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Classroom Adaptation:
                                           A Case Study of a Montessori School
96                                                                                           Daungvan Bunnag

Many researc...
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98                                                                                              Daungvan Bunnag

among one...
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100                                                                                         Daungvan Bunnag

children and ...
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the chil...
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that ...
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American culture (pp. 149-164). Portsmouth, NH:
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  1. 1. Classroom Adaptation: A Case Study of a Montessori School Daungvan Bunnag Abstract Aims Since the Montessori method came to the United States, the original Maria Montessori was an Italian physician and an anthropologist. But Montessori philosophy has evolved to perhaps she is most remembered for her contribution as an educator. At incorporate many American adapta- the turn of the 20th century, Dr. Montessori discovered a revolutionary tions. This paper explores how teach- way to direct young childrens learning. Her method was efficient, ers in one Montessori school intro- effective, and nothing less than extraordinary, especially when compared duced new elements to the existing prin- with the stringent early education system of the time. With a seemingly ciples of Maria Montessori in their passive teaching approach, the Montessori method produced an unusual classrooms. The results of the study level of productivity from a child. Fascinated with the earlier work of show that these teachers have valid knowledge of the original Montessori Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin, Dr. Montessori made a philosophy, and their cautiously imple- breakthrough observation that Impressions do not merely enter [the mented adaptations complied with the childs] mind; they form it. They incarnate themselves in him. The child original principles of Montessori. creates his own mental muscles, using from this what he finds in the world about him (Montessori, 1967, pp. 25-26). In contrast to the teacher-centered approach dominating at the time, Dr. Montessori showed repeatedly that children could learn more effectively if adults provided them with a prepared environment where they would be enticed to exert their power. She insisted on following and observing the child, and she dismissed adults aggressive intervention to introduce learning materials. Dr. Montessori also praised the benefits of the multi-age classrooms but discouraged the inclusion of fantasy play. Her method later received some criticism for its lack of music and art and its lack of concern for social interaction and creativity (Hainstock, 1978). When Dr. Montessori published her work in 1909, her fame grew beyond her native country, and educators around the world began to adopt the method and apply it to young children in their countries. Having gained international acceptance, the Montessori method needed to be modified in order to adapt to the new hosts (Hainstock, 1978; Kramer, 1976). For instance, one of the primary goals of the American Montessori Society (AMS), founded in 1960, was to establish the teaching of Montessoris insights in an American cultural setting (Neubert, 1992, p. 66). Continu- ing into the present day, many aspects of the Montessori method are still being challenged to evolve to incorporate the expectations and values of todays children (Epstein, 1990; Loeffler, 1992). 95
  2. 2. 96 Daungvan Bunnag Many researchers have devoted their efforts to rooms. The interpretation for each room was then studying these modifications and adaptations of the woven into the supporting evidence interpreted from Montessori method, especially in the United States. the interviews of the teachers. The resulting individual Examples of these adaptations include the expansion portraits are presented in this paper. of the Montessori method into the public school system (Kahn, 1990; Buermann, 1992; Wang, 1992), Teacher I: Sandy special education programs (Hale, 1992; Lamorea & daCosta, 1996; Richardson, 1992; Pickering, 1992), When I entered Sandys Montessori classroom, the programs for disadvantaged children (Lopez, 1992), first thing that struck me was its decoration. Covering and in-home education (Hainstock, 1978; Hoppert, the walls were pictures of musicians. A large stereo 1980). These studies investigated the changes made and a considerable number of cassettes occupied one to the original method of Dr. Montessori when it was corner of the room. Classical music played in the applied to programs other than the conventional background, and children were scattered all over the Montessori schools. Consequently, most of these room. The room contained many child-sized tables studies concluded that program-level adaptations and chairs. Some tables had math workbooks open on were appropriately integrated. them, while some were occupied by students concen- trating on an exercise. The classroom was organized At the classroom level, Holmes foresaw in 1912 the neatly; many Montessori exercises were visible. adaptations of the American Montessori depending There was an art corner, a reading corner, and a on the characteristics of the children and teacher snack area. A main characteristic of the carpeted side (Kramer, 