Monday, June 29, 2009

05. Jaina ideas in Kural: IV

திருக்குறளில் சமண தழுவல்கள் (பாகம்-4

IV. God and gods in Kuŗal

"None of the positions that the poet advocates in his verses
are inconsistent with Jaina practice"

K.N. Subramanyam, 1987

    Valluvar makes passing references to some of the common religious beliefs of his time. Several words in the Kuŗal could be understood to have been used to refer a deity or godhead (இறைவன்தெய்வம், வகுத்தான், இயற்றியான், பகவன் etc.). Of these, two words namely 'இறைவன்' and 'தெய்வம்' are general ones, while the words 'வகுத்தான்' and 'இயற்றியான்' appear to be attributes referring to the two acts of God namely Dispensing and Creation. The last one 'பகவன்' is something special, used by Valluvar only once and that too in the very first couplet. Not all the places where these words occur in Kuŗal could be taken as a reference to a primal Deity. For instance, the word 'தெய்வத்துள்' in couplet 50 mean 'amongst the gods' and in couplet 388 the word 'இறை' could be taken to mean either god himself or the status of attaining godhood. The Kuŗal, like any other literary work of its time, also contains many references to celestials, gods and goddesses. In this section, we take up for discussion such references and see if they can be taken as evidence to prove Valluvar's religious affiliation.

4.1. Jaina concept of God

Jainism has its own concept of god [*,*]. With its state of highest spiritual evolution, divinity in one, connoting collectively all the divinities represented by all the emancipated and liberated souls (Jain, 1999). The Jaina disapproval of Vedic authorities, revolt against Vedic ritualistic sacrifices, emphasis on emancipatory self-effort, exclusion of Divine Grace and extreme position of Law of Karma are some of the root causes that make one believe that there is no belief in God in Jainism (Hemant Shah, *,*). Undoubtedly, God as an extra cosmic personal creator has no place in the Jaina philosophy (Kalghatgi, 1984; Jain, 1999). The Jaina darśana is therefore opposed to Srstivāda (Creation Theory) but only speaks of a Paramātman or Sarvajña, the omniscient Being who serves as an ideal to be aimed by man (Jain, 2002a). Says Ācharya Kundakunda in Ashta Pahuda:  

As pure gold is produced by proper treatment,
So the self becomes Paramātman when helped by time.
(AP, 6:24)

God in Jainism, unlike the powerful and blissful God of other religions, is therefore the Soul that was once embodied in a bondage, and has become God or attained Godhood by self-effort. The Siddhās and the Arhats represent the two types of divinity or godhead in Jainism, the former being the absolutely liberated bodiless pure souls, and the latter, also known as the kévalins or Jinas (including the Tirthankaras) are those who attained emancipation in life, the state of Jeevan-mukta (Jain, 1999). Therefore words like 'தெய்வம்', 'இறைவன்' and even 'கடவுள்' are not uncommon in Tamil Jaina works. 

The etymologically the word 'கடவுள்' is a perfect one to denote a Reality which is both Transcendent (கட) and Immanent (உள்). There are many literary texts in Tamil that underline this twin attributes of God, be it Shiva or Vishnu. The word "kadavuļ" does not find a place in any of the couplets in Kuŗal, but only as a title for the first chapter. Is not "kadavuļ" then a word to be used in non-Jaina works alone? Not necessarily. Tholkāppiar, considered to be a Jaina by some (Chakravarti, 1944; Vaiyapuri Pillai, 1956, *, *), mentions in Tholkāppiam, the oldest extant Tamil work:

கொடிநிலை கந்தழி வள்ளிஎன்ற
வடுநீங்கு சிறப்பின் முதலனமூன்றும்
கடவுள் வாழ்த்தொடு கண்ணிய வருமே!

