Chance Supply Chain Managements - DOC by jsb12986


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									Complete Glossary
This glossary includes all terms from the text, including terms from the Web
Chapters and Chapter Supplements.

ABC analysis A classification scheme for inventory items so that those 20 percent of items
(A items) that account for the top 80 percent of dollar usage receive the most attention.
absolute quotas Limit the entry of a service or good into a country for a period of time.
acceptable quality level (AQL) The percentage of defective units that would be acceptable
in a batch.
acceptance number In acceptance sampling using MIL-STD-105D, the maximum number
nonconforming allowed in a sample for acceptance of the entire lot.
acceptance sampling A statistical procedure in which samples are used to determine
whether an entire lot meets acceptable quality standards.
activity matrix Organizes and displays the movement of people, parts, or other factors
between departments.
activity-on-arc (AOA) network diagram A method for representing project networks in
which each arc corresponds to an activity.
activity-on-node (AON) representation A method for representing project networks in
which each node corresponds to an activity.
aggregate planning A term used to mean medium-range operations planning. A first rough-
cut approximation at determining how existing resources of people and facilities should be
used to meet projected demand.
aggregation Refers to the combining of products into groups or families for planning
allowance Time required for personal time, rest, and delays as a percentage of normal time.
alpha () The probability in acceptance sampling of committing a Type I error.
analysis A step in design that separates the whole into its parts in order to determine their
nature, proportion, function, and relationship.
annual fixed costs Costs that do not vary with volume. These costs are incurred during the
year and can include supervisory labor, utilities, and support staff.
appraisal costs The costs incurred to measure quality, assess customer satisfaction, inspect
and test products.
arc An arrow in a precedence diagram or project network that connects two nodes.
assembly line A process where discrete parts are put together to make a finished product. It
is a high volume operation that produces products that are very similar in features and
assignable causes Causes of variation in the output of a process that can be assigned to
factors such as tool wear, material from different suppliers, etc.
automated guided vehicle systems (AGVS) Driverless and flexible transportation devices
resembling a forklift truck, which can transport parts between manufacturing cells.
automated storage and retrieval system (ASRS) A computerized system for storing and
retrieving parts or tools.
available to promise The number of units in a master schedule not yet committed to
customer orders.
average inventory investment The dollar value of a company’s average level of inventory.
B2B Business to business Internet transactions.
                                                                               GLOSSARY      2

B2C Business to consumer Internet transactions.
backflushing Calculates material usage for either a cost accounting or an MRP system
based on the number of completed units produced and the materials required to produce that
number of units.
backward scheduling An approach to scheduling that starts from a desired due date and
works backward.
backward vertical integration The situation in which a company owns organizations that
perform activities in the upstream supply chain.
batch A term used to describe a production process that does not have sufficient volume
from a single product to fully use the facility. The facility must produce several products to
have sufficient volume to achieve economies of scale. There is an equipment changeover
prior to making each product.
benchmarking A process by which a company compares its performance and methods for a
certain activity against that of a recognized leader or an outstanding competitor.
benefit/cost ratio A productivity measure sometimes used for services, based on calculating
benefits produced divided by the cost of providing those benefits.
beta () The probability in acceptance sampling of committing a Type II error.
bill-of-materials (BOM) Describes the type and quantity of each component part needed to
build one unit of a product.
blanket purchase requisition A document authorizing a vendor to provide a specified
quantity or number of parts or raw materials over a specified period of time.
bottleneck The department, work station, or operation that restricts the flow of product
through the production system. A bottleneck department restricts the flow of product from
upstream departments and starves downstream departments.
branch An arrow in a precedence diagram or project network that connects two nodes.
break-even point (BEP) The volume of a good or service that must be produced and sold so
that profit is zero. This is the zero profit point in the cost-volume profit model.
buffer Any backlog that is used purposely to avoid running out of parts or material.
build-up method An approach to forecasting that starts at the bottom of an organization and
makes an overall estimate by adding together estimates from each element.
bullwhip effect An example of what can happen when information is not shared in a supply
chain. It occurs when a slight increase in demand at the retailer level gets magnified into a
huge jump in demand at the raw material supplier level.
business plan A medium-range statement of planned sales, production, and inventory
levels, usually in terms of dollars, on a monthly basis.
business process A set of work activities with a preferred order, an identifiable beginning
and end, inputs, and clearly defined outputs that add value to the customer. A business
process is usually cross-functional.
business process reengineering (BPR) Is starting over. It is ―the fundamental rethinking and
radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical
measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service, and speed.‖
business-to-business (B2B) Refers to transactions between organizations. These
organizations are usually part of a supply chain such as IBM selling services to
business-to-consumer (B2C) Refers to transactions between an organization and its final
customers such as selling products to consumers via the Internet.
c chart Control chart used to monitor the number of defects.
C-kanban A kanban that authorizes the movement of materials from one location to
capacity A measure of the organization’s ability to provide customers with the demanded
services or goods, in the amount requested and in a timely manner. Capacity is the
maximum rate of production.

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                                                                              GLOSSARY      3

