inland water ecosystem

inland water ecosystem


      complex of living organisms in free water on continental landmasses.


The origin of inland waters

      All inland waters originate from the ocean, principally through evaporation (vaporization), and ultimately return to this source. This process is part of the global hydrologic cycle. A major feature of this cycle is that more water evaporates from the ocean than is directly precipitated (precipitation) back into it. The balance of water vapour is precipitated as rain, snow, or hail over continental landmasses whence it either evaporates into the atmosphere (about 70 percent) or drains into the sea. (For more information and a schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle, see hydrosphere.)

      On the surface of the land, free water habitats can be classified as either lotic (riverine ecosystem) (running-water) or lentic (lacustrine ecosystem) (standing-water). Lotic habitats include rivers (river), streams, and brooks, and lentic habitats include lakes (lake), ponds, and marshes (marsh). Both habitats are linked into drainage systems of three major sorts: exorheic, endorheic, and arheic. Exorheic regions are open systems in which surface waters ultimately drain to the ocean in well-defined patterns that involve streams and rivers temporarily impounded by permanent freshwater lakes. Endorheic regions are considered closed systems because, rather than draining to the sea, surface waters drain to inland termini whence they evaporate or seep away. Typically, the termini are permanent or temporary lakes that become saline as evaporation concentrates dissolved salts that either have been introduced by rainwater or have been leached out of substrata within the drainage basin. In arheic systems water falls unpredictably in small amounts and follows haphazard drainage patterns. Apart from rivers that arise outside the region (allogenic rivers) and areas fed from underground sources of water, most bodies of water within arheic regions are temporary.



The environment

Physical and chemical properties of water






Permanent bodies of standing fresh water
      About half of all inland waters reside in deep, permanent, freshwater lakes. The largest of these lakes is Lake Baikal (Baikal, Lake) in Russia, which contains almost 20 percent of the total amount of inland fresh water. Another 20 percent is found in the Great Lakes of North America. Characteristic of such waters is the development of vertical differences (vertical stratification) of several important features, which often display marked seasonal variation as well. light is by far the most important variable feature because it supplies not only chemical energy for biological processes but also heat. It is the diurnal, seasonal, and vertical differences in heat that ultimately give rise to most other spatiotemporal, physicochemical differences within lakes.

 Various thermal patterns typically occur in deep, freshwater lakes. In temperate regions of the biosphere, where a majority of such lakes occur, lakes exhibit a dimictic thermal pattern (two periods of mixing—in spring and autumn—per year) caused by seasonal (season) differences in temperature and the mixing effects of wind (Figure 2—>). This type of lake stratifies in summer as the surface water (epilimnion) warms and ceases to mix with the lower, colder layer (hypolimnion). Water circulates within but not between the layers, more vigorously within the epilimnion. The boundary between these layers is the metalimnion, a zone of rapid temperature change. With the onset of autumn, the epilimnion cools and the water becomes denser, sinking and mixing with the hypolimnion. The work required to mix the two layers is provided by wind, and the lake circulates, or overturns, completely. Circulation continues until surface ice protects the lake from further wind action. The lake overturns again in spring after surface ice melts, and by summer it will be stratified once again. Other thermal patterns are monomixis, in which a single annual period of circulation alternates with a single thermal stratification event, and polymixis, in which frequent periods of stratification occur.

      Many other physicochemical features exhibit seasonal differences in vertical distribution. Most are closely associated with and dependent upon seasonal thermal differences. For example, in the summer the epilimnion of dimictic lakes may contain high concentrations of dissolved oxygen, and the hypolimnion low concentrations. The reverse may apply to dissolved carbon dioxide. Aside from the summer season, however, no vertical differences may be present. Changes in oxygen concentration are particularly important because many aquatic animals cannot survive when oxygen concentrations dip below a certain level. Oxygen concentrations also determine the solubility of several important substances, notably phosphate, iron, and manganese, which consequently display vertical seasonal variation as well.

 Some features of deep, freshwater lakes, such as water level and salinity, do not vary seasonally. Neither does salinity have a vertical gradient within such lakes. Few physicochemical features of shallow, permanent bodies of standing fresh water are vertically stratified, although many features vary significantly according to season. However, in permanent bodies of fresh water located in regions warmer than the temperate zone, thermal stratification and related phenomena may develop at shallower depths and persist longer than they would in temperate lakes of similar morphometry. This follows from the water density–temperature relationship (Figure 1—>), according to which, at higher temperatures, water density changes rapidly with only small temperature rises.

