SeoulKorean Sŏul, formally Sŏul-t’ŭkpyŏlsi (“Special City of Seoul”), city and capital of the Republic of Korea (South Korea), located in the northwestern part of the country on the Han River (Han-gang (Han River) 37 miles (60 kilometres) from the Yellow Sea. Except for a brief interregnum (1399–1405), Seoul was the capital of Korea from 1394 until the formal division of the country in 1948. The name itself has come to mean “capital” in the Korean language. The city was popularly called Seoul in Korean during both the Yi dynasty (1392–1910) and the period of Japanese rule (1910–45), although the official names in those periods were Hansŏng and Kyŏngsŏng, respectively. The city was also popularly and, during most of the 14th century, officially known as Hanyang. Seoul became the official name of the city only with the founding of South Korea. Pop. (2003 est.) 10,280,523.
Physical and human geography
The landscape
The city site

Modern Seoul was founded in 1394 by Gen. Yi Sŏng-gye, the founder of Korea’s Yi dynasty, as the capital of a unified nation. The site was a militarily defensible natural redoubt that was also an especially suitable site for a capital city, lying at the centre of an undivided Korea and adjoining the navigable Han -gangRiver, one of the peninsula’s major rivers flowing into the Yellow Sea. The contact afforded by this riverain riverine site both with inland waterways and with coastal sea routes was particularly important to Yi because these were the routes by which grain, taxes, and goods were transported. In addition to the practical advantages, the site was well situated according to p’ungsuchirisol, the traditional belief in geomancy. The district chosen by Yi remains, after 600 years, the centre of Seoul; it is located immediately north of the Han -gang River in the lowland of a topographic basin surrounded by low hills of about 1,000 feet (300 metres). The natural defensive advantages of the basin were reinforced two years after the city’s founding by the construction of an 11-mile (18-kilometre) wall along the ridges of the surrounding hills.

Today, the remains of the fortifications are a popular attraction. The old city centre is drained by a small tributary of the Han-gang, which has been covered over by streets and expressways. Main streets and major shopping areas occupy the lower part of the basin. The original city district served to contain most of the city’s growth until the early 20th century; for, although the population had grown to approximately 100,000 by the census of 1429, it had risen to only about 250,000 by the time of the Japanese annexation in 1910, almost five centuries later. The modernizations brought modernization program initiated by the Japanese began the first of several cycles of growth during the 20th century that extended the city limits by successive stages, so that they now contain both banks of the Han -gang river plainRiver, as well as the banks of several tributary rivers. The city’s boundaries now form a ragged oval about eight to 12 miles distant from the original site, except to the northwest, where they are approximately half that distance. The present boundary of Seoul is largely that established in 1963 and encompasses roughly 234 square miles (605 square kilometres), more than twice the city area of 1948. Seoul has grown rapidly since the Korean War (1950–53). Suburbs have sprung up in the rural areas surrounding the city, and such satellite cities as Sŏngnam, Suwŏn, and Inch’ŏn have undergone considerable expansion as the capital has grown.


Seoul’s climate is characterized by a large annual range of temperature. The coldest month, January, has a mean temperature of 26° F (−3° C26 °F (−3 °C), and the warmest month, August, has a mean temperature of 78° F (25° C78 °F (25 °C). Yearly precipitation in the city is about 54 inches (1,370 millimetresmm), with a heavy concentration during the summer months. Air pollution in the basin and in Yŏngdŭng-p’o, an industrial area, has become a serious problem, caused in large part by the increasing number of automobiles and factories. For years the Han -gang was highly polluted, but since the early 1980s pollution levels have been reduced significantly by measures to control the river’s water level and by the construction of large-scale sewage treatment facilities.