capacity requirements planning (CRP) The process of estimating total capacity that will be
required at each work center or machine, based on the master schedule and MRP.
capital budget Indicates planned expenditures for plant and equipment.
capital productivity The output achieved from an activity divided by the capital inputs.
carrying costs The variable costs associated with keeping inventory.
cause-and-effect diagram A diagram that is used in problem solving to list all the possible
causes of a problem, usually divided into materials, equipment, methods, and personnel.
cellular manufacturing See manufacturing cell.
center of gravity method Is a method to determine the center point for a set of demands that
are spread over a defined area. The method, in effect, determines the single point that would
balance this demand, thus the terminology center of gravity.
central tendency A measure of the average output from a process.
certified The designation a company receives after it has successfully met the standards of
ISO 9000:2000.
chance causes of variation Sources of process variation that are inherent in a process, also
known as common causes or random causes.
changeover time The time required to change the facility/equipment from making one
product to making the next product.
check sheet A simple tool for collecting data about defects.
closed-loop MRP A variation of MRP in which feedback about execution of production
plans is provided so MRP can be updated to reflect reality.
coding and classification A method used to determine a family of parts in a group
technology study. Each part is assigned a code which defines the size, shape, metal type,
machining operations and other factors.
coefficient of correlation A measure of the strength of a relationship between variables. If
there is no relationship, the coefficient of correlation will be zero. A perfect positive
correlation is 1.0 and a perfect negative correlation is –1.0.
collaborative planning forecasting and replenishment (CPFR) A supply chain approach that
seeks to enable collaboration among supply chain partners to jointly develop a plan that
specifies what is to be sold, how it will be marketed and promoted, where, and during what
time period. Furthermore, sharing of information is facilitated by utilizing a common set of
communication standards.
common causes of variation Sources of process variation that are inherent in a process, also
known as random causes or chance causes.
competitive advantage An organization’s special abilities, such as shorter delivery lead-
times or higher quality products, which customers value and which gives it an edge on its
computer aided design (CAD) The effective use of the computer to create or modify an
engineering design. An interactive CAD terminal can be used for dimensional analysis,
interference checking between two or more objects, stress analysis, and examining cross-
sections of the part.
computer aided manufacturing (CAM) The effective use of computer technology in the
management, control, and operations of the production facility through either direct or
indirect computer interface with the physical and human resources. (This definition of CAM
was given by Computer Aided Manufacturing International.) CAM systems include
monitoring the production process and the operation of machines by machines.
computer aided process planning (CAPP) An expert system that can generate routings and
machining instructions for parts.
computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) Blends recent developments in manufacturing
with information technology to achieve a competitive advantage.
computer numerically control (CNC) A machining system that utilizes a dedicated
computer to store programs. The programs control the machine so it can shape the finished

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                                                                               GLOSSARY      4

concurrent engineering When product design and process design are done simultaneously
by the same group of people working in close collaboration.
constraint Anything that limits our choice of actions.
consumer’s risk In acceptance sampling, the probability of accepting an unacceptable lot of
continuous flow process A process for mass producing products that does not identify
individual units. The products are mixed and flow together in a continuous stream. Oil
refining is a good example of a continuous flow process.
continuous improvement The concept that no matter how good a company is it must always
work to do better. The Japanese term is ―kaizen.‖
contribution per unit The selling price of a unit minus the variable cost of producing the
unit. It is the amount that each unit of sales contributes towards covering overhead costs and
meeting profit objectives.
control charts Graphs that are used to monitor processes for quality control.
control limits If the mean from a sample falls outside these limits, we will question whether
the process is in control and must check for possible assignable causes of variation.
conveyance kanban A kanban that authorizes the movement of materials from one location
to another.
corner point The intersection of constraint lines in graphical solution of a linear
programming problem.
correlation analysis Measures the degree of relationship between two variables.
cost drivers Any activity in activity-based costing that is used to generate costs.
cost-volume-profit (CVP) model A simple model of an organization that uses estimates of
costs, revenues, volume sold, and volume produced in order to estimate profit.
cost of quality Includes the three categories of costs associated with quality: failure costs
(internal or external); appraisal costs; and prevention costs.
crash cost The cost of completing a project activity in its crash time.
crash time The shortest possible time in which a project activity can be completed.
critical chain scheduling and buffer management (CC/BM) An approach to project
management that utilizes concepts from Theory of Constraints to promote on-time
completion of the project.
critical path A path in a CPM diagram that consists of all activities with the least slack.
These are activities that must be watched the closest.
critical-path activities Those activities in a project that have the least amount of slack.
critical path method (CPM) An approach to project management that identifies those
activities with the least amount of slack.
critical ratio A measure of the ratio between time until an order is due and the processing
time remaining.
cross docking Seeks to coordinate inbound and outbound shipments so that little, if any,
inventory must be kept at the distribution center.
CRP (capacity requirements planning) The process of estimating total capacity that will be
customer The buyer of a service or good.
customer relationship management (CRM) A process to create, maintain, and enhance
strong, value laden associations with people and organizations that buy products.
cycle counting A procedure in which inventory of an item is counted at least once during an
order cycle.
cycle time The average time it took a worker being observed in a time study to perform the
days of inventory Indicates approximately how many days of sales can be supplied solely
from inventory.

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                                                                             GLOSSARY      5

decision support systems (DDS) Are systems that allow managers to easily access
information stored in a database and provide easy-to-use tools for analysis.
decision tree Is a method for examining and analyzing decisions that have uncertain
outcomes. The approach has decisions that are under the control of managements and events
that are beyond management’s control. Probabilities are assigned to the outcomes of these
uncertain events.
defective Items of product that do not conform to specifications, and are thus unacceptable.
Delphi Technique Use a panel of experts and surveys to build consensus regarding future
demand management The process of identifying all sources of demand and reflecting them
in the master schedule.
Deming Prize Japan’s highest quality award.
Deming Wheel A problem solving process used for continuous improvement, also called
Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycle or Shewhart Cycle.
dependent demand Demand (usually for components or raw materials) that depends upon
production of a finished product.
dependent variable The variable in regression analysis that is being predicted.
design for manufacture and assembly (DFMA) Designing products so they are easy to
manufacture and/or assemble, resulting in high quality and low cost.
design for operations (DFO) Designing services so the operations function can provide
high quality and low cost.
design of experiments (DOE) Using experimental methods in determining how to minimize
the effects of random variation on process output.
designing the system Includes all the decisions necessary to establish the facilities and
information systems required to produce the service or good.
deterministic simulation A simulation in which every change that occurs is according to
fixed values, not random.
digital loyalty networks Links between a company’s supply chain and its customer
management operations such that the supply chain is customized to meet the needs of a
company’s most important customers or market segments.
disintermediation Eliminating some functions in a supply chain to improve its efficiency,
such as when a manufacturer sells directly to the final consumer.
dispatching Assigning priorities and selection of jobs for processing at a work center.
dispatching rules Rules used for assigning processing priorities to jobs for scheduling.
dispersion A measure of the variability of process output.
distribution requirements planning (DRP) A system for determining the quantity of
products needed within the distribution system. DRP uses forecasts of customers’ orders to
estimate the quantity of materials to have available at the distribution centers. Demands at
the distribution centers, in turn, are aggregated to determine requirements at regional
warehouses, which influence requirements at supplying facilities.
distribution resources planning A modification of distribution requirements planning that
resembles MRP II.
distribution system Material handling between suppliers and customers. It involves moving
materials between facilities and has a physical and an informational component.
Distribution systems weave together customers and suppliers in a chain that takes the most
basic materials, like iron ore, crude oil, and lumber, and transforms them into consumer
products like power boats, toasters, and furniture.
dollar usage The unit value of an item multiplied by its annual usage, in units.
double sampling A procedure in acceptance sampling in which a second sample may be
taken from a lot before a final decision is made.
downstream A designation for that part of the supply chain through which a company’s
products are sold, such as distributors, retailers, dealers, or even final consumers.