Temporary bodies of standing fresh water
      All land surfaces in the biosphere develop temporary bodies of fresh water following a rain. Although the total volume of fresh water in such localities is only a small fraction of that in permanent freshwater lakes, the biological role of temporary bodies of standing fresh water is considerable. They represent one of the most characteristic types of bodies of water in all arid landscapes of the biosphere (which make up about one-third of total land area). In certain regions and at particular times they represent the most obvious landscape feature (e.g., on the Highveld of South Africa). Many types occur, ranging from small, short-lived rainpools of irregular occurrence to large, regularly flooded wetlands that persist for many months (see boundary ecosystem: Boundary systems between water and land (boundary ecosystem)). Because of their ubiquity, these temporary bodies of water are known by many names, including those of local derivation such as vlei, claypan, pan, playa, and tinaja. The length of time that temporary waters last and the timing and regularity of their occurrence depend primarily on climatic and topographic features. As a general rule, however, the more arid the environment, the shorter their life span and the less predictable their occurrence.

      Temporary bodies of water are usually shallow; thus, vertical differences in physicochemical features are not as apparent in these waters as they are in permanent, deeper waters. When vertical differences do develop, they are generally transient (however, see the remarks above concerning thermal stratification in regions of high temperatures). Physicochemical features in temporary bodies of water are much more sensitive to external events than they are in deeper, permanent waters. Thus, hydrologic variability (e.g., inputs, water levels, depths), sediment-water interchange, and wind have greater effects than they do in deep, permanent, freshwater lakes. (Salinity, however, rarely fluctuates above 3 grams per litre.) Overall, it may be said that aquatic ecosystems in temporary bodies of standing fresh water are much less buffered from external environmental events than are permanent bodies of fresh water.

Saline lakes
      Saline (salt) lakes (i.e., bodies of water that have salinities in excess of 3 grams per litre) are widespread and occur on all continents, including Antarctica. Saline lakes include the largest lake in the world, the Caspian Sea; the lowest lake, the Dead Sea; and many of the highest lakes, such as those in Tibet and on the Altiplano of South America. Although inland saline water constitutes some 45 percent of total inland water, it is largely concentrated in only a few deep lakes, principally the Caspian Sea. Saline lakes are most common in the semiarid regions of the biosphere, which encompass approximately 27 percent of total land area, because two preconditions for the formation of salt lakes occur there most frequently: a balance between input of water (precipitation and inflows) and output of water (evaporation and seepage) and the presence of endorheic drainage basins.

      Despite their wide geographic distribution and large total volume, the importance of salt lakes as an integral element in biospheric processes generally has been overlooked. Indeed, not until the effects of human impact began to be noticed—from about 1960—did their environmental significance become clear. An example of this is provided by the Aral Sea, a large salt lake in Central Asia. After much of the input of fresh water was diverted before reaching the lake to be used for irrigation (irrigation and drainage), the level of the lake fell, salinity rose, and vast expanses of the lake bed were exposed. As a result, the fishing industry collapsed, islands that had served as wildlife refuges became peninsulas, biological diversity and productivity fell, biota disappeared, large quantities of salt blew from the lake bed onto neighbouring lands, groundwater salinity rose, and the local climate was altered. The effects on the local human population were catastrophic as well.

      Permanent salt lakes show the same sort of vertical differences in physicochemical attributes as permanent bodies of standing fresh water do; similarly, temporary salt lakes and temporary bodies of standing fresh water respond alike to environmental disturbances. However, all salt lakes are distinguished from all freshwater bodies by differences in ionic (ion) composition and, obviously, much higher salinities. Depending on the dominant ions present, salinities may reach values well above 300 grams per litre. In permanent, deep salt lakes, annual salinities as well as water levels may fluctuate only slightly, while, in shallow, temporary lakes, salinities may range from less than 50 grams per litre to more than 300 grams per litre over a period of a single year and be accompanied by wide water-level fluctuations. Moreover, because all salt lakes are dependent on a climatic (climate) balance, they are a great deal more sensitive to long-term climatic changes than are freshwater lakes. Thus, even large, deep, permanent salt lakes display marked changes in salinity and water level over time, reflecting long-term shifts in climate. Often these changes are compounded by the human diversion of water, as described above. Salinity has many direct effects on other physicochemical features. Its effect on freezing points has already been noted (see above The environment: Physical and chemical properties of water (inland water ecosystem)). Salinity also affects the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved. As illustrated in Figure 3, the greater the concentration of sodium chloride, which is the solution most similar to that encountered in saline lakes, the less soluble is oxygen.

