A dynamic model of cultural assimilation

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					        A dynamic model of cultural assimilation
                                     a   o
                                 Istv´n K´nya
                                 Boston College∗
                                November, 2002

            The paper analyzes the population dynamics of a country that has
        two ethnic groups, a minority and a majority. Minority members can
        choose whether or not to assimilate into the majority. If the minority
        is small, the long-run outcome is full assimilation. When the minority
        is large, the unique long-run equilibrium is the initial situation. For
        intermediate minority sizes multiple equilibria are possible, including
        the full- and no-assimilation ones. The paper also solves the social
        planner’s problem, which indicates that the country can end up in an
        ineﬃcient steady state. Even if the steady state is the optimal one,
        the equilibrium path will be suboptimal. Two extensions to the basic
        model are considered. The ﬁrst one allows for a comparison between a
        multicultural and a “melting pot” society. The second one introduces
        population growth and studies the interplay between exogenous and
        endogenous changes in the minority’s size.

1       Introduction
Minority ethnic groups can coexist with the majority in a country for a long
time, and then suddenly disappear. Minorities that seem on the verge of
extinction suddenly bounce back. How can these phenomena be explained,
                        a   o
    Correspondence: Istv´n K´nya, Department of Economics, Boston College. Tel (617)
552-3690. E-mail:

1 INTRODUCTION                                                               2

and what are the determinants of which outcome is realized? This paper is
an attempt to answer these questions.
    The ﬁrst goal of the paper is to analyze the positive aspects of population
dynamics. It builds a dynamic model of assimilation, which captures some
basic features of cultural exchange. In particular, belonging to the majority
group is desirable because of scale eﬀects, but assimilation is costly - both
in monetary and mental terms. Thus when deciding about assimilation,
minority members weigh the beneﬁts and the costs. It is also important,
however, to adopt a dynamic setting, because forward-looking agents take
into account future gains when deciding. In particular, parents might - and
seemingly do - decide to assimilate even if it imposes very large costs for
them, because they believe their children will enjoy the beneﬁts. A second
reason why dynamics is important is that it can reveal the instability of a
static equilibrium. For each generation, assimilation is likely to be partial,
because some people have very high costs. But partial assimilation is unlikely
to be stable in the long run, since incentives for assimilation will not be the
same for successive generations. In other words, a static model does not take
into account that the state of the world changes over time, and thus cannot
describe the long-run patterns of the population.
    The second goal of the paper is to examine the normative properties of
the long-run equilibrium. There is a concern that it might not be eﬃcient,
given that the minority’s assimilation decision also eﬀects the majority (due
to the scale eﬀects in ethnicity size). Indeed, in a static model assimilation
is in general suboptimal. In a dynamic framework, however, additional con-
siderations can arise. As the model shows, the long-run equilibrium can be
eﬃcient, although the equilibrium path that leads to it is not. Also, there is
an additional problem that might cause the equilibrium steady state to be
ineﬃcient, and this is a problem of coordination. This leads to the possibility
of multiple equilibria, which (unlike in a static model) is inevitable for some
population distributions. In this case, even if the full assimilation steady
state is feasible, the equilibrium selected might be the no-assimilation one,
because atomistic agents cannot coordinate to pick the “right” one. This can
happen even if the former equilibrium Pareto-dominates the latter.
    The ﬁnal goal of the paper is to extend the basic model in order to discuss
related questions. One important question concerns the desirability of a
multicultural society as opposed to a “melting pot”. The former is deﬁned
as one in which minority members can learn the culture of the majority
without giving up their own. It is not a priori obvious which choice is better,
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                     3

either individually or for the society as a whole. Incorporating the possibility
of becoming bilingual into the model sheds some light on this question. The
second issue involves changes in population sizes that result from factors other
than assimilation. A shrinking minority might stop further assimilation when
it receives an infusion of immigrants, or if it experiences an increase in its
natural growth rate. An interesting historical application to the latter is the
so-called “Revanche du berceau”, the conscious policy of French Canadians
in the 19th century to “outgrow” the English speaking majority, or at least
to preserve their own heritage. Incorporating exogenous population change
can show under what conditions a policy if this kind might achieve its goal.
    There is international evidence that cultural and linguistic aﬃliation mat-
ters for economic outcomes. For example, Hall and Jones (1996) ﬁnd that
belonging to a major language group improves the economic performance of
a country, even after controlling for a wide variety of factors. For individ-
ual countries, Sowell (1996) documents the experience of various immigrant
groups throughout history. A recurring theme is that immigrants and na-
tives with diﬀerent cultures and languages experience frictions in intergroup
encounters. From a theoretical point of view, the question of cultural assim-
ilation was ﬁrst studied by Lazear (1995) in a static framework. This paper
retains Lazear’s assumption of random matching between ethnic groups, but
introduces dynamics explicitly. This opens up new possibilities, and leads to
a richer set of outcomes.
    The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Sections 2.1 and 2.2 de-
scribe the basic model and derive the properties of the equilibrium. Section
2.3 solves the social planner’s problem, and compares the outcome with the
equilibrium solution. Section 3 introduces the possibility of learning, and
Section 4 looks at the eﬀects of exogenous population changes. Finally, Sec-
tion 5 concludes.

