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Internal and External noise

Internal and External noise

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  • 1. BY : BhavyaWadhwa, RamanGujral, Prashantsingh
  • 2.  Noise in electrical terms may be defined as any unwantedintroduction of energy tending to interfere with the properreception and reproduction of transmitted signals. Noise is mainly of concern in receiving system, where it sets alower limit on the size of signal that can be usefully received. Evenwhen precautions are taken to eliminate noise from faultyconnections or that arising from external sources, it is found thatcertain fundamental sources of noise are present within electronicequipment that limit the receivers sensitivity. Classification of noise NOISE NOISE WHOSE SOURCES ARE NOISE CREATED WITHIN EXTERNAL TO THE RECEIVER THE RECEIVER ITSELF
  • 3. EXTERNAL NOISE Noise created outside the receiver External noise can be further classified as:1. Atmospheric2. Extraterrestrial3. Industrial ATMOSPHERIC NOISE Atmospheric noise or static is generally caused by lightningdischarges in thunderstorms and other natural electrical disturbancesoccurring in the atmosphere. Since these processes are random in nature, it is spread over most ofthe RF spectrum normally used for broadcasting.
  • 4.  Atmospheric Noise consists of spurious radio signals withcomponents distributed over a wide range of frequencies. It ispropagated over the earth in the same way as ordinary radiowaves of same frequencies, so that at any point on theground, static will be received from all thunderstorms, local anddistant. Atmospheric Noise becomes less at frequencies above 30 MHzBecause of two factors:-1. Higher frequencies are limited to line of sight propagation i.e. less than 80 km or so.2. Nature of mechanism generating this noise is such that very little of it is created in VHF range and above. EXTRATERRESTRIAL NOISE COSMIC NOISE SOLAR NOISE
  • 5. Solar Noise Under normal conditions there is a constant noise radiation fromsun, simply because it is a large body at a very high temperature (over 6000°C on the surface, it therefore radiates over a very broadfrequency spectrum which includes frequencies we use forcommunication. Due to constant changing nature of the sun, it undergoes cycles ofpeak activity from which electrical disturbances erupt, such ascorona flares and sunspots. This additional noise produced from alimited portion of the sun, may be of higher magnitude than noisereceived during periods of quite sun.Cosmic Noise Sources of cosmic noise are distant stars ( as they have high
  • 6. temperatures), they radiate RF noise in a similar manner as ourSun, and their lack in nearness is nearly compensated by their significantnumber.The noise received is called Black Body noise and is distributed fairlyuniformly over the entire sky. INDUSTRIAL NOISE This noise ranges between 1 to 600 MHz ( in urban, suburban andother industrial areas) and is most prominent. Sources of such Noise : Automobiles and aircraft ignition, electricmotors, switching equipment, leakage from high voltage lines and amultitude of other heavy electrical machines.
  • 7.  The Noise is produced by the arc discharge present in all theseoperations. ( this noise is most intense industrial and denselypopulated areas) INTERNAL NOISE Noise created by any of the active or passive devices found inreceivers.Such noise is generally random, impossible to treat on individualvoltage basis, but easy to observe and describe statistically. Because thenoise is randomly distributed over the entire radio spectrum therefore itis proportional to bandwidth over which it is measured. Internal noise can be further classified as:1. Thermal Noise2. Shot Noise3. Low frequency or flicker Noise
  • 8. 4. Burst NoiseThermal Noise The noise generated in a resistance or a resistive component is random and is referred to as thermal, agitation, white or Johnson noise. CAUSE :• The free electrons within an electrical conductor possess kinetic energy as a result of heat exchange between the conductor and its surroundings.• Due to this kinetic energy the electrons are in motion, this motion is randomized through collisions with imperfections in the structure of the conductor. This process occurs in all real conductors and gives rise to conductors resistance.• As a result, the electron density throughout the conductor varies
  • 9. randomly, giving rise to randomly varying voltage across the ends of conductor. Such voltage can be observed as flickering on a very sensitive voltmeter.• The average or mean noise voltage across the conductor is zero, but the root-mean-square value is finite and can be measured.• The mean square value of the noise voltage is proportional to the resistance of the conductor, to Ideal its absolute temperature, to the frequency Filter H(f) bandwidth of the device measuring the noise.• The mean-square voltage measured on themeter is found to be En2 = 4RkTBn ①
  • 10. Where En = root-mean-square noise voltage, volts R = resistance of the conductor, ohms T = conductor temperature, kelvins Bn = noise bandwidth, hertz k = Boltzmann’s constant (       )And the rms noise voltage is given by : En = √(4RkTBn )NOTE: Thermal Noise is not a free source of energy. To abstract the noise power, the resistanceR is to be connected to a resistive load, and in thermal equilibrium the load will supply as muchenergy to R as it receives.