The city plan

Street patterns in the city centre are basically rectangular. Streets and buildings stretch out in all directions from the old city wall’s four major gates that still stand: toward Mia-dong and Suyu-dong to the north, Ch’ŏngnyang-ni to the east, Yongsan and Yŏngdŭng-p’o to the south, and Map’o and Hongje-dong to the west. Main streets, such as Ŭlchi-ro and Chong-no, are oriented east to west, but, toward the foot of the surrounding hills, topographic irregularities have some influence on the pattern. Outside the basin area of the central city, however, there are a number of radiating streets, which are interconnected by a series of circular roads. The Capitol Building and other government offices Many government office buildings are concentrated along Sejong-no, although the National Assembly building is on Yŏido island; banks, department stores, and other business offices are located along Namdaemun-no and T’aep’yŏng-no. The area of Chong-no, Myŏng-dong, and Ŭlchi-ro constitutes the central business district. The district has been transformed from an area of wooden, tile-roofed houses to one of concrete high-rise office buildings. Much of the city’s expansion has been to the south of the Han-gang, resulting in the creation of three new urban centres at Yŏido-Yŏngdŭngp’o, Yŏngdong, and Chamshil.


A shortage of housing has been a chronic problem. A number of large-scale apartment blocks were built, especially along the banks of the Han-gang. In addition, much residential housing has been developed along the suburban fringes of the city. Old-style houses—with the traditional heated floors (ondol) designed for the cold winters—are still found in a few areas of the old city and adjacent to the remains of the city wall.

The people

The population of Seoul has grown extremely rapidly since 1950, and the city now has one of the highest population densities in the world. The most densely populated areas are distributed within and outside the old city and in the apartment belts along the Han-gang, while residential areas in the suburbs have a relatively low density. Rapid population growth in the suburbs has resulted in the creation of satellite cities around Seoul. Koreans constitute nearly all of the population, the number of foreign residents being insignificant.

The economy
Industry and commerce

Manufacturing, commerce, and service industries services are the principal employers. The While textile, machinery, and chemical industries are the chief sectors in manufacturing, but production, food and beverage processing, and printing are still significant, and publishing are also importantthe manufacture of semiconductors, computers, telecommunications equipment, and consumer electronics has grown rapidly.

The two most important traditional shopping areas are the extensive Tongdaemun (Great East Gate) Market (Tongdaemun Sijang) and the smaller Namdaemun (Great South Gate) Market (Namdaemun Sijang), located near their respective gates. Comprising numerous individually owned shops, these markets serve not only Seoul but the entire country. There are also several many large downtown department stores and modern shopping centres in the apartment blockscity.



Although Seoul is an old ancient city, it has a good road system; vast improvements have been made in the system since the Korean War, notably in the construction of widening roads and constructing more than a dozen bridges across the Han -gangRiver. Transportation facilities, however, have not been able to keep up with the demands of a large and expanding population, resulting in crowded streets and frequent traffic jams. An extensive subway system has replaced the older streetcars; this has alleviated traffic congestion somewhat and has become, with buses and railways, one of the main forms of public transport. The capital is the hub of railway lines connecting it with most provincial cities and ports, including Inch’ŏn and Pusan. Before the Korean War, small vessels navigated up the river 37 miles to Seoul, but the demilitarized zone that now divides Korea into North and South runs partly through the mouth of the river and has deprived Seoul of its role as a river port. Hence, most goods are transported to and from the city on railways and highways. Kimp’o International Airport, located in the western part of Seoul, serves as the centre of the nation’s airline networkthe city and long its only major airport, was joined in 2001 by Inch’ŏn (Incheon) International Airport, about 30 miles west-southwest of Seoul.

Administration and social conditions

Water and sewage-disposal facilities are inadequate, notwithstanding strenuous efforts to keep up with the demand stemming from rapid expansion of the city. Medical facilities are relatively good, and there are many small clinics as well as numerous doctors of herbal medicine. Fires occur frequently during winter and spring (the cold, dry season), placing a heavy demand on the city’s fire servicesThe government consists of the Seoul Metropolitan Government, which is the executive branch, and the Seoul Metropolitan Council, the legislative body. The administrative structure contains three tiers: city, gu (district), and dong (village). The mayor of the metropolitan government and the mayors of the gu are elected to four-year terms. Serving under the mayors at both levels are vice mayors and directors of bureaus, offices, and divisions. The dongs into which each gu is divided provide services to the residents within their administrative areas. The Seoul Metropolitan Council is headed by a president and two vice presidents and includes standing committees, special committees, and a secretariat; it has more than 100 members, elected to four-year terms.