Running water
      Permanent and temporary running waters (streams, brooks, rivers (river)) occur throughout the biosphere. Well-watered regions (temperate and humid tropical areas) are characterized by permanent streams and large, permanent rivers; drier regions are characterized by temporary streams. However, even dry regions may have large permanent allogenic rivers that arise in humid areas and flow into the arid region—e.g., the Nile River in North Africa.

      Rivers and streams provide the essential link in the global hydrologic cyclei.e., the means whereby all water evaporated from the sea and precipitated onto land is ultimately returned to the sea. Nevertheless, running waters account for less than 1 percent of all inland free waters, a good deal of which occurs within only one river, the Amazon (Amazon River).

      Running waters have several physicochemical features that distinguish them from standing waters. The most obvious are unidirectional flow of water, a generally linear morphology, and shallow depth. Less obvious, but distinctive nonetheless, is the constant low salinity of lotic (riverine ecosystem) environments. With very few exceptions, all running waters are fresh and contain the same major ions as standing fresh waters. These and other physicochemical features combine to create an aquatic environment very different from the lentic (lacustrine ecosystem) environment. The result is that most biological communities (community) that originate within a lotic system, and their associated ecological processes, are so specialized that they are confined to this type of environment. Nonetheless, the difference between lentic and lotic habitats is not always clear-cut. The decisive criterion is the length of time a given mass of water resides within a certain part of an aquatic ecosystem, a concept clearly related to flow rates. Some large rivers with only a slight gradient have low rates of discharge and flow and extensive floodplains with many interconnected bodies of lentic waters. Similar to this situation is the extensive reach of a large river that is well protected from the main current and may seem more lentic than lotic. Conversely, some small freshwater lakes with short water-residence times that are in areas that receive a large amount of precipitation are essentially no more than enlarged river pools, or, to coin a medical analogy, aneurysms in the biosphere's hydrologic system.

      Although running waters do not display the range of salinity that standing waters do, the diversity of physical form and the variety of biological habitats is just as extensive as those of standing waters. Running waters range from small, temporary streams that flow only after irregular rain has fallen in deserts, to large, permanent tropical rivers so wide that opposing banks are not visible. Extensive floodplains (floodplain) may be present or absent; flow may be more or less constant or highly variable, with actual rates from high to almost nothing; and substrates may range from bare rock to fine mud. Great differences occur among their physicochemical processes, including biogeochemical pathways, the relative ecological importance of the floodplain (if present), the main stem of the river or stream, the hyporheic zone (the environment below the bed), and contiguous terrestrial areas.

Biota of inland waters
      A remarkably diverse assemblage of plants, animals, and microbes live in inland waters, with nearly all major groups of living organisms found in one sort of aquatic ecosystem or another. Nevertheless, no major group actually evolved in inland waters; all evolved either in the sea or on land, whence the biological invasion of inland waters eventually took place. The long period of time since this original invasion occurred, however, has allowed many important taxa of inland waters, such as different types of crustaceans, to evolve.

      The only major groups of aquatic animals conspicuously absent from inland waters include the phyla Echinodermata, Ctenophora, and Hemichordata. Several other major groups of aquatic animals, as well as plants, are markedly less diverse in inland waters than they are in the sea: Notable among the animals are the phyla Porifera (sponges (sponge)), Cnidaria (cnidarian), and Bryozoa (moss animals (moss animal)) and among the plants are Phaeophyta ( brown algae) and Rhodophyta ( red algae). The reason these groups did not invade as successfully as other groups is uncertain, but presumably they were less able to cope with lower salinities and reduced environmental stability. Major groups of the inland aquatic biota that are derived from terrestrial ancestors are insects and macrophytes other than large algae.

      Whatever their origins, the invading biota needed to develop many adaptations (adaptation) to the special physicochemical features of inland waters. For those abandoning a marine environment the primary adaptation was a physiologic one that would permit survival in a considerably less saline, more dilute external medium. For terrestrial biota, the most necessary adaptations were those that would allow the organism to exist in a medium of significantly greater density and viscosity that also contained less oxygen. Many other adaptations were required to meet the challenges that particular features of a given aquatic environment posed. Thus, in running waters adaptations were needed that prevented an organism from being washed downstream; in highly saline lakes, a concentrated external medium was the challenging environmental feature; and in temporary waters, the main obstacle was to survive the dry phase. The adaptations themselves are many and varied and include those of physiology (e.g., osmoregulatory abilities), structure (e.g., flattened bodies of fauna living in running waters), behaviour (e.g., burrowing to avoid dehydration), and ecology (e.g., development of life cycles that accord with the occurrence of seasonally unfavourable conditions).