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                                                                               GLOSSARY      6

drum A term used in theory of constraints to identify the resource that will determine
production rate for the entire production system.
dual-card kanban system A pull system that uses both C-kanbans and P-kanbans to
carefully control WIP inventory.
dummy activity An imaginary activity that must be used in AOA project network diagrams
to clarify precedence relationships.
durability The ability of a product to function when subjected to hard and frequent use.
earliest finish (EF) The earliest time a project activity can be expected to be completed.
earliest start (ES) The earliest time a project activity can be expected to start based on
preceding activities.
early involvement An upstream investment in time by people involved in an activity or
process that facilitates the identification and solution of downstream problems that would
otherwise increase time or costs or decrease quality.
e-business Involves the use of electronic platforms to conduct company business. It has two
types of transactions: business-to-business and business-to-consumer.
echelon 1 The part of a downstream supply chain, such as a distributor, that receives
products directly from the company that makes those products.
echelon 2 The part of the downstream supply chain, such as a retailer, that receives
products from echelon 1 organizations.
economic order quantity (EOQ) An amount to order at one time that theoretically
minimizes total annual cost of ordering and holding inventory.
economies of scale This doctrine states that there is a most efficient size for a facility and
there is a most efficient size for the firm. This implies building sufficient sales/production
volume to take advantage of the fixed costs of the organization.
economies of scope Economies of scale across products. Economies of scope implies
building the volume necessary to cover fixed costs by producing a variety of products on the
same equipment. It needs flexibility within the organization.
effective Means the system achieves the desired results.
efficient Means the system uses a ―reasonable‖ amount of effort (inputs) to achieve the
desired outputs.
efficient consumer response (ECR) An approach to supply chain management that
emphasizes everyday low pricing and efficiently matching inventory replenishment to
consumer demand.
efficient supply chain A type of supply chain that emphasizes cost minimization and
electronic data interchange (EDI) The use of electronic means, such as telephone lines or
the Internet, to share data among members of a supply chain.
electronic transfer Uses phone lines as data circuits to move information between two
employee empowerment Giving employees authority and responsibility to solve problems
and make decisions related to their jobs.
enterprise resource planning (ERP) The use of one common database for all functions of an
organization, or even all members of a supply chain.
ergonomics Is the consideration of people in the design of products, facilities, and their
environment. It examines the interface between people and the products and processes they
use to make this interface safer and easier for the person.
ethics Sets of standards that guide behavior. These standards are usually higher than what is
event In a project network, an event is the beginning or end of an activity.
event-oriented simulation A simulation in which time is incremented only as events occur.
expediting The monitoring of supplier deliveries of materials which have become critical
for the customer.

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                                                                                GLOSSARY      7

expert system (ES) A computer-based approach that uses knowledge and inference
procedures to solve problems that are difficult enough to require significant human expertise
for their solution. The knowledge and the inference procedures are attempts to create a
model of the best practitioners in the field.
external failure costs Costs of quality incurred after a product has reached the customer.
extreme point The intersection of constraint lines in graphical solution of a linear
programming problem.
facility layout The physical arrangement of the work space including the position of
departments or work groups with respect to one another and how the work space within a
department is arranged.
facility location The placement of a facility with respect to customers, suppliers, and other
facilities with which it interfaces.
failure costs Costs incurred whenever any product or component of a product fails to meet
family of parts A group of parts that require similar machining operations.
feasible region The area that satisfies all constraints in graphical solution of a linear
programming problem.
feeding buffer Extra time allowed in critical chain scheduling and buffer management when
a non-critical path activity must precede one on the critical path.
final assembly schedule (FAS) Like a master schedule except that it is usually done only a
week ahead of time and it indicates exact option combinations for each finished product to
be produced.
finished goods inventories Final products awaiting customer acceptance and delivery.
finite capacity scheduling A computerized approach to scheduling that uses advanced
software to schedule jobs while taking capacity limitations into account.
finite loading An approach to machine loading that considers available capacity.
fishbone chart A diagram that is used in problem-solving to list all the possible causes of a
flexibility The ability to change between products or customers with minimal costs and
flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) Use computer and information technology, flexible
automation, computer aided process planning, and manufacturing cell layout to produce
families of parts.
flow process chart Used for analyzing the movements of a worker or the flow of materials
through a process.
flow time The total time it takes to produce a good or service.
focused factory Smaller operations producing fewer products. A focused factory does not
attempt to achieve low costs through economies of scale (i.e., spreading fixed costs over a
large volume). It achieves low costs through better control (i.e., eliminating waste), and ease
of managing a smaller operation (i.e., fewer people involved).
forecast An estimate of future events.
forecasting An attempt to predict the future.
forward scheduling An approach to scheduling that starts from the present time and
schedules each job to start at the earliest possible moment.
forward vertical integration The situation in which a company owns the organizations that
constitute the downstream side of the supply chain.
freezing the master schedule A policy that prevents changes in the master schedule within a
certain time period from the present.
functional areas The parts or subsystems of an organization such as accounting, marketing,
finance, and engineering.

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                                                                              GLOSSARY       8

gainsharing The process of awarding bonuses or extra compensation because of
productivity improvements made by a group.
Gantt load chart A graphic device for indicating the schedule of jobs on equipment or
go/no-go gages Inspection tools that can be used to quickly determine whether a part meets
goods Physical products.
grand mean The overall mean of sample means.
graphical approach A method of aggregate planning that uses a graph to indicate
cumulative demand for the product versus cumulative production.
gross requirements In MRP, the total demand for an item during a time bucket.
group technology (GT) The grouping together of parts or products into families by
processing operations so that all members of a family are processed in a miniature factory,
called a GT cell, to maximize efficiency.
GT cell A group of machines, usually arranged in a U-shaped layout, used to process a
family of parts requiring similar operations.
hard automation Used to describe processes which have very limited
hierarchical production planning (HPP) An approach to aggregate planning that breaks a
large problem down into smaller ones, with each smaller problem being solved at the
appropriate organizational level.
high process capability Characteristic of a process that has a high probability of producing
acceptable products when random variation is considered.
hiring costs Include expenses associated with finding qualified personnel, interviewing and
training them, and then any productivity losses involved before they become proficient at
the job.
historical data in work measurement The use of data about past worker performance to
develop time standards.
holding costs The variable costs associated with keeping inventory.
horizontal expansion of work Giving a person more tasks or more jobs to perform.
house of quality A diagram used to convert customer attributes desired in a product to
engineering characteristics, parts characteristics, and process details.
human engineering See ergonomics.
ISO 9000:2000 An updated series of the ISO 9000 international standards for the quality
management procedures and documentation used by a company in producing its product.
in control The state when a process is influenced only by random variation.
indented bill of materials A bill of materials in which components are indented from the
item they go into.
independent demand Demand (usually from the consumer) for a part or product that is not
dependent upon a production plan.
independent variable A variable in regression analysis which is used to predict the
dependent variable.
industrial An era characterized by slow change and stable growth. Markets tended to be
national rather than international.
infinite loading An approach to machine loading that does not take capacity considerations
into account.
input/output control A method for managing work flow and queue lengths by comparing
input to a machine with output from it.
insourced When a company itself produces the goods or services that it uses in its own