2     A model of assimilation
2.1    Basic setup
Imagine a country with a population normalized to unity. The country has
two distinct cultural groups at some starting date, a minority with population
measure L0 < 1/2 and a majority with population measure 1 − L0 . For
simplicity the question of how the ethnic structure was formed before time
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                  4

zero is not examined, for a model of immigration and culture see K´nya   o
(1999). For the time being the model also abstracts away from changes in
the population structure other than through assimilation. In particular the
natural growth of populations is zero. I will relax this assumption later.
    The minority is assumed to be small in the sense that there are no incen-
tives for the majority to learn the culture of the minority. This assumption
is made in order to avoid strategic considerations in the assimilation and
learning decisions. Thus the majority does not have any active role in the
model, and we can concentrate on minority decisions. For a static model
that incorporates strategic learning see K´nya (2000).
    People are assumed to live for one period, and they have exactly one
oﬀspring. Agents maximize dynastic utility, which is identical to having
inﬁnitely lived households. There are two possible choices a minority member
can make. First, she may decide to assimilate into the majority culture
completely. Second, she can remain in the minority and choose not neither
to assimilate. In the latter case, her oﬀspring still belongs to the minority
and faces the same decisions next period. In the ﬁrst case, the oﬀspring
(and each successive generation) becomes a member of the majority and all
links to the minority are severed. As discussed above, there is no reverse
    To highlight the role of intercultural exchange, assume that production
takes the form of random matching. To produce, people are arranged in pairs
according to a random device. Depending on the characteristics of a pair, a
surplus is generated and shared equally. A match between members of the
same group generates a surplus of one for both parties. Matches between
majority members and minority members involve a “cultural” transaction
cost, and generate a surplus of θ < 1. Agents’ period utility is given by the
probability weighted sum of possible match outcomes, and the probability
weights are simply the population measures. Given this description of the
production process, the period surpluses that correspond to each minority
choice are easily obtained. Using πn and πa to indicate the surplus of a
minority and majority member, these are:

                             πn = L + θ(1 − L)
                             πa = 1 − L + θL,

    Random matching is a very crude but eﬃcient way to capture the plau-
sible assumption that belonging to a culture is subject to increasing returns
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                      5

to scale. In particular, a larger culture oﬀers many more opportunities in
occupational, cultural and recreational choices. It is possible to derive func-
tional forms similar to the ones above from a fully speciﬁed trade model
(K´nya 2000), but one has to make very speciﬁc functional assumptions. In
this context I choose to sacriﬁce some of the micro-foundations for the easy
handling of additional parameters and for simple functional forms.
    In addition to the static considerations, agents’ choices are also inﬂuenced
by dynamic factors. First, assimilation changes the relative size of the two
populations, and thus inﬂuences the future value of the diﬀerent choices.
Second, assimilation is a costly activity, and the cost might diﬀer across
generations. Let G(c; t) be the c.d.f. of costs associated with assimilation
at time t. At each time period the asset value of not assimilating depends
on three arguments: the period gain πn , the “capital” gain Vn and on the
expected (or option) value of the choices of the next generation given the
evolution of costs and beneﬁts. At each period, agents pick the choice with
the higher value.
    The general model described above is not very tractable. Thus for the
sake of analytical clarity, it is useful to make special assumptions on the
intergenerational cost linkages. These assumptions do not inﬂuence the main
qualitative conclusions, but they lead to simple functional forms. They are
the following:

Assumption 1. Assimilation costs are not inherited. That is, for each gen-
eration the cost of assimilation is drawn from the time-invariant distribution
G(c), c ∈ [K, ∞].

    Given this assumption, the asset equations for the two choices are rela-
tively simple. These determine the asset value of belonging to the minority or
the majority. Let Vn and Va indicate the value functions for the two choices.
The optimal choice for agents will be to assimilate if and only if c < Va − Vn .
Let qa = Va − Vn , then the asset equations are:
            rVa = 1 − L + θL + Va                                           (2.1)
                                 ˙                                 dG(c)
            rVn = L + θ(1 − L) + Vn + G(qa ) qa −              c
                                                         K         G(qa )
                = L + θ(1 − L) + Vn + max 0,             G(c) dc            (2.2)
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                      6

2.2    Equilibrium
The equilibrium of the model can be described by the Euler equations. Deﬁne
γ(x) as the last part in (2.2), and subtract (2.2) from (2.1). This yields, after

                 qa = rqa + max{0, γ(qa )} − (1 − θ)(1 − 2L).
                 ˙                                                         (2.3)

The evolution of the state variable (L) depends on the aggregate assimilation
                                L = −G(qa )L.                           (2.4)
    The law of motion of the system is given by the two diﬀerential equations
(2.3) and (2.4). Notice that qa ≤ K implies L = 0. This means that there
are two steady states, deﬁned by

                              r¯a + γ(¯a ) = 1 − θ
                               q      q
                                        L=0                                (2.5)


                            r˜a = (1 − θ)(1 − 2L0 )
                             L = L0                                        (2.6)

    The second steady state is just the initial situation as far as assimilation
is concerned. It is important to know the initial conditions under which this
steady state is feasible and under which it is unique. The answer to the ﬁrst
question boils down to the comparison between q and K: the initial situation
is a feasible steady state if

                   qa < K     ⇒       (1 − θ)(1 − 2L0 ) < rK.