      The biota of almost all inland saline waters did not evolve directly from marine ancestors but instead primarily from freshwater forms. Only a few forms appear to be of terrestrial derivation, and a few organisms in inland waters located near coasts are of marine origin. Although at first this evolutionary pathway may not seem obvious, it can be explained easily. Organisms that survive under greater environmental stress tend to have a greater ability to adapt than those that do not. Marine environments are considered less stressful than freshwater environments; hence, organisms from fresh waters are better able to adapt to the extremely stressful environment of inland saline waters.

Population and community development and structure
      All types of inland aquatic ecosystems have well-defined structures and processes that are similar in general aspects but differ in particular details throughout the biosphere. Thus, as is true of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, almost all inland aquatic ecosystems have three fundamental trophic levels (trophic level)—primary producers (algae and macrophytes), consumers (animals), and decomposers (bacteria, fungi, small invertebrates)—that are interconnected by a complex web of links. Energy passes through these trophic levels primarily along the grazer and detrital chains and is progressively degraded to heat through metabolic activities. Meanwhile, the essential elements follow pathways that cycle between these biotic components and the abiotic components of the ecosystem (see biosphere: The organism and the environment: Resources of the biosphere: Nutrient cycling (biosphere)). A few inland aquatic ecosystems such as hot springs and highly saline lakes have conditions so inimical to life that biological diversity is restricted, trophic levels are correspondingly simple, and energetic and biogeochemical processes are compressed.

  Organisms within the trophic network are arranged into populations and communities. In deep, freshwater lakes the primary producers (plants (plant)) are found either at the shallow edges of the lake (emergent, submerged, or floating macrophytes) or free-floating within its upper layers (microscopic algae, cyanobacteria, and photosynthetic bacteria of the plankton community) (Figure 4—>). Plants are found only in the photic zone—the upper portion of the lake where photosynthesis occurs, also called the trophogenic zone. In this zone the production of biochemical energy through photosynthesis is greater than its consumption through respiration and decomposition. Animals and decomposers are found in both the photic and aphotic zones. In the aphotic zone, also called the tropholytic zone, the consumption of energy exceeds its production. The zones are demarcated by a plane of compensation at which primary production and consumption are equivalent. This plane varies diurnally and seasonally with changes in light penetration. The major biological communities of deep freshwater lakes are shown in Figure 4—>. Included are the plankton, which contains tiny floating plants ( phytoplankton) and animals ( zooplankton) as well as microbes (see marine ecosystem: Marine biota: Plankton (marine ecosystem)); the shoreline macrophytes; the benthos (bottom-dwelling organisms); the nekton (free-swimming forms in the water column); the periphyton (microscopic biota on submerged objects); the psammon (biota buried in sediments); and the neuston (biota associated with surface film). These organisms differ enormously in size, ranging from less than 0.5 micrometre (0.00002 inch) to greater than 1 metre (3.28 feet). They also vary in composition, structure, function, adaptations, and spatiotemporal location. Significant taxonomic differences also occur across continents; for example, the fish species of freshwater lakes in Africa are not the same as those of similar ecosystems in North America, nor are the plankton of lakes in Australia the same as those of lakes in Asia.

      The populations and communities of inland waters other than freshwater lakes are similarly complex but markedly different in all except their fundamental ecological roles. Even major ecological and biogeochemical processes are quite distinct in different sorts of inland waters. In streams, for example, plankton populations are absent and much energy is derived allochthonously (from outside the stream). The processing and transport of essential elements follow a downstream sequence. Hypotheses attempting to explain ecological processes in running waters include the concept of the river continuum, which explains differences in lotic communities according to the changing ecological factors along the river system. Nutrient spiraling is another concept invoked to explain the cycling of nutrients while they are carried downstream. For large rivers of variable hydrology, the flood pulse concept has been instructive. This concept regards seasonal or occasional flood events as important ecological phenomena determining the biology of the river.

Biological productivity
      Central to all biological activity within inland aquatic ecosystems is biological productivity or aquatic production. This involves two main processes: (1) primary production, in which living organisms form energy-rich organic material ( biomass) from energy-poor inorganic materials in the environment through photosynthesis, and (2) secondary production, the transformation, through consumption, of this biomass into other forms. In this context, it is important to distinguish between gross primary production—i.e., the total amount of energy fixed by photosynthesis—and net primary production—i.e., the amount of energy fixed less that respired by the plants involved and available for secondary production. Note that forms of production using energy other than radiant energy from the Sun are not important to overall aquatic production (see above marine ecosystem: Biological productivity (marine ecosystem)).