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internal failure costs Those costs of quality associated with defects found before the
product reaches the customer.
internal supply chain That part of the supply chain that is within a company, usually the
manufacturer of the finished product. This can include purchasing, materials management,
and production.
inventory Material that is stored in anticipation of some future use. Inventory can be used
as an alternative to future production. It is created when production (procurement in the case
of purchased parts) exceeds consumption.
inventory control The effort to maintain inventory levels and costs within acceptable limits.
It includes models that determine how much and when to order inventory as well as systems
for monitoring inventory levels for management evaluation and decision making.
inventory turnover ratio Indicates how many times during a year the inventory turns over,
or is sold.
Ishikawa chart A diagram that is used in problem solving to list all the possible causes of a
JIT II Employees of major suppliers work right in the purchasing department of a customer
company to which they sell products, handling all purchases from their companies.
job enlargement An employee’s job is expanded to include several tasks.
job enrichment Providing a person with more decision-making authority to increase job
job rotation To periodically shift workers from one job to another.
job shop A facility capable of producing a wide variety of products in very small volumes.
The production facility is general purpose and flexible enough to meet a variety of needs.
job specialization A job design in which each employee performs only a particular
narrowly defined task.
just-in-time (JIT) Can be used as a basis for planning and scheduling, yet is more properly
viewed as a strategy for designing manufacturing systems that are responsive to customer
requirements. Applying JIT forces a reexamination of operating philosophy. The JIT
philosophy focuses on reducing lead times, reducing set-up times and improving product
quality to minimize raw material, work-in-process and finished goods inventory.
kaizen A Japanese term referring to continuous improvement.
kanban A Japanese word meaning ―visible record.‖ In manufacturing, it is a card that is
used to indicate when more materials are needed in a pull system.
key policies Methods or guidelines for achieving an organization’s goals.
knowledge engineers Build expert systems. They help human experts structure the problem
by interpreting and integrating human answers, drawing analogies, posing examples and
bringing out conceptual differences.
labor productivity The output achieved from an activity divided by the labor inputs. It is
often measured as the number of units produced per labor hour.
latest finish (LF) The latest time a project activity can be completed without delaying the
project past a desired completion date.
latest start (LS) The latest time a project activity can start without delaying project
completion past a desired date.
layoff costs Include any severance pay or state-mandated payments into an unemployment
compensation fund when employees are terminated or laid off.
lead time The difference between the time the order is placed and the delivery of the
lead-time offsetting The process of taking lead time into account for planning purposes.

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lean systems An approach to operations that expands JIT concepts to the entire value chain.
learning curve Indicates how the time required per unit of product decreases as the
cumulative number of units produced increases.
learning factor Indicates the percentage of time required to produce unit number 2n
compared to the time for unit n.
level assembly schedule A final assembly schedule that involves producing a specified
sequence of products so that production of each is matched with expected daily demand.
leverage When referring to operations and productivity it means to make the work force
more productive through the use of better tools.
life cycle costing Considering the cost of a product over its useful life not just the purchase
price. When two alternatives are compared, which one has the lower total cost? Total cost
includes purchase price, maintenance costs, and operating expense.
line balancing The procedure in which tasks along an assembly line are assigned to work
stations so each has approximately the same amount of work.
line flow processes High volume operations. Two examples of line flow processes are
continuous flow processes and assembly lines.
linear programming A mathematical technique that can solve any resource allocation
problem so long as that problem can be stated in terms of linear functions.
load The total capacity requirements placed on a machine or work center during a specified
period of time.
load-distance method See center of gravity method.
load profile A diagram that indicates the work load being placed on each work center.
load report A graphical representation of the load on a machine or work center over time.
loading An approach to scheduling that tries to take capacity utilization into account.
logistics That part of a supply chain that includes companies that move or store items, such
as trucking companies, railroads, and shipping companies, as well as warehouses or
distribution centers.
long-range operations planning Involves activities that are planned to occur eighteen
months or more in the future.
loss function In quality management, the measure of loss to society associated with
deviation of a process from its target output value.
lot A quantity of material or number of units produced or processed at one time (a batch).
lot-for-lot A lot sizing rule used in MRP in which planned order releases are equated to net
requirements by time bucket.
lot sizing The process of determining how much of an item should be ordered or produced
at one time.
lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) The percentage of non-conforming units in a batch
that would definitely be unacceptable.
lower control limit (LCL) The lower limit of a control chart indicating the minimum value
above which sample values would normally be expected to fall under random variation.
lower specification limit The lower limit on acceptability for some measure specified in the
design of a product.
lower tolerance limit Same as lower specification limit.
lowest final cost The lowest total cost of the product, including the purchase price, shipping
and receiving costs, costs to rework defective products, and costs for special processing that
would not be necessary if another supplier were used.
low-level coding A procedure in which level numbers are assigned to parts in the bill of
materials, starting at level 0 for the finished product. A part that appears at more than one
level would be assigned the lowest level (highest number) at which it appears.
low process capability Describes a process that will have a high probability of producing
nonconforming product due to random variation.

