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The amount of airglow and zodiacal light is quite variable (depending, amongst other things on sunspot activity and the Solar cycle) but given optimal conditions the darkest possible sky has a brightness of about 22 magnitude/square arcsecond. If a full moon is present, the sky brightness increases to about 18 magnitude/sq. arcsecond depending on local atmospheric transparency, 40 times brighter than the darkest sky. In densely populated areas a sky brightness of 17 magnitude/sq. arcsecond is not uncommon, or as much as 100 times brighter than is natural. Section 2 discusses the moral and political significance of framing problems, in relation to the novel environmental problem of excess artificial nighttime lighting in cities. Section 3 then analyzes the concept of light pollution in detail. Here, both the origins of the concept and its current manifestations are presented, in order to provide a more comprehensive understanding of light pollution. Section 4 returns to the question of how light pollution frames concerns and possible responses, and discusses two interrelated questions: the potential limitations of the concept as a normative or prescriptive tool, and the ambiguities and inconsistencies in its practical application that require clarification. Thus, first steps are taken in dissecting the ethical significance of the concept of light pollution and the role it can play in addressing the adverse effects of artificial nighttime lighting. Current calls for mitigation are often rested on an appeal to needs. For example, the International Dark-Sky Association cites needs-based principles of lighting as a way to minimize the negative effects of light pollution (IDA, 2014 IDA. (2014). International Dark-Sky Association. International Dark-Sky Association. Retrieved 15 January, 2015, from [Google Scholar]). It seems to follow that ‘unneeded’ nighttime illumination equates to light pollution, and therefore, contributes to the pre-defined negative effects. For, at the least, lighting deemed unnecessary wastes energy. This requires a clear justification for what is ‘needed’ nighttime illumination, which is both a quantitative and qualitative question. However, the moral terrain of such claims has been left largely unexplored. A needs-based approach requires that we can confidently point to criteria for needed lighting. Yet, as historic surveys on nighttime lighting makes clear, the blurring of symbolic and actual needs of nighttime lighting are complex at best, and needs are co-constituted by societal perceptions and values (Nye, 1990 Nye, D. E. (1990). Electrifying America: Social meanings of a new technology, 1880–1940. Cambridge: MIT Press. [Google Scholar]; Schivelbusch, 1988 Schivelbusch, W. (1988). Disenchanted night: The industrialization of light in the nineteenth century. (A. Davis, Trans.) London: University of California Press. [Google Scholar]). If policies aimed at light pollution mitigation adopt a needs-based approach, adequate reasoning should be given for why a different approach—say one geared toward preferences and desires—is insufficient. The purpose of this paper is to elucidate light pollution as a normative concept, and focus specifically on its increasing role in shaping, or framing, future regulatory efforts, and decision-making processes. The goal is not to condemn or approve of the use of light pollution from an ethical perspective, nor is it to arrive at definitive answers for the ambiguities inherent in the concept. Rather, I begin by accepting the term as the dominant concept for describing a novel environmental problem, and critically reflect on its ethical significance and potential limitations. While the implications of light pollution are far-reaching, here I will focus specifically on light pollution as it relates to urban nighttime lighting. Such an analysis can be seen as an example of an issue discussed within this journal by Elliott (2009 Elliott, K. (2009). The ethical significance of language in the environmental sciences: Case studies from pollution research. Ethics, Place & Environment, 12, 157–173.10.1080/13668790902863382[Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar]), namely the ethical significance of language and terminology choices for framing environmental policy decisions and debates. While Elliott discusses very different types of pollution, the themes highlighted are quite relevant for an examination of light pollution. Elliott—who draws from a more pragmatic branch of environmental ethics that I adopt here—describes the usefulness of practical ethics for policy discussions. Philosophers can help to create and define the moral space within which policy decisions will be made, and so can contribute to upstream policy decisions. Elliot (2009 Elliott, K. (2009). The ethical significance of language in the environmental sciences: Case studies from pollution research. Ethics, Place & Environment, 12, 157–173.10.1080/13668790902863382[Taylor & Francis Online] [Google Scholar], p. 170) explains that, When I take a picture it just trunes out black. And the red light is flashing… What does that mean? Any suggestions! Light pollution competes with starlight in the night sky for urban residents, interferes with astronomical observatories,[5] and, like any other form of pollution, disrupts ecosystems and has adverse health effects[6][7] Street light replacement project – We’re investing in a £25 million capital project to update and replace thousands of street lights across the town. A newer method for predicting and measuring various aspects of light pollution was described in the journal Lighting Research Technology (September 2008). Scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute’s Lighting Research Center have developed a comprehensive method called Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP), which allows users to quantify, and thus optimize, the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property. OSP can be used by lighting engineers immediately, particularly for the investigation of glow and trespass (glare analyses are more complex to perform and current commercial software does not readily allow them), and can help users compare several lighting design alternatives for the same site.[100] Could this abnormally fast growth and development of plants on Day Three be anything like the pattern of making the astronomical bodies on Day Four? In my previous work on Day Four creation (Faulkner 1999), I had suggested such a rapid process, albeit without drawing the parallel to the creation of plants. The Day Three parallel can be very useful in solving the light travel time problem. The reason that plants made on Day Three could not develop at the rate that they normally do today is that they could not have performed their function of providing food on Days Five and Six. The quickest developing fruit require weeks or months, and trees require years to do this. In a similar manner, the stars could not fulfill their functions of marking seasons and days and years (v. 14) unless they were visible by Day Six. I propose that the light had to abnormally “grow” or “shoot” its way to the earth to fulfill this function. Notice that this is not the result of some natural process any more than the shooting up of plants on Day Three was. Instead, this is a miraculous, abnormally fast process. Rather than light moving very quickly, I suggest that it was space itself that did the moving, carrying light along with it. Light pollution is a topic gaining importance and acceptance in environmental discourse. This concept provides a framework for categorizing the adverse effects of nighttime lighting, which advocacy groups and regulatory efforts are increasingly utilizing. However, the ethical significance of the concept has, thus far, received little critical reflection. In this paper, I analyze the moral implications of framing issues in nighttime lighting via the concept of light pollution. First, the moral and political importance of problem framing is discussed. Next, the origins and contemporary understandings of light pollution are presented. Finally, the normative limitations and practical ambiguities of light pollution are discussed, with the aim of strengthening the framework through which decisions about urban nighttime lighting strategies are increasingly approached. Unfortunately, research is showing that in the U.S.A. fully two-thirds of us live under skies so bright we have lost the view of the Milky Way. And this loss comes mostly from just plain bad lighting – lighting that is not even doing a good job of showing us things we need or want to see on the ground. erogan VigRX Celuraid Muscle Stéroïdes VigRX Plus erozon max power up premium Eron Plus eracto Celuraid Muscle