Earth explorationthe MR-2/6/07the investigation of the surface of the Earth and of its interior.



Exploration of space and the ocean depths has been facilitated by the placement of sensors and related devices in these regions. Only a very limited portion of the subsurface regions of the Earth, however, can be studied in this way. Investigators can drill into only the uppermost crust, and the high cost of drilling severely limits the number of holes that can be dugdrilled. The deepest borehole so far drilled extends only to a depth of about 10 kilometres (6 miles). Because direct exploration is so restricted, investigators are forced to rely extensively on geophysical measurements (see below Methodology and instrumentation).

Primary objectives and accomplishments


Many surface and subsurface exploratory projects are undertaken with the aim of locating: (1) oil and , natural gas accumulations , and coal beds; (2) concentrations of commercially important minerals (for example, ores of iron, copper, and uranium) and deposits of building materials (sand, gravel, etc.); (3) recoverable groundwater; (4) various rock types at different depths for engineering planning; (5) geothermal reserves for heating and electricity; and (6) archaeological features.


Methodology and instrumentation



Remote sensing




Landsat images are among the most commonly used. They are produced with data obtained from a multispectral scanner carried aboard certain U.S. Landsat satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of about 900 kilometres. Images covering an area of 185 kilometres square are available for virtually every segment of the Earth’s surface (see Plate 7). Scanner measurements are made in four spectral bands: green and red in the visible portion of the spectrum, and two infrared bands. The data are usually displayed by arbitrarily assigning different colours to the bands and then superimposing these to make “false-colour” images.


Magnetic methods





Gravity methods




Seismic refraction methods







Seismic reflection methods





Electrical and electromagnetic methods









Radioactive methods





Geothermal methods


Geochemical methods


Excavation, boring, and sampling


Conclusions about the deep Earth

The overall oblate shape of the Earth was established by French Academy expeditions between 1735 and 1743. The Earth’s mean density and total mass were determined by the English physicist and chemist Henry Cavendish in about 1797. It was later ascertained that the density of rocks on the Earth’s surface is significantly less than the mean density, leading to the assumption that the density of the deeper parts of the planet must be much greater.

The Earth’s magnetic field was first studied by William Gilbert of England during the late 1500s. Since that time a long sequence of measurements has indicated its overall dipole nature, with ample evidence that it is more complex than the field of a simple dipole. Investigators also have demonstrated that the geomagnetic field changes over time. Moreover, they have found that magnetic constituents within rocks take on magnetic orientations as the rocks cool through their Curie point or, in the case of sedimentary rocks, as they are deposited. A rock tends to retain its magnetic orientation, so that measuring it provides information about the Earth’s magnetic field at the time of the rock’s formation and how the rock has moved since then. The field of study specifically concerned with this subject is called paleomagnetism.

Observations of earthquake waves by the mid-1900s had led to a spherically symmetrical crust–mantle–core picture of the Earth. The crust–mantle boundary is marked by a fairly large increase in velocity at the Mohorovičić discontinuity at depths on the order of 25–40 kilometres on the continents and five–eight kilometres on the seafloor. The mantle–core boundary is the Gutenberg discontinuity at a depth of about 2,800 kilometres. The outer core is thought to be liquid because shear waves do not pass through it.

Scientific understanding of the Earth began undergoing a revolution from the 1950s. Theories of continental drift and seafloor spreading evolved into plate tectonics, the concept that the upper, primarily rigid part of the Earth, the lithosphere, is floating on a plastic asthenosphere and that the lithosphere is being moved by slow convection currents in the upper mantle. The plates spread from the mid-oceanic ridges where new oceanic crust is being formed, and they are destroyed by plunging back into the asthenosphere at subduction zones where they collide. Lithospheric plates also may slide past one another along strike-slip or transform faults (see also plate tectonics: Principles of plate tectonics). Most earthquakes occur at the subduction zones or along strike-slip faults, but some minor ones occur in rift zones. The apparent fit of the bulge of eastern South America into the bight of Africa, magnetic stripes on the ocean floors, earthquake distribution, paleomagnetic data, and various other observations are now regarded as natural consequences of a single plate-tectonics model. The model has many applications; it explains much inferred Earth history and suggests where hydrocarbons and minerals are most likely to be found. Its acceptance has been widespread as economic conclusions have borne fruit.

An extensive series of boreholes drilled into the seafloor under the Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling (JOIDES) program has established a relatively simple picture of the crust beneath the oceans (see also undersea exploration). In the rift zones where the plates comprising the Earth’s thin crust separate, material from the mantle wells upward, cools, and solidifies. The molten mantle material that flows onto the seafloor and cools rapidly is called pillow basalt, while the underlying material that cools more slowly forms what is termed gabbros and sheeted gabbro dikes. Sediments gradually accumulate on top of these, producing a comparatively simple pattern of sediment, basaltic basement, and gabbroic layering, and underlying mantle structure. Much of the heat flow from the solid Earth into the oceans results from the slow cooling of the oceanic basement rocks. Heat flow gradually declines with distance from the spreading centres (or with the length of time since solidification). As the oceanic rocks cool they become slightly denser, and isostatic adjustment causes them to subside slightly so that oceanic depths become greater. The oceanic crust is relatively thin, measuring only about five–eight kilometres in thickness. Nearly all oceanic rocks are fairly young, mostly Jurassic or younger (i.e., less than 190200,000,000 years old), but relics of ocean floor rocks have been found in ophioliteophiolite complexes as old as 3.8 billion years.

The crust beneath within the continents, unlike the oceanic crust, is considerably older and thicker and appears to have been formed in a much more complex way. Because of its greater thickness, diversity, and complexity, the continental crust is much more difficult to explore. In 1975 the U.S. Geodynamics Committee initiated a research program to explore the continental crust using seismic techniques developed by private industry for the purpose of locating petroleum accumulations in sedimentary rocks. Since then its investigations have been conducted in a number of locales throughout the United States. Several notable findings have resulted from these studies, the most spectacular of which was the discovery of a succession of very low-angle thrust sheets beneath the Appalachian Mountains. This discovery, made from seismic data collected across this region between 1978 and 1980, is altering prevailing reflection profiling data, influenced later theories on continent formation.

The success of the U.S. crustal studies program has spawned a series of similar efforts in Australia, Canada, Europe, India, the Tibet Autonomous Region of China,Factually true, but the use of Tibet without the “Autonomous Region” qualifier might be problematic. and elsewhere, and seismic investigation of the continental crust continues to be one of the most active areas of basic exploration in the last quarter of the 20th century.

The desire to detect nuclear explosions in the years following World War II led to the establishment of a worldwide network of uniform seismograph stations. This has greatly increased the number and reliability of earthquake measurements, the major source of information about the Earth’s interior. The construction of large-array seismograph stations has made it possible to determine the directions of approach of earthquake waves and to sort out overlapping wave trains. Computer processing allows investigators to separate many wave effects from background noise and to analyze the implications of the multitude of observations now available.

The assumptions made in the past that significant property variations occur mainly in the vertical direction were clearly an oversimplification. Today, investigation of the deep Earth concentrates primarily on determining lateral (horizontal) changes and on interpreting their significance. Seismic tomographic analysis (see above) indicates appreciable variation in properties, many of which tend to confirm what is expected from theories about upper mantle convection currents. The data, however, also indicate variations whose significance has yet to be determined.records variations in the seismic velocity of Earth’s subsurface and has revolutionized the imaging and definition of mantle plumes (hot material originating from the core-mantle boundary) and subducting lithospheric plates.