the potential target, the bigger the risk to the acquirer. A company may be able to withstand the failure of a small-sized acquisition, but the failure of a huge purchase may severely jeopardize its long-term success.

Once an M&A transaction has closed, the impact upon the acquirer would typically be significant (again depending on the deal size). The acquirer’s capital structure will change, depending on how the M&A deal was designed. An all-cash deal will substantially deplete the acquirer’s cash holdings. But as many companies seldom have the cash hoard available to make full payment for a target firm in cash, all-cash deals are often financed through debt. While this additional debt increases a company’s indebtedness, the higher debt load may be justified by the additional cash flows contributed by the target firm.

Many M&A transactions are also financed through the acquirer’s stock. For an acquirer to use its stock as currency for an acquisition, its shares must often be premium-priced to begin with, else making purchases would be needlessly dilutive. As well, management of the target company also has to be convinced that accepting the acquirer’s stock rather than hard cash is a good idea. Support from the target company for such an M&A transaction is much more likely to be forthcoming if the acquirer is a Fortune 500 company than if it is ABC Widget Co.

M&A Effects – Market Reaction and Future Growth

Market reaction to news of an M&A transaction may be favorable or unfavorable, depending on the perception of market participants about the merits of the deal. In most cases, the target company’s shares will rise to a level close to that of the acquirer’s offer, assuming of course that the offer represents a significant premium to the target’s previous stock price. In fact, the target’s shares may trade above the offer price if the perception is either that the acquirer has submitted a below-market offer for the target and may be forced to raise it, or that the target company is coveted enough to attract a rival bid.

There are situations in which the target company may trade below the announced offer price. This generally occurs when part of the purchase consideration is to be made in the acquirer’s shares and the stock plummets when the deal is announced. For example, assume the purchase price of $25 per share of TargetedXYZCo consists of two shares of an acquirer valued at $10 each and $5 in cash. But if the acquirer’s shares are now only worth $8, TargetedXYZCo would most likely be trading at $21 rather than $25.

There are many reasons why an acquirer’s shares may decline when it announces an M&A deal. Perhaps market participants think that the price tag for the purchase is too steep. Or the deal is perceived as not being accretive to EPS (earnings per share). Or perhaps investors believe that the acquirer is taking on too much debt to finance the acquisition.

An acquirer’s future growth prospects and profitability should ideally be enhanced by the acquisitions it makes. Since a series of acquisitions can mask a company’s deteriorating core business, analysts and investors often focus on the “organic” growth rate of revenue and operating margins – which excludes the impact of M&A – for such a company.

In cases where the acquirer has made a hostile bid for a target company, the latter’s management may recommend that its shareholders reject the deal. One of the most common reasons cited for such rejection is that the target’s management believes the acquirer’s offer substantially undervalues it. But such rejection of an unsolicited offer can sometimes backfire, as demonstrated by the famous Yahoo-Microsoft case.

On February 1, 2008, Microsoft unveiled a hostile offer for Yahoo Inc (YHOO) of $44.6 billion. Microsoft Corp’s (MSFT) offer of $31 per Yahoo share consisted of one-half cash and one-half Microsoft shares and represented a 62% premium to Yahoo’s closing price on the previous day. However, Yahoo’s board of directors – led by co-founder Jerry Yang – rejected Microsoft’s offer, saying that it substantially undervalued the company. Unfortunately, the credit crisis that gripped the world later that year also took its toll on Yahoo shares, resulting in the stock trading below $10 by November 2008. Yahoo’s subsequent road to recovery was a long one, and the stock only exceeded Microsoft’s original $31 offer five and a half years later in September 2013.

M&A Effects – The Workforce

Historically, mergers tend to result in job losses, as operations and departments become redundant. The most consistently threatened jobs are the target company's CEO and other senior management, who often are offered a severance package. But it can also signal risk for all the target company's employees, especially since those who had hired them are likely no longer making critical labor decisions.

By and large, the target company's employees do not have to fear for their current accumulated benefits. The Employee Retirement Income Security Act protects retirement pensions and other benefits.

