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Tao (/t/) or Dao (/d/ DOW; from Chinese: ; pinyin: Dào [tâu] (About this sound listen)) is a Chinese word signifying 'way', 'path', 'route', 'road' or sometimes more loosely 'doctrine', 'principle' or 'holistic science' [1] . Within the context of traditional Chinese philosophy and religion, Tao is the natural order of the universe whose character human intuition must discern in order to realize the potential for individual wisdom. This intuitive knowing of "life" cannot be grasped as just a concept but is known through actual living experience of one's everyday being.



Description and uses of the concept[edit]

The ba gua, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit.


Some scholars make sharp distinctions between moral or ethical usage of the word "Tao" that is prominent in Confucianism and religious Taoism and the more metaphysical usage of the term used in philosophical Taoism and most forms of Mahayana Buddhism;[4] others maintain that these are not separate usages or meanings, seeing them as mutually inclusive and compatible approaches to defining the principle.[5] The original use of the term was as a form of praxis rather than theory – a term used as a convention to refer to something that otherwise cannot be discussed in words – and early writings such as the Tao Te Ching and the I Ching make pains to distinguish between conceptions of the Tao (sometimes referred to as "named Tao") and the Tao itself (the "unnamed Tao"), which cannot be expressed or understood in language.[notes 1][notes 2][6] Liu Da asserts that the Tao is properly understood as an experiential and evolving concept, and that there are not only cultural and religious differences in the interpretation of the Tao, but personal differences that reflect the character of individual practitioners.[7]

The Tao can be roughly thought of as the flow of the Universe, or as some essence or pattern behind the natural world that keeps the Universe balanced and ordered.[8] It is related to the idea of qi, the essential energy of action and existence. The Tao is a non-dualistic principle – it is the greater whole from which all the individual elements of the Universe derive. Keller considers it similar to the negative theology of Western scholars,[9] but the Tao is rarely an object of direct worship, being treated more like the Hindu concepts of karma or dharma than as a divine object.[10] The Tao is more commonly expressed in the relationship between wu (void or emptiness, in the sense of wuji) and yinyang (the natural dynamic balance between opposites), leading to its central principle of wu wei (non-action, or action without force).

The Tao is usually described in terms of elements of nature, and in particular as similar to water. Like water it is undifferentiated, endlessly self-replenishing, soft and quiet but immensely powerful, and impassively generous.[11] Much of Taoist philosophy centers on the cyclical continuity of the natural world, and its contrast to the linear, goal-oriented actions of human beings.




De ( "power; virtue; integrity") is the term generally used to refer to proper adherence to the Tao; De is the active living or cultivation of the way.[12] Particular things (things with names) that manifest from the Tao have their own inner nature that they follow, in accordance with the Tao, and the following of this inner nature is De. Wuwei (Pinyin: wúwéi) or 'naturalness' are contingent on understanding and conforming to this inner nature, which is interpreted variously from a personal, individual nature to a more generalized notion of human nature within the greater Universe.[13]

Historically, the concept of De differed significantly between Taoists and Confucianists. Confucianism was largely a moral system emphasizing the values of humaneness, righteousness, and filial duty, and so conceived De in terms of obedience to rigorously defined and codified social rules. Taoists took a broader, more naturalistic/metaphysical view on the relationship between humankind and the Universe, and considered social rules to be at best a derivative reflection of the natural and spontaneous interactions between people, and at worst calcified structure that inhibited naturalness and created conflict. This led to some philosophical and political conflicts between Taoists and Confucianisms. Several sections of the works attributed to Chuang Tzu are dedicated to critiques of the failures of Confucianism.

Religious, philosophical, and cultural interpretations[edit]

Taoist interpretations[edit]

[Tao] means a road, path, way; and hence, the way in which one does something; method, doctrine, principle. The Way of Heaven, for example, is ruthless; when autumn comes 'no leaf is spared because of its beauty, no flower because of its fragrance'. The Way of Man means, among other things, procreation; and eunuchs are said to be 'far from the Way of Man'. Chu Tao is 'the way to be a monarch', i.e. the art of ruling. Each school of philosophy has its tao, its doctrine of the way in which life should be ordered. Finally in a particular school of philosophy whose followers came to be called Taoists, tao meant 'the way the universe works'; and ultimately something very like God, in the more abstract and philosophical sense of that term.[14]

The Tao is what gives Taoism its English name, in both its philosophical and religious forms. The Tao is the fundamental and central concept of these schools of thought. Taoism perceives the Tao as a natural order underlying the substance and activity of the Universe. Language and the "naming" of the Tao is regarded negatively within Taoism; the Tao fundamentally exists and operates outside the realm of differentiation and linguistic constraints.[15]