This deﬁnes a cutoﬀ level in L0 , given by
                                      1 1 rK
                               Ll ≡    −     .                             (2.7)
                                      2 21−θ
Thus the initial situation is a feasible steady state if and only if L0 > Ll .
   The second question concerns the uniqueness of the initial steady state.
Even if it is feasible, it is possible that the other steady state with full as-
similation can also arise. If the initial steady state is unique, it must be the
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                     7


        t                      6
             c           
                 c                    qa (L)
                             c
                                     c qa = 0
                     ?                c
                                          c                   -

                Figure 1: Phase diagram for the assimilation path

case that assimilation is not proﬁtable even if the system would proceed on
the assimilation path. In other words, the initial value of assimilation - given
that the system converges to the full assimilation steady state - must be less
than K. In order to check that condition, (2.3) and (2.4) has to be solved.
The two equations are non-linear and thus do not yield an analytical solu-
tion, but a qualitative characterization of the solution is readily available.
The Jacobian of the system evaluated at the steady state is
                                    −G(¯a )
                                         q       0
                             Ja =                         ,
                                    2(1 − θ) r + G(¯a )

and the eigenvalues associated with it are −G(¯a ) and r + G(¯a ). Thus the
                                              q              q
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                        8

assimilation steady state is saddle path stable, and there is a unique policy
function qa (L) such that qa (0) = qa and qa (L) < 0.
    It can also be shown that when qa (L) = 0 either L = 1/2 or L < 1/2 and
qa (L) = −∞. Using the time elimination method, the slope of the policy
function is given as
                            rqa (L) + γ[qa (L)] − (1 − ρθ)(1 − 2L)
               qa (L) = −                                          .
                                           G[qa (L)]L
Suppose that qa (L) = 0. This means that the denominator of the expression
is zero, which implies that the slope is minus inﬁnity, unless the numerator
is also zero. For this latter case to hold, it is necessary that L = 1/2.
    The phase diagram that graphically illustrates these results can be seen
on Figure 1. The initial steady state is unique if
                       qa (L0 ) < K     ⇒    L0 > Lh ≥ 0.                    (2.8)
The condition under which Lh is positive is that qa > K or rK < 1 − θ. This
will be the case when the discount rate is not very large, learning costs are
moderate (as captured by their lower limit K) and cultural diﬀerences are
    These results show that the outcome of the assimilation model depends on
the initial size of the minority, L0 . Proposition 1 summarizes the possibilities:
Proposition 1. If the minority’s initial share of the population is large (L0 >
Lh ), this share will be stable over time. If the minority’s initial share is small
(L0 < Ll ), the only equilibrium outcome is full assimilation. Finally, when
Ll ≤ L0 ≤ Lh , multiple equilibrium paths exist, including the no assimilation
and full assimilation ones.

Proof. The only thing left to show is that Ll ≤ Lh , which proves the existence
of an equilibrium and the possibility of multiple equilibria. To prove this,
use (2.3) to write
                 dqa (L0 )
                           = r[qa (L0 ) − qa ] + γ[qa (L0 )] − γ(˜a ).
                                          ˜                      q
Suppose qa (L0 ) < qa , then from above it follows that dqa (L0 )/dt < 0. But
this is impossible, since qa (L0 ) ≤ qa and qa (L) converges towards the steady
state qa . This implies that qa (L0 ) ≥ qa , which in turn yields that Ll ≤ Lh .
       ¯                                  ˜
Figure 1 illustrates the result, since qa (L) must be above the qa = 0 line that
deﬁnes qa .
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                          9

    The propositition shows that when the minority’s size is in the interme-
diate range, multiple equilibria exists. The obvious outcomes are the full
assimilation path and the initial steady state, but there are other possible
outcomes. For example, it is possible that assimilation starts, but at a future
time it stops. Thus even without an outside shock, the model is capable to
generate a path where assimilation is a tempoprary phenomenon. Another
possibility is a “zig- zag” path, where assimilation switches on and oﬀ. It
must be noted, however, that such a cyclical trajectory can only be tempo-
rary. Once the minority’s size gets below Ll , assimilation is inevitable. Thus
limit cycles cannot arise in this framework.