In some circumstances, the employees of the newly created entity receive new stock options (such as an employee stock ownership plan) or other benefits as a reward and incentive.

The Impact of Foreign Exchange

Foreign currency exchange rates can have a major impact on the flow of cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&A) deals – that is, when the target company and the acquiring company are in different countries. Studies show that companies in countries whose currencies have appreciated substantially are more likely to target acquisitions in countries whose currencies have not appreciated as much. Since the acquiring company has a stronger currency relative to the country of the acquisition, the transaction is more affordable on a relative basis.

Foreign currency traders may even take advantage of major international M&As for profitable trade setups. A large cross-border M&A often requires a large currency transaction. This transaction can have an impact on the relative exchange rates between the two countries for large deals.

A 2000 study by Francis Breedon and Francesca Fornasari of Lehman Brothers entitled "FX impact of cross-border M&A" found that large M&A deals can result in an increase in the domestic currency of the target of 1% relative to the currency of the acquiring company. The study further found that for every deal in excess of $1 billion, the currency of the target corporation increased in value by around 0.5%. These currency movements are most pronounced in the days after the announcement of the deals.

The structure of the M&A deal is important to gauge the extent of any impact on currency rates. The larger the cash portion of the deal, the greater the impact on the currency exchange rates between the countries.

The Biggest Mergers & Acquisitions in the U.S.

In recent decades, the late 1990s were a high point for mergers and acquisitions. In the 21st century, activity slowed at first, but has gradually increased: 2015 was a record-breaking year, with approximately $4.7 trillion in global deals signed. Some of the biggest deals over the last few years in the United States (in no specific order) have been:

  • Verizon/Vodafone

One of the biggest deals in recent times has been the acquisition of Vodafone Group PLC’s (NASDAQ: VOD) 45 percent stake in Verizon Wireless by Verizon Communications Inc. (NYSE: VZ) in a transaction worth $130 billion. Verizon Wireless which was founded in 2000 as a joint venture of Verizon Communications and Vodafone, is (after the deal) now wholly owned by Verizon Communications Inc. Verizon Wireless is the largest and most profitable wireless company serving 104.6 million retail connections, operating in more than 1,700 retail locations in the United States. The company reported annual revenue of $81 billion in 2013.

  • Pfizer/Warner-Lambert

Two of the fastest growing companies from the pharmaceutical space joined hands in 2000 as Pfizer Inc (NYSE: PFE) acquired Warner-Lambert (WLA) in a $90 billion deal. The deal had some background drama to it as merger plans were originally announced by Warner-Lambert and American Home Products in November 1999 for approximately $70 billion. In the next few hours, Pfizer attempted the largest hostile takeover in the pharmaceutical business by announcing an unsolicited $82 billion offer for Warner. Warner-Lambert's cholesterol drug Lipitor is said to be the point of focus for the merger as the drug was jointly marketed by Warner-Lambert and Pfizer since its launch in 1997. The deal which finally went through after three months of tussle as American Home Products agreed to walk away with a breakup fee of around $1.8 billion.

  • Exxon/Mobil

ExxonMobil Corporation (XOM), the largest company in the oil and gas sector was created in 1998 by bringing together the fragments of Standard oil monopoly (Exxon Corporation and Mobil Corporation) in an $80 billion deal. At the time of the deal, Exxon and Mobil were the largest and second-largest oil producers in the U.S. with a combined market capitalization of $237.53 billion. The company is now a multinational giant headquartered in Irving, Texas, United States.

  • Altria/Philip Morris

In January, 2008, the Board of Directors of Altria Group Inc (NYSE: MO) approved the spin-off of Philip Morris International Inc, a wholly owned subsidiary of Altria with a vision of making it the most profitable publicly traded tobacco company and to build long-term shareholder value. As per the laid down terms, each Altria shareholder received one share of Philip Morris International for every share of Altria held on March 19, 2008 (record date) and involved approximately $107 billion.

