Oregon Trail

Historical trail, United States

Oregon Trail, also called Oregon-California TrailOregon Trail [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]Oregon TrailEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.in U.S. history, an overland trail between Independence, Missouri, and Oregon City, near present-day Portland, Oregon, in the Willamette River valley. It was one of the two main emigrant routes to the American West in the 19th century, the other being the southerly Santa Fe Trail from Independence to Santa Fe (now in New Mexico). In addition, branches from each main trail provided connections to destinations in California, and a spur of the northerly Oregon route, part of the Oregon Trail, led to the Great Salt Lake region of what is now northern Utah.

The Oregon Trail, which stretched for about 2,000 miles (3,200 km), flourished as the main means for hundreds of thousands of emigrants to reach the Northwest from the early 1840s through the 1860s. It crossed varied and often difficult terrain that included large territories occupied by Native Americans. From Independence it first traversed the vast prairie grasslands of present-day northeastern Kansas and southern Nebraska, there following the Platte River. Skirting the southern end of the Sand Hills, it continued along the North Platte River (a major tributary of the Platte) into much drier and increasingly rugged lands in what is now southern Wyoming. There, leaving the river, it crossed its first mountain ranges before heading across the arid and desolate Great Divide Basin.

In southwestern Wyoming, after having run largely westward for hundreds of miles, the route trended generally to the northwest as it traversed more mountains and then followed the relatively level plain of the Snake River in what is now southern Idaho. Entering the northeastern corner of present-day Oregon, the trail crossed the Blue Mountains before reaching the lower Columbia River. From there travelers could float downstream or, after 1846, go overland through the Cascade Range to the trail’s western terminus in the fertile Willamette valley situated between the Cascades and the Coast Ranges to the west.


Early trailblazers

Astoria: fort at the mouth of the Columbia River [Credit: Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.]Astoria: fort at the mouth of the Columbia RiverLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C.Portions of what was to become the Oregon Trail were first used by trappers, fur traders, and missionaries (c. 1811–40) who traveled on foot and horseback. Until the trail’s development as a wagon route, however, people of European descent (whites) in eastern North America who wished to travel to California or Oregon generally went by ship around the southern tip of South America, an arduous and often harrowing sea journey that could take nearly a year to complete. Thus, before the turn of the 19th century few whites had ventured into the vast territory west of the Mississippi River that came to be included in the U.S. government’s 1802 Louisiana Purchase. One of those was the French Canadian trapper and explorer Toussaint Charbonneau. He and Shoshone wife Sacagawea were instrumental members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804–06), the government’s first attempt to systematically explore, map, and report on its newly acquired lands and the Oregon country that lay beyond them.

In 1810 fur entrepreneur John Jacob Astor organized an expedition of frontiersmen to head westward and establish a trading post for his American Fur Company in Oregon. The men followed the Missouri River upstream from St. Louis to Arikara Indian villages in what is now South Dakota and then struck out on the difficult trek across the plains and mountains through Wyoming and Idaho to Oregon. There they, and another group that had sailed there by ship, established in 1812 Fort Astoria (now Astoria, Oregon) near the mouth of the Columbia River, the first American-owned settlement on the Pacific Ocean coast and what the company hoped would be the major post from which Astor would conduct trade with China.

Astor’s expedition, in dire need of supplies and help, sent members back east in 1812. During that journey Robert Stuart and his companions discovered the South Pass in southwestern Wyoming, a 20-mile (32-km) gap in the Rocky Mountains that offered the lowest (and easiest) crossing of the Continental Divide. (Lewis and Clark, unaware of the pass, had crossed the divide at a more treacherous spot farther to the north.) Astor’s venture foundered, however, when the British took over his post in 1813 during the War of 1812, and he sold his operation there to the North West Company (then a rival of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the dominant fur traders in the Northwest and Canada).

