Page semi-protected


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Hun)
Jump to: navigation, search
For other nomadic polities sometimes called "Huns", see Xiongnu, Kidarites, Hephthalite Empire, and Khazars.

The Huns were a nomadic group of people who are known to have lived in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia between the 1st century AD and the 7th century. They were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was part of Scythia at the time; the Huns' arrival is associated with the migration westward of a Scythian people, the Alans.[1] They were first mentioned as Hunnoi by Tacitus. In 91 AD, the Huns were said to be living near the Caspian Sea and by about 150 had migrated southeast into the Caucasus.[2] By 370, the Huns had established a vast, if short-lived, dominion in Europe.

In the 18th century, the French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who were northern neighbours of China in the 3rd century BC.[3] Since Guignes' time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. However, there is no scholarly consensus on a direct connection between the dominant element of the Xiongnu and that of the Huns.[4] Priscus, a 5th-century Roman diplomat and Greek historian, mentions that the Huns had a language of their own; little of it has survived and its relationships have been the subject of debate for centuries. Numerous other ethnic groups were included under Attila's rule, including very many speakers of Gothic, which some modern authors describe as a lingua franca.[5][6][7][8] Their main military technique was mounted archery.



The Huns were "a confederation of warrior bands", ready to integrate other groups to increase their military power, in the Eurasian Steppe in the 4th to 6th centuries AD.[10] Most aspects of their ethnogenesis (including their language and their links to other peoples of the steppes) are uncertain.[11][12] Walter Pohl explicitly states: "All we can say safely is that the name Huns, in late antiquity, described prestigious ruling groups of steppe warriors."[13]

The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who completed his work of the history of the Roman Empire in the early 390s, recorded that the "people of the Huns ... dwell beyond the Sea of Azov near the frozen ocean".[14][15][16] Jerome associated them with the Scythians in a letter, written four years after the Huns invaded the empire's eastern provinces in 395.[17] The equation of the Huns with the Scythians, together with a general fear of the coming of the Antichrist in the late 4th century, gave rise to their identification with Gog and Magog (whom Alexander the Great had shut off behind inaccessible mountains, according to a popular legend).[18] This demonization of the Huns is also reflected in Jordanes's Getica, written in the 6th century, which portrayed them as a people descending from "unclean spirits"[19] and expelled Gothic witches.[20][21]

Since Joseph de Guignes in the 18th century, historians have associated the Huns who appeared on the borders of Europe in the 4th century AD with the Xiongnu ("howling slaves") who had invaded China from the territory of present-day Mongolia between the 3rd century BC and the 2nd century AD.[22][23] Otto J. Maenchen-Helfen was the first to challenge the traditional approach, based primarily on the study of written sources, and to emphasize the importance of archaeological research.[24] Thereafter the identification of the Xiongnu as the Huns' ancestors became controversial.[25]

Hun cauldrons

The similarity of their ethnonyms is one of the most important links between the two peoples.[26] The Buddhist monk Dharmarakṣa, who was an important translator of Indian religious texts in the 3rd century AD, applied the word Xiongnu when translating the references to the Huna people into Chinese.[27] A Sogdian merchant described the invasion of northern China by the "Xwn" people in a letter, written in 313 AD.[27] Étienne de la Vaissière asserts both documents prove that Huna or Xwn were the "exact transcriptions" of the Chinese "Xiongnu" name.[28] Christopher P. Atwood rejects that identifiction because of the "very poor phonological match" between the three words.[29] For instance, Xiungnu begins with a voiceless velar fricative, Huna with a voiceless glottal fricative; Xiungnu is a two-syllable word, but Xwn only has one syllable.[30] The Chinese Book of Wei contain references to "the remains of the descendants of the Xiongnu" who lived in the region of the Altai Mountains in the early 5th century AD.[31] According to De la Vaissière, the Chinese source proves that nomadic groups preserved their Xiongnu identity for centuries after the fall of their empire.[31]