  • AT&T/Bell South

In 2006 the largest telecommunication giant AT&T (NYSE: T) acquired BellSouth (BLS) another large phone company in a $67 billion deal. The deal resulted in giving AT&T a local customer base of 70 million across 22 states further strengthening its dominance in the industry. The two companies were already joint owners of Cingular Wireless with 60% ownership with AT&T and 40% with BellSouth. Cingular Wireless was brought under the brand and consolidated ownership of AT&T after the acquisition of BellSouth.

  • Travelers Group/Citicorp

The merger of the banking giant Citicorp and Travelers Group in 1998 estimated at $70 billion changed the landscape of the financial-services industry. The merger created Citigroup Inc (NYSE: C), one of the biggest companies in the financial services space. Citigroup had a market capitalization of approximately $135 billion at that time and offered services like banking, insurance and investment in over 100 countries. Today, Citigroup Inc operates in around 160 countries and has a market capitalization is around $155 billion.

Why Mergers Don't Go Through

While they seem to constantly grow in size and scope, mergers and acquisitions don't always happen – or, if they do happen, the results are not happy ones. For every deal that goes through, there are plenty that fail to launch, or fail to thrive.

The three main reasons for a merger or acquisition deal to fail are a lack of funding by the acquirer to close the deal, the difference in valuation estimates by the two parties and government intervention due to regulations.

Adequate funding is necessary for a successful merger. In late 2008, for example, automotive giants General Motors and Chrysler, two of the so-called Big Three of the U.S. auto industry, were deep in talks to merge. Before the year ended, the merger talks collapsed after GM admitted it was running out of money following a huge $4.2 billion quarterly loss.

One year after the failed merger between GM and Chrysler, social media sites Facebook and Twitter were in discussions to join forces, with the former attempting to acquire the latter for $500 million. Disagreements over Facebook’s valuation could not be overcome by the two camps, resulting in the end of what could have been the single most dominant player in global social media.

One instance of regulation: the case of United Airlines and US Airways, with the former offering to take over the latter for a combined infusion of $11.6 billion in cash and assumption of debt. The talks began in late 2000 and ended one year later when the then-Bush administration raised doubts that the merger would be approved by federal regulators. (Ironically, United acquired Continental Airlines in 2010, and US Airways merged with American Airlines in 2013).

Hostile Takeovers

There's a fourth major reason an acquisition doesn't go through: the target firm doesn't want to be acquired, forcing the would-be buyer has to launch a hostile takeover. While there are examples of hostile takeovers working, they are generally tougher to pull off than a friendly merger. Types of hostile takeovers include:

Defensive Maneuvers

If a company doesn't want to be taken over, there are many strategies that management can use. Almost all of these strategies are aimed at affecting the value of the target's stock in some way. Let's take a look at some more popular methods – known in the M&A world as "shark repellents" – that companies can use to protect themselves from a predator.

Golden Parachute



A spin-off of the term "blackmail," greenmail occurs when a large block of stock is held by an unfriendly company or raider, who then forces the target company to repurchase the stock at a substantial premium to destroy any takeover attempt. This is also known as a "bon voyage bonus" or a "goodbye kiss."

Macaroni Defense

In this tactic, the target company issues a large number of bonds that come with the guarantee that they will be redeemed at a higher price if the company is taken over. It's called a macaroni defense the redemption price of the bonds expands, like macaroni in a pot of boiling water. It's a highly useful strategy but the target company must be careful it doesn't issue so much debt that it cannot make the interest payments.


People Pill


Poison Pill






White Knight

A white knight is a company (the "good guy") that gallops in to make a friendly takeover offer to a target company that is facing a hostile takeover from another party (a "black knight"). The white knight offers the target firm a way out; although it will still be acquired, it will be on more favorable terms – or at least, terms more to its liking.

Why Mergers Fail

It's no secret that plenty of mergers don't work. Those who advocate mergers will argue that the merger will cut costs or boost revenues by more than enough to justify the price premium. It can sound so simple: just combine computer systems, merge a few departments, use sheer size to force down the price of supplies and the merged giant should be more profitable than its parts. In theory, 1+1 = 3 sounds great, but in practice, things can go awry. Different systems and processes, dilution of a company's brand, overestimation of synergies and lack of understanding of the target firm's business can all occur, destroying shareholder value and decreasing the company's stock price after the transaction.