2.3    The social planner’s problem
This section looks at the solution for the social planner’s problem, who max-
imizes the country’s welfare. For simplicity welfare is just the sum of indi-
vidual surpluses, which implicitly assumes the possibility of compensation.
The ﬁrst step to the solution is to notice that the planner either chooses a
full assimilation path or a non-assimilation one, but not a combination of the
two. As it will be shown later, the value of both paths is unique at t = 0,
the value of assimilation increases along the full assimilation path, and the
value of assimilating is constant along the no assimilation trajectory. Thus
the optimal outcome is given by the one of the two that gives a higher value
at the initial position.
    The social planner solves the following problem:
           ∞                                                      ¯
 max           e−rt L[L + θ(1 − L)] + (1 − L)(1 − L + θL) − L         c dG(c) dt
       0                                                         K

                       s.t. L = −G(¯)L
                                   c        and       c ≥ K,
where c is the cutoﬀ for assimilation. One way to ﬁnd the optimal outcome is
to ﬁrst solve the problem assuming assimilation, then impose the inequality
condition to ﬁnd the cutoﬀ between the assimilation and no- assimilation
solutions. After simplifying the instantaneous surplus function, the current
value Hamiltonian, with λa as the negative of the usual dynamic multiplier,
is written as
                  2         2
       H = L + (1 − L) + 2ρθL(1 − L) − L                             c
                                                      c dG(c) + λa G(¯)L.
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                   10

The ﬁrst order condition for the control variable c is

                                   c = λa .

Using this in the other conditions yields
                     L = −G(λa )L
                    λa = rλa + γ(λa ) − 2(1 − θ)(1 − 2L).

    Just as in the equilibrium case, the solution can be characterized quali-
tatively. The steady state is given by
                           ¯      ¯
                           λa + γ(λa ) = 2(1 − θ),                        (2.9)

and the Jacobian that corresponds to it is
                               −G(λa )      0
                       Jp =                   ¯            .
                               4(1 − θ) r + G(λa )

                         ¯            ¯
The eigenvalues are −G(λa ) and r + G(λa ), so the steady state is saddle path
stable with a monotonically decreasing policy function λa (L). Assimilation
will be optimal if and only if

                        λa (L0 ) > K   ⇒      L0 < L p .

    The equilibrium and optimal outcomes now can be compared. Proposi-
tion 2 describes the welfare properties that correspond to the possible sce-

Proposition 2. If the initial size of the minority is large (L0 ≥ Lp ) the
equilibrium - no assimilation - is eﬃcient. If the initial size of the minority
is small (L0 ≤ Ll ), the equilibrium steady state - full assimilation - is also
eﬃcient. If Lh < L0 < Lp , the equilibrium steady state is ineﬃcient, whereas
if Ll < L0 < Lh the steady state may or may not be eﬃcient. Even if
the equilibrium steady state is eﬃcient, the rate of assimilation on the full
assimilation equilibrium path is too slow.
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                        11

Proof. To prove all the claims it is enough to verify that λa (L) > qa (L). To
                         ¯    ¯
see this, ﬁrst note that λa > qa . This follows from the fact that rx + γ(x) is
an increasing function of x. Second, for any L,
           λa − qa = r(λa − qa ) + γ(λa ) − γ(qa ) − (1 − θ)(1 − 2L).
                              ˙                                  ¯
Suppose λa (L) < qa (L), then λa − qa < 0. But this means that λa < qa ,
                                   ˙                                   ¯
which leads to a contradiction. Thus it is necessary that λa (L) > qa (L),
which implies that Lh < Lp .

    The ineﬃciency of the full assimilation equilibrium trajectory - even when
the steady state is eﬃcient - follows from the positive external eﬀect assim-
ilation has on the majority. Due to the random matching assumption and
the equal sharing of the surplus, majority members beneﬁt from meeting an
assimilated minority member, but the latter do not take this into account.
The possible ineﬃciency of the no-assimilation steady state arises partly from
this externality (when Lh < L0 < Lp ), and from the coordination problem
that leads to multiple equilibria when Ll < L0 < Lh . Since both the no-
assimilation and assimilation paths are equilibrium ones, there is nothing to
guarantee that individual decisions lead to the socially optimal choice.

2.4    Comparative dynamics
Comparative dynamics looks at the eﬀects of parameters on the path of the
endogenous variables. In the current case, the parameters are θ and r. Figure
2 shows how an increase in θ changes the policy function qa (L). If the two
cultures are more similar (θ large), assimilation is less attractive. Formally,
it is easy to show that in the steady state
                             ∂ qa        1
                                  =−            < 0.
                             ∂θ            q
                                     r + G(¯a )
Now compare the policy function for θ1 < θ2 . If qa (L1 , θ1 ) < qa (L1 , θ2 )
for some L1 > 0, then by continuity there must exist L < L1 such that
                 ˆ               ˆ                           ˆ
    ˆ θ1 ) = qa (L, θ2 ) and qa (L, θ1 ) is steeper than qa (L, θ2 ) (see Figure 2).
qa (L,
Using qa (L) for the common value at the intersection point, the diﬀerence in
the two slopes is given by
                                             (θ2 − θ1 )(1 − 2L)
                 ˙ ˆ           ˙ ˆ
                 qa (L, θ1 ) − qa (L, θ2 ) =                    > 0.
                                                    ˆ     ˆ
                                                 G(L)qa (L)
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                        12


     Y H
     @ H Y
       @ HHY H
   ? t   @     Y
     c H @       Y
       cH @         Y
           H @
         c H           Y
           c   H
               YH         Y
             c  @H
                  @ H
                             qa (L, θ1 )
              c     YH
                c @    Y
                  c @ HH Y H
                   c @
                             qa (L, θ2 )
                                 @                              -

                       Figure 2: The eﬀect of θ on qa (L)