1976, p. 170). Epstein (1990) also stated of the room was a time line, a blue oval boundary that trained Montessori teachers are encouraged to about the size of a standard living room rug with a modify and improve Montessori practice in their yellow duck patterned in the middle. I was told that classrooms. From these statements, it would have this time line would be used for group activities such been anticipated that numerous studies on classroom as unit studies, calendar-time, show and tell, and story adaptations would follow. However, due to rapid telling, during which students all sat in the middle of growth in the various programs and extensions as in the oval. There were about 20 students in Sandys the examples above, much effort has been concen- classroom. trated in the adaptations in these programs. Because the importance of the adaptations at the level of Sandys Montessori-Based Philosophy classroom had been recognized (Holmes, cited in Kramer, 1976; Epstein, 1990), but considerably less Sandy was a qualified Montessori teacher. The attention had been given to the teachers influence in quality that Sandy valued the most in a Montessori their Montessori classrooms, I sought to determine program was that children enjoy what they learn. One how Montessori-trained teachers choose to adapt the of the emphases of her Montessori method was to philosophy and introduce new elements into their allow the child to be independent and enjoy his or her classrooms. learning. Sandy said that the Montessori method developed the whole child as a person as well as To investigate the extent of adaptation in individual allowing the children to learn and grow on their own classrooms, a Montessori school was selected, and while enjoying themselves. Sandy said that she does permission was granted for study. Classroom obser- not teach but merely directs the students towards vation as well as teachers interviews were con- their proper development. She also believed that the ducted. This combinative approach was used to Montessori materials were self-teaching and self- promote the dependability and accuracy of the correcting, and that the children would learn on their representative Montessori classrooms. The data own if she let them handle and solve their own presented here were selected examples from each problems. classroom and descriptions of the interaction between the teacher and the students, including some specific Sandy believed that, using these materials, the conversations recorded within the respective class- children naturally would interact among themselves
  3. 3. Classroom Adaptation 97 when solving their problems. She believed that this I tend to play music in the background. I think it method promoted their social interaction in addition to sets the tone. Either classical or Celtic, flute their problem-solving skills. In other words, the music or Peruvian flute music,  easy listening children learned to respect one another. The develop-  something that would set the tone for the day. It might be seasonal. Right now were doing ment of the childrens social interaction was sup- Celtic music because of the time of the year, were ported by my observation of the classroom. The doing St. Patricks day. children usually gathered into small groups to work on the materials of their choice. I observed two boys working together on the Pink Tower exercise: She also showed me the music workbooks and the picture books about music history she made for the In the carpeted section of the classroom, George whole class. In addition to music, Sandy also intro- was working on the Pink Tower when Bill duced some activities involving the fine arts. She approached him and appeared to have made a mentioned that I do a lot of seasonal works. In suggestion. After a short negotiation, the two kindergarten right now, we are doing van Gogh. And boys agreed and together walked towards one of we are just finishing the unit on Monet. It is fun. the shelves. They helped each other to bring However, her emphasis in this area was significantly back pieces of the Red Rock exercise. They kept going back and forth, combining the two less than in music. materials together with frequent discussions. Unit Studies. Because she believed that the children should enjoy what they learn in class, Sandy tried to Adaptations of the Original Method keep their options as open as possible. Similar to the music, Sandy brought extra curriculum such as Ever since she was an assistant, Sandy tried to design themes or unit studies to her classroom because she the curriculum in her classroom to accommodate two believed that the students found them interesting and things: what the children would enjoy and what would they introduced variety to her curriculum. Sandy be necessary for their development. For this purpose, mentioned that the difference between her program when she became the head teacher, Sandy brought in and non-Montessori programs was that she tried to additional materials such as music, unit studies, and keep the topics broad and general. These topics academics to broaden her Montessori-based curricu- included seasons, holidays, and occupations. To keep lum. Although these activities were not mentioned in up the childrens interest and enthusiasm in class, the original method of Dr. Montessori, Sandy felt that there were many different units that she had incorpo- their inclusion in her classroom was in the childrens rated into the daily routines. Here was one example: best interest. These activities were introduced as supplements to enhance the effectiveness of the For today, were doing spring. Looking for signs method, not to contradict