Cognitive load

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The ergonomic approach seeks a quantitative neurophysiological expression of cognitive load which can be measured using common instruments, for example using the heart rate-blood pressure product (RPP) as a measure of both cognitive and physical occupational workload.[24] They believe that it may be possible to use RPP measures to set limits on workloads and for establishing work allowance.


Some researchers have compared different measures of cognitive load. For example, Deleeuw and Mayer (2008)[26] compared three commonly used measures of cognitive load and found that they responded in different ways to extraneous, intrinsic, and germane load.

Individual differences in processing capacity[edit]

Evidence has been found that individuals systematically differ in their processing capacity.[27][28] For example, there are individual differences in processing capacities between novices and experts.[29] Experts have more knowledge or experience with regard to a specific task which reduces the cognitive load associated with the task. Novices do not have this experience or knowledge and thus have heavier cognitive load.

It has been theorized that an impoverished environment can contribute to cognitive load.[30] Regardless of the task at hand, or the processes used in solving the task, people who experience poverty also experience higher cognitive load. A number of factors contribute to the cognitive load in people with lower socioeconomic status that are not present in middle and upper-class people.[31]


Effects of heavy cognitive load[edit]

A heavy cognitive load typically creates error or some kind of interference in the task at hand.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16] A heavy cognitive load can also increase stereotyping.[32] Stereotyping is an extension of the Fundamental Attribution Error which also increases in frequency with heavier cognitive load.[33] The notions of cognitive load and arousal contribute to the "Overload Hypothesis" explanation of social facilitation: in the presence of an audience, subjects tend to perform worse in subjectively complex tasks (whereas they tend to excel in subjectively easy tasks). See also: audience effect and drive theory.


The danger of heavy cognitive load is seen in the elderly population. Aging can cause declines in the efficiency of working memory which can contribute to higher cognitive load.[34] The relationship between heavy cognitive load and control of center of mass are heavily correlated in the elderly population. As cognitive load increases, the sway in center of mass in elderly individuals increases.[35] Another study examined the relationship between body sway and cognitive function and their relationship during multitasking and found disturbances in balance led to a decrease in performance on the cognitive task[36] Heavy cognitive load can disturb balance in elderly people. Conversely, an increasing demand for balance can increase cognitive load.




The components of working memory as proposed by British psychologists, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch, are in place at 6 years of age.[40] However, there is a clear difference between adult and child knowledge. These differences are due to developmental increases in processing efficiency.[40] Children lack general knowledge, and this is what creates increased cognitive load in children. Children in impoverished families often experience even higher cognitive load in learning environments than those in middle-class families.[41] These children do not hear, talk, or learn about schooling concepts because their parents often do not have formal education. When it comes to learning, their lack of experience with numbers, words, and concepts increases their cognitive load.

As children grow older they develop superior basic processes and capacities.[41] They also develop metacognition, which helps them to understand their own cognitive activities.[41] Lastly, they gain greater content knowledge through their experiences.[41] These elements help reduce cognitive load in children as they develop.

Gesturing is a technique children use to reduce cognitive load while speaking.[42] By gesturing, they can free up working memory for other tasks.[42] Pointing allows a child to use the object they are pointing at as the best representation of it, which means they do not have to hold this representation in their working memory, thereby reducing their cognitive load.[43] Additionally, gesturing about an object that is absent reduces the difficulty of having to picture it in their mind.[44]

Embodiment, interactivity, and cognitive load[edit]


Computational representation of mental workload[edit]




The main contribution of this thesis [48] is the introduction of a methodology, developed as a formal modular framework, to represent mental workload as a defeasible computational concept and to assess it as a numerical usable index. The research contributes to the body of knowledge by providing a modular framework built upon Defeasible reasoning and formalised using Argumentation theory in which workload can be measured, analysed, explained and applied in different contexts. The framework follows the Popperian test of Falsifiability, this being also flexible and replicable. The preliminary solution proposed was designed for those scholars interested in engaging in the multi-disciplinary domain of mental workload and it is aimed at increasing its understanding and use. A further goal is to offer a new perspective on the formalisation of mental workload, encouraging further research on its representation, assessment and application in more general fields such as Human–computer interaction , Education , and Educational psychology.

See also[edit]