Both the Xiongnu and Huns used bronze cauldrons, similarly to all peoples of the steppes.[32] Based on the study and categorization of cauldrons from archaeological sites of the Eurasian Steppes, archaeologist Toshio Hayashi concludes that the spread of the cauldrons "may indicate the route of migration of the Hunnic tribes" from Mongolia to the northern region of Central Asia in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, and from Central Asia towards Europe in the second half of the 4th century, which also implies the Huns' association with the Xiungnu.[33] The Huns practiced artificial cranial deformation, but there is no evidence of such practise among the Xiongnu.[34][page needed] This custom had already been practiced in the Eurasian Steppes in the Bronze Age and in the early Iron Age, but it disappeared around 500 BC.[35] It again started to spread among the local inhabitants of the region of the Talas River and in the Pamir Mountains in the 1st century BC.[35] In addition to the Huns, the custom is also evidenced among the Yuezhi and Alans.[36] The lengthy pony-tail, which was a characteristic of the Xiongnu, was not documented among the Huns.[37]

When writing of the relationship between the Xiongnu and Huns, historian Hyun Jin Kim concludes: "Thus to refer to Hun-Xiongnu links in terms of old racial theories or even ethnic affiliations simply makes a mockery of the actual historical reality of these extensive, multiethnic, polyglot steppe empires".[38] He also emphasizes that "the ancestors of the Hunnic core tribes ... were part of the Xiongnu Empire and possessed a strong Xiongnu element, and the ruling elite of the Huns ... claimed to belong to the political tradition of this imperial entity."[38] Taking into account the historical gap between the Chinese reports of the Xiongnu and the European records of the Huns, Peter Heather states: "Even if we do make some connection between fourth-century Huns and first-century [Xiongnu], therefore, an awful lot of water had passed under an awful lot of bridges during 300 years worth of lost history."[37]


Before Attila

A suggested path of Hunnic movement westwards

The 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy mentioned a people, called Chuni (Χοῦνοι or Χουνοί), when listing the peoples of the western region of the Eurasian Steppes.[39][40] The Chuni lived "between the Bastarnae and the Roxolani", according to Ptolemy.[39][40] Edward Arthur Thompson says, the similarity between the two ethnonyms (Chuni and Huns) is only a coincidence: Western Roman authors often wrote Chunni or Chuni in reference to the Huns, East Romans never used the guttural "[x]" at the beginning of their name.[40] Maenchen-Helfen and Denis Sinor also refute the association of the Chuni with Attila's Huns.[41][42] However, Maenchen-Helfen proposes that Ammianus Marcellinus referred to Ptolemy's report of the Chuni when stating that the Huns "are mentioned only cursorily in ancient writers".[14][41] He does not exclude either that the Urugundi who invaded the Roman Empire from the steppes to the north of the Lower Danube in 250 AD, according to Zosimus, were identical with the Vurugundi, whom Agathias listed among the Hunnic tribes.[43]

The Romans realized the presence of the Huns when their invasions of the Pontic steppes forced thousands of Goths to move to the Lower Danube to seek refuge in the Roman Empire in 376, according to the contemporaneous Ammianus Marcellinus.[44][45] Their sudden appearance in the written sources suggests that the Huns crossed the Volga River from the east not much earlier.[15] They invaded the land of the Alans, which was located to the east of the Don River, slaughtering many of them and forcing the survivors to submit themselves to them or to flee across the Don.[46][47][48] The reasons of the Huns sudden attack on the neighboring peoples are unknown.[49] After rejecting several possible reasons (including a climate change in the steppes and the neighboring peoples' pressure), Peter Heather concludes that the Hunnic Empire developed from "warbands on the make", launching profitable plundering raids, which enabled them to increase their military power and to impose their authority on the neighboring peoples.[50]

After they subjugated the Alans, the Huns and their Alan auxiliaries started plundering the wealthy settlements of the Greuthungi, or eastern Goths, to the west of the Don.[51][52] The Greuthungic king, Ermanaric, resisted for a while, but finally "he found release from his fears by taking his own life",[53] according to Ammianus Marcellinus.[51][52] Marcellinus's report refers either to Ermanaric's suicide,[51] or to his ritual sacrifice.[52] His great-nephew, Vithimiris, succeedded him.[51] He hired Huns to fight against the Alans who invaded the Greuthungi's land, but he was killed in a battle.[51][47]