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machine constrained The machine is holding back production. The equipment is operating
for all the available time at its best speed while the operator has some idle time.
machining instructions Are the procedures and specifications that transforms raw materials
into finished parts. These are often in the form of computer codes that control the operation
of a machine.
makespan time The total time required to complete a set of jobs.
make-to-order company A company that produces only to customer orders.
make-to-stock company A company that produces for inventory and meets customer orders
from inventory.
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) The highest quality award given by
the United States, currently awarded to a maximum of two companies in each category of
large manufacturer, large service, or small business, with plans to add categories for health
care and education.
manufacturing A production process that produces goods.
manufacturing cell The physical layout of the facility into compact groups of machines that
are responsible for producing families of parts. See also cellular manufacturing.
manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) An integrated decision support system that ties
together departments such as engineering, finance, personnel, manufacturing and marketing
via a computer-based dynamic simulation model. MRP II works within the limits of an
organization’s present production system and with known orders and demand forecasts.
market research The study of consumer needs so the organization can determine new
markets for existing products and discover demand for new products.
market share An organization’s sales in a market divided by the total sales.
master production schedule (MPS) A specific statement of exactly what, usually in terms of
individual end items or product models, will be produced in each time period. Usually these
time periods are weeks, although they may be days or even hours.
mass customization The ability to quickly design, produce, and deliver products that meet
specific customer needs at close to mass-production prices. From an operations perspective,
it is the low-cost, high-quality, large volume delivery of customized products.
material handling Includes systems for moving materials within the facility. It implies a
physical component (equipment to perform the task) and an information component
(decisions about when and how much should be moved).
material management Includes decisions regarding the procurement, control, handling,
storage, and distribution of materials.
material productivity The output achieved from an activity divided by the material inputs.
material requirements planning (MRP) A way of scheduling the ordering or production of
parts or raw materials so they will be available when needed to meet the master schedule.
materials The physical items that are necessary to produce the goods and services we
mean absolute deviation (MAD) The average of absolute error. The differences between the
actual value of a variable and the forecasted value are added after the plus and minus signs
are removed. This total is divided by the number of observations.
mean squared error (MSE) The average of all the squared errors. The differences between
the actual value of a variable and the forecasted value are squared, added together and
divided by the number of observations.
medium-range planning Concerned with the time between six months and eighteen months
method or overall factors A procedure for rough-cut capacity planning that uses historical
accounting data to estimate the number of standard hours required per unit.
methods analysis Methods and techniques concerned only with the physiological aspects of
a job—how easy the job is to do, how quickly the person can work.
methods improvement Methods and techniques for improving the physiological aspects of a

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methods-time measurement (MTM) A system of predetermined time standards. Standard
motions require a predetermined number of time measurement units (TMUs).
mixed-model sequencing The production of different products in small batches on the same
equipment following a repeating cycle.
mixed strategy An aggregate planning strategy that combines two or more of the pure
model An abstraction from the real problem of the key variables and relationships in order
to simplify the problem. The purpose of modeling is to provide the user with a better
understanding of the problem, and with a means of manipulating the results for ―what if‖
Monte Carlo simulation The use of random numbers to simulate a real system.
MOST Stands for Maynard Operation Sequence Technique. MOST is based on MTM, but
is much faster and easier to use.
most likely time In PERT, the most frequent amount of time an activity will take.
move time The material handling time between work centers.
MRP See material requirements
MRP II Another name for Manufacturing Resource Planning.
MTM Stands for Methods Time Measurement and was developed by Dr. H. B. Maynard.
Under this system, each movement has been determined to take a certain number of Time
Measurement Units (TMUs).
multiple factor productivity Includes all of the input factors such as labor, material, and
capital as well as the possibility of more than one output factor.
multiple regression analysis Regression analysis that uses two or more (independent
variables) to predict one dependent variable.
multiple sampling A process in acceptance sampling in which successive samples may be
required before a final decision can be reached.
natural variation The values over which most process output will fall under random
variation (equal to 6).
net requirements The additional number of units required in MRP during a time bucket
after inventory and scheduled receipts have been considered.
node A circle in a precedence diagram or project network.
nonconforming Items of product that do not conform to specifications, and thus are
normal cost The cost of completing a project activity in its normal time.
normal time The time that a project or an activity takes under normal conditions.
objective function The function in a linear programming problem that includes the variables
and indicates what is to be achieved.
off-loading Involves taking a part that would ordinarily be processed on one machine and
processing it on another machine that has available capacity.
operating characteristic curve (OC curve) A graph indicating the probability of accepting a
batch as a function of the percentage of defective units in the batch.
operating leverage Replacing variable costs of production, usually labor, with fixed costs.
This action causes profits to rise rapidly as volume increases because the incremental costs
(variable costs/unit) are low.
operations The processes by which people, capital, and material (inputs) are combined to
produce the services and goods we consume (outputs). Operations employ labor and
management (people), and use facilities and equipment (capital) to change materials into
finished good (farm tractors) or to provide services (computer software development).

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                                                                              GLOSSARY     13

operations management Decision-making involving the many factors that affect operations.
Decisions that need to be made might include which products to produce, how large a
facility to build, and how many people to hire on first shift.
optimistic time (a) The shortest time an activity would normally take.
ordering cost The variable costs associated with replenishing inventory.
order point The level of inventory at which a company should order more to avoid a
possible stockout.
order status The ability to query the customer orders to determine if the order has been
completed, scheduled, or is waiting to be produced and the reasons the order is waiting.
order-up-to level In a periodic review inventory control system, the level to which a
replenishment order should bring on-hand plus on-order inventory.
order-winning criteria Criteria such as cost, quality, etc. that are used by a company to win
orders from customers.
organizational structure The formal relationship between different function areas or
out of control The condition when a process is being influenced by assignable causes of
outsourcing Contracting with another company to do work that was once done by the
organization itself.
over cycled The situation on an assembly line when the amount of work assigned to a work
station exceeds the cycle time.

p chart A control chart in which the percentage of nonconforming units in each sample is
P-kanban A kanban that authorizes the production of more parts in a pull system.
panel of experts An approach to forecasting that involves people who are knowledgeable
about the subject. This group attempts to make a forecast by building consensus.
Pareto analysis A procedure for identifying which problems are most important.
peak demand The highest level of demand that can be expected during a specific time
PERT A procedure for analyzing projects when activity durations may vary randomly.
periodic inventory system A system in which inventory level is checked only at certain
regular intervals. Orders are usually placed to bring inventory back up to a predetermined
perpetual inventory system A system in which inventory level is continuously monitored
and a replenishment order placed when inventory reaches a predetermined level.
pessimistic time (b) The longest time a project activity would normally take.
piece-rate plan An employee compensation plan in which pay is based on the number of
units produced.
plan A list of actions that management expects to take. A plan is a basis for allocating the
organization’s resources to deal with opportunities and problems present in the
plan-do-check-act cycle A problem solving process used for continuous improvement, also
called Deming Wheel or Shewhart Cycle.
planned order release An order to either the shop or a supplier, planned to be released for a
given amount during a time bucket in MRP.
planned receipts In MRP, a quantity expected to be received in a given time bucket based
on an order that is planned, but not yet released.
planning horizon A length of time into the future for which plans are developed.
planning the system Defines the way in which an organization expects its physical
facilities, people, and materials to meet projected customer demand and the organization’s