  • 11. R V RL En In analogy with any electrical source, the available average power isdefined as the maximum average power the source can deliver. Considera generator of EMF En volts and internal resistance R . Assuming that RL is noiseless and receiving the maximum noisepower generated by R; under these conditions of maximum powertransfer, RL must be equal to R. Then Pn = V2/RL = V2/ R = (En/2)2 /R = En2 /4RUsing Equation ①, Pn = kTBn
  • 12.  Example:Calculate the thermal noise power available from any resistor at roomtemperature (290 K) for a bandwidth of 1MHz. Calculate also thecorresponding noise voltage, given that R = 50 ΩSolution For a 1MHz bandwidth, the noise power is Pn = 1.38 × 10-23 × 290 × 106 R = 4 × 10-15 W G=1/R En2 = 4 × 50 × 1.38 × 10-23 × 290 = 810-13 En2 = 4RkTBn = 0.895 In2 = 4GkTBn The thermal noise properties of a resister R may be a.) Equivalent Current Voltagerepresented be the equivalent voltage generator . Source Source Equivalent current generator is found using the Norton’s Theorem.Using conductance G = (1/R), the rms noise current is given by : In2 = 4GkTBn
  • 13. Resisters in Series  let Rser represent the total resistance of the series chain, where Rser = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….; then the noise voltage of equivalent series resistance is En2 = 4Rser kTBn = 4( R1 + R2 + R3 + …)kTBn = En12 + En22 + En32 + .....Hence the noise voltage of the series chain is given by: En = √ (En12 + En22 + En32 + .....) Resisters in Parallel With resistors in parallel it is best to work in terms of conductance. Let Gpar represent the parallel combination where Gpar = G1 + G2 + G3 +…; then In2 = 4Gpar kTBn = 4( G1 + G2 + G3 + …)kTBn = In12 + In22 + In33 + ….
  • 14. REACTANCE Reactances do not generate thermal noise. Thisfollows from the fact that reactances cannotDissipate power. Consider an inductive or capacitive reactanceconnected in parallel with a resistor R. In thermal equilibrium, equal amounts of power must be exchanged;that is, P1 = P2 . But since the reactance cannot dissipate power, thepower P2 must be zero, and hence P1 must also be zero.Shot Noise Shot noise is random fluctuation that accompanies any direct currentcrossing potential barrier. The effect occurs because the carriers(electrons and holes in semiconductors) do not cross the barriersimultaneously but rather with random distribution in the timing ofeach carrier, which gives rise to random component of currentsuperimpose on the steady current.
  • 15.  In case of bipolar junction transistors , the bias current crossing theforward biased emitter base junction carries the shot noise. When amplified, this noise sounds as though a shower of lead shotswere falling on a metal sheet. Hence the name shot noise. Although it is always present, shot noise is not normally observedduring measurement of direct current because it is small compared tothe DC value; however it does contribute significantly to the noise inamplifier circuits.The mean square noise component is proportionto the DC flowing, and for most devices the mean- IDCSquare, shot-noise is given by: In2 = 2Idc qe Bn ampere2 TimeWhere Idc is the direct current in ampere’s, qe is the magnitude ofelectronic charge and Bn is the equivalent noise bandwidth in hertz.