Despite Stuart’s detailed account of the Astor expedition, the South Pass remained largely ignored. In 1806 Zebulon Montgomery Pike, after exploring the Great Plains region, had famously called the West the Great American Desert, a judgment given even wider publicity by Stephen H. Long after he led an expedition to the southern Great Plains in 1819–20. For some years thereafter an American public that initially had been thrilled by the reports of Lewis and Clark became swayed against the West. Not until trappers Jedediah Smith and Thomas Fitzpatrick rediscovered the pass in 1824 did that critical route through the mountains became widely known.

Missionaries, Mormons, and others

Oregon Trail [Credit: Acp]Oregon TrailAcpThe first missionary group to the West left Independence in 1834. Led by Jason Lee, its members joined a party headed by New England merchant Nathaniel Wyeth. They largely followed the Platte River. At the Snake River, Wyeth built a post, Fort Hall, in Idaho (near present-day Pocatello), which was later bought by the Hudson’s Bay Company; it subsequently became a major supply outpost for future emigrants. The Wyeth-Lee party was the first group to travel the entire course of what was to become the Oregon Trail.

Perhaps the most significant of the pioneers to the Northwest was Marcus Whitman, a physician who had become a Congregational missionary. In the mid-1830s he and fellow missionary Henry Harmon Spalding established missions in the Oregon country—Whitman among the Cayuse Indians at Waiilatpu (near present-day Walla Walla, Washington) and Spalding among the Nez Percé at Lapwai (near present-day Lewiston, Idaho). In addition, Narcissa Whitman and Eliza Spalding, the wives of the two men, accompanied them on their journey, thus becoming the first white women to cross the South Pass and the Continental Divide.

By then, interest in the East for the Oregon country had begun to grow. In 1840 Robert Newell and Joseph Meek, leading a small party out from Fort Hall and guided by mountain man Thomas Fitzpatrick, became the first emigrants to reach the Willamette valley by land. The following year several dozen pioneers led by John Bartleson and John Bidwell were the first emigrants credited with using the nascent Oregon Trail to migrate to California by wagon train (at Fort Hall, half of the group headed instead for Oregon).

In the winter of 1842–43 Whitman made a remarkable 3,000-mile (4,800-km) journey back east on horseback to persuade his sponsors to continue supporting the missions. He also conferred with federal officials in Washington, D.C., about settlement in Oregon, and those discussions became a major factor in convincing Easterners to move to the lands beyond the Rocky Mountains. Perhaps the final inspiration was supplied by the glowing reports of the region from mapmaker and explorer John C. Frémont, who famously explored the West with guides Kit Carson and Thomas Fitzpatrick in the mid-1840s and did much to dispel the myth of the Great American Desert.

In 1842 missionary Elijah White—also a great proponent of westward migration—had organized and helped lead the second sizable wagon train on the Oregon Trail. That group was the first on the trail to include more than 100 pioneers. Whitman began his return West the following spring, joining up with a remarkable caravan of nearly 1,000 settlers—known in Oregon history as the “great migration”—the first of many large-scale groups of emigrants who now began to pour into the Oregon country.

The mission at Waiilatpu became an important stopping point for the increasing numbers of emigrants to Oregon. In 1847, however, Whitman, his family, and several other whites were massacred by Indians following the outbreak of an epidemic of measles. The incident helped spur passage of a bill establishing the Oregon Territory (1848) and contributed to the Cayuse War between Indians and settlers, which did not end until 1850.

Mormon emigrants were also pioneering users of the Oregon Trail. After their leader Joseph Smith was murdered in Nauvoo, Illinois, in 1844, church members decided to move their community to the Great Salt Lake region. The initial group of what would be thousands of Mormon settlers departed in 1846, crossing Iowa before establishing winter quarters in what would become Omaha, Nebraska. From there this first wave followed essentially the same route as the Oregon Trail before breaking off to the south just west of the Continental Divide and heading toward Utah.