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                                                                             GLOSSARY      14

point-of-sale (POS) Data coming directly from the cash registers in a store.
poka-yoke An approach adopted by many companies to prevent defects. The term is a
rough approximation of Japanese words that mean mistake proofing.
postindustrial Characterized by increasing global, complex, and uncertain markets and the
rapid development and spread of technology world-wide.
precedence diagram A series of nodes that represent activities and arcs or lines which
indicate the sequence of operations.
preemptive pricing A strategy based on the learning curve that involves short-term losses
but long-term gains.
prevention costs Quality costs that result from activities to prevent defects from occurring,
such as employee training, quality control procedures, special efforts in designing products,
or administrative systems to prevent defects.
proactive strategy A strategy that emphasizes efforts to modify the environment, rather than
simply reacting to it.
probability-based simulation Simulation in which values of certain variables vary randomly
according to some probability distribution.
process Describes ―how to.‖
process batch The number of units of a given part that are processed consecutively on a
given machine or work center.
process capability A measure of the ability of a process to consistently maintain
process capability index, Cp A value that indicates process capability.
process design Describes how the product will be made.
process generator A mathematical function that generates random numbers according to a
given probability distribution.
process layout Equipment is grouped or arranged by the type of process that the machine
performs such as all drilling equipment in one location.
process postponement Certain steps in the production process are delayed until the last
possible moment such that the finished product will be produced only after customer orders
have been received.
process selection A series of decisions that include technical or engineering issues and
volume or scale issues. The result determines how the services and/or goods will be
process technology The application of knowledge to improve the process.
producer’s risk In acceptance sampling, the probability of rejecting a lot of acceptable
product Can be either a good or a service.
product design The determination of the characteristics and features of the product, i.e.,
how does it function?
product development A process to generate concepts, designs, and plans for services and
goods that an organization can provide for its customers.
product facility strategy One facility is responsible for producing one product or product
line and shipping that product all over the country and around the world.
product flow analysis (PFA) A method for determining families of parts. In this systematic
analysis, the production sequence for each part, the machining operations for each part, and
the characteristics of the material are used. From these data, similarities can be determined
and parts can be divided into families.
product layout The physical arrangement of facilities so that products move along one path.
Resources are arranged around this path to minimize material movement, reduce material
handling costs, and eliminate delays in production.
product life cycle A series of stages that products pass through. They include development,
growth, maturity/ saturation, and decline.
product mix Is the percent of total demand or output that is devoted to each product.

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                                                                             GLOSSARY     15

product postponement A generic product is produced at the central manufacturing facility,
then specific components needed to customize the product for the final consumer are added
at the latest possible point in the distribution system.
product technology The application of knowledge to improve the product.
production kanban A kanban that authorizes the production of more parts in a pull system.
production scheduling See scheduling.
productivity Output from an activity divided by total input to the activity.
profit point The number of units that must be produced and sold at a given contribution per
unit in order to cover fixed costs plus profit. The break-even point is a special case of the
profit point where target profit is zero.
program evaluation and review technique (PERT) A procedure for analyzing projects when
activity durations may vary randomly.
project Is a process for making one-of-a-kind products. Most large construction jobs are
projects. Many service jobs can be categorized as projects. Installing new computer
hardware, adding major new computer software, or implementing a new management
planning and control system all could qualify as projects.
project buffer Extra time allowed at the end of a project in Critical Chain Scheduling and
Buffer Management to ensure the project is completed on time even if delays occur.
projected ending inventory In MRP, the inventory level expected to be on hand at the end
of a time bucket.
prototype A model of a product. It could be a working model, a model reduced in scale, or
a mock-up of the product.
pull system An approach to manufacturing in which materials are pulled through processing
based on actual requirements for those materials.
purchasing The activity of acquiring services and goods for the organization. It includes all
the activities necessary for filling the organization’s long and short-term needs.
purchase order An authorization for a vendor to supply parts or materials.
pure strategies Three strategies for medium-range operations planning: vary the workforce,
vary workforce utilization, and use inventory to absorb demand fluctuations.
push system An approach to manufacturing that forces materials through processing based
on a schedule.
quality May have definitions that are either internal or external to a company, but defined
most often today as consistently meeting or exceeding customer needs and expectations.
quality function deployment A procedure for spreading the voice of the customer
throughout a company in determining how products should be designed and processes
quality of work life (QWL) How a person feels about her or his job.
queue A waiting line.
queue time The time a job spends waiting to be processed at a work center.
quick response (QR) An approach to supply chain management that focuses on
emphasizing the ability to respond quickly to changes in demand or consumer preferences.

R chart A control chart for plotting the range of each sample.
random causes of variation Sources of process variation that are inherent in a process, also
known as common causes or chance causes.
rating factor How fast or slow the worker being observed in a time study performed the task
in relation to an average worker.
raw materials inventories Goods purchased and stored for later use in the production
reactive strategy A planning strategy that merely responds to the environment.