After Vithimiris's death, most Greuthungi submitted himself to the Huns.[51] Those who decided to resist marched to the Dniester River which was the border between the lands of the Greuthungi and the Thervingi, or western Goths.[54] They were under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax, because Vithimiris's son, Viderichus, was a child.[52][54] Athanaric, the leader of the Thervingi, met the refugees along the Dniester at the head of his troops.[52] However, a Hunnic army bypassed the Goths and attacked them from the rear, forcing Athanaric to retreat towards the Carpathian Mountains.[52] Athanaric wanted to fortify the borders, but Hunnic raids into the land west of the Dniester continued.[55] Most Thervingi realized that they could not resist the Huns.[56] They went to the Lower Danube, requesting asylum in the Roman Empire.[56][57] The Greuthingi under the leadership of Alatheus and Saphrax also marched to the river.[56] Most Roman troops had been transferred from the Balkan Peninsula to fight against the Sasanid Empire in Armenia.[58] Emperor Valens permitted the Thervingi to cross the Lower Danube and to settle in the Roman Empire in the autumn of 376.[59][60] The Thervingi were followed by the Greuthingi, and also by the Taifali and "other tribes that formerly dwelt with the Goths and Taifali" to the north of the Lower Danube, according to Zosimus.[59] Food shortage and abuse stirred the Goths to revolt in early 377.[57][61] The ensuing war between the Goths and the Romans lasted for more than five years.[62][63]




In 395 the Huns began their first large-scale attack on the Eastern Roman Empire.[65] Huns attacked in Thrace, overran Armenia, and pillaged Cappadocia. They entered parts of Syria, threatened Antioch, and swarmed through the province of Euphratesia. The forces of Emperor Theodosius were fully committed in the west so the Huns moved unopposed until the end of 398 when the eunuch Eutropius gathered together a force composed of Romans and Goths and succeeded in restoring peace. It is uncertain though, whether or not Eutropius' forces defeated the Huns or whether the Huns left on their own. There is no record of a notable victory by Eutropius and there is evidence that the Hunnish forces were already leaving the area by the time he gathered his forces.[66]






Under Attila and Bleda

From 434 the brothers Attila and Bleda ruled the Huns together. Attila and Bleda were as ambitious as their uncle Rugila. In 435 they forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus,[67] giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Romans. The Romans also agreed to give up Hunnic refugees (individuals who could have threatened the brothers' grip on power) for execution. With their southern border protected by the terms of this treaty, the Huns could turn their full attention to the further subjugation of tribes to the west.


Unified Empire under Attila

Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic Empire under Attila
Capital Not specified
Languages Hunnic
Various tribal languages
Government Tribal Confederation
High King
 •  370s Balamber
 •  c. 435-445 Attila and Bleda
 •  445-453 Attila
 •  453-469 Dengizich
 •  Huns appear north-west of the Caspian Sea pre 370s
 •  Balamber began uniting the Huns and Germanic tribes 370s
 •  Attila and Bleda become co-rulers of the united tribes 437
 •  Death of Bleda, Attila becomes sole ruler 445
 •  Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 451
 •  Invasion of northern Italy 452
 •  Battle of Nedao 454
 •  Dengizich, son of Attila, dies 469
Today part of  Hungary
 Czech Republic






The new Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian then halted tribute payments. From the Pannonian Basin, Attila mobilised to attack Constantinople. However, in 453 he married a girl with the Germanic name Ildico, and died of a haemorrhage on his wedding night.[74]

After Attila

After Attila's death, while his sons Ellac, Dengizich and Ernak fought for the throne, former subjects soon united under Ardaric, leader of the Gepids, attacked the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454. This defeat and Ellac's death ended the European supremacy of the Huns, and soon afterwards they disappear from contemporary records. The Pannonian basin then was occupied by the Gepids, whilst various Gothic groups remained in the Balkans also.

Society and culture



All surviving accounts were written by enemies of the Huns, and none describe the Huns as attractive either morally or in appearance (the Huns were illiterate and thus kept no records). Jordanes, a Goth writing in Italy in 551, a century after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire, describes the Huns as a "savage race, which dwelt at first in the swamps, a stunted, foul and puny tribe, scarcely human and having no language save one which bore but slight resemblance to human speech."