The trail

North Platte River [Credit: Comstock/Thinkstock]North Platte RiverComstock/ThinkstockTopography and climate largely dictated the course of the Oregon Trail. Access to water was of paramount importance, and, for the greater part of its length, the trail followed the region’s three great rivers: the Platte (and its tributary the North Platte), the Snake, and, finally, the Columbia. Also crucial were safe passages through or around the several mountain ranges along the route, the most important of those being the relatively low and gently sloped South Pass over the divide.

Grass was abundant on the prairies, although lands bordering the trail became heavily grazed by the bison (buffalo) herds and the emigrants’ livestock. Western Nebraska was the beginning of sagebrush vegetation, which stretched endlessly across the land. Only the pleasant green valleys of the Bear River in eastern Idaho and the Grande Ronde River in northeastern Oregon presented a different vista. The sage began to disappear on the volcanic plain beyond the Blue Mountains, giving way to a golden and dry grasslike vegetation that continued across much of Oregon until it was replaced by the more lush vegetation of the Cascades and the Columbia River Gorge.

Buffalo roamed over the plains in herds of hundreds of thousands, providing the travelers with plenty of fresh meat until they passed out of their range. Because of the density of the herds, it was easy for even an inexpert shot to bring one down, but the fleet antelope, another abundant food source, took a good marksman to fell. Jackrabbits, deer, bighorn (mountain) sheep, ducks, sage hens, and grouse were also obtained for food. Fish abounded in most of the rivers and streams. On the treeless prairie were thousands of buffalo chips—dried dung—which burned with little odour and made a hot fire.

Varied routes

A common misconception is that the Oregon Trail was a single track that never changed. In reality, the trail was more like a braided band, frayed at the ends, which meandered a little with each year and with changing weather conditions. While in certain locations the trail did converge into a single passage, in other places the wagon trains might spread out, making the trail up to 0.5 mile (0.8 km) wide or more. In places there might have been many parallel routes, sometimes a few miles away from each other.

Initially, Independence, Missouri, was the departure point for the Oregon Trail because it was also the eastern terminus of the older Santa Fe Trail. Most of the early emigrants arrived at Independence after having loaded their wagons and belongings directly onto steamboats traveling up the Missouri River from St. Louis. They disembarked where the river turns sharply north—roughly at Independence—and began the long overland journey. Enterprising individuals quickly recognized that outfitting the overlanders was highly profitable. Soon suppliers had set up shop in St. Joseph, which was farther north and west in Missouri than Independence. Those starting there eliminated some 20 miles (30 km) and several river crossings from the first leg of the trek.

Within a few years, wagon trains were departing from several towns along the Missouri River between St. Joseph and Council Bluffs, Iowa (then called Kanesville). The more northerly jumping-off spots appealed to those coming from places such as Illinois and Indiana; the travelers could outfit themselves in the towns where they lived, buying their supplies and equipment from people they knew rather than from traders who were apt to gouge the greenhorns. Emigrants who left from any place south of Council Bluffs eventually followed the south bank of the Platte River until they crossed it in western Nebraska. Those who departed from Council Bluffs—by 1850 they were in the majority—stayed on the north bank of the Platte. The two trails joined in Wyoming at either Fort Laramie (now Laramie) or near present-day Casper.

The Oregon Trail and the California Trail traced the same route until they split, either at Fort Bridger in southwestern Wyoming or at Soda Springs or the Raft River in southeastern or southern Idaho, respectively. Those heading to Oregon continued northwest, while those traveling to California went southwestward through the deserts of northern Utah and Nevada before crossing the Sierra Nevada range and descending into the Sacramento area of California and beyond. The California branch was especially popular in the late 1840s and early ’50s, as hordes of gold seekers joined the gold rush to California.