But the policy functions are downward sloping, so this result would imply
that the policy function at θ2 is steeper, which is a contradiction. Thus the
two policy functions cannot intersect, hence q(L) is decreasing in θ.
    One consequence of this result is that as θ increases, assimilation slows
down, since the speed of convergence is given by G(qa ). Second, it is easy
to see that qa is also decreasing in θ (see [2.6]). Together with the previous
result, these imply that the cutoﬀ levels Ll and Lh also decline with θ. Thus
when the cultural diﬀerence between the minority and the majority is smaller
(θ large), assimilation is less likely, since the range of the unique initial steady
state expands, whereas the range of the unique assimilation steady state
shrinks. Without explicitly solving for the policy function qa (L), the eﬀect
2 A MODEL OF ASSIMILATION                                                   13

of an increase in θ on the range of multiple equilibria cannot be determined.
    The intuition behind this result is that gains from assimilation diminish
when the two groups are more similar. This has two interesting implications.
First, worries over the eﬀects of globalization on minority cultures might not
be justiﬁed. If globalization increases θ, the direct eﬀect is for the majority
and minority cultures to become more similar. On the other hand, the indi-
rect eﬀect is to make assimilation less likely. Under some parameter values
a large enough increase in θ can stop assimilation entirely. Thus the model
can explain the experience of minority groups such as the Scottish and Welsh
in Britain, the Catalans and Basques in Spain, or the Quebecois in Canada,
whose identity have become stronger in the last decades.
    The second implication of the results is that an increase in θ might have
an ambiguous eﬀect on the majority welfare. If the initial equilibrium is the
assimilation path, more cultural similarity leads to more eﬃcient matches
across groups, but also to slower (or no) assimilation. This second, indirect,
eﬀect has a negative impact on majority welfare. Given that the equilibrium
is not socially optimal (due to the external eﬀects on natives), the Envelope
Theorem cannot be invoked to ignore the behavioral response. Thus more
cultural similarity can actually make natives worse oﬀ.
    The second parameter of the model is r, the discount rate. Its eﬀects can
be analyzed exactly the same way as the eﬀects of θ, with similar conclusions.
An increase in the discount rate will lower both qa (L) and qa , since future
gains from assimilation are discounted more heavily. Thus the cutoﬀ levels
in L0 decrease, and assimilation slows down on the full assimilation path.
Because of less assimilation, majority welfare decreases. The interpretation
of these results is less clear cut then for θ, so it is left to the imaginative
    The eﬀect of the parameters on the social optimum can also be analyzed.
Since the calculation of λa (L) is entirely analogous to the determination of
qa (L), the comparative dynamics results are also the same. Thus an increase
in θ or r decreases λa (L), which implies a bigger range for non-assimilation
and a lower assimilation rate along the full assimilation path. In contrast
to the equilibrium, an increase in θ must increase total welfare along the
optimal path. This is just a consequence of the Envelope Theorem, which
applies for the planner’s problem.
3 MULTICULTURALISM OR A MELTING POT?                                          14

3     Multiculturalism or a melting pot?
This section extends the analysis to include a third choice for minority mem-
bers. This choice is to become bilingual, but to retain identity as a minority
member - an option that will be referred to as learning. A further modiﬁca-
tion of the model involves the ineﬃciency parameter θ. It is reasonable to
assume that becoming bilingual eliminates some, but not all aspects of the
ineﬃciency, perhaps because the minority is physically separated from the
majority. In particular, assume that there are two ineﬃciency parameters, ρ
and θ, where the latter can be eliminated by learning. Thus a match involv-
ing a bilingual person and a majority member yields a surplus of ρ, and a
match between other minority members and majority members yields ρθ.
    The costs for learning and the evolution of these costs for future genera-
tions also needs to be speciﬁed. There could be many diﬀerent formulations,
but one yields relatively straightforward analytical results. Thus let the ini-
tial cost of learning - nobody else was bilingual in the family before - is the
same as the cost of assimilation. For future generations, however, assume
that the cost of remaining bilingual is zero. One possible justiﬁcation for
this second assumption is that bilingual parents can (and usually do) teach
their children both languages at a very young age, when the costs of learning
are very low. Next, assume that there is a switching cost for bilingual families
that is suﬃciently high to prevent them from assimilation. This statement
will be clariﬁed later. Finally, now it is suﬃcient to look at the case of K = 0.
    Here attention will be restricted to the social planner’s solution, as the
question about bilinguality versus assimilation is an important policy prob-
lem. The equilibrium solution is very similar to that in the basic section, and
the equilibrium can be characterized by ranges in L0 . If the initial size of the
minority is small, the unique equilibrium path is assimilation. If the initial
size of the minority is large, the unique equilibrium trajectory is becoming
bilingual for the whole minority. Finally, in middle ranges of L0 multiple
equilibria are possible, including the two extreme cases.
    The social planner’s problem is to choose whether the country should
follow the learning or the assimilation path, and then to ﬁnd the optimal
trajectories for the chosen direction. Similarly to the basic model, the op-
timal paths that correspond to a particular direction can be obtained, and
then compared to ﬁnd the cutoﬀ between the two possibilities. The planner
maximizes the sum of utilities over time, where the period surpluses are given
3 MULTICULTURALISM OR A MELTING POT?                                              15

