Anatomical terminology

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Anatomists and health care providers use anatomical terminology and medical terminology intermittently. These languages can be bewildering to the uninitiated, however the purpose of this language is not to confuse, but rather to increase precision and reduce medical errors. For example, is a scar “above the wrist” located on the forearm two or three inches away from the hand? Or is it at the base of the hand? Is it on the palm-side or back-side? By using precise anatomical terminology, ambiguity is eliminated. Anatomical terms derive from Ancient Greek and Latin words, and because these languages are no longer used in everyday conversation, the meaning of their words does not change.[1]

The current international standard is the Terminologia Anatomica.

Anatomical vocabulary[edit]

Anatomical terms are made up of roots, prefixes, and suffixes. The root of a term often refers to an organ, tissue, or condition, whereas the prefix or suffix often describes the root. For example, in the disorder hypertension, the prefix “hyper-” means “high” or “over,” and the root word “tension” refers to pressure, so the word “hypertension” refers to abnormally high blood pressure. The roots, prefixes and suffixes are often derived from Greek or Latin, and often quite dissimilar from their English-language variants.[1]


The first word tells us what we are speaking about, the second describes it, and the third points to location.[citation needed]

Relative location[edit]

The anatomical position, with terms of relative location noted.

Anatomical terminology is often chosen to highlight the relative location of body structures. For instance, an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might describe a tumor as “superficial to” a deeper body structure. Terms are used to define the relative location of body structures in a body that is positioned in the anatomical position, which is standing, feet apace, with palms forward and thumbs facing outwards.[1]

To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position, is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward. Using the standard anatomical position reduces confusion. It does not matter how the body being described is oriented, the terms are used as if it is in anatomical position. For example, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region” would be present on the palm side of the wrist. The term “anterior” would be used even if the hand were palm down on a table.[1]



  • Occasionally, sinister for left, and dexter for right are used.[citation needed]
The skull uses different terminology, due to its embryonic origin of neuraxis.

Skull and brain[edit]




When speaking of the arm different terminology is often used, so as to take account of the supination action the arm can perform. Therefor the terms ventral for anterior and dorsal for posterior are used preferentially. Aside from this additional terms are employed:



Main article: Anatomical plane
The three anatomical planes of the body: the sagital, transverse (or horizontal), frontal planes.



Functional state[edit]

Anatomical terms may be used to describe the functional state of an organ:[citation needed]

  • Anastomoses refers to the connection between two structures previously branched out, such as blood vessels or leaf veins.
  • Patent, meaning a structure such as an artery or vein that abnormally remains open, such as a patent ductus arteriosus, referring to the ductus arteriosus which normally becomes ligamentum arteriosum within three weeks of birth.
  • Visceral and parietal' describe structures that relate to an organ (visceral), or the wall of the cavity that the organ is in (parietal). For example, the parietal peritoneum surrounds the abdominal cavity.


A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures.[1]


The human body’s numerous regions have specific terms to help increase precision. Notice that the term “brachium” or “arm” is reserved for the “upper arm” and “antebrachium” or “forearm” is used rather than “lower arm.” Similarly, “femur” or “thigh” is correct, and “leg” or “crus” is reserved for the portion of the lower limb between the knee and the ankle.[1]


When describing the position of anatomical structures, landmarks may be used to describe location. These landmarks may include structures, such as the umbilicus or sternum, or anatomical lines, such as the midclavicular line from the centre of the clavicle.

Body cavities[edit]

Main article: Body cavity
Different body cavities (anterior mediastinum not visible)

Anatomical structures are often described in terms of the cavity in which they reside. The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.[1]

The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the cranial and spinal cavities. This illustration shows a lateral and anterior view of the body and highlights the body cavities with different colors.[1]

  • The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the upper skull where the brain is located.
  • The vertebral cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity running from the cranial cavity down the entire length of the spinal cord.

Together the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity can be referred to as the dorsal body cavity. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity.[1]

The thoracic cavity consists of three cavities that fill the interior area of the chest.