(Tholkāppiam: புறத்-33) 

Iļango Adigal, the Jaina author of Cilappathikāram, has frequently used the words "கடவுள்" (1.5.178, 2.11.5, 3.24.13), "தெய்வம்" (1.2.47, 1.3.1, 3.24.1) and "இறைவன்" (2.20.37, 2.22,144) in his work. It is therefore misleading to call Jainism as nāstika darśana, for the term nāstika is also interpreted to mean those who do not believe in any higher Reality than this sense perceived world (Jain, 2000).
When we explore the places where Valluvar has used the words of God, gods and other deities in Tirukkuŗal, it seems he did not hesitate to use them as similes and superlatives while composing a couplet to give that extra punch to drive home his message. Two couplets would suffice to cite such instances in Kuŗal:

Couplet: 1062
If some must beg and live, let the Creator of the world
Himself roam and perish!

Couplet 1073
The base are like the gods:
They also do whatever they like.

4.2. The word "தெய்வம்" (theyvam) in Kuŗal
 The word "theyvam" (தெய்வம்) occurs in six couplets in Kuŗal. Let us take these two first.

Couplet: 55
Even rains fall at the command of the wife who upon rising
Worships not God, but her husband
. SS
Couplet 1023
The Lord himself will wrap his robes
And lead the one bent on social service.
* SS, PS

From these couplets, we can appreciate that Valluvar was aware of the "belief in God", "worship of God" and also aware of the notion that "God has the capability to do all". If Jains do not believe in a Creator God, how come Valluvar used these beliefs in his work? The reference to such beliefs in God cannot be taken as an indication to prove that Tirukkuŗal is non-Jaina in character; for the simple reason that the emphasis in these couplets is not to affirm such beliefs but use them to stress virtues like industry in couplet 619, obedience to husband in couplet 55 and on social service in couplet 1023. We can look at some couplets in the Kuŗal to explain this modus operandi of Valluvar better. 

Kuŗal 931:
Don’t gamble even if you win for it draws you in
Like fishes drawn to shining baits.

One may ask how Valluvar, a staunch promoter of ahimsā and vegetarianism, can even mention about fishing. Well, the emphasis here is not on promoting fishing, but only use that as a simile to warn people of the dangers in gambling. In the third division on "Love", Valluvar says in couplets 1090 and 1201:

Wine won't delight unless imbibed,
But love with a look delights!
Love is sweeter than wine;
Its mere thought intoxicates.

Here too, one may ask how Valluvar who wrote a chapter exclusively on "Abstinence from alcohol" could have compared love with wine and even suggesting that wine does delight and intoxicate when consumed! Once again, the author here is not upholding the habit of drinking wine but only using it as a simile to emphasis on the unique qualities of love. So also the word "honey" in verse 1121 which is there only as a simile. Interestingly when Valluvar says in couplet 1023 that even the Deity itself would wrap his robes and come to assist the one who is inclined to do social service, we get the impression that he was in all probability referring to Jaina deities which are invariably depicted unclothed.  

We also need to look at couplet 43 where he declares serving god as one of the five duties of a householder!

தென்புலத்தார் தெய்வம் விருந்தோக்கல் தானென்றாங்கு
ஐம்புலத்தாறு ஓம்பல் தலை.

A householder’s main duty is to serve these five:
God, guests, kindred, ancestors and himself.
* SS

The word "theyvam" here can easily be taken to mean a Creator God, though we also know that it is an adaptation of "Deva" (देव) in Northern tongue. Thus the word "theyvam" could well mean the adoration of a Jaina god as well, be it a Arhat or Siddha, and not necessarily applicable to a Creator God alone. Social service is a prominent part of Jaina ethics, and therefore Jainism prescribes six daily duties for every householder which includes salutations to Jaina gods - Arhat, Siddha and to those excel in austerities, scriptures and virtues (Sangave, 1991; Jain, 1992; Jain, 1999; *), some of which are similar to what Valluvar said above! 

देवपूजा गुरूपास्तिः स्वाध्याय: संयमस्तपः
दानं चेति गृहस्थानां षट् कर्माणि दिने दिने
Deva-pūjā, gurupāstih, svādhyāyah, samyamas-tapah,
Dānam cheti, grhasthānam sat karmāni dine dine
Worship of God, worship of preceptor, study of scriptures,
practice of self-control, practice of austerities, and
giving gifts are the six daily duties of householder.