  • 16.  ExampleCalculate the shot noise component of the current present on the directcurrent of 1mA flowing across a semiconductor junction, given that theeffective noise bandwidth is 1 MHz.SOLUTION In2 = 2 × 10-3 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 106 = 3.2 × 10-16 A2 = 18 nAFlicker Noise ( or 1/f noise ) This noise is observed below frequencies of few kilohertz and itsspectral density increases with decrease in frequency. For this reason it issometimes referred to as 1/f noise.The cause of flicker noise are not well understood and is recognizableby its frequency dependence. Flicker noise becomes significant atfrequency lower than about 100 Hz. Flicker noise can be reduced
  • 17. significantly by using wire-wound or metallic film resistors rather thanthe more common carbon composition type. In semiconductors, flicker noise arises from fluctuations in the carrierdensities (holes and electrons), which in turn give rise to fluctuations inthe conductivity of the material. I.e the noise voltage will be developedwhenever direct current flows through the semiconductor, and themean square voltage will be proportional to the square of the directcurrent. In Electronic devices, it shows up as a low frequency phenomenon, asthe higher frequencies overshadowed by white noise from othersources.Burst Noise It consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or morediscrete voltage or current levels, as high as severalhundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift inoffset voltage or
  • 18. current often lasts from several milliseconds to seconds, and soundslike popcorn popping if hooked up to an audio speaker. The most commonly invoked cause is the random trapping andrelease of charge carriers at thin film interfaces or at defect sites inbulk semiconductor crystal. In cases where these charges have asignificant impact on transistor performance (such as under an MOSgate or in a bipolar base region), the output signal can be substantial.These defects can be caused by manufacturing processes, such asheavy ion-implantation, or by unintentional side-effects such as surfacecontamination. Typical popcorn noise, showing discrete levels of channel current modulation due to the trapping andrelease of a single carrier, for three different bias conditions
  • 19. SPECTRAL DENSITY spectral density is power distribution in frequency spectrum it use to distinguish type of noise. plote of light intensity/power as a function of frequency or wavelength. Thermal noise lies in category of power signals has spectral densities. Bn is property of external receiving system and Bn assume flat. from eq. Pn=E2 n/4R=4RkTBn/4R =kTBn , since E2n=4RkTBn where En=rms noise voltage(volt) R=resistance of conductor(Ω) Bn=noise bandwidth(hertz) K=Boltzmaan constant=1.38x10-23(J/k) T=conductor temperature(kelvin) available power spectral density in Watts/Hz or Joule is Ga(f)=Pn/Bn=kT
  • 20.  spectral density for mean square voltage is given by Gv(f)=E2n/Bn=4RkT(v2/hz) since E2n=4RkTBn. Spectral densities are flat that is independent of frequency in fig. below Spectral density 4RkT Gv 2 kT Gp Thermal noise spectral densities
  • 21.  So thermal noise is also called white noise because of analogy to white light that has flat spectrum means signal contain equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency. when white noise is passed through a network then spectral density is changed by shape of network frequency response. total noise power at output is sum of the noise contribution over complete frequency range. taking into account of frequency response shape.
  • 22.  Consider a power spectral density response in figure below Sp (f) δf Sp(f1) f1 f2 f3 f
  • 23.  at frequency f1 the noise power for small band width δf about f1 is δPn1=Sp(f1).δf Here δf assume flat about f1 δPn1= spectral density (watts/hertz). Bandwidth (Hz) or δPn1=Sp(f1).δf So noise power is equal to area of shaded strip about f1 similarly for f2,f3,….so that power is sum of all these small areas equal to total area under the curve. Area of curves gives total mean square voltage area of curve= ∫ Ga(f) ;for f=0 to f=∞
  • 24.  for mean square voltage Sp(f1)xδf=Sp(f1)δf(V2)=area of curves gives total mean square voltage.Equivalent noise bandwidth it is the frequency span of a noise power curve with amplitude equal to actual peak value and with same integrated area If R is connected to input of LC filter as in figure (a) this represent an input generator of mean square voltage spectral density 4RkT feeding a network of R and LC filter Let transfer function of network including R be H(f), so spectral density for mean square voltage is=4RkT|H(f)|2 ; H(f) is ratio of output to input voltage for mean square voltage.