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                                                                               GLOSSARY     16

regional facility strategy Each facility is assigned a market area and each facility produces a
complete line of products for that area.
registered The next step after a company is certified under ISO 9000:2000, in which it is
listed in a directory of certified companies.
registrar A company that is accredited to audit companies for possible ISO 9000:2000
regression analysis A method to predict the value of one variable based on the value of one
or more variables. It is based on minimizing squared distances from the data points to the
estimated regression line.
rejection number In acceptance sampling using MIL-STD-105D, the minimum number
nonconforming in the sample that are required for rejection of the lot.
relative advantage The difference between the lowest-cost producer and the next-lowest-
cost producer.
reliability The length of time that a product will function before it fails.
request for quotes (or request for quotations) A notice that indicates that an organization
wants to gather price information for the purpose of making a purchase.
revenue sharing A supply chain approach in which the retailer’s revenue is shared between
it and its supplier, in return for the supplier providing the product at a lower cost.
reverse logistics The functions in a supply chain that return defective products to the
manufacturer for repair or replacement.
resource buffer A procedure used in Critical Chain Scheduling and Buffer Management to
ensure a resource needed for a critical path activity will be available when that activity
responsive supply chain A type of supply chain that focuses on quickly responding to
changes in demand for various products.
review interval (R) The time between one review of inventory and the next in a periodic
review inventory control system.
robot A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials, parts,
variety of tasks.
robust design Product design that guarantees high quality regardless of variations that might
occur in the processes that produce the product and provide it to the customer.
rolling through time A planning concept that conceptualizes time as a scroll. As time
passes, the scroll keeps getting rolled up on the end closest to us and unrolled at the other
rope A term used in theory of constraints to indicate methods of communication between
the drum and other machines or work centers.
rough-cut capacity planning Used to determine whether sufficient overall production
capacity will exist to meet the master production schedule.
rounding out capacity Adding capacity to a bottleneck department to increase the capacity
of a system by bringing the capacity of the bottleneck department into balance with the
other departments.
routing A sequence of machines or processes in which a part travels in order to be properly
routing sheet A document used in manufacturing to indicate the sequence of operations,
machines, or work centers that a part or product must follow.
run-out time The period of time before a company will run out of a particular product.
run time Actual processing time for a job.
safety stock An extra amount added to the order point as a buffer against stockout
sales and operations planning An aggregate planning approach that coordinates the plans of
both marketing and operations, attempting to meet the objectives of both.

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Scanlon plan Employees are rewarded for their cost reduction efforts. Any reduction in the
labor cost per unit of output is reflected in an employee bonus, which is based on a ratio of
total labor costs to the value of output.
scatter diagram A form of graph used when variations in one factor may be the direct result
of variations in another.
scheduled receipts In MRP, a quantity for which an order has already been released and
which is planned for receipt during a given time bucket.
scheduling A final, detailed determination of the times employees will work, the sequence
in which goods or services will be provided, and the operating times for machines.
selected time The average time it took the worker being observed in a time study to perform
the task.
sequencing A step in the scheduling process in which the ordering of jobs or work is
service level The percentage of inventory replenishment orders that are received before a
stockout occurs.
service parts Parts that are ordered and produced as replacement parts in units already sold.
services Intangible products.
setup The preparation of a machine to perform the required operations on a part.
setup time The time to get a machine ready to process a job.
seven basic quality control tools Used to control processes, collect and analyze data. These
include control charts, check sheets, histograms and graphs, Pareto charts, cause-effect
diagrams, and scatter diagrams.
short-range planning Goes up to about six months into the future.
shop order An order for more parts to be produced in a company’s own fabrication
simple regression analysis Regression analysis that uses only one variable (independent
variable) to predict a single dependent variable.
sigma () A value that describes the dispersion (variability) of a variable.
simplex method A mathematical procedure, usually programmed on a computer, for
solving linear programming problems.
simulation The use of mathematical procedures to represent a real system.
single-card kanban system A pull system that uses only the C-kanban. Actual production
may be scheduled using MRP.
single-sample plan An approach to acceptance sampling in which a decision is made
regarding a lot based only on a single sample from that lot.
six sigma quality A measure of process performance that means only 3.4 defects will occur
in every million units produced, or 99.9997% error free. However, the term six sigma
actually refers to a broader range of defect prevention strategies.
slack time A figure representing how much leeway each activity in a project has in its
starting time or duration.
sociopsychological factors Includes more than just how a job is done, but also how the
employee feels about that job.
special causes of variation Causes of variation in the output of a process that can be
assigned to factors such as tool wear, material from different suppliers, etc.
specification limits The limits placed on output from a process so that items falling between
the limits are considered acceptable while ones outside are unacceptable.
stakeholders Groups of people that are affected by a decision; that is, they have a stake in
the decision. In a business organization, stakeholders would include stockholders,
management, labor, consumers, and the general public.
standard container A container used in pull systems to control inventory. Each standard
container holds a specified number of units.
standard error of the coefficient A standard deviation for a coefficient estimated by
regression analysis.

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standard error of the estimate A measure of the amount of scatter around the regression
line. It is the difference between each observed value, Yo, and the estimated value, Ye.
standard-hour system In an incentive plan, each job has a standard time. Whenever an
employee performs that job, they are paid based on the standard time—regardless of how
long it actually took them to do the job.
standard time Expressed in terms of time per unit (e.g., 3.75 minutes per part) or units per
time period (e.g., 16 parts per hour). This represents the time it should take to perform a task
under ordinary conditions, allowing for rest periods, fatigue, and other unavoidable delays.
statistical control A condition in which a process is influenced only by random causes of
statistical process control (SPC) The use of statistical methods to determine when a process
is out of control before defects are produced.
statistical quality control (SQC) The use of statistical methods to avoid accepting or
producing defects.
steady-state conditions Conditions that prevail in a system after any start-up variations have
stock buffer Inventory maintained in a drum-buffer-rope system to ensure that material
flow is not disrupted.
stockout A condition that occurs when no more inventory of an item is left.
strategic profit model An approach to performance measurement in a supply chain that
relates activities to return on assets.
strategy Consists of the organizational goals and the methods for implementing the goals,
called key policies. Strategy defines how an organization chooses to compete within the
framework dictated by the external environment.
sub-contracting Buying parts or sub-assemblies from outside suppliers.
supplier The seller of a service or good. A supplier is sometimes referred to as a vendor.
supplier certification The verification of supplier performance in various categories such as
quality, lead time, and reliability in meeting promised delivery dates.
supplies See supply inventories.
supply chain Includes all activities associated with the flow and transfer of goods and
services from raw material extraction through use by the organization that sells to the final
supply chain management The integration of supply chain activities through improved
supplier relationships to achieve sustainable competitive advantage for all members in the
supply chain.
supply inventories Materials that are not part of the finished product but are consumed
either in production or in tasks in other departments.
supply management Is the effort to organize, plan, and control information and material
flows between an organization and its suppliers.
survey A systematic effort to elicit information from specific groups and is usually
conducted via a written questionnaire or phone interview.
synergy Cooperative (teamwork) actions where the actions taken together have a greater
effect than the sum of the individual effects. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
synthesis Putting the parts or elements together to form a whole. In analysis, each part is
examined and answers to questions are determined. In synthesis, the parts are combined in a
way that addresses the interaction between those parts. The concept behind synthesis is to
make the best decision for overall performance of a system, not to optimize one part.
system A group of items, events, or actions in which no item, event, or action occurs
independently of at least one other. Accordingly, no item that is studied in isolation will act
in the same way it would in the normal environment.
system cycle time Refers to a series of operations or departments linked in a line flow
process. It is the time between the nth unit and the n + 1 unit existing the line. It is
determined by the department with the longest cycle time.