In forming their view of Attila's people, the Romans tapped into attitudes inherited from the Greeks. These were the vilest creatures imaginable. They came from the North and everyone knew that the colder the climate was, the more barbaric the people were.[77] They knew nothing of metal, had no religion and lived like savages, without fire, eating their food raw, living off roots, and meat tenderized by placing it under their horses' saddles. They had no buildings, of course, not so much as a reed hut, indeed, they feared the very idea of venturing under a roof.[77]

The description of Huns given by the Romans has prompted historians to believe they were of East Asian origin. Denis Sinor, noting the paucity of anthropological evidence, wrote that "there is no reason to question the basic accuracy of the western descriptions, and the absence of massive supporting evidence by physical anthropology cannot weaken the point they so tellingly make. It is the unusual that most attracts attention."[78] However, Austrian traveler Maenchen-Helfen wrote in the 20th century: "Ammianus' description begins with a strange misunderstanding ... This was repeated by Claudian and Sidonius and reinterpreted by Cassiodorus. Ammianus' explanation of the thin beards is wrong. Like so many other people, the Huns inflicted wounds on their live flesh as a sign of grief when their kinsmen were dying."[79]

Artificial cranial deformation

Artificial cranial deformation was practiced by the Huns and sometimes by tribes with whom they influenced.[80][81][82][83] Artificial cranial deformation of the circular type can be used to trace the route that the Huns took from north China to the Central Asian steppes and subsequently to the southern Russian steppes.[84] The people who practiced annular type artificial cranial deformation in Central Asia were Yuezhi/Kushans.[85][86][87]

Some artificially deformed crania from the 5th–6th Century AD have been found in Northeastern Hungary and elsewhere in Western Europe. None of them have any Mongoloid features and all the skulls appear Europid; these skulls may have belonged to Germanic or other subject groups whose parents wished to elevate their status by following a custom introduced by the Huns.[35]


Jordanes reports that the Huns were led at this time by Balamber. Some historians like Edward Arthur Thompson question his existence, seeing instead an invention by the Goths to explain who defeated them.[64] Denis Sinor suggests if Balamber existed, he may have been a chief of a small faction of Huns, since Vithimiris utilized Hun mercenaries against him, which suggests a lack of unity among the Huns. Sinor also cites Ammianus' statement that the Huns "are subject to no royal restraint, but they are content with the disorderly government of their important men, and led by them they force their way through every obstacle", casting further doubt on Balamber's status as king.[64]


Further information: Hunnic language

A variety of languages were spoken within the Hun Empire.[88] It is considered that by the 440s, were more Germanic-speaking allies then Huns themselves, and as such Gothic was the lingua franca of the Empire.[6][7][89][90] Kim disputes the idea Gothic or Hunnic were lingua franca due to lack of historical indication.[91] Among non-Hunnic subjects were also included Iranian-speaking Alans and Sarmatians.[89] Based on some etymological interpretation of the words strava, medos, and kamos and subsequent historical appearance, the other languages have been taken to include a form of Proto-Slavic language.[92][93][94]

Priscus differed Hunnic language from other languages spoken at Attila's court.[95] He recounts how Zerco made Attila's guests laugh also by the "promiscuous jumble of words, Latin mixed with Hunnish and Gothic".[95] Priscus said that Attila's "Scythian" subjects spoke "besides their own barbarian tongues, either Hunnish, or Gothic, or, as many have dealings with the Western Romans, Latin; but not one of them easly speaks Greek, except captives from the Thracian or Illyrian frontier regions".[96]

The ancient sources are clear that there was a Hunnic language. The literary sources preserve many names, and three Indo-European words (medos, kamos, strava), which have been studied for more than a century and a half.[97] Otto Maenchen-Helfen noted that the thesis Huns spoke a Turkic language has a long history behind it.[98] Maenchen-Helfen held that by Turkic origin of Hunnic tribal and proper names, the Huns spoke a Turkic language.[99] Denis Sinor argued that "at least part of the Hun leadership was Turkic speaking".[100]

Traditionally notable studies of proper names chronologically include that of Gyula Németh, Gerhard Doerfer, Maenchen-Helfen, and Omeljan Pritsak.[101] Pritsak in his study (1982),"The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan",[102] who analyzing the 33 survived personal names concluded: "It was not a Turkic language, but one between Turkic and Mongolian, probably closer to the former than the latter. The language had strong ties to Bulgar language and to modern Chuvash, but also had some important connections, especially lexical and morphological, to Ottoman Turkish and Yakut".[102]

On the basis of the existing name records, a number of scholars suggest that the Huns spoke a Turkic language of the Oghur branch, which also includes Bulgar, Khazar and Chuvash languages.[103][104][105] Peter Heather called the Huns "the first group of Turkic, as opposed to Iranian, nomads to have intruded into Europe".[106] Many recent scholars agree that Hunnic was related to Turkic and Mongolian languages.[107]