Flawed Intentions




The Obstacles to Making it Work

Even if the rationale for a merger or acquisition is sound, executives face major stumbling blocks after the deal is consummated. Potential operational difficulties may seem trivial to managers caught up in the thrill of the big deal; but in many cases, integrating the operations of two companies proves to be a much more difficult task in practice than it seemed in theory.


Cultural clashes between the two entities often mean that employees do not execute post-integration plans well. And since the merger of two workforces often creates redundant functions, which in turn often result in layoffs, scared employees will act to protect their own jobs, as opposed to helping their employers realize synergies.

And sometimes, the expected advantages of acquiring a rival don't prove worth the price paid. Say pharma company A is unduly bullish about pharma company B’s prospects – and wants to forestall a possible bid for B from a rival – so it offers a very substantial premium for B. Once it has acquired company B, the best-case scenario that A had anticipated doesn't materialize: A key drug being developed by B may turn out to have unexpectedly severe side-effects, significantly curtailing its market potential. Company A’s management (and shareholders) may then be left to rue the fact that it paid much more for B than what it was worth.


Biggest Merger and Acquisition Disasters

Historical trends show that roughly two-thirds of big mergers will disappoint on their own terms, which means the combined new company, or the acquiring company, will lose value on the stock market. Here are a few examples of deals that ended up being disasters.

New York Central and Pennsylvania Railroad

In 1968, the New York Central and Pennsylvania railroads merged to form Penn Central, which became the sixth largest corporation in America. But just two years later, the company shocked Wall Street by filing for bankruptcy protection, making it the largest corporate bankruptcy in American history at the time.

The railroads, which were bitter industry rivals, both traced their roots back to the early- to mid-nineteenth century. Management pushed for a merger in a somewhat desperate attempt to adjust to disadvantageous trends in the industry. Railroads operating outside of the northeastern U.S. generally enjoyed stable business from long-distance shipments of commodities, but the densely-populated Northeast, with its concentration of heavy industries and various waterway shipping points, created a more diverse and dynamic revenue stream. Local railroads catered to daily commuters, longer-distance passengers, express freight service and bulk freight service. These offerings provided transportation at shorter distances and resulted in less predictable, higher-risk cash flow for the Northeast-based railroads.

Short-distance transportation also involved more personnel hours (thus incurring higher labor costs), and strict government regulation restricted railroad companies' ability to adjust rates charged to shippers and passengers, making cost-cutting seemingly the only way to positively impact the bottom line. Furthermore, an increasing number of consumers and businesses began to favor newly constructed wide-lane highways.

The Penn Central case presents a classic case of post-merger cost-cutting as "the only way out" in a constrained industry, but this was not the only factor contributing to Penn Central's demise. Other problems included poor foresight and long-term planning on behalf of both companies' management and boards, overly optimistic expectations for positive changes after the combination, culture clash, territorialism and poor execution of plans to integrate the companies' differing processes and systems.

Quaker Oats Company and Snapple Beverage Company
Quaker Oats successfully managed the widely popular Gatorade drink and thought it could do the same with Snapple. In 1994, despite warnings from Wall Street that the company was paying $1 billion too much, the company acquired Snapple for a purchase price of $1.7 billion. In addition to overpaying, management broke a fundamental law in mergers and acquisitions: make sure you know how to run the company and bring specific value-added skills sets and expertise to the operation. In just 27 months, Quaker Oats sold Snapple to a holding company for a mere $300 million, or a loss of $1.6 million for each day that the company owned Snapple. By the time the divestiture took place, Snapple had revenues of approximately $500 million, down from $700 million at the time that the acquisition took place.

Quaker Oats' management thought it could leverage its relationships with supermarkets and large retailers; however, about half of Snapple's sales came from smaller channels, such as convenience stores, gas stations and related independent distributors. The acquiring management also fumbled on Snapple's advertising campaign, and the differing cultures translated into a disastrous marketing campaign for Snapple that was championed by managers not attuned to its branding sensitivities. Snapple's previously popular advertisements became diluted with inappropriate marketing signals to customers. While these challenges befuddled Quaker Oats, gargantuan rivals Coca-Cola (NYSE:KO) and PepsiCo (NYSE:PEP) launched a barrage of competing new products that ate away at Snapple's positioning in the beverage market. 