Outposts along the trail

Vancouver, Fort [Credit: Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.]Vancouver, FortLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C.Crucial to the success and well-being of travelers on the trail were the many forts and other settlements that sprang up along the route. These outposts offered protection and supplies for emigrants, as well as travel advice and a welcome respite from the rigours of the journey. Among the most significant were Fort Kearny (present-day Kearney, Nebraska), at a spot on the Platte River where all trails from the east merged; Fort Laramie, an important resupply point before the trail ventured through Wyoming; Fort Bridger (southwestern Wyoming), where the Mormon Trail branched southward off the main trail; and Fort Hall, where the trail reached the Snake River. Marcus Whitman’s mission was also an important stopping point in the early years until its destruction in 1847; Fort Walla Walla replaced it in 1856.

The penultimate stop for many emigrants was Fort Vancouver (now Vancouver, Washington), the large British outpost and headquarters of the Hudson’s Bay Company, on the north bank of the Columbia River. There weary travelers found much-needed food, medicine, and assistance, in the early years from the company’s director, John McLoughlin. Later his general store in Oregon City, which he opened in 1846 after retiring from the company, was considered the final stop on the Oregon Trail.


Columbia River Gorge [Credit: © Corbis]Columbia River Gorge© CorbisOver the years several shortcuts or supposed shortenings of the trail came into (and went out of) favour. Two that eventually became a part of the main route were the Sublette (or Greenwood) Cutoff in southwestern Wyoming and the Barlow Road in northern Oregon. The Sublette Cutoff lopped some 70 miles (110 km) off the main route by heading straight west across the desert from the Parting of the Ways trail divide (about 15 miles [25 km] west of South Pass) to and then beyond the Green River to Cokeville, just east of the present-day Idaho border. The main hazard of that route was the long waterless stretch before reaching the Green.

In the early days of the Oregon Trail, its western land terminus was a spot on the Oregon side of the river on the eastern slope of the Cascades (the present-day city of The Dalles). Those wishing to continue had to abandon or disassemble their wagons and load their possessions onto self-made rafts or rented boats. The journey down the lower Columbia River was a harrowing experience that included braving the rapids (the “cascades”) on the Columbia and battling relentless headwinds. Many lost their lives on this final leg of the trip, but those who succeeded made their way to either Fort Vancouver or the mouth of the Willamette River. From there they could reach the trail’s terminus at Oregon City. The construction in 1846 of the Barlow Road through the forests and rugged terrain of the Cascades around Mount Hood provided the final link in the overland trek to Oregon City. The road was rough and dangerously steep and the toll fees high (though they dropped in later years), but most travelers deemed it safer than risking life and limb on the Columbia.

Trail markers and landmarks

Eagle Rock [Credit: C. Borland—PhotoLink/Getty Images]Eagle RockC. Borland—PhotoLink/Getty ImagesIt did not take long, once the first large wagon trains had passed through, for the trail to became a well-marked and beaten path. The Jesuit missionary Pierre-Jean de Smet in 1851 described the stretch along the Platte River as “this noble highway which is as smooth as a barn floor swept by the winds, and not a blade of grass can shoot up on it account of continued passing.” The passage of so many thousands of wagons cut deep ruts in the trail’s surface, which can still be seen in many places today.

There were numerous natural landmarks along the way that travelers used as guideposts and morale boosters. Some of the best known included Blue Mound in Kansas; Courthouse and Jail rocks, Chimney Rock, and Scotts Bluff in Nebraska; Laramie Peak, Independence Rock, Devil’s Gate, Split Rock, the Wind River Range, and Twin Buttes (near the South Pass) in Wyoming; Three Buttes (near Fort Hall) in Idaho; and Flagstaff Hill and, finally, Mount Hood in Oregon. All served to keep the emigrants heading in the right direction and were welcome sights—especially Scotts Bluff, located about one-third of the way along the trail, and Flagstaff Hill, marking the beginning of the journey’s last phase.