  1. ^ a b Sweller, J (June 1988). "Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning". Cognitive Science 12 (2): 257–285. doi:10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7. 
  2. ^ Paas, Fred G. W. C.; Van Merriënboer, Jeroen J. G. (1993). "The Efficiency of Instructional Conditions: An Approach to Combine Mental Effort and Performance Measures". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 35 (4): 737–743. doi:10.1177/001872089303500412. 
  3. ^ a b c GRANHOLM, ERIC; ASARNOW, ROBERT F.; SARKIN, ANDREW J.; DYKES, KAREN L. (July 1996). "Pupillary responses index cognitive resource limitations". Psychophysiology 33 (4): 457–461. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1996.tb01071.x. 
  4. ^ Andersson, Gerhard; Hagman, Jenni; Talianzadeh, Roya; Svedberg, Alf; Larsen, Hans Christian (May 2002). "Effect of cognitive load on postural control". Brain Research Bulletin 58 (1): 135–139. doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(02)00770-0. 
  5. ^ Frein, Scott T.; Jones, Samantha L.; Gerow, Jennifer E. (November 2013). "When it comes to Facebook there may be more to bad memory than just multitasking". Computers in Human Behavior 29 (6): 2179–2182. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.031. 
  6. ^ a b Skulmowski, Alexander; Pradel, Simon; Kühnert, Tom; Brunnett, Guido; Rey, Günter Daniel. "Embodied learning using a tangible user interface: The effects of haptic perception and selective pointing on a spatial learning task". Computers & Education. 92–93: 64–75. 
  7. ^ a b c Sweller, J., Van Merriënboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). "Cognitive architecture and instructional design". Educational Psychology Review 10 (3): 251–296. doi:10.1023/A:1022193728205. 
  8. ^ Miller, G.A. (1956). "The magic number seven plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity to process information". Psychological Review 63 (2): 81–97. doi:10.1037/h0043158. PMID 13310704. 
  9. ^ Chase, W.G. & Simon, H.A. (1973). "Perception in chess". Cognitive Psychology 4 (1): 55–81. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2. 
  15. ^ a b Sweller, J., & Cooper, G.A. (1985). "The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra". Cognition and Instruction 2 (1): 59–89. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3. 
  16. ^ a b Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P. Chandler, P. and Sweller, J. (2003). "The Expertise Reversal Effect". Educational Psychologist 38 (1): 23–31. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_4. 
  17. ^ a b Chandler, P. & Sweller, J. (1991). "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction". Cognition and Instruction 8 (4): 293–332. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2. 
  18. ^ Kirschner, P.A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R.E. (2006) Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist 41 (2) 75–86
  19. ^ Ginns, P. (2006). "Integrating information: A meta-analysis of the spatial contiguity and temporal contiguity effects". Learning and Instruction 16 (6): 511–525. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2006.10.001. 
  22. ^ Paas, F.G.W.C., and Van Merriënboer, J.J.G. (1993). "The efficiency of instructional conditions: An approach to combine mental-effort and performance measures". Human Factors 35 (4): 737–743. 
  23. ^ Paas, F., Tuovinen, J.E., Tabbers, H.K., & Van Gerven, P.W.M. (2003). "Cognitive load measurement as a means to advance cognitive load theory". Educational Psychologist 38 (1): 63–71. doi:10.1207/S15326985EP3801_8. 
  24. ^ Fredericks T.K., Choi S.D., Hart J., Butt S.E., and Mital A. (2005). "An investigation of myocardial aerobic capacity as a measure of both physical and cognitive workloads". International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 35 (12): 1097–1107. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2005.06.002. 
  26. ^ DeLeeuw, K.E., & Mayer, R.E. (2008). "A comparison of three measures of cognitive load: Evidence for separable measures of intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load.". Journal of Educational Psychology 100 (1): 223–234. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.223. 
  27. ^ Scandura, J.M. (1971). "Deterministic theorizing in structural learning: Three levels of empiricism". Journal of Structural Learning 3: 21–53. 
  28. ^ Voorhies, D. & Scandura, J.M. (1977). "7". Determination of memory load in information processing. Problem Solving, NY: Academic Press. pp. 299–316. 
  29. ^ Murphy, Gregory L.; Wright, Jack C. (1984). "Changes in conceptual structure with expertise: Differences between real-world experts and novices.". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 10 (1): 144–155. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.10.1.144. 
  31. ^ Hackman, Daniel A.; Farah, Martha J. (February 2009). "Socioeconomic status and the developing brain". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13 (2): 65–73. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.11.003. 
  32. ^ Biernat, Monica; Kobrynowicz, Diane; Weber, Dara L. (October 2003). "Stereotypes and Shifting Standards: Some Paradoxical Effects of Cognitive Load". Journal of Applied Social Psychology 33 (10): 2060–2079. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01875.x. 
  34. ^ Wingfield, Arthur; Stine, Elizabeth A.L.; Lahar, Cindy J.; Aberdeen, John S. (June 1988). "Does the capacity of working memory change with age?". Experimental Aging Research 14 (2): 103–107. doi:10.1080/03610738808259731. 
  36. ^ Faulkner, K. A., Redfern, M. S., Cauley, J. A., Landsittel, D. P., Studenski, S. A., Rosano, C., … Newman, A. B. (2007). Multitasking: Association between poorer performance and a history of recurrent falls. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55(4), 570–576.
  37. ^ Calderwood, C.; Ackerman, P. L.; Conklin, E. M. (2014). "What else do college students "do" while studying? An investigation of multitasking". Computers and Education 75: 19–29. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.02.004. 
  39. ^ Sana, F.; Weston, T.; Cepeda, N. J. (2013). "Laptop multitasking hinders classroom learning for both users and nearby peers". Computers and Education 62: 24–31. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.003. 
  40. ^ a b Gathercole, Susan E.; Pickering, Susan J.; Ambridge, Benjamin; Wearing, Hannah (March 2004). "The Structure of Working Memory From 4 to 15 Years of Age.". Developmental Psychology 40 (2): 177–190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177. PMID 14979759. 
  42. ^ a b Ping, Raedy; Goldin-Meadow, Susan. "Gesturing Saves Cognitive Resources When Talking About Nonpresent Objects". Cognitive Science 34 (4): 602–619. doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01102.x. 
  43. ^ Ballard, Dana H.; Hayhoe, Mary M.; Pook, Polly K.; Rao, Rajesh P. N. (1 December 1997). "Deictic codes for the embodiment of cognition". Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20 (04): 723–42; discussion 743–67. doi:10.1017/s0140525x97001611. PMID 10097009. 
  45. ^ Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2012). An evolutionary upgrade of cognitive load theory: Using the human motor system and collaboration to support the learning of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology Review, 24(1), 27-45.

Journal special issues[edit]


  • ETR&D vol. 53 (2005)
  • Instructional Science vol. 32(1) (2004)
  • Educational Psychologist vol. 38(1) (2003)
  • Learning and Instruction vol. 12 (2002)

For ergonomics standards see:

  • ISO 9241 Ergonomics of Human System Interaction

Further reading[edit]

External links[edit]