Oddly, there is a positive aspect to this flopped deal (as in most flopped deals): the acquirer was able to offset its capital gains elsewhere with losses generated from the bad transaction. In this case, Quaker Oats was able to recoup $250 million in capital gains taxes it paid on prior deals thanks to losses from the Snapple deal. This still left a huge chunk of destroyed equity value, however.

America Online and Time Warner
The consolidation of AOL Time Warner is perhaps the most prominent merger failure ever. In 2001, America Online acquired Time Warner in a megamerger for $165 billion— the largest business combination up until that time. Respected executives at both companies sought to capitalize on the convergence of mass media and the Internet.

Shortly after the megamerger, however, the dot-com bubble burst, which caused a significant reduction in the value of the company's AOL division. In 2002, the company reported an astonishing loss of $99 billion, the largest annual net loss ever reported by a company, attributable to the goodwill write-off of AOL. Around this time, the race to capture revenue from Internet search-based advertising was heating up. AOL missed out on these and other opportunities, such as the emergence of higher-bandwidth connections due to financial constraints within the company. At the time, AOL was the leader in dial-up Internet access; thus, the company pursued Time Warner for its cable division as high-speed broadband connection became the wave of the future. However, as its dial-up subscribers dwindled, Time Warner stuck to its Road Runner Internet service provider rather than market AOL.

With their consolidated channels and business units, the combined company also did not execute on the converged content of mass media and the Internet. Additionally, AOL executives realized that their know-how in the Internet sector did not translate to capabilities in running a media conglomerate with 90,000 employees. And finally, the politicized and turf-protecting culture of Time Warner made realizing anticipated synergies that much more difficult. In 2003, amidst internal animosity and external embarrassment, the company dropped "AOL" from its name and simply became known as Time Warner.

Sprint and Nextel Communications

In August 2005, Sprint acquired a majority stake in Nextel Communications in a $35 billion stock purchase. The two combined to become the third largest telecommunications provider, behind AT&T (NYSE:T) and Verizon (NYSE:VZ). Prior to the merger, Sprint catered to the traditional consumer market, providing long-distance and local phone connections and wireless offerings. Nextel had a strong following from businesses, infrastructure employees and the transportation and logistics markets, primarily due to the press-and-talk features of its phones. By gaining access to each other's customer bases, both companies hoped to grow by cross-selling their product and service offerings.

Soon after the merger, multitudes of Nextel executives and mid-level managers left the company, citing cultural differences and incompatibility. Sprint was bureaucratic; Nextel was more entrepreneurial. Nextel was attuned to customer concerns; Sprint had a horrendous reputation in customer service, experiencing the highest churn rate in the industry. In such a commoditized business, the company did not deliver on this critical success factor and lost market share. Further, a macroeconomic downturn led customers to expect more from their dollars.

Cultural concerns exacerbated integration problems between the various business functions. Nextel employees often had to seek approval from Sprint's higher-ups in implementing corrective actions, and the lack of trust and rapport meant many such measures were not approved or executed properly. Early in the merger, the two companies maintained separate headquarters, making coordination more difficult between executives at both camps.

Sprint Nextel's (NYSE:S) managers and employees diverted attention and resources toward attempts at making the combination work at a time of operational and competitive challenges. Technological dynamics of the wireless and Internet connections required smooth integration between the two businesses and excellent execution amid fast change. Nextel was simply too big and too different for a successful combination with Sprint.

Sprint saw stiff competitive pressures from AT&T (which acquired Cingular), Verizon and Apple's (NASDAQ:AAPL) wildly popular iPhone. With the decline of cash from operations and with high capital-expenditure requirements, the company undertook cost-cutting measures and laid off employees. In 2008, the company wrote off an astonishing $30 billion in one-time charges due to impairment to goodwill, and its stock was given a junk status rating. With a $35 billion price tag, the merger clearly did not pay off.

Breaking Up





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