Travelers also left numerous markers and signs along the way. Messages and words of advice from previous pioneers—from warnings of potential dangers (e.g., hostile Indians or contaminated water) to directional signs—could be found on the trail. The messages were conveyed in a variety of ways: written on paper, painted on trees, or carved on rocks and even skulls. Often, strips of cloth were attached to them to signal their presence.

The trail was littered with evidence of human passage. Much of it was simply the garbage and other refuse of daily living. However, a fair amount of the debris consisted of goods—e.g., food, equipment, and personal items—that travelers typically discarded to lighten the loads in their wagons. Sometimes emigrants left notes on their abandoned possessions encouraging others to take what they needed. Death was another “marker” on the trail. The carcasses or skeletons of dead animals were often seen, especially on the drier and harsher segments of the trail. More sobering were the graves of people who had fallen victim to mishaps—typically disease or injury—along the way.


The journey

Willamette River valley [Credit: Gary Braasch]Willamette River valleyGary BraaschEstimates of how many emigrants made the trek westward on the Oregon Trail vary. Perhaps some 300,000 to 400,000 people used it during its heyday from the mid-1840s to the late 1860s, and possibly a half million traversed it overall, covering an average of 15 to 20 miles (24 to 32 km) per day; most completed their journeys in four to five months. Overwhelmingly, the journey was made by wagons drawn by teams of draft animals. Some people did not have wagons and rode horseback, while others went west with handcarts, animal carts, or even the occasional carriage.

There were many reasons why travelers pulled up roots and attempted such a long and perilous journey. The feeling had grown in the United States in the early decades of the 19th century that American expansion across the North American continent was preordained. The West meant the future—the East, the past.

Certainly the notion of Manifest Destiny (coined in the 1840s)—that such expansion was even divinely ordained—played its part, as did the lure for farmers of the fertile and well-watered plain of the Willamette valley or, for prospectors, the possibility of striking it rich in the goldfields of California and elsewhere. Many were fleeing economic hardship, especially after the serious panic of the late 1830s, while others, after 1860, were seeking to escape the American Civil War. Still, for a good number of people, going to Oregon was just the latest manifestation of the pioneering instinct that their parents and grandparents had followed before them.

Whatever the reason that those intrepid individuals made the trek, the overland journey tended to be the defining experience in their lives. Furthermore, their journeys affected the lives of the thousands who followed them, for the settlement of the American West was opened by those pioneers, and it was they who led the way in molding and unifying the country.


Oregon Trail: Snake River [Credit: Scenics of America/PhotoLink/Getty Images]Oregon Trail: Snake RiverScenics of America/PhotoLink/Getty ImagesA timely departure for the overland trip was critical for the well-being of both the emigrants and their livestock. The need for grass and forage to feed their stock along the trail meant emigrants could not realistically leave until springtime, when the grasses were again growing. It was also critical to get over the Blue and Cascade mountain ranges in Oregon before the onset of heavy snows in autumn. Thus, most parties left in late April or May; leaving in June could spell doom for the travelers. Departing in summer meant that the emigrants would have to contend with more frequent violent prairie thunderstorms, which produced drenching rains often accompanied by hail and high winds that could demolish wagons and tents. Delays of many days were typical when rivers and streams, swollen by rains, were made unfordable by flooding.

Travelers typically reached the desert in midsummer. There their discomfort from the heat was heightened by the ever-present dust on the trail in Wyoming, Idaho, and eastern Oregon. The heavy traffic ground the earth into a fine powder that crept into every crevice and shrouded the wagons, people, and animals. The dust was at its worst in Idaho west of Fort Hall.

The climate of the American West was generally colder during the peak migration years of the mid-19th century than it is now. Nearly everyone encountered snow on the ground at South Pass in midsummer. Many references were made to having to chop ice from ponds and water-filled containers in locations at relatively low elevations where that phenomenon ordinarily would not have been expected. Regardless of the time of year, snow and cold weather were often encountered in the Blue Mountains and at higher elevations through the Cascades.