  • 25. H(f) R 4RkT Vn 2|H(f)| Frequency (Linear scale)
  • 26.  Total mean square output voltage is given by Vn2=∫4RkT.|H(f)|2δf for f=0 to ∞ =4RkTx(area under |H(f)|2) curve or total mean square voltage at the output can be stated as Vn2=4RkTBn By above two equation gets equivalent noise bandwidth of network Bn=∫(|H(f)|2δf) =area under curve |H(f)|2 for f=0 to ∞
  • 27. Example considered in fig. below input capacitance of the voltmeter used measure the noise voltage across R Circuit diagram H(f) R R C C V2n 4RkT
  • 28.  transfer function of RC network |H(f)|=1/[1+(ωCR)]½ Equivalence noise bandwidth of the RC network is Bn=∫|H(f)|2df=1/4RC; f=0 to ∞ Vn2=4RkTx1/4RC=kT/C ,so mean square voltage orginates from R even though it is independent of R and inversly proportional to C even though C does not generate noise. transfer function |H(f)|=|Xc/Zs| ; Zs=r(1+jyQ) is impedance of the series tuned circuit and,Xc=1/jωc i.e. reactance of c.
  • 29.  let circuit is resonant at fo and noise restricted to bandwidth Δf« fo about resonant frequency fo so transfer function given by |H(f)|=1/ωo Cr=Q ; area under|H(f)|2 curve of small bandwidth δf is Q2δf so mean square noise voltage is Vn2=4rkTBn =4rQ2kTδf=4RDkT∆f use the relation Q2r=RD ; f=0 to ∞ and Bn =1/4RDC RD is dynamic resistance of the tuned circuit . Noise bandwidth expressed as a function of 3-dB bandwidth of circuit From equ. B3dB= fo /Q and RD=Q/ωo C combine these equ. Gets Bn=∏/2B3dB
  • 30.  the mean square voltage at the output as Vn2=4RDkTx1/4RDC=kT/C So noise from resister RD is limited by bandwidth Bn is V2n=4RDkTx1/4RDC=kT/C here assume that Q factor is constant and independent of frequency for end result gives good indication of noise expected in practice but not true for range zero to infinity In radio receivers noise is generated at antenna receiver input and output noise bandwidth is determined by the audio part of the receiver Equivalent noise bandwidth=area of normalized frequency curve for low frequency section. normalized means curve max. value is unity
  • 31.  Response curve show output in decibels relative to maximum as in next slide fig. Equivalent noise bandwidth is area of curve for a single sideband type, then noise bandwidth appears on both side of the carrier and gets doubled.
  • 32. Response curve Relative Relative response Response Power ratio dB I Area under curve Equal to effective Noise bandwidth Frequency(log scale) Frequency linear scale (a) (b) Noise bandwidth RF bandwidth (c) (a)Amplifier frequency response curve (b) curve of (a) using linear scales (c) noise bandwidth Of a double sideband receiver
  • 33. Signal to noise ratio in communication it is the signal to noise ratio rather than absolute value of noise. It is defined as a power ratio S/N=Ps/Pn=V2s/V2n Repeater /amplifier insert to make up for the loss in analog telephone cable If power loss of a line section is L then repeater amplifier power gain G is chosen so LG=1,long line divided into identical section If input signal power=Ps to first section as signal passes along the link power output at
  • 34.  each repeater is Ps since LG=1 for each link but noise power are additive and the total noise at the output of mth link is Pn=Pn1+Pn2+……+Pnm If each links are identical and contribute Pn then total noise power is Pnm=MPn then output signal to noise ratio is (N/S)odB=10logPs/MPn=(S/N)1dB-(M)dB Where (S/N)1 is ratio for one link and (M)dB is no of links expressed as power ratio in decibels