Diversity of views[edit]


— Sun Tzu, Art of War

There is no single orthodox Taoist view of the Tao. All forms of Taoism center around Tao and De, but there is a broad variety of distinct interpretations among sects and even individuals within the same sect. Despite this diversity, there are some clear, common patterns and trends within Taoism and its branches.[16]

The diversity of Taoist interpretations of the Tao can be seen across four texts representative of major streams of thought within Taoism. All four texts are used in modern Taoism with varying acceptance and emphasis among sects. The Tao Te Ching is the oldest text and representative of a speculative and philosophical approach to the Tao. The Tao T'i Lun is an eighth century exegesis of the Tao Te Ching, written from a well-educated and religious viewpoint, that represents the traditional scholarly perspective. The devotional perspective of the Tao is expressed in the Ch'ing Ching Ching, a liturgical text that was originally composed during the Han dynasty and is used as a hymnal in religious Taoism, especially among eremites. The Zhuangzi (also spelled Chuang Tzu) uses literary devices such as tales, allegories, and narratives to relate the Tao to the reader, illustrating a metaphorical method of viewing and expressing the Tao.[17]


The forms and variations of religious Taoism are incredibly diverse. They integrate a broad spectrum of academic, ritualistic, supernatural, devotional, literary, and folk practices with a multitude of results. Buddhism and Confucianism particularly affected the way many sects of Taoism framed, approached, and perceived the Tao. The multitudinous branches of religious Taoism accordingly regard the Tao, and interpret writings about it, in innumerable ways. Thus, outside of a few broad similarities, it is difficult to provide an accurate yet clear summary of their interpretation of the Tao.[18]

A central tenet within most varieties of religious Taoism is that the Tao is ever-present, but must be manifested, cultivated, and/or perfected in order to be realized. It is the source of the Universe and the seed of its primordial purity resides in all things. The manifestation of the Tao is De, which rectifies and invigorates the world with the Tao's radiance.[16]

Alternatively, philosophical Taoism regards the Tao as a non-religious concept; it is not a deity to be worshiped, nor is it a mystical Absolute in the religious sense of the Hindu Brahman. Joseph Wu remarked of this conception of the Tao, "Dao is not religiously available; nor is it even religiously relevant." The writings of Lao Tzu and Chang Tzu are tinged with esoteric tones and approach humanism and naturalism as paradoxes.[19] In contrast to the esotericism typically found in religious systems, the Tao is not transcendent to the self nor is mystical attainment an escape from the world in philosophical Taoism. The self steeped in the Tao is the self grounded in its place within the natural Universe. A person dwelling within the Tao excels in themselves and their activities.[20]

However, this distinction is complicated by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of Taoist schools, sects and movements.[21] Some scholars believe that there is no distinction between Daojia and Daojiao.[22] According to Kirkland, "most scholars who have seriously studied Daoism, both in Asia and the West, have finally abandoned the simplistic dichotomy of Dàojiā and Dàojiào, 'philosophical Daoism' and 'religious Daoism.'"[23]

Confucian interpretations[edit]



Buddhist interpretations[edit]



Neo-Confucian interpretations[edit]




Christian Interpretations[edit]

Noted Christian author C.S. Lewis used the word Tao to describe "the doctrine of objective value, the belief that certain attitudes are really true, and others really false, the kind of thing the Universe is and the kind of things we are."[27] He asserted that every religion and philosophy contains foundations of universal ethics as an attempt to line up with the Tao—the way mankind was designed to be. In Lewis' thinking, God created the Tao and fully displayed it through the person of Jesus Christ.

Also the Greek word used in the New Testament for the Way is ὁδός (hodos). Here the Way refers to the path of righteousness and salvation as revealed through Christ.


Linguistic aspects[edit]


Bronze script for dao
Large seal script for dao
Small seal script for dao













In Middle Chinese (ca. 6th–10th centuries CE) tone name categories, 道 and 道/導 were qusheng 去聲 "departing tone" and shangsheng 上聲 "rising tone". Historical linguists have reconstructed Middle 道 "way" and 導 "guide" as d'âu- and d'âu: (Bernhard Karlgren),[30] dau and dau (Zhou Fagao),[31] daw' and dawh (Edwin G. Pulleyblank, "Early Middle"),[32] dawX and daws (William H. Baxter),[33] and dâuB and dâuC (Axel Schuessler).[34]

In Old Chinese (ca. 7th–3rd centuries BCE) pronunciations, reconstructions for 道 "way" and 道/導 "guide" are *d'ôg (Karlgren), *dəw (Zhou), *dəgwx and *dəgwh (Li Fanggui),[35] *luʔ (Baxter), and *lûʔ and *lûh (Schuessler).