the existing philosophy. of spring  I was going to jump rope.We are making spring baskets filled with eggs. We also talked about how different cultures celebrate Music. Sandy said that music was a part of her life, different things [at different] times of year.We and as a musician, she felt it was vital that one talked about Easter.We talked about respecting respect and understand his/her instrument. Her nature  and respecting your family  thats personal love of music was adapted and transformed basically what I went over today  if its Spring, in the classroom. She mentioned that each Montessori I can come up with a lot of different things. classroom at the school had a personality of its Thursday we will dye eggs. own, and that the flavor of her classroom was music. We always turn on the music as a background, so Academics. Another main element that Sandy had you know we can develop the childrens aesthetic adapted for her classroom in addition to the unit brain as well as cognitive. Sandy argued that this studies was academic materials and workbooks. adaptation set the tone and initiated the joyful rhythm Although the Montessori materials play an important in her classroom; she felt very strongly about the role in the curriculum of Sandys classroomthey are positive effects music had in her classroom: self-correcting and the children could learn to interact
  4. 4. 98 Daungvan Bunnag among one anotherSandy also believed that an storybooks for reading, and word cards for vocabu- academic-oriented adaptation was necessary. This lary development. Students were not asked to work component was combined with her focus on the on the workbooks until they were 5 or 6 years old. childrens enjoyment as well as their proper develop- The Montessori materials were stored neatly in their ment. Sandy asked her children to work on academics places. The materials were arranged on low shelves on a regular basis. Even though she explained that it so that the children could have easy access to them. doesnt have to be anything that is too demanding, A big canvas stood in the middle of the uncarpeted the childrens work in her class usually involved a portion of the room. A small sink was by the math and language activity. coatroom, and a little area for snack was nearby. There were about 20 students in this afternoon class. Epilogue Tammys Montessori-Based Philosophy The quality that Sandy valued most in a Montessori program was the importance of the children having Tammy was a certified Montessori teacher. She fun while they learn. She believed that the enjoyable modeled the curriculum in her classroom around self-teaching and self-correcting Montessori materials Montessori methods. Her main philosophy focused on properly developed all aspects of the children, such as the concept of the children teaching themselves. In social interaction and problem-solving skills. Because her classroom, Tammy was careful to let the children of the quality of these materials, Sandy saw her role make their own decisions. Her job, as a teacher, was not as a teacher but as a facilitator who merely to follow them and guide them accordingly. Her oversaw the classroom. Believing in her understand- emphasis in the classroom was the students experi- ing of the core of the Montessori philosophy, Sandy ence, not their success; the process, not the product. introduced new elements to broaden the scope of her With these principles, Tammy believed that the classroom in an effort to keep things enjoyable for her children would, on their own, learn adult responsibili- children. Because she had background in various ties such as problem solving and time management. fields, Sandy tried to utilize these experiences to Having the children make their own choices was expand her curriculum. The music, art, and academics Tammys main teaching philosophy, and what she that she added to her classroom were examples of believed to be the core benefit of the Montessori her effort to create the best learning atmosphere for program: her children. In all, Sandy trusted that the added elements helped to sustain the joy in her classroom The most important part is that this child leaves and set the tone for a proper learning atmosphere feeling good about himself because of the while complementing the principles of the philosophy. successes hes had or shes hadthat she is able Her introduction of these personal adaptations to her to or he is able to make choices and live with the Montessori classroom bound all the things she loved choices that he makes. to serve the single purpose of developing her children. Because she praised her students for making their own choices, it was understandable that Tammy Teacher II: Tammy discouraged interfering with them while they learned. Tammy said that she found the other curriculum for Tammys classroom looked like any ordinary preschools too much teacher directed and that Montessori classroom. The room was divided in everyone is doing everything at the same time. halfone half carpeted and one uncarpeted. There Tammy contrasted this approach with her Montessori were not as many tables and chairs scattered around philosophy that the teaching is  what the children the room as in Sandys classroom because Tammy do, its not what [the teachers] do. She believed that emphasized the use of concrete exercises as opposed her job was just to show them the materials, how to to workbooks. Instead of asking the children to use the materials, and the qualities of the materials complete a portion of the workbooks each day, what the children took from that was entirely up to Tammy used activities such the sandbox for writing, them.