Compulsory education applies only to the six-year elementary school, but a large proportion of elementary school graduates receive a secondary education. There is a shortage of elementary school facilities because of the rapid increase in population. Most of South Korea’s major universities, colleges, and research institutes are located in Seoul.

Cultural life

Seoul is the country’s cultural centre. It is the home of the National Academy of Arts and the National Academy of Sciences and nearly all of the nation’s learned societies and libraries. The National Classical Music Institute, engaged in the preservation of the traditional court music of Korea and in the training of musicians, is complemented by two Western-style symphony orchestras. In addition, there are a national theatre, an opera, and a number of public and private museums, including the main branch of the National Museum of Korea on the grounds of the Kyŏngbok Palace. The Sejong Cultural CenterCentre, to the south of the palace, has facilities for concerts, plays, and exhibitions.

Surrounded by hills, Seoul has numerous small and large parks within easy reach. Places of historical interest—including Ch’anggyŏng, Ch’angdŏk, Kyŏngbok, and Tŏksu palaces and Chong-myo Shrine—annually attract large numbers of citizens and tourists. The city also has excellent sports and recreational facilities, notably the Seoul Sports Complex, which was built for the 1986 Asian Games in 1986 and the 1988 Summer Olympic Games in 1988.


The earliest historical mention of Seoul and the surrounding area dates from the 1st century BC. During the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCAD 668) of Silla, Koguryŏ, and Paekche, the area formed a borderland between the three countries, although during the early part of the period it was most closely associated with the Kingdom of Paekche. Historical accounts as well as archaeological records indicate that the original site of Paekche’s capital, Wiryesŏng, was in the northeastern part of present-day Seoul. Shortly thereafter the capital was moved south across the Han -gangRiver; a number of remains, including earthen walls, dwellings, and tombs have been uncovered at that site. It was not, however, until King Munjong of Koryŏ built a summer palace in 1068 that a fairly large settlement existed on the site of the modern city.

After the formal establishment of Seoul as the capital of the unified Yi state in 1394, construction and growth were very rapid. Construction on the Kyŏngbok Palace began in 1392; it was the residence of the Yi kings from 1395 until 1592. Before residence had even been established, the construction of the city’s defensive walls had been completed, although so hastily that they had to be reconstructed in 1422. The Tŏksu Palace, the construction of which began in the late 15th century, was the residence of the Yi kings from 1593 until 1611. The Ch’angdŏk Palace, begun in 1405, was the residence from 1611 to 1872, when the king moved back into the reconstructed Kyŏngbok Palace (it had been burned by the Japanese in 1592 and was not rebuilt until 1867). Throughout this period Seoul remained the centre of the “Hermit Kingdom,” with little contact permitted with the outside world. The opening of Korea to diplomatic contacts with the West in 1876, at a time when the weakening Yi dynasty was unable to control Western influence, led in 1905 to the establishment of a Japanese protectorate over the kingdom.

A year after the annexation of Korea to Japan in 1910, the name of the Seoul area was changed to Kyŏngsŏng, and minor changes were made in the boundary. Seoul served as the centre of Japanese rule, and modern technology was imported. Roads were paved, old gates and walls partly removed, new Western-style buildings built, and streetcars introduced.

After the end of Japanese control in 1945, Seoul came under the direct control of the central government, and in 1962 it was placed directly under the control of the prime minister. The city was left devastated by the Korean War. Out of the rubble has risen a modern city of skyscrapers and highways that has become one of the largest metropolises in the world.