4dāo 道 in shénshendāodāo … 神神道道 R.F. [reduplicated form] 〈topo.〉[non-Mandarin form] odd; fantastic; bizarre [37]




Paronomastically, tao is equated with its homonym tao < d'ôg, "to trample," "tread," and from that point of view it is nothing more than a "treadway," "headtread," or "foretread "; it is also occasionally associated with a near synonym (and possible cognate) ti < d'iôk, "follow a road," "go along," "lead," "direct"; "pursue the right path"; a term with definite ethical overtones and a graph with an exceedingly interesting phonetic, yu < djôg," "to proceed from." The reappearance of C162 [辶] "walk" in ti with the support of C157 [⻊] "foot" in tao, "to trample," "tread," should perhaps serve us as a warning not to overemphasize the headworking functions implied in tao in preference to those of the lower extremities.[38]









1. a. In Taoism, an absolute entity which is the source of the universe; the way in which this absolute entity functions.

1. b. = Taoism, taoist


The earliest recorded usages were Tao (1736), Tau (1747), Taou (1831), and Dao (1971).

A derivative, Daoshi (Chinese: 道士, "Daoist priest"), was used already by the Jesuits Matteo Ricci and Nicolas Trigault in their De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas, rendered as Tausu in the original Latin edition (1615),[42] and Tausa in an early English translation published by Samuel Purchas (1625).[43]

See also[edit]


  1. ^ Tao Te Ching, Chapter 1. "It is from the unnamed Tao
    That Heaven and Earth sprang;
    The named is but
    The Mother of the ten thousand creatures."
    the wise man discovers it and calls it wise;
    the common people use it every day
    and are not aware of it."


  2. ^ DeFrancis (1996) p. 113
  3. ^ LaFargue (1992), pp. 245–7.
  4. ^ Chan (1963) p. 136
  5. ^ Hansen (2000), p. 206.
  6. ^ Liu (1981), pp. 1-3.
  7. ^ Liu (1981), pp. 2–3.
  8. ^ Cane (2002), p. 13.
  9. ^ Keller (2003), p. 289.
  10. ^ LaFargue (1994) p. 283.
  11. ^ Water is soft and flexible, yet possesses an immense power to overcome obstacles and alter landscapes, even carving canyons with its slow and steady persistence. It is viewed as a reflection of, or close in action to, the Tao. The Tao is often expressed as a sea or flood that cannot be dammed or denied. It flows around and over obstacles like water, setting an example for those who wish to live in accord with it.Ch'eng and Cheng (1991), pp. 175–7.
  12. ^ Maspero (1981), p. 32.
  13. ^ Bodde & Fung (1997), pp. 99–101.
  14. ^ Arthur Waley, The way and its power: a study of the Tao tê ching and its place in Chinese thought (Grove Press, 1958). ISBN 0-8021-5085-3
  15. ^ Kohn (1993), p. 11.
  16. ^ a b Kohn (1993), pp. 11–12.
  17. ^ Kohn (1993), p. 12.
  18. ^ Fowler (2005), pp. 5–7.
  19. ^ Moeller (2006) pp. 133–145.
  20. ^ Fowler (2005), pp. 5–6.
  21. ^ Mair (2001) p. 174
  22. ^ Robinet (1997), p. 3.
  23. ^ Kirkland (2004) p. 2.
  25. ^ Dumoulin (2005), pp. 63–65.
  26. ^ Hershock (1996), pp. 67–70.
  27. ^ Lewis, C.S., The Abolition of Man; pg 18
  28. ^ Boodberg (1957), p. 599
  30. ^ Karlgren (1957).
  31. ^ Zhou (1972).
  32. ^ Pulleyblank (1991).
  33. ^ Baxter (1992).
  34. ^ Schuessler (2007).
  35. ^ Li (1971).
  37. ^ DeFrancis (2007), pp. 172, 829.
  38. ^ Boodberg (1957), p. 602.
  39. ^ Mair (1990), p. 132.
  40. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 207
  41. ^ Schuessler (2007), p. 48 and 41.


  • LaFargue, Michael. Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching (SUNY Press, 1994) ISBN 0-7914-1601-1.
  • LaFargue, Michael. The tao of the Tao te ching: a translation and commentary (SUNY Press, 1992). ISBN 0-7914-0986-4.

Further reading[edit]