  • 35. Ques: the is equivalent noise resistance for an amplifier is 300Ω and equivalent shot noise current 5µA.the amplifier is fed from 150Ω 10µV rms sinusoidal signal source. Calculate the individual noise voltage at the input signal to noise ratio in decibels. the noise bandwidth is 10MHz.Solution: let room temperature so that kT=4x10-21JAnd qe=1.6x10-19C shot noise current is Ina=[2qeIEQBn]1/2=4nASo noise voltage across source resistance is InaRs=0.6µV shot noise current does not develop a voltage acrossRn . The noise voltage generated by Rn is Vna=[4Rn kToBn]1/2=6.93µVThermal noise voltage from source is Vns=[4RskToBn]1/2=4.9µV total noise voltage at input to the amplifier is Vn=[4.92+6.932+.62]1/2=8.51µVso signal to noise ratio in decibels is S/N=20logVs/Vn=1.4dB
  • 36. NOISE FACTOR Noise factor is the ratio of available S/N ratio at the input to theavailable S/N ratio at the output .Consider a signal source at room temperature To = 290Kproviding an input to an amplifier . The available noise power fromthis would be Pni = kToBn . where , k = boltzmann constant = 1.38X10-23 J/K Bn = equivalent noise bandwidth in Hz
  • 37.  Let the available signal power be Psi , then available signal to noise ratio from the source is (S/N)ni = Psi /kTo Bn The source connected to the amplifier represents available signal to noise ratio. If amplifier has the available power gain denoted by G , the available output signal power Pso = GPsi and if the amplifier was entirely noiseless , the available noise power would be Pso = GkTo Bn .However , it is known that all real amplifiers contribute noiseand the available output signal to noise ratio will be less than that at the input.
  • 38.  The noise factor F us defined as F = (available S/N power ratio at the input) / (available S/N power ratio at the output) F = ( Psi /kTo Bn ) X (Pno /GPsi ) F = Pno /GkTo Bn It follows from this that the available output noise power is given by Pno =FGkTo Bn F can be interpreted as the factor by which the amplifier increasesthe output noise , for ,if amplifier were noiseles the output noisewould be GkTn Bn . The available output power depends on the actual input powerdelivered to the amplifier .
  • 39.  Noise factor is a measured quantity and will be specified forgiven amplifier or network. It is usually specified in decibels , whenit is referred to as the noise figure. Thus noise figure = (F) dB = 10logF ExampleThe noise figure of an amplifier is 7dB. Calculate the output signalto noise ratio when the input signal to noise ratio is 35 dB. Sol . From the definition of noise factor , (S/N)o = (S/N)in – (F) dB = (35 – 7) dB = 28 db
  • 40. Amplifier Input Noise in terms of FAmplifier noise is generated in many components throughout theamplifier , but it proves convenient to imagine it to originate fromsome equivalent power source at the input of the amplifier . Thenthe total available power input noise is Pni = Pno / G Noiseless (F-1)kT B amplifier o n kT B = FkTo Bn o n Gain, G Noise Factor P = FGkT B no o n The source contributes an available F power kTo Bn and hence the amplifier must contribute Pna , wherePna = FkTo Bn – kTo Bn = (F – 1)kTo Bn
  • 41.  ExampleAn amplifier has a noise figure of 13dB. Calculateequivalent amplifier input noise for a bandwidth of 1MHz.Sol. 13 dB is a power ratio of approximately 20 : 1. hence Pna = (20 – 1)X 4 X 10-21 X 106 = 1.44pW.Noise figure must be converted to a power ratio F to beused in the calculation.
  • 42. Noise factor of amplifiers in cascade consider first two amplifiers in cascade . The problem is todetermine the overall noise factor F in terms of individual noisefactors and available power gains .the available noise power at the output of the amplifier 1 isPno1 = F1 G1 kTo Bn and this available to amplifier 2.