In 2013, Hyun Jin Kim concluded that "seems highly likely then from the names that we do know, most of which seem to be Turkic, that the Hunnic elite was predominantly Turkic-speaking".[91] He noted that as the sources recount, on the Attila's court was spoken beside Hunnic, also Gothic and Latin, and that in the western part of the Empire, where lived subjected Goths, Huns probably spoke both Hunnic and Gothic language.[91] An example would be the Germanic or Germanized names of noted Huns like Laudaricus.[91]


Hunnish camp

The Huns kept herds of cattle, horses, goats and sheep.[65] Their other sources of food consisted of wild game and the roots of wild plants. For clothes they had pointed caps, trousers or leggings made from ibex skin, and either linen or rodent skin tunics. Ammianus reports that they wore these clothes until the clothes fell to pieces. Priscus describes Attila's clothes as different from those of his men only in being clean.[108] Women would embroider the edges of the garments and often stitch small colorful stone beads on them as well.[citation needed]













Claims of Hunnic origins

Atilla - Kurultáj
Székely flag - Kurultáj, 2014


There is also a mediaeval legend of a lineage that makes Attila the sixth-generation ancestor of Árpád conqueror of the modern Pannonian basin, through Attila's son Csaba, his son Ed, his son Ügyek, his son Előd, his son Álmos. Álmos was ruler of the Magyars and the father of Arpad[114]

20th-century use in reference to Germans

A First World War Canadian electoral campaign poster



The usage of the term "Hun" to describe Germans resurfaced during World War II. For example, Winston Churchill 1941 said in a broadcast speech: "There are less than 70,000,000 malignant Huns, some of whom are curable and others killable, most of whom are already engaged in holding down Austrians, Czechs, Poles and the many other ancient races they now bully and pillage."[117] Later that year Churchill referred to the invasion of the Soviet Union as "the dull, drilled, docile brutish masses of the Hun soldiery, plodding on like a swarm of crawling locusts."[118] During this time American President Franklin D. Roosevelt also referred to the German people in this way, saying that an Allied invasion into Southern France would surely "be successful and of great assistance to Eisenhower in driving the Huns from France."[119] Nevertheless, its use was less widespread than in the previous war. British and American World War II troops more often used the term "Jerry" or "Kraut" for their German opponents.