There are also scholars who consider that the five duties listed by Valluvar are based on the pancha mahayajna of Hinduism (*). These five are listed as sacrifices in Satapatha Brahmana:

There are five great sacrifices, namely, the great ritual sacrifices:
The sacrifice to all beings, sacrifice to me, sacrifice to the ancestors,
Sacrifice to the gods, sacrifice to Brahman.

(Satapatha Brahmana

Manu had laid down a similar list of five duties - towards sages, manes, gods, animals and guests - very similar to pancha mahayajna (Manu Smriti, III.80). He says 

Let him worship, according to the rule,
    (i) the sages by the private recitation of the Veda - 
    (ii) the gods by burnt oblations - தெய்வம்
    (iii) the manes by funeral offerings (Sraddha) - தென்புலத்தார்
    (iv) men by (gifts of) food and - விருந்து
    (v) the Bhutas by the Bali offering.

Mentioned below are the six Jaina duties, five Hindu duties and the equivalent terms used by Valluvar:
Pancha mahayajna
(five great duties)

(daily duties)
devayājna (worship of gods)

deva-pūja (worship of God)
pitrayājna (homage to ancestors)

guru-pāstih (worship of preceptor)
brahmayājna (study of vedas)

svādhyāyah (study of scriptures)
nryājna (honouring guests)

dānam (giving charity or gifts)
bhūta yājna (homage to beings)

tapah (practice of austerities)
Not listed

samyamas (practice of self control)
Not listed

Not listed
Not listed

Not listed

As we see in the table above, only three of the five duties mentioned in Thirukkural are common with Hindu Pancha mahayajna and only two with Jaina Āvaśyakas. Valluvar did not consider the study of scriptures, homage to beings, self control and austerities as the main duties of the householder, though he has emphasized the value of the last three elsewhere in his work.

Valluvar's list of five duties could be akin to the list of six obligatory duties (Sadāvaśyaka) propounded by Jinasena II in 9th century AD. In his Ādipurāna (38.24), Jinaséna he laid down six fold sets of practices for a layman which is a modification of Jaina daily duties (Āvaśyakas): worship (ijyā), acceptable profession (vārttā), charity (dāna), study of scriptures (svādhyāya), restraint (samayaha) and austerities (tapah). The replacement of  guru-pāstih (worship of preceptor) with vārttā (acceptable profession) by Jinasena is clear indication of his preference for the former over the latter. We cannot however come to the same conclusion in the case of couplet 43 as we do not see any deliberate attempt by Valluvar to replace a particular list that was popular during his time. It is clear from the Kuŗal that Valluvar's focus was people, be it heavenly, departed, relatives, strangers or self.  As commentator Manakkudavar says, Valluvar laid down duties towards the (i) departed souls, (ii) heavenly gods, (iii) new guests, (iv) kindred and (v) self. 

In some places, the word "theyvam" could taken to mean "fate". Nālatiyār, a Jaina work beyond doubt, has this verse: "திருத் தன்னை நீப்பினும், தெய்வம் செறினும்" which means "Even if fortune forsakes and gods frown" (verse 304). While Rev. F. J. Leeper translates this verse as "Though Lakshmi withdraw from them and God be angry", S. Anavaratavinayakam Pillai translates as "Though fortune forsakes him and fate frown on him". Note the choice of the word "fate" here. Saroj Bharadwaj (1992) who carried out an exclusive study on the concept of "daiva" in Sankrit texts like Mahabhatra mentions that the term is ambiguous and is a riddle ought to be solved. Citing Amaragośa, he points out that the word 'daiva' is variously expressed as "Destiny", "Luck", "Controller", "the Cause", "the Seed" etc.  Going by this logic, the word "theyvam" in couplet 619 (தெய்வத்தான் ஆகாது எனினும் முயற்சி தன் மெய் வருத்தக் கூலி தரும்) which comes under the chapter "Fate" (ஊழ்), could be better translated as "fate". Another word used by Valluvar to mean "fate" appears to be "vaguthān" (வகுத்தான்) in couplet 377 (வகுத்தான் வகுத்த வகை அல்லால் கோடி தொகுத்தார்க்கும் துய்த்தல் அரிது). Not surprisingly, this couplet also comes under the chapter "Fate". Marudanayagam (2005) writes that Valluvar uses works like 'theyvam' and 'ulagattu iyarkai' (nature of the world) to refer to fate; so also the words 'akul' and 'pokul' which mean benign fate and malign fate (fortune and misfortune) respectively. 