                       πn = L + ρθ(1 − L)
                       πa = 1 − L + ρbL + ρθ(1 − b)L
                       πb = L + ρ(1 − L),
where b is the share of bilinguals in the minority population. The dynamic
constraints are
                                L = −G(¯)Lc
if assimilation occurs and
                               b = G(¯)(1 − b)
if learning takes place. Let c be the cutoﬀ for either learning or assimilation
on the appropriate optimal path.
     The problem of solving for the optimal learning path can be summarized
by the following current value Hamiltonian (ignoring constant terms):
H = 2[ρb(1−L0 )+ρθ(1−b)(1−L0 )]−(1−b)L0                                   c
                                                             c dG(c)+λb G(¯)(1−b)L0 ,

where the constraint is written this way for reasons of comparability. The
ﬁrst-order conditions can be simpliﬁed to yield
                     b = G(λb )(1 − b)
                    λb = rλb + γ(λb ) − 2ρ(1 − θ)(1 − L0 ).
Since L0 is constant and its law of motion is independent of b, λb jumps
immediately to its steady state value, implicitly deﬁned by
                      rλb + γ(λb ) = 2ρ(1 − θ)(1 − L0 ).                        (3.1)
   To calculate the full assimilation path, the current value Hamiltonian can
be deﬁned as
       H = L2 + (1 − L)2 + 2ρθL(1 − L) − L                              c
                                                         c dG(c) + λa G(¯)L,

where for future convenience the dynamic multiplier is the negative of the
usual one. The ﬁrst-order conditions are
                    L = −G(λa )L
                   λa = rλa + γ(λa ) − 2(1 − ρθ)(1 − 2L).
3 MULTICULTURALISM OR A MELTING POT?                                           16

The system is non-linear, but it is easy to characterize the solution quali-
tatively. In fact, the properties of the system are the same as in the basic
model, therefore a unique policy function λa (L) exists that is decreasing in
L. The size of the minority approaches zero, and the steady state value of
λa (L) is deﬁned by
                           ¯        ¯
                          rλa + γ(λa ) = 2(1 − ρθ).                     (3.2)
The phase diagram of the system looks exactly the same as the phase diagram
on Figure 1.
     The planner selects the full assimilation path if and only if λa (L0 ) > λb .
It is easy to check that the condition is satisﬁed when L0 = 0, since ρ < 1.
Thus for small minority sizes the optimal solution is assimilation. For large
minority sizes, assimilation may or may not dominate multiculturalism. But
it is possible to show that the λa (L) and the λb schedules can intersect at most
once, so that a clear separation of the optimal outcomes exists. Proposition
3 shows the result:

Proposition 3. There exists a cutoﬀ, 0 < Lm ≤ 1/2, such that when L0 <
Lm the optimal choice is full assimilation, and when L0 > Lm the optimal
path is the bilingual one. In other words, the planner chooses assimilation if
and only if the minority is relatively small.

Proof. It is suﬃcient to prove that the two schedules cannot intersect more
than once. It has already been showed that λa (0) > λb (0), so the statement
is equivalent with the proposition that at a potential intersection point λa is
steeper than λb . Assume that there are more than one intersections at points
L1 < L2 < ... < Ln . It is evident that the slope statement must hold in L1 ,
given that λa (0) > λb (0). In any intersection λa = λb , therefore

                   rλb + γ(λb ) − 2(1 − ρθ)(1 − 2L)    2ρ(1 − θ)
       |λa − λb | =                                 −
                                G(λb )L                r + G(λb )
                   2ρ(1 − θ)(1 − L) − 2(1 − ρθ)(1 − 2L)     2ρ(1 − θ)
                 =                                        −
                                   G(λb )L                  r + G(λb )
                    [2 − ρ(1 + θ)]L − (1 − ρ)    2ρ(1 − θ)
                 =2                           −
                             G(λb )L             r + G(λb )
                   2(1 − ρ)        1
                 >            2−      ,
                    G(λb )        L
3 MULTICULTURALISM OR A MELTING POT?                                        17

where the second equality utilizes (3.1), and the inequality follows from the
fact that r > 0. The sign of the last expression only depends on L, and it
was shown to be positive at L1 . Given that L1 < L2 < ... < Ln , it must be
the case that in all other intersections λa is steeper than λb . The only way
this can be satisﬁed is that n = 1, i.e. there is only one intersection. Thus
λa > λb for small L0 , and the opposite holds for large L0 . See Figure 3 for a
graphical illustration.