  5. 5. Classroom Adaptation 99 Allowing the children to learn on their own and Art and Music. Similar to the way she integrated the valuing their decisions, Tammy concluded that unit studies into the Montessori program, Tammy Montessori is not about the product, but the pro- introduced concepts of art and music to her class- cess. In addition, Tammy liked the multi-age class- room. The children sang along with tapes and CDs. room. For example, her kindergartners could help the There was a unit on rhythm instruments. The art shelf 3-years-olds because they were familiar with the contained mostly what she called open art. Basi- materials. At the same time, the experienced students cally, there were just paper, scissors, glue, crayons, learned to be leadershelpful, gentle, tender, and pencils, etc., for the children to use to create their understanding. This role built their confidence about own project of interest. Again, similar to the adapta- their knowledge and their decisions. On the other tion of the unit studies, the incorporation of the hand, for the younger kids, the multi-age classroom Montessori philosophy was clear. Tammy said that provided a comforting atmosphere, almost like having the focus was on the students creativity, saying that an older sibling there to help you  its like a family. were not going to come out with the same project and that everyone doesnt have to do it. Adaptations of the Original Method Fantasy Play. Tammy said that in a strict school, fantasy play would be strictly prohibited. However, in In addition to her Montessori-based teaching philoso- her classroom, Tammy allowed the children to play if phy, Tammy also introduced some new concepts to they wanted to. She said it was important during Dr. her classroom. Examples of these elements were the Montessoris time that the children didnt go off to introductions of unit studies, fantasy play, art, and Lalaland because their survival depended on reality musicelements that were not described in the not fantasy. However, it is not as strict now, original method of Dr. Montessori. The motivation for because the childrens survival no longer depends such additions was, like Sandys, to improve the merely on reality. It was apparent that Tammy did not existing curriculum. Nonetheless, having valued the believe that her students should be prohibited from importance of the Montessori method and its underly- fantasy play. ing principles, Tammy adapted these ideas to utilize maximally the benefits of the original curriculum. Kisses and Hugs. Another example of Tammys adaptation of the Montessori method was her attitude Unit Studies. The idea of unit studies was distinct towards hugging and touching the children. According from the philosophy of Montessori. However, Tammy to the principles of Montessori, there was to be adapted her unit study to blend into the Montessori minimal touching between the teacher and the curriculum. She stressed that [her unit studies are] children. The school also took this stance: they were available for everyone to do, but [the students] dont very concerned about touching and hugging. Cant all have to do it if they dont want to. Its an option. touch, cant hug. However, having been a day care Although the concept was new to the curriculum of teacher, Tammy insisted that it was okay to hug and Montessori, the general principle remained that the touch, especially when the children had been away children still had the freedom to choose. A scene from from their parents all day long. Simply, she felt Tammys unit study is illustrated below: comfortable doing it, and she was not about to agree to something that she did not see as appropriate. Todays unit was penguins. Tammy picked up a penguin book from the shelf and asked questions about the story in the book. The children raised Epilogue their hands if they wanted to answer. Some examples of the questions were Is penguin a Tammys faith in Montessori lay in the childrens mammal or a bird? or Is penguin a carnivore or power to learn by themselves. She encouraged her an omnivore? Most children were able to answer children to make their own decisions and accept the correctly. I felt that although Tammy repeated this consequences. In her classroom, the emphasis was book again, the children seemed to have a lot of on the process of learning, not the final outcome. She fun with this activity. saw herself as a facilitator who merely observed the
  6. 6. 100 Daungvan Bunnag children and kept things running smoothly in the Parent Education classroom. Tammy adapted several concepts based on her personal philosophy while realizing that some In addition to the classrooms being different from one of her values overlapped those of Montessoris. another, some adaptations of the orthodox Montessori Nonetheless, these ideas were introduced because methods were needed to accommodate the modern the teacher believed that they would benefit her era. When Maria Montessori first introduced her children. The unit studies, art, and music were revolutionary idea to early childhood education, her brought in to expand the scope of the existing principal experiments were based upon the children in Montessori materials. The fantasy play and kisses/ The Childrens House. These youngsters were hugs represented Tammys decision to eliminate mostly underprivileged children with mental disabili- certain features from the original philosophy. She did ties. The power that parents exert today on societys not view them as being inappropriate. In all, Tammy educational system was not a factor in this earlier was a good teacher, who was committed to her endeavor: Rebecca acknowledged this potential childrens healthy development. Her curriculum, problem. Some parents complained that the atmo- whether Montessori based or personally adapted, was sphere in the Montessori classrooms was too free and designed in the childrens best interest. nonacademic. Rebecca went on to