  • The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body, anterior to the spine and lateral to the breastbone.
  • The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cavity located between the superior regions of the two thoracic cavities.
  • The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the center of the chest below the superior mediastinum. The pericardial cavity roughly outlines the shape of the heart.

The diaphragm divides the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. The abdominal cavity occupies the entire lower half of the trunk, anterior to the spine. Just under the abdominal cavity, anterior to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior and anterior to the abdominal cavity. Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity while the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity.[1] Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities The anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.[1]


Abdominal regions are used for example to localize pain.
Main article: Abdomen

To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four quadrants.[1]






Main article: Serous membrane
Serous membrane

A serous membrane (also referred to as a serosa) is a thin membrane that covers the walls of organs in the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The serous membranes have two layers; parietal and visceral, surrounding a fluid filled space.[1] The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organ (the viscera), and the parietal layer lines the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.[1] An example of a serous cavities include the pericardium, which surrounds the heart.[1]


Body Movements I.jpg
Body Movements II.jpg



General movements[edit]

General motion[edit]

Terms describing motion in general include:

  • Elevation and Depression refers to movement in a superior (elevation) or inferior (depression) direction. For example, a person saluting must elevate their arm. [clarification needed]

Special motions of the hands and feet[edit]

These terms refer to movements that are regarded as unique to the hands and feet:[3] :590–7


Other special motions[edit]

Other terms include:

  • Anterograde and Retrograde flow, refers to movement of blood or other fluids in a normal (anterograde) or abnormal (retrograde) direction.
  • Protraction and Retraction refer to an anterior (protraction) or posterior (retraction) movement of the arm at the shoulders.
  • Opposition – A motion involving a grasping of the thumb and fingers.
  • Reposition – To release an object by spreading the fingers and thumb.
  • Reciprocal motion of a joint – Alternating motion in opposing directions, such as the elbow alternating between flexion and extension.
  • Protrusion and Retrusion are sometimes used to describe the anterior (protrusion) and posterior (retrusion) movement of the jaw.


Main article: Muscle


Agonist and antagonist muscles[edit]

Further information: Agonist and Antagonist


Skeletal and smooth muscle[edit]





Main article: Joint


Systemic and regional approaches to anatomy[edit]

Further information: Biological system and Human body

In the systematic approach to the study of anatomy, each system of the body, such as the digestive system, is studied as a thing in itself.[5] The regional approach observes all aspects of a particular region at one time.[5] For example, each muscle, organ, bone, nerve and any other structure in the abdomen is studied together, then the student continues in this fashion with each region. The regional approach better facilitates study with dissection, while the systematic approach is appreciated for its comprehensive look at each system throughout the body.

Anatomical variation[edit]


Additional images[edit]

See also[edit]



  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t "Anatomy & Physiology". Openstax college at Connexions. Retrieved November 16, 2013. 
  2. ^ a b c Drake, Richard L.; Vogl, Wayne; Tibbitts, Adam W.M. Mitchell; illustrations by Richard; Richardson, Paul (2005). Gray's anatomy for students (Pbk. ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-443-06612-2. 
  3. ^ Swartz, Mark H. (2010). Textbook of physical diagnosis : history and examination (6th ed. ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier. ISBN 978-1-4160-6203-5. 
  4. ^ a b Moore, Keith L., Dalley, Arthur F., Agur Anne M. R. (2010). Moore's Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Phildadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 29–35. ISBN 978-1-60547-652-0. 
  5. ^ a b "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Retrieved 19 March 2007. 

Further reading[edit]

  • Calais-Germain, Blandine (1993). Anatomy of Movement. Eastland Press. ISBN 0-939616-17-3. 
  • Drake, Richard; Vogl, Wayne; Mitchell, Adam (2004). Gray’s Anatomy for Students. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-06612-4. 
  • Martini, Frederic; Timmons, Michael; McKinnley, Michael (2000). Human Anatomy (3rd ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-010011-0. 
  • Marieb, Elaine (2000). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (6th ed.). Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-8053-4940-5. 
  • Muscolino, Joseph E. (2005). The Muscular System Manual: The Skeletal Muscles of the Human Body (2nd ed.). C.V. Mosby. ISBN 0-323-02523-4.