See also


  3. ^ de Guignes, Joseph (1756–1758). Histoire générale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mongols et des autres Tartares (in French). 
  5. ^ Heather 2006, p. 330.
  6. ^ a b Wolfram, Herwig (1990). History of the Goths. University of California Press. p. 254. ISBN 0-5200-6983-8. Retrieved April 6, 2015. 
  7. ^ a b Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples. University of California Press. p. 142. ISBN 0-5200-8511-6. Retrieved April 6, 2015. 
  8. ^ Heather 2010, p. 228.
  10. ^ Pohl 1999, pp. 501-502.
  11. ^ Heather 2010, p. 502.
  12. ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 176.
  13. ^ Pohl 1999, p. 502.
  14. ^ a b Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire (31.2.), p. 411.
  15. ^ a b de la Vaissière 2015, p. 177.
  16. ^ Heather 2006, p. 148.
  17. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 4.
  18. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 2-4.
  19. ^ The Gothic History of Jordanes (24:121), p. 85.
  20. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 5.
  21. ^ Heather 2010, p. 209.
  22. ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 175, 180.
  23. ^ Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes. Rutgers University Press. pp. 38, 55, 72–79. ISBN 0-8135-1304-9. 
  24. ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 175.
  25. ^ Wright 2011, p. 60.
  26. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 177.
  27. ^ a b de la Vaissière 2015, p. 179.
  28. ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 181.
  29. ^ Atwood 2012, p. 27.
  30. ^ Atwood 2012, p. 28.
  31. ^ a b de la Vaissière 2015, p. 188.
  32. ^ de la Vaissière 2015, p. 187.
  33. ^ Hayashi 2014, p. 16.
  34. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1945.
  35. ^ a b c Molnár, Mónika; János, István; Szűcs, László; Szathmáry, László (April 2014). "Artificially deformed crania from the Hun-Germanic Period (5th–6th century AD) in northeastern Hungary: historical and morphological analysis". Journal of Neurosurgery 36 (4). American Association of Neurological Surgeons. p. E1. doi:10.3171/2014.1.FOCUS13466. Retrieved 14 September 2015. 
  36. ^ Kim 2013, p. 33, 39.
  37. ^ a b Heather 2006, p. 149.
  38. ^ a b Kim 2013, p. 31.
  39. ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 447.
  40. ^ a b c Thompson 2001, p. 25.
  41. ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 449.
  42. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 178.
  43. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, pp. 452-453.
  44. ^ Thompson 2001, p. 26.
  45. ^ Heather 2006, p. 146.
  46. ^ Thompson 2001, pp. 26-27.
  47. ^ a b Heather 2010, p. 215.
  48. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 19.
  49. ^ Heather 2010, p. 212.
  50. ^ Heather 2010, pp. 212-217.
  51. ^ a b c d e f Thompson 2001, p. 27.
  52. ^ a b c d e f Heather 2006, p. 151.
  53. ^ Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire (31.3.), p. 415.
  54. ^ a b Thompson 2001, p. 28.
  55. ^ Heather 2006, pp. 151-152.
  56. ^ a b c Heather 2006, p. 152.
  57. ^ a b James 2009, p. 51.
  58. ^ Heather 2006, pp. 159, 161.
  59. ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 26.
  60. ^ Heather 2006, pp. 161-162.
  61. ^ Heather 2006, p. 163.
  62. ^ James 2009, pp. 51-52.
  63. ^ Heather 2006, p. 167.
  64. ^ a b c Sinor 1990, p. 181.
  65. ^ a b c d Thompson, E. A. 1948. A History of Attila and the Huns. Oxford University Press.
  66. ^ a b Sinor 1990, p. 184.
  67. ^ Thompson, E. A.; et al. (1999). The Huns. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 136. 
  69. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 251-252.
  70. ^ Creasy,Edward Shepherd: The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World.
  71. ^ Norwich, Byzantium: the Early Centuries. 1997, p. 158.
  72. ^ Bury, The Later Roman Empire, pp. 294f.
  73. ^ Halsall 2007, pp. 253-254.
  74. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 364.
  75. ^ Jordanes, XXXIV
  76. ^ Jordanes, XXXV
  77. ^ a b Attila The Hun, by John Man, Bantam Books, 2005, p.79
  78. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 203.
  79. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 361.
  81. ^
  83. ^ Pany, Doris; Wiltschke-Schrotta, Karin. "Artificial cranial deformation in a migration period burial of Schwarzenbach, Lower Austria" (PDF). VIAVIAS, no. 2 (Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science 2008), pp. 18–23. 
  84. ^ " Cranial vault modification as a cultural artifact", C. Torres-Rouff and L.T. Yablonsky, HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology, Volume 56, Issue 1, 2 May 2005, Pages 1–16; free excerpts :
  86. ^ Kim 2013, p. 33.
  87. ^
  88. ^ Blockley, RC 1983. The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire. Liverpool: Francis Cairns; citing Priscus
  89. ^ a b Heather, Peter (2007). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford University Press. p. 330. ISBN 0-1953-2541-9. Retrieved April 6, 2015. 
  90. ^ Heather, Peter (2010). Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe. Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-1997-5272-9. Retrieved April 6, 2015. 
  91. ^ a b c d Kim 2013, p. 30.
  94. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 424–426.
  95. ^ a b Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 377.
  96. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 382.
  97. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 376, 424–426.
  98. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 403.
  99. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 441.
  100. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 201.
  101. ^ Sinor 1990, p. 201–202.
  102. ^ a b Pritsak, Omeljan (1982). The Hunnic Language of the Attila Clan (PDF) IV (4). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute. ISSN 0363-5570. 
  107. ^ Marácz, Lászlo (2009). "Borbála Obrusánszky: Heritage of the Huns" (PDF). Journal of Eurasian Studies 1: 158. 
  108. ^ Blockley, fr. 13 (Exc. de Leg. Rom. 3)
  110. ^ Maenchen-Helfen 1973, p. 12.
  113. ^
  114. ^ Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum [The Deeds of the Huns and Hungarians] (in Latin) .


Primary sources

  • Ammianus Marcellinus: The Later Roman Empire (AD 354–378) (Selected and translated by Walter Hamilton, With an Introduction and Notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill) (2004). Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-044406-3.

Secondary sources

Further reading

  • Franz Altheim, Attila und die Hunnen (1951).
  • John Man, Attila The Hun, A barbarian King and the fall of Rome (2005).

External links