emphasize that she had to work with parents to make sure parents The Director: Rebecca understood and kept an open mind towards these methods. Since she had been at the school, the director was very active in educating the Montessori Although the director of the school had not yet gone parents about the concepts and principles of the through the Montessori training process, she had done Montessori method and the school. extensive reading on Montessori materials to familiar- ize herself with the method. She pointed out some observations that could be considered discrepancies Discussion and Conclusions from the original guidelines of Dr. Montessori. This study was aimed at discovering how teachers in Different Flavors a Montessori school adapted their philosophy and introduced new elements to the existing principles of Rebecca acknowledged that, although the Montessori Maria Montessori. Different adaptations in the program was more standardized than others, it could current Montessori classrooms were investigated to only minimize the inevitable human factors not determine the factors that influence such adaptations. eliminate them. The six classrooms still had six The data were analyzed and presented as portraits of different personalities. The flavors in these class- each case to reflect the characteristics of the corre- rooms were mainly influenced by the character of sponding classrooms. each teacher. Anytime youve got human beings, youre going to have some kinds of personalities. The discussion of this study is divided into two main However, she said that this variety was actually sections: the concurrence and the adaptations of the beneficial to the children because they would not teachers practice to the original Montessori method. always be with a single person or in a single class- These elements were supported with specific evi- room in the future: dence from the classrooms. The sources of influence that may contribute to such outcomes were also We want [the differences in the classrooms] proposed. because the children are not always going to be with us. We want them to be able to adjust to Concurrence different people, to understand that all kinds of adults can care about them, and be there for them The findings suggested consistency in the teachers and help them  so I allow for the individual understanding of the principles of Montessori. Ac- personalities in the classroom. cording to The Absorbent Mind (Montessori, 1973),
  7. 7. Classroom Adaptation 101 the child is capable of absorbing knowledge and has of the seasonal music, and sessions on music history. the power to teach himself. This belief was the basis As for Tammys classroom, some characteristics of of this revolutionary and effective curriculum; the the classroom also reflected her experience as a day other elements revolve around this message. At this care teacher. Tammy was familiar with her role of school, although some aspects of the curriculum comforting the children when they had been away varied from one classroom to the next, the teachers from their parents all day. Being used to that role, she appeared to understand the core concepts of the continued to cuddle the children even though the method. The childrens freedom was the main Montessori philosophy suggested that kissing and emphasis in all classes. Both teachers explained that hugging the children should be kept to a minimum. their philosophy focused on the concept of the These examples showed clearly the strong influences children learning by themselves and choosing their of the teachers pre-Montessori background on own tasks. They wanted the children to enjoy what practice in their classrooms. they did and acquire knowledge at their own pace as well as to accept the consequences. These teachers Another source of the personal adaptations was the concentrated on following their children and allowing teachers personal beliefs. For instance, Montessori them to develop naturally using the Montessori proposed that any fantasy play should be prohibited materials. The self-teaching materials were highly because the children should focus on the real world. valued and respected in both classrooms. Because However, Tammy amended this philosophy because the emphasis in the classroom was placed on the she believed that it no longer applied. Her point was children, the teachers described themselves as made on the basis of the time period that the facilitators rather than instructors; the focus was on Montessori method was constructed: childrens the childrens learning process, not the product. All survival today no longer depends just on reality. three personnel interviewed shared the Montessori Tammy therefore adapted the original philosophy and philosophy. chose not to intervene when her children engaged in fantasy play. In addition, based on their personal Adaptations beliefs, the teachers also introduced new elements to their teaching to broaden the original curriculum. Although the basic principles of Montessori were Academic teaching observed in Sandys classroom retained, some adaptations were seen in the class- represented this aspect. Sandy asked her children to rooms. Unlike the shared concepts above, these work on some paper-based academic work on a modifications were not always the same in all class- regular basis because she believed that this type of rooms. These adaptations were not necessarily academic learning in the classroom was necessary. negative deviations, but rather an individualization by The added assignment contrasted with the original each teacher done in the childrens best interest. The method of teaching academics through the factors contributing to these adaptations could be Montessoris self-correcting materials. This adapta- divided into two subcategories: personal and external tion further reflected Sandys trust of her personal adaptations. beliefs and judgment. Personal Adaptations. One apparent source of the External