      Rates of production, factors that limit production, and the results of production have been and are matters of constant and fundamental interest in inland waters, not least because of the impact that different levels of production in certain waters have on human populations. Decreased levels of secondary production (e.g., a reduction in the fish population) can lead to a meagre harvest, which can in turn provide insufficient protein for some local human populations. Elevated levels of primary production brought about by the input of excess plant nutrients, principally phosphates and nitrates, into inland waters following agricultural and urban development of catchments (known as eutrophication), can also be harmful. For example, eutrophication often results in the development of algal blooms (water bloom)—i.e., dense populations of algae and cyanobacteria, which may be unsightly, toxic, malodorous, or otherwise harmful and unwanted.

      Standing bodies of fresh water are often divided into categories that reflect levels of biological production. Oligotrophic lakes are those that are unproductive: net primary production is only between 50 and 100 milligrams of carbon per square metre per day, nutrients are in poor supply, and secondary production is depressed. Eutrophic lakes, on the other hand, are productive: net primary production is between 600 and 8,000 milligrams of carbon per square metre per day, nutrients are in good supply, and secondary production is high. Mesotrophic lakes are lakes of intermediate productivity: net primary production is between 250 and 1,000 milligrams of carbon per square metre per day. Models that relate levels of lake productivity to levels of nutrient input or loading have been useful in controlling eutrophication in many temperate freshwater lakes. It was once thought that lakes evolved from states of oligotrophy to eutrophy, but this is now generally believed not to be the case. Instead, lake productivity reflects contemporary processes of nutrient supply more than historical events.

      As for comparative levels of biological productivity in inland waters, most values stand somewhere between the high values of coral reefs and the low values of deserts. It is difficult to generalize in this matter, however, because wide ranges in net primary production occur in any type of inland aquatic ecosystem. Certain communities, such as reedswamps in tropical lakes, have values for primary production that are among the highest of those recorded anywhere in the biosphere. Notwithstanding these high values, biological production in inland waters does not significantly contribute to biospheric production. Nevertheless, the use of inland waters by humans to enhance either terrestrial primary production (by irrigating crops) or secondary production on land (by supplying drinking water to stock) is a significant indirect contribution.

Kenneth H. Mann

Additional Reading
G. Evelyn Hutchinson, A Treatise on Limnology, 4 vol. (1957–93), provides essential reading for anyone interested in a serious study of inland waters. Robert G. Wetzel, Limnology, 2nd ed. (1983), is a basic and thorough text on the major limnological features of lakes. Mary J. Burgis and Pat Morris, The Natural History of Lakes (1987), presents global coverage. Jürgen Schwoerbel, Handbook of Limnology (1987; originally published in German, 1984), is a comprehensive treatment. R. Margalef (ed.), Limnology Now: A Paradigm of Planetary Problems (1994), discusses many subjects of direct relevance to the importance of inland waters within the biosphere. Gerald A. Cole, Textbook of Limnology, 4th ed. (1994), explains many of the physicochemical events associated with inland waters. Lake Biwa Research Institute and International Lake Environment Committee (eds.), Data Book of World Lake Environments: A Survey of the State of World Lakes, 2 vol. (1987–89), looks at the physicochemical and biological features of many of the world's lakes. U. Theodore Hammer, Saline Lake Ecosystems of the World (1986), offers a full account of inland saline ecosystems. H.B.N. Hynes, The Ecology of Running Waters (1970), although dated, is a classic text and still an excellent guide. William A. Niering, Wetlands (1985), introduces the major types of water found in North America and their biota. Brian Moss, Ecology of Fresh Waters, 2nd ed. (1988), explores the ecology of freshwater lakes and rivers. R.S.K. Barnes and K.h. Mann (eds.), Fundamentals of Aquatic Ecology, 2nd ed. (1991), contains several relevant essays on inland waters. Max Finlayson and Michael Moser (eds.), Wetlands (1991), deals with all inland waters of the world from a conservation perspective. National Research Council (U.S.), Committee on Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems—Science, Technology, and Public Policy, Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy (1992), discusses how to restore to natural or near-natural conditions inland waters that have been altered by human abuse.William David Williams

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Universalium. 2010.

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