Group travel

Most of the emigrants did not journey alone but joined a wagon company, typically consisting of immediate family and relatives, friends, or people from the same area. The earliest emigrants usually hired a trapper to guide them, but there was little need for such a person once the trail had become well traveled in the mid-1840s. Except for in the first few years, even wagon companies were rarely alone and usually were within sight of or, at most, a day away from one another. The diaries of emigrants frequently mentioned meeting and passing other wagon companies and competing with them for forage in the evenings. Others described how wagon companies split up and parts joined other companies during their journeys. Diaries and reports from Forts Kearny and Laramie told of hundreds of wagons passing by on a single day or of hundreds or even thousands of emigrants encamped at once near the forts. One historian noted that on a single day in June 1850 more than 6,000 people were on the trail.

While wagon trains frequently traveled together by choice, factors such as weather and trail conditions often resulted in unintended “bunching” along the route. One of the main reasons for this phenomenon was that groups generally had to embark at approximately the same time each year. Factors such as the violent and unpredictable prairie storms could cause rivers and streams to flood and back up companies at river crossings for days.

Guidebooks and other practicalities

Oregon Trail: page from journal of Rodgers [Credit: The Newberry Library (A Britannica Publishing Partner)]Oregon Trail: page from journal of RodgersThe Newberry Library (A Britannica Publishing Partner)Travel guidebooks became available to the emigrants shortly after use of the trail became widespread. One of the earliest and most popular of these was Landsford Hastings’s The Emigrant’s Guide to Oregon and California (1845). For Mormons, there was The Latter-day Saints’ Emigrants’ Guide (1848) by William Clayton. While the quality of the books varied, they included information on distances, grazing areas, major stream and river crossings, road conditions, and significant sites and attractions. Some guidebooks offered specifications as to how a suitable wagon should be built and outfitted and the preferred draft animals to use.

The guidebooks also made recommendations for provisions. Among those typically included were flour, sugar and salt, coffee and tea, baking soda, bacon, dried beans and fruit, cornmeal, and rice. The emigrants’ diet could be supplemented by ample game on the Great Plains and, during the summer months, with greens and wild berries picked along the way in places where they were available. Milk cows were often brought on the journey, providing fresh milk; butter could be churned by the constant jolting of the wagon. Additionally, each family typically carried a water keg and a Dutch oven.

Initially, the journey from Independence to the Willamette valley had taken five to six months. As the trail became more heavily used, however, ferries and bridges sprang up at river crossings, and more trading posts and forts were built. Those improvements helped to shorten the travel time by as much as a month: emigrants could more easily cross rivers in high water, they could make repairs quickly and conveniently, and trail-worn draft animals could be traded for fresh ones, thus avoiding long layovers to rest the teams.

A toll was charged at each bridge and ferry, a lucrative business for the operator of the facility. Some emigrants halted their own journeys temporarily to construct some kind of a craft to serve as a ferryboat and collect their own fees. Others stayed longer and built permanent structures or even new roads (notably the Barlow Road), collecting fees for the use of them. The fees could vary wildly, but, generally, travelers thought that fees were too high. Emigrants also often considered the prices for supplies at the forts and outposts to be exorbitant, and most held a low opinion of the traders at them. In addition, mobile entrepreneurs, with goodsladen wagons, traveled along with the emigrants’ trains, ready to supply whatever they needed—but at premium prices.


prairie schooner: reenactment of prairie schooner wagon and horse team [Credit: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]prairie schooner: reenactment of prairie schooner wagon and horse teamEncyclopædia Britannica, Inc.Many motion pictures show wagon trains in the West full of people riding in big wagons pulled by horses. In reality, smaller and lighter wagons called prairie schooners (the white canvas tops, or bonnets, of which appeared from a distance to resemble sailing ships) were much more suitable for long-distance travel than the big, heavy, and unwieldy Conestoga wagons of the East. Horses were used by some emigrants, but mules and oxen were better suited, since they had greater endurance and were less likely to be stolen. In addition, most people walked, both because it allowed their wagons to carry more weight and because riding in the wagons—which had no suspension—they would have endured constant jolting and lurching on the rough trails and roads. Ox teams were not controlled with reins, and drivers walked alongside the animals.

