recombinant DNA technology

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In vitro mutagenesis

Another use of cloned DNA is in vitro mutagenesis in which a mutation is produced in a segment of cloned DNA. The DNA is then inserted into a cell or organism, and the effects of the mutation are studied. Mutations are useful to geneticists in enabling them to investigate the components of any biological process. However, traditional mutational analysis relied on the occurrence of random spontaneous mutations—a hit-or-miss method in which it was impossible to predict the precise type or position of the mutations obtained. In vitro mutagenesis, however, allows specific mutations to be tailored for type and for position within the gene. A cloned gene is treated in the test tube (in vitro) to obtain the specific mutation desired, and then this fragment is reintroduced into the living cell, where it replaces the resident gene.

One method of in vitro mutagenesis is oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis. A specific point in a sequenced gene is pinpointed for mutation. An oligonucleotide, a short stretch of synthetic DNA of the desired sequence, is made chemically. For example, the oligonucleotide might have adenine in one specific location instead of guanine. This oligonucleotide is hybridized to the complementary strand of the cloned gene; it will hybridize despite the one base pair mismatch. Various enzymes are added to allow the oligonucleotide to prime the synthesis of a complete strand within the vector. When the vector is introduced into a bacterial cell and replicates, the mutated strand will act as a template for a complementary strand that will also be mutant, and thus a fully mutant molecule is obtained. This fully mutant cloned molecule is then reintroduced into the donor organism, and the mutant DNA replaces the resident gene.

Another version of in vitro mutagenesis is gene disruption, or gene knockout. Here, the resident functional gene is replaced by a completely nonfunctional copy. The advantage of this technique over random mutagenesis is that specific genes can be knocked out at will, leaving all other genes untouched by the mutagenic procedure.

Genetically modified organisms

The ability to obtain specific DNA clones using recombinant DNA technology has made it possible to add the DNA of one organism to the genome of another. The added gene is called a transgene. The transgene inserts itself into a chromosome and is passed to the progeny as a new component of the genome. The resulting organism carrying the transgene is called a transgenic organism or a genetically modified organism (GMO). In this way, a “designer organism” is made that contains some specific change required for an experiment in basic genetics or for improvement of some commercial strain. Several transgenic plants have been produced. Genes for toxins that kill insects have been introduced in several species, including corn and cotton. Bacterial genes that confer resistance to herbicides also have been introduced into crop plants. Other plant transgenes aim at improving the nutritional value of the plant.

Gene therapy

Gene therapy is the introduction of a normal gene into an individual’s genome in order to repair a mutation that causes a genetic disease. When a normal gene is inserted into a mutant nucleus, it most likely will integrate into a chromosomal site different from the defective allele; although this may repair the mutation, a new mutation may result if the normal gene integrates into another functional gene. If the normal gene replaces the mutant allele, there is a chance that the transformed cells will proliferate and produce enough normal gene product for the entire body to be restored to the undiseased phenotype. So far, human gene therapy has been attempted only on somatic (body) cells for diseases such as cancer and severe combined immunodeficiency syndrome (SCIDS). Somatic cells cured by gene therapy may reverse the symptoms of disease in the treated individual, but the modification is not passed on to the next generation. Germinal gene therapy aims to place corrected cells inside the germ line (e.g., cells of the ovary or testis). If this is achieved, these cells will undergo meiosis and provide a normal gametic contribution to the next generation. Germinal gene therapy has been achieved experimentally in animals but not in humans.

Reverse genetics

Recombinant DNA technology has made possible a type of genetics called reverse genetics. Traditionally, genetic research starts with a mutant phenotype, and, by Mendelian crossing analysis, a researcher is able to attribute the phenotype to a specific gene. Reverse genetics travels in precisely the opposite direction. Researchers begin with a gene of unknown function and use molecular analysis to determine its phenotype. One important tool in reverse genetics is gene knockout. By mutating the cloned gene of unknown function and using it to replace the resident copy or copies, the resultant mutant phenotype will show which biological function this gene normally controls.


Recombinant DNA technology has led to powerful diagnostic procedures useful in both medicine and forensics. In medicine these diagnostic procedures are used in counseling prospective parents as to the likelihood of having a child with a particular disease, and they are also used in the prenatal prediction of genetic disease in the fetus. Researchers look for specific DNA fragments that are located in close proximity to the gene that causes the disease of concern. These fragments, called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), often serve as effective “genetic markers.” In forensics, DNA fragments called variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), which are highly variable between individuals, are employed to produce what is called a “DNA fingerprint.” A DNA fingerprint can be used to determine if blood or other body fluids left at the scene of a crime belongs to a suspect.

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