Therefore the word "theyvam" in Kuŗal could mean three different things depending on the context. It could mean "fate" (619), a deity to be worshipped (43) or a deity capable of doing what man cannot achieve (55).

4.3. Gods and celestials in Kuŗal

Does Valluvar refer to any particular God by name? Though not by name, he refers to Lord Vishnu in couplet 610 as "one who measured by His feet" (அடி அளந்தான்), an obvious reference to the Hindu myth of Vishnu measuring the Earth, Heaven and Bali's head in three steps (thus being called "Trivikrama"). Chakravarti (1953) points out that Jaina commentators interpret it as the world measured by divine knowledge, but I find it difficult to accept this explanation. Jain (1992) mentions that Jaina writers were always in search of some popular tales that they could make them suitable for their religious sermons. He cites the example of the Vishnu-Bali legend wherein God Vishnu is transformed into an ascetic Vishnukumāra by Jains. Whatever the case may be, the emphasis here is on the gains in store for a king can who is freed of sloth, and Valluvar has only used this belief as a simile. Couplet 580 could be a reference to Lord Shiva's act of consuming poison as some scholars indicate (Mudaliar, 1987) but this is not explicitly implied. 

Couplet: 580
Those desirous of refinement will drink with smile
Even hemlock when offered.
* PS

We see a similar passage in Sangam literature Natrinai (முந்தை யிருந்து நட்டோர் கொடுப்பின், நஞ்சும் உண்பர் நனி நாகரிகர் - Poem 355) and Valluvar appears to have only modeled his couplet on this. From these occasional references we can only infer that Valluvar used these beliefs prevalent during his lifetime as a simile or tool to convey his message. Thirukkuŗal is such a work that some couplets can be interpreted as a reference to religions that were not even prevalent during Valluvar's time! Let us look at this couplet:

கழாக்கால் பள்ளியுள் வைத்தற்றால் சான்றோர்
குழாத்துப் பேதை புகல்.  (840)
A fool's entry into a learned assembly
Is like entering a shrine with unclean legs.

The word "பள்ளி" (palli) here could easily be interpreted as a reference to the Mosque, the common place of worship where devotees enter after washing their feet! Since there were no mosques during the time of Valluvar, we can only presume that it must have been a reference to either Jaina or Buddhist monastery. The monasteries of the Jains and Buddhist monks were called “பள்ளி” in the ancient Tamil country (Varadarajan, 1988). Following the near total disappearance of Buddhism and Jainism from Southern India, this word has now been used to denote the places of worship of Muslims and Christians in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Hindu temples were always known by the names "கோயில், ஆலயம், அம்பலம்" and never by the word "பள்ளி" (palli).

Besides some obvious references to Lord Vishnu, the Kuŗal has many references to celestials (இந்திரன், அமரர், தேவர், புத்தேளிர், வானத்தவர், வானோர்), female deities (செய்யவள், செய்யாள், தவ்வை, தாமரையினாள், திரு, முகடி), manes, ghosts and evil spirits (அணங்கு, அலகை, தென்புலத்தார், பேய்). There is a tendency amongst scholars to nail the Kuŗal as Hindu work because these words exist. Apart from worship of Tirthankaras/Arhats/Siddhas,  Jainism also has a large pantheon of gods, godlings, celestials or angels who are divine beings but not divinities or deities (Kalghatgi,  1984; Jain, 1999). Sharma (1989) in his work "Jaina Yakshas" mentions about the tradition of even Yakshini worship prevalent in many Jaina communities. Kalghatgi (1984) and Kandaswamy (2001) believe that such forms of worship, though foreign to Jainism, have been absorbed and assimilated, in the struggle for survival with other religions. One of the daily Jaina recitations that fall under the 32 "Pious Aspirations" (Bhāvanā-dvā-trimśikā) composed by Achārya Amita-gati, goes like this:

O' Sarasvati (goddess of learning), pray, forgive me for the mistake I may have committed inadvertently, in pronouncing, spelling, uttering, putting, explaining or understanding, grammatically or otherwise, and grant me the boon of 'knowledge absolute' (Recitation No. 10) (Jain, 1999)

Therefore goddesses like Sarasvati and Lakśmi , dévās like Indra and many celestials like angels, yakshās and demons fall under the scheme of Jainism. Sri Kundakunda, a well known Jaina Āchārya, in his work Ashta Pahuda says "Good people adorned with virtue are dear to the gods" (AP, VIII: 17). Valluvar also says in couplet 388: "A just king, who guards over his subjects, will be deemed god by them" NV. Therefore gods and goddesses very well fall into the scheme of Jaina beliefs though they do not believe in an outside creator God (see Mathews, 1995). Moreover, a reference to a god or goddess of other faith cannot be taken as an indication to show Valluvar's inclination towards that faith, for the simple reason that the author seem to have had no hesitation in using the prevailing beliefs amongst the people of his time and use them often as similes to emphasize his message. Some of these words like 'செய்யவள்' and  'முகடி' are found in many established Jaina literary works as well. 'செய்யவள்' is found in Cilappadikāram (2.12.69) and 'முகடி' is Cūdāmañi Nigañdu (Verse 145). 

G.U. Pope (1886) considered that couplet 25, which refers to the King of celestials Indra, is destructive to the idea that Tiruvalluvar was a Jain. Swami Iraianban (1997), who translated the Kuŗal into English, also held the same view. 

Couplet 25.
Even the celestial king Indra will vouch the strength of one
Who rules his senses five.
* KK, PS

Writes G.U. Pope: "...... a story regarding Indra is referred to as proving that ascetics have power over the gods. The sage was Gautama, who cursed Indra for deceiving the sage's wife, Ahalya. Now, according to Jaina ideas, a sage has no wife, nor can he feel emotion of anger, nor has he the power to inflict punishment." However, Pope fails to explain why he should think Valluvar would have constructed this couplet based on this particular story in mind. S.M. Diaz (2000), citing Manakkudavar's commentary, says it only refers to the insecurity Indra had, whenever a sage effectively controls his five senses and reached the heights of penance, lest he should ultimately endanger his own position - and so Valluvar used him as the witness to the ascetic's prowess. Chakravarti (1953) responds to Pope's  allegation in the following manner: "Pope is quite right in asking this question, but the assumption at the back of the question is unfounded. ........ It is a well known Jain tradition that whenever a person after conquering the senses becomes omniscient by realizing his own perfect self, Indra with his retinue is expected to go to him and offer worship".  It will be relevant here to quote a verse from Buddhist scripture Dhammapāda (94) which states that "Even the Gods esteem one whose senses are controlled as horses by the charioteer". In the Culavagga of Sutta Nipata (Sutta 8, verse 316), Buddha is stated to have said: "As gods pay their homage to Indra, pay thou thine to him who teaches thee".  Arunkala-c-ceppu, a terse Jaina treatise of 12th century A.D. in Tamil, proclaims that those who meditated chanting the Pañcanamaksāra would become supreme Indra among Indras ("indirarkkum indirare en" - 150).   It is therefore not an uncommon practice in the Indian literary tradition, including Srāmanic faiths like Buddhism and Jainism, to bring in the witness of the celestials or devas or the King of the celestials Indra to vouch for the greatness of ascetics. 

4.4. Scriptures and Brahmins in Kuŗal

In this section, we look for evidences in the Kuŗal for any references to scriptures and saints of any particular religious affiliation. Valluvar refers to Scriptures in at least five places. 