Several techniques were developed for taking wagons down inclines. If the angle was not too steep, the oxen could be left hitched to the wagon to check its speed, often with the wagon’s wheels locked to help slow the descent. In places with trees, ropes could be tied between them and wagons to create makeshift winches, or trees could be felled and used as drags. If the top-heavy wagons were to traverse (move diagonally across) a steep slope, ropes could be secured to the upper side of a wagon and a strain maintained on them as they descended.

There were also a variety of methods for fording rivers. Some emigrants simply caulked their wagon boxes, making them watertight, and floated them across. Where the crossings were shallow, wagon boxes could be raised by putting blocks on the axles. For deeper water, eight or more teams were hitched to one wagon, which allowed one of the teams to always be on solid ground and have some degree of control over those that were swimming. Unfamiliar fords were scouted and crossed in advance. During that crossing, a rope was often carried along, fastened on each side of the river, and then used as a guide for the swimming animals.


Hazards of the journey

Like statistics on the total number of emigrants who traveled the Oregon Trail, estimates of how many people died en route have varied considerably. Low-end figures on mortality tend to be around 4 to 6 percent of the total (i.e., some 12,000 to 24,000 deaths), and estimates range up to 10 percent. The greatest threats to life on the trail were accidents and disease. Most diaries included reports of someone hurt or killed by firearms or animals, accidental drownings, or hypothermia. Wagon accidents were also quite common, and many children were killed or maimed after falling under the wheels of a moving wagon.

Diseases also took a heavy toll on the trail. Opportunities for sanitation—bathing and laundering—were severely limited, and safe drinking water frequently was not available in sufficient quantities. Human and animal waste, garbage, and animal carcasses were often in close proximity to available water supplies. As a result, cholera, spread by contaminated water, was responsible for the most deaths overall on the Oregon Trail, although diphtheria was the single biggest killer of children. Many emigrants, exhausted and suffering from poor nutrition, fell prey to typhoid, “mountain fever” (believed to be a tick fever that causes flulike symptoms), dysentery, mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, food poisoning, scurvy (from the lack of vitamin C), or poisoning from drinking water that was too alkaline. Measles, mumps, and smallpox also preyed on the pioneers, especially children, and women were always at risk while giving birth.

One of the common scenes in western films shows circled wagon trains under attack by Indians. However, conflict with native peoples was actually a rare occurrence for most emigrants during the heyday of Oregon Trail use. A study by historian John Unruh concluded that fewer than 400 emigrants were killed as a result of Indian attacks along the trail between 1840 and 1860. Rather, most Indians were helpful and generally friendly. Many provided supplies needed by the pioneers or operated ferries or helped manage livestock for them. Most wagon companies did circle their wagons when resting or camping overnight, but that was done more to control their livestock than for defensive purposes. The few times when Indians did attack, it was usually when the wagons were in a line.

Many of the incidents with Indians were precipitated by whites through their ignorance of and arrogance toward native peoples. An altercation—typically the shooting of an Indian—would bring retaliation, though often not against the wagon train of the perpetrator but against the next train encountered. Violent attacks by Indians on small, isolated trains or individuals did increase after the 1850s, as native hostility grew toward whites and their increasing settlement of the West.

Great numbers of emigrants had run out of provisions and were starving as they neared the end of the Oregon Trail. Others were exhausted and sick, and many were destitute, having lost their wagons and belongings or used up their funds paying tolls. It was common for established Oregon residents to mount relief expeditions to aid those just arriving. Pack trains organized by charitable settlers regularly met the new arrivals at The Dalles to help them along the final leg of the journey.

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