  • 43. Amplifier 2 has noise (F2 – 1)kTo Bn of its own at its input, hencetotal available noise power at the input of amplifier 2 is Pni2 = F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn Now since the noise of amplifier 2 is represented by its equivalentinput source , the amplifier itself can be regarded as being noiselessand of available power gain G2 , so the available noise output ofamplifier 2 is Pno2 = G2 Pni2 = G2 ( F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 –1)kTo Bn ) (1)The overall available power of the two amplifiers in cascade is G = G1 G2 and let overall noise factor be F ; then output noise powercan also be expressed as Pno = FGkToBn (2) equating the two equations for output noise (1) and (2)
  • 44.  F1 G1 kTo Bn + (F2 -1)kTo Bn = FGkToBn F1 G1 + (F2 -1) = FG F = F1 G1 / G + (F2 – 1)/G where G = G1 G2 F = F1 + ( F2 – 1)/ G1
  • 45. This equation shows the importance of high gain , lownoise amplifier as the first stage of a cascaded system. Bymaking G1 large, the noise contribution of the secondstage can be made negligible, and F1 must also be small sothat the noise contribution of the first amplifier is low. The argument is easily extended for additional amplifiersto give F = F1 + (F2 -1)/G1 + (F3 -1)/ G1 G2 This is known as FRISS’ FORMULA.
  • 46.  There are two particular situations where a low noise, front end amplifier is employed to reduce the noise. Oneof these is in satellite receiving systems. The other is in radio receivers used to pick up weaksignals such as short wave receivers.In most receivers , a stage known as the mixer stage isemployed to change the frequency of the incoming signal, and it is known that the mixer stages have notoriouslyhigh noise factors. By inserting an RF amplifier ahead ofthe mixer , the effect of the mixer noise can be reduced tonegligible levels. This is illustrated in following example.
  • 47.  ExampleA mixer stage has a noise figure of 20dB and this is preceded by anamplifier that has a noise figure of 9 dB and an available power gainof 15dB. Calculate overall noise figure referred to the input .Sol. It is necessary to convert all decibel values to the equivalentpower ratios : F2 = 20dB = 100:1 power ratio F1 = 9dB = 7.94:1 power ratio G1 =15dB = 31.62:1 power ratio F = F1 + (F2 – 1)/ G1 = 7.94 + (100-1)/31.62 = 11.07 This is overall noise factor. The overall noise figure is (F)dB= 10 log 11.07 = 10.44dB
  • 48. NOISE TEMPERATUREThe concept of noise temperature is based on available noise powerequation Pn = kTa Bn Here the subscript has been included to indicate the noise temperature isassociated only with available noise power.In general, Ta will not be same as that physical temperature of the noisesource. As an example, an antenna pointed at deep space will pick up a smallamount of cosmic noise. The equivalent noise temperature of antenna thatrepresents this noise power may be a few tens of kelvins, well below thephysical ambient temperature of the antenna. If the antenna is directlypointed at the sun , the received noise power increases enormously and thecorresponding equivalent noise temperature is well above the ambienttemperature. When the concept is applied to an amplifier, it relates to equivalent noiseof the amplifier referred to the input. If the amplifier noise referred to theinput is denoted by Pna , the equivalent noise temperature of the amplifierreferred to the input is Te = Pna / kBn (3)
  • 49. We know equivalent input power for an amplifier is given in termsof its noise factor by Pna = (F-1)kTo Bn putting this in equation (3) we get equivalent noise temperature of the amplifier as Te = (F-1)/TaThis shows the proportionality between Te and F.In practice it is found that noise temperature is the better measurefor low noise devices , such as low noise amplifiers used in satellitereceiving systems while noise factor is a better measure for the mainreceiving system.Friss’s formula can be expressed in terms of equivalent noisetemperatures. Denoting by Te the overall noise of the cascadedsystem referred to the input , and by Te1 , Te2 , and so on , the noisetemperatures of the individual stages , the in Friss’s formula is easilyrearranged to give Te = Te1 + Te2 /G1 + Te3 / G1 G2 + ……..
  • 50. Q. A receiver has a noise figure of 12dB and it is fed by a low noiseamplifier that has gain of 50dB and a noise temperature of 90 K.calculate the noise temperature of the receiver and the overall noisetemperature of the receiving system.SOL. 12dB represents a power ratio of 15.85 : 1. Hence Tem = (15.85-1) X 290 = 4306 K The 50dB gain represents a power ratio of 105 : 1 . Hence Te = 90 + 4306/ 105 = 90 K This example shows the relatively high noise temperature of thereceiver , which clearly cannot be its physical temperature. It alsoshows how the low noise amplifier controls the noise temperature ofthe overall receiving system.