λa , λb


                      P  PP
                            P  PP
                                   PP λb

                                             λa (L)
                                 Lm      2

              Figure 3: The value of assimilation and learning

    Thus the ﬁrst conclusion in this section is that small minorities should
assimilate, whereas large ones should not. Even without a lower bound on as-
similation costs, assimilation is not always optimal. This result urges caution
3 MULTICULTURALISM OR A MELTING POT?                                         18

in the debate on multiculturalism vs. melting pot: the choice between the
two policies depends on the minority size. The conclusion does not depend
on the cost assumption for learning (children of bilingual parents become
bilingual costlessly), although the exact cutoﬀ level does. The crucial as-
sumption behind the result is that bilingual minority members have higher
utility than assimilated ones, which is guaranteed for L large.
    It is interesting to conduct comparative dynamics exercises, especially re-
garding the distance parameters ρ and θ. It is easy to check that λb increases
with ρ (physical closeness), and decreases with θ (cultural similarity). Using
the same method as in Section 2.4, one can show that λa (L) declines with
both distance measures. Thus an increase in θ has an ambiguous eﬀect on
the cutoﬀ level Lm , although it will slow convergence in both regimes. The
shifts of the two schedules in the full assimilation steady state, however, can
be compared. Since λa (0) > λb (0), the learning schedule will shift down more
with an increase in θ. Assuming this holds for other values of L, an increase
in cultural similarity will make assimilation more likely relative to learning.
The result follows from the convexity of the γ(·) function: since the long-run
prospects of assimilating are superior to learning (it is only discounting that
makes learning more attractive for large L), its option value of waiting falls
less with θ than the option value of waiting for learning.
    An increase in ρ has a very diﬀerent eﬀect: it leads to an unambiguous
decrease in Lm . A decrease in physical distance has therefore an asymmet-
ric eﬀect on assimilation and learning: it makes the latter more attractive
relative to the former. If globalization mostly means an increase in ρ, this im-
plies that globalization makes a multicultural society more, and a melting-pot
society less attractive. This is an interesting result, and perhaps not immedi-
ately obvious. The intuition behind it is that less physical separation from the
majority makes it less costly to maintain minority status, and hence assimi-
lation is not as attractive. Gains from an intercultural interaction, however,
become larger, so that learning is encouraged. More cultural similarity, on
the other hand, decreases incentives to eliminate the cultural ineﬃciency.
This has the same eﬀect on both assimilation and learning, leaving the end
result ambiguous.
    These implications can be combined with the results from the basic model.
With a positive lower bound on assimilation and learning costs (K > 0), more
cultural similarity would increase the regions for non-assimilation and assim-
ilation to the expense of learning. Thus more cultural similarity eliminates
the “middle ground”: the outcome is likely to be either full or no assimila-
4 LA REVANCHE DU BERCEAU                                                        19

tion. An increase in ρ, on the other hand, would expand the learning region
to the expense of the other two. Thus the optimal response to globalization
hinges crucially on whether it involves physical or cultural convergence.
    An important application of the results above is the current debate about
the integration of immigrants in North America and Europe. Immigration is,
of course, endogenous to government policy, but at least in Europe the earlier
large ﬂows of guest workers and people from the ex-colonies have mostly dried
up. Thus the model can be used to answer the question of how best these
groups can be integrated (if at all) into the majority culture, ignoring future
immigrant ﬂows that would add to the minority size and composition. The
interesting implication of the current model is that today multiculturalism is
the likely optimal solution, whereas a hundred years ago it was most likely
the “melting pot”. The reasons for this change follow from the comparative
dynamics, and from the observations that:
        • globalization reduces the physical isolation of ethnic groups, and

        • the recent arrivals are more culturally distinct from the majority group.
Both of these eﬀects make learning more likely to be optimal relative to
    In the United States, the above argument justiﬁes the eﬀorts for bilingual
education, at least in a form that does not discourage the children of immi-
grants from learning English. Another caveat concerns the response of future
immigration to existing policies, see K´nya (1999) on this topic. Finally, all
these results depend on the assumption that the social planner cares about
both the majority and the minority. Given that both groups are part of the
society (and both vote), this seems to be a reasonable postulate.

4         La revanche du berceau1
So far the assumptions did not allow for population changes apart from
assimilation. This section examines an interesting extension that allows for
faster natural growth among the minority. The inspiration is provided by the
experience of French Canadians (Quebecois) in the 19th century, who thought
to avoid assimilation into the ruling British culture by faster population
growth. This policy, “La revanche du berceau”, was actively fostered by the
        ”The revenge of the cradle”
4 LA REVANCHE DU BERCEAU                                                                  20

Catholic Church, which had a large inﬂuence on the French speakers. The
goal of this section is to examine under what conditions can such a policy
reverse the full assimilation outcome.
    The ﬁrst question to look at is whether a permanent increase in the
minority population growth rate leads to a stable population distribution.
Since there are no aggregate scale eﬀects in the model, it is simpler to work
with the population shares, and assume that the natural growth in the share
of the minority is n. Ignoring the possibility of learning - just as in the basic
model -, the equations that characterize the laws of motion are modiﬁed to
                         L = [n − G(qa )]L
                         qa = rqa + γ(qa ) − (1 − θ)(1 − 2L)
                         ˙                                                             (4.1)
                         qa ≥ K.