Adaptations. Unlike the personal adapta- personal adaptations was the individual teachers tions where changes were implemented independently background. Focusing on this factor, one noticed that by different teachers, external adaptations occurred the experiences in the teachers earlier careers from the environment outside the classrooms such as significantly influenced practice in their classrooms. the community or the school policy. The prime For example, prior to her introduction to Montessori, examples were the unit studies. This academic Sandy was involved in music as a singer. Music was adaptation was present in all the classrooms ob- a major part of her life. Hence, it was not surprising served. The interviews suggested that these methods that music was the main theme in her classroom of teaching were incorporated from an external most of the activities revolved around music. There curriculum, probably the traditional system, but would be music playing in the background, discussion modified to fit the Montessori program. Sandy noted
  8. 8. 102 Daungvan Bunnag that this adaptation helped broaden her curriculum. context of the classroom, and the content of the curriculum. However, she still tried to keep the emphasis on the In M. H. Loeffler (Ed.), Montessori in contemporary childrens freedom, which meant that they did not American culture (pp. 229-237). Portsmouth, NH: have to participate in such activities if they did not Heinemann. want to. Tammy took a similar stance to make sure Epstein, P. (1990). Are public schools ready for the topics of her unit studies were based on her Montessori? Principal, 69(5), 20-22. (ERIC Journal No. students interests. EJ410166) It seems that the original source of unit studies was Hainstock, E. G. (1978). The essential Montessori. New the community, namely the parents. The most appar- York: New American Library. ent case was the academic emphasis in Tammys Hale, L. M. (1992). A qualitative analysis of the process of classroom. The teacher explained positively that the including young children with development delay within emphasis on academics in her classroom was not at a Montessori preschool program. Unpublished doctoral all her intention. She felt that this development came dissertation, University of Toledo. from the parents influence because the program was Hoppert, M. B. (1980). The design and evaluation of the located in a university town. They expected the education component of a home base program. Disserta- school to possess a strong academic program. This tion Abstracts International, 41(01), 0095A. (University example showed clearly the power exerted by the Microfilms No. AAI8016383) parents. Rebecca must have realized this substantial Kahn, D. (Ed.). (1990). Implementing Montessori education influence since she also supported the introduction of in the public sector. Cleveland Heights, OH: North an education program to assist parents with the American Montessori Teachers Association. (ERIC Montessori philosophy. The program was aimed to Document No. ED327286) minimize confusion about the schools methods in Kramer, R. (1976). Maria Montessori: A biography. New order to avoid any unbeneficial and unnecessary York: Putnam. adaptations. Lamorea, M. M., & daCosta, M. P. R. (1996). The instruc- In summary, this study examined specific classroom tion of Downs Syndrome with Montessoris method. implementations of two teachers, comparing them International Journal of Psychology, 31(3-4), 35-39. with Dr. Montessoris original principles. It was found Loeffler, M. H. (1992). Montessori in contemporary that some adaptations varied between classes and American culture. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. were personal adaptations resulting from differences among the teachers. Other adaptations occurred Lopez, A. (1992). Beyond day care: Full-day Montessori for uniformly throughout the program and were defined migrant and other language-minority children. In M. H. as external adaptations. While the personal adapta- Loeffler (Ed.), Montessori in contemporary American tions were significantly influenced by factors such as culture (pp. 215-228). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. individual beliefs and background, the external Montessori, M. (1967). The Montessori method. New York: adaptations were derived primarily from external Frederick C. Strokes (original work published in 1912). sources, which affected the school as a whole, such Montessori, M. (1973). The absorbent mind. New York: as parents. Regardless of types and derivations, these Holt, Rinehart and Winston. adaptations were implemented with great respect for the original Montessori philosophy. Any changes that Neubert, A. B. (1992). Is there an American Montessori had been implemented had been intentionally modified model? In M. H. Loeffler (Ed.), Montessori in contempo- to allow the children to have the absolute right to rary American culture (pp. 49-67). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. choose from their own interests and proceed at their own pace to fulfill all of their potential possibilities, Pickering, J. S. (1992). Successful applications of which is the essence of the Montessori method. Montessori methods with children at risk for learning disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 42, 90-109. (ERIC Journal References No. EJ455785) Buermann, E. W. (1992). Montessori in public schools: Richardson, S. O. (1992). Montessori and learning disabili- Interdependence of the culture of the school, and the ties. In M. H. Loeffler (Ed.), Montessori in contemporary
  9. 9. Classroom Adaptation 103 American culture (pp. 149-164). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Wang, S. W. (1992). The process for creating and maintain- ing a Montessori public educational system in an urban community. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(12), 4291A. (University Microfilms No. AAI9310228)