1. "panuval" (பனுவல) in couplet 21
2. "maŗaimozhi" (மறைமொழி) in in couplet 28
3. "õththu" (ஓத்து) in couplet 134
4. "anthañar nūl" (அந்தணர் நூல) in couplet 543
5. "aŗuthozhilõr nūl" (அறுதொழிலோர் நூல) in couplet 560

Though none of these terminologies used by Valluvar could be taken as a reference to any particular scripture, the word "õththu" in couplet 134 could mean the Vedas since it specifically refers to Brahmins (பார்ப்பான்) forgetting their recitations. The Kuŗal does not regard a Scripture as something revealed by God from the heavens but as potent utterances of great sages (couplet 28). 

Commenting on the references to Brahmins through the use of words like anthañan and pārppān (அந்தணன், பார்ப்பான்) by Valluvar, Popley (1931) indicates that such references are contradictory to Jaina beliefs! On the contrary, such references are not uncommon to find in Jaina and Buddhist works. The author of the great Jaina epic Cilappathikāram, Iļango Adigal, employs the word anthañan repeatedly in his work (மதுரைக்காண்டம் 2.13.41, 2.15.70, 2.22.70). Dhammapādā, the Gītā of Buddhists, has an entire chapter on "Brahmin". Both Buddhist and Jaina texts contain numerous references to Brahmins, Ascetics, Siddhās, Bikkhus, Pandits and they all have their own definitions. For instance, Jaina anthology Saman Suttam (314) says, "A person becomes Śramana by equanimity, a Brahmin by his celibacy, a Muni by his knowledge, and an Ascetic by his austerities". In the Buddhists text Dhammapādā, we see chapters that define and delineate the roles of a Sage (Pandita), Awakened one (Buddha), Monk (Bikkhu) and Brahmin (Brāhmana).
The Uttadhayayana Sutra (25:31) of Jains declares that one becomes a Brahmin only by deed, not by birth. The Kuŗal is definitely not like Manu Smriti which appeases Brahmins throughout the work. How does then Valluvar define his anthañan? The the word "அந்தணன்" occurs only thrice in Kuŗal (couplets 8, 30 and 543). The first time when it occurs in chapter one on "Praise of God", it means a saintly personality.  The second time it appears is in chapter 3 on "Greatness of Ascetics" and here it could mean none other than an Ascetic. 

Ascetics are called men of virtue for they assume
The role of mercy to all that live.
(30) NV

Here Valluvar defines what "anthañan" or 'Brahmin' means to him. It is not a matter of coincidence that Lord Buddha, who promulgated compassion and non-injury, also defines a Brahmin as one who does not harm any living creature (Dhammapādā 405). The third time the word  "anthañan" occurs in Kuŗal is under chapter 55 on "Right Governance". The words ""anthañar nūŗkum" (அந்தணர் நூற்கும்) in the couplet 543 is usually translated as "scriptures of Brahmins". It should actually mean the scriptures of the great (sages) since Valluvar says "மறைமொழி" (scriptures) are filled with the great words of great people "மாந்தர்" (couplet 28). It is only when Valluvar employs the word pārppān (பார்ப்பான்) does he refer to the Vedic Brahmin. Though Valluvar said in couplet 972 that men are all equal by birth and distinction arises only because of their deeds, he was at the same time aware of the prevailing custom of Brahmins reciting the Vedas and being considered of noble birth. Says Valluvar in couplet 134:

Scriptures forgot can be recapitulated.
Bad conduct debases a Brahmin and his birth.
* PS, JN

    In this couplet, Valluvar's intention is to say what happens to a person of good birth if his conduct is bad. The emphasis is on the morality and not on who is qualified to recite scriptures. Chakravarti (1953) writes that the honour and respect a Brahmin can expect from society must be based on excellence and not upon cultivation of memory. Relevant to cite here is the verse from Jaina anthology Saman Suttam (340) which says a person does not become a Brahmin by simply repeating the Ōmkāra mantra.

Next Section V. First chapter on the "Praise of God"

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