   There are now three steady states: full assimilation, no assimilation2 , and
stable population shares. The last of the three is characterized by the two

                                 G(¯a ) = n
                            r¯a + γ(¯a ) = (1 − θ)(1 − 2L).
                             q      q                                                  (4.2)

The Jacobian of the system evaluated in this steady state can be written as

                                        0        q ¯
                                              −g(¯a )L
                            J=                                 ,

and the eigenvalues are

                       r + G(¯a ) ±
                             q                              q ¯
                                         [r + G(¯a )]2 − 8g(¯a )L(1 − θ)
              µ1,2 =                                                     .
It is easy to check that the real values of the eigenvalues are both positive,
therefore the constant population shares steady state is unstable. This means
that a minority with a permanently higher population growth rate either
assimilates at a rate higher than n, or eventually becomes the majority.
    This steady state is characterized by the eventual disappearance of the initial majority.
Once the minority becomes the majority, the natural assumption would be to reverse the
direction of possible assimilation. Here the complications that arise from this issue are
4 LA REVANCHE DU BERCEAU                                                  21

   This still leaves open the possibility that a temporary increase in the
minority growth rate stabilizes population shares. To illustrate this, assume
that the goal of population policy is to increase the minority share to a
sustainable size, L ≥ Ll . Then a possible functional form for the natural
growth in the minority’s share is
                                   n(L − L),
which decreases monotonically to zero as the minority’s share approaches L.
The modiﬁed system can be written as
                      ˙     ¯
                     L = nL − [n + G(qa )]L
                     qa ≥ K.
The question is, what are the combinations of L and n that lead to a sus-
tainable non-assimilation outcome.
    Given that there is no assimilation, the evolution of the system is de-
scribed by
                          ˙     ¯
                         L = n(L − L)
                         qa = rqa − (1 − θ)(1 − 2L).
                         ˙                                              (4.3)

This is a linear system, and it can easily be solved to yield
                       ¯    ¯
              L(t) = L − (L − L0 ) e−nt
                                    ¯           ¯
                       (1 − θ)(1 − 2L) 2(1 − θ)(L − L0 )e−nt
              qa (t) =                +                      .          (4.4)
                              r                r+n
To simplify the formula, assume that the goal is to reach parity with the
majority, so that L = 1/2. The no-assimilation steady state is stable at the
initial minority size if qa (0) < K, which leads to the condition
          1 1 (r + n)K                      (1 − θ)(1 − 2L0 )
   L0 >    −                   ⇒       n>                     −r ≡n
                                                                  ¯     (4.5)
          2 2 1−θ                                  K
   Thus the no-assimilation equilibrium can be sustained by population
growth even when the initial minority size is below Ll (see [2.7]). The lower
the initial size of the minority, the higher its population growth must be in
order to survive. On the other hand, the more similar the two cultures are,
5 CONCLUSION                                                                22

the less important it is to have a high population growth. This follows from
the property of the model that gains from assimilation are smaller if the
cultural diﬀerence is smaller. This raises the intriguing possibility that the
French Canadian society could have survived without fast population growth
by moving closer to the majority culture. The increase in nationalistic sen-
timent in the last decades, which coincided with the decline in the power of
the Catholic Church and the emergence of a modern French speaking middle
class, might conﬁrm this prediction.

5    Conclusion
This paper has examined the population dynamics of a country with two
ethnic groups, a majority and a minority. It showed that small minorities
are likely to assimilate, whereas large ones are not. There is, however, a
middle ground, where both outcomes (and various others in between) can
occur, depending on the self-fulﬁlling expectations of minority members.
    The long-run equilibrium is eﬃcient in many cases, although in the case of
multiple equilibria the “wrong” one might be selected. The transition path
to full assimilation - if that is the eﬃcient steady state - is, however, not
optimal. In particular, assimilation is too slow, because minority members
do not take into account the positive external eﬀect of their decision on the
    The paper then proceeded to examine an important question, that of the
choice between a multicultural or a melting-pot society. If cultural (but not
physical) distance can be overcome by learning, for large minority groups it
is optimal to be bilingual, but not to assimilate. The choice between the two
outcomes also depends on the costs of interaction. It was shown that cultural
convergence between the two groups can actually halten the assimilation of
the minority. This can explain the recent strengthening of identity in many
minority groups.
    Finally, the paper analyzed an interesting question concerning faster natu-
ral population growth in the minority. It was shown that permanently higher
birth rates lead to either of two extremes: the minority either fully assimi-
lates or it becomes the majority. If the demographic boom is temporary, it
can stabilize the minority population that was on the path of assimilation.
This outcome is consistent with the experience of French Canadians in the
19th century.
REFERENCES                                                                   23

    Possible extensions include allowing for learning in the majority. When
the minority and the majority are of similar size, strategic considerations
are important to include. It would also be interesting to look at more than
two ethnic groups, and look at the question of multiculturalism vs melting
pot again. Finally, rational immigration and native response in immigration
policy would lead to further insights. These, and possible other extensions
are left for future research. Hopefully, the reader is convinced that this paper
already contains interesting results, and it can form as a basic for future work
in this area.

Hall, R. E. and Jones, C. I. (1996). The productivity of nations, Working
     Paper 5812, NBER.

K´nya, I. (1999). Optimal migration, assimilation and trade, Mimeo, North-
    western University.

K´nya, I. (2000). Modeling cultural barriers in international trade, Mimeo,
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Lazear, E. P. (1995). Culture and language, Working Paper 5249, NBER.

Sowell, T. (1996). Migrations and cultures: a world view, BasicBooks.

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