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systematic layout planning Use codes that describe the importance of having two
departments close together to arrive at an appropriate job shop layout.
t-value The calculated t-statistic used in hypothesis testing.
tabular method A method for aggregate planning that utilizes a table based on the
transportation method.
tacit judgment A method for determining families of parts. It involves the visual review of
design drawings and specifications for similarities. This process is usually easy to do and
can result in good families of parts, if relatively few parts are involved.
Taguchi Loss Function A function that measures the loss to society of producing parts or
products that deviate from a ―target‖ value.
Taguchi methods Experimental design techniques used to identify those factors that cause
output from a process to deviate from a target value.
tariff Extra charges placed on goods or services that are imported into the home country.
tariff rate quotas Are tariff that increase with the volume that is imported.
task A clearly defined activity that makes up a job.
technology The application of knowledge, usually in the form of recently developed tools,
processes, and procedures, to solve problems.
test market Is a special kind of survey. The forecaster arranges for the placement of a new
product or an existing product that has been modified. Data on actual sales are collected.
theory of constraints (TOC) A manufacturing philosophy that identifies the most
constrained resources and then plans production to optimize utilization of those resources.
third party logistics (3PL) An outside supplier handles all the logistics activities between
supplier and customer.
throughput time Is the time from the receipt of a customer’s order until the order is shipped.
tier 1 suppliers Companies in a supply chain that sell component parts to the manufacturer
that makes the finished product.
tier 2 suppliers Companies in a supply chain that sell component parts or raw materials to a
tier 1 supplier.
tier 3 suppliers Companies in a supply chain that usually sell raw materials to a tier 2
time-based competition A strategy of seeking competitive advantage by quickening the
tempo of critical organizational processes such as product development and order
time bucket A period of time, usually a week, in which demand and requirements are
grouped for master scheduling and material requirements planning.
time buffer Inventory maintained in a drum-buffer-rope system to ensure that the bottleneck
is not shut down for lack of materials if feeding work centers shut down.
time measurement unit (TMU) Equal to .00001 hour, or .036 seconds.
time-oriented simulation Increments the time by a constant amount.
time phasing The process used in material requirements planning of determining
requirements by time period.
time standard Same as standard time.
time study The most common way of developing the standard time for a task, usually done
with a stopwatch.
TMU (time measurement unit) Equal to .00001 hour, or .036 seconds.
tolerance limits The limits placed on output from a process so that items falling between the
limits are considered acceptable while ones outside are unacceptable.
total factor productivity Productivity calculated based on all inputs of labor, capital,
materials, and services.

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                                                                             GLOSSARY     20

total preventive maintenance An approach to equipment maintenance that emphasizes
prevention of breakdowns, maintenance each day, and operator responsibility for
total quality management (TQM) An organizational commitment to continuously improve
in meeting or exceeding customer needs and expectations.
trade embargoes Eliminate trade between two countries for a period of time. Trade could be
eliminated entirely or in a specific product or product line.
transfer batch The number of units of a given part that are transferred at one time from one
machine or work center to another.
transfer line A sophisticated set of machines that are able to perform a complex set of
operations without human operators. Transfer lines have very limited flexibility. A transfer
line in the automotive industry can take a raw casting of an engine block in one end and
produce a machined engine block from the other without operator intervention. However,
the same transfer line cannot produce eight, six, and four cylinder engines.
Type I error An error in acceptance sampling in which a good lot is rejected.
Type II error An error in acceptance sampling in which a bad lot is accepted.
upper control limit (UCL) The upper limit of a control chart indicating the maximum value
below which sample values would normally be expected to fall under random variation.
U-shaped layout A layout of facilities or equipment in the shape of a U. This layout
improves teamwork, reduces material handling, and provides better flow of materials.
upper specification limit Same as upper tolerance limit.
upper tolerance limit The upper limit of acceptability for some measure specified in a
product design.
upstream A designation for that part of the supply chain that includes suppliers, production
planning, and purchasing.
utilization factor Indicates the percentage of time the machine or person providing service
will be occupied.
variables Used to represent things we want to determine—such as number of units to
produce or overtime hours to be worked.
vendor The seller or supplier of a service or good.
vendor managed inventory (VMI) A supplier manages inventory management decisions of
the products it sells for the company that buys those products.
vertical expansion of the job Giving workers responsibility for planning many of their own
activities and, to some extent, allowing them to make decisions related to the job they are
vertical loading Giving workers responsibility for planning many of their own activities
and, to some extent, allowing them to make decisions related to the job they are performing.
virtual corporation A company that provides only coordination activities, outsourcing all
other activities involved in producing and distributing a product.
visual inspection When referring to group technology see the definition for tacit judgment.
voice of the customer A concept in product design to determine what the customer wants,
likes, and doesn’t like in the product.
voluntary import quotas Are agreements between governments that limit the import of
services and goods.
wait time The time a job spends waiting before being moved to the next work center.
WIP A term used to denote work-in-process inventory.
work centers See workstations.

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                                                                           GLOSSARY       21

work cycle One repetition of a repetitive job task.
work improvement Methods and techniques concerned only with the physiological aspects
work-in-process inventories Products that the organization has partially completed.
work measurement A tool that is used to determine the amount of time a work activity, or
task, should take under ordinary conditions.
work sampling Used in developing an estimate of the percentage of time a worker spends
on different activities.
workstations Places where individuals perform tasks on a product.
worker-customer chart A chart used in methods analysis to study the interactions of
workers and customers.
worker-machine chart A chart used in methods analysis to study the interactions of workers
and machines.
work measurement The activity of determining how much time it should ordinarily take to
perform a certain task or job.
on different activities.

X-bar chart A control chart for identifying changes in means of samples from a process.

yield The ratio of the quantity of output to the quantity of input.
yield management A proactive strategy that varies price in response to demand so as to
maximize revenue.

                                 VONDEREMBSE AND WHITE

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