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Édith Piaf singing in front of a microphone (1962).


Singing can be formal or informal, arranged or improvised, it may be done as a form of religious devotion, as a hobby, as a source of pleasure, comfort or ritual, as part of music education or as a profession. Excellence in singing requires time, dedication, instruction and regular practice. If practice is done on a regular basis then the sounds can become more clear and strong.[1] Professional singers usually build their careers around one specific musical genre, such as classical or rock, although there are singers with crossover success (singing in more than one genre). They typically take voice training provided by voice teachers or vocal coaches throughout their careers.


A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords

In its physical aspect, singing has a well-defined technique that depends on the use of the lungs, which act as an air supply or bellows; on the larynx, which acts as a reed or vibrator; on the chest, head cavities and skeleton, which have the function of an amplifier, as the tube in a wind instrument; and on the tongue, which together with the palate, teeth, and lips articulate and impose consonants and vowels on the amplified sound. Though these four mechanisms function independently, they are nevertheless coordinated in the establishment of a vocal technique and are made to interact upon one another,[2] during passive breathing, air is inhaled with the diaphragm while exhalation occurs without any effort. Exhalation may be aided by the abdominal, internal intercostal and lower pelvis/pelvic muscles. Inhalation is aided by use of external intercostals, scalenes, and sternocleidomastoid muscles, the pitch is altered with the vocal cords. With the lips closed, this is called humming.


Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract, this is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds, these different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.[3] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant; which has been shown to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the ear's frequency range.[4][5]

It has also been shown that a more powerful voice may be achieved with a fatter and fluid-like vocal fold mucosa,[6][7] the more pliable the mucosa, the more efficient the transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal folds.[8]

Vocal registration[edit]

Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the voice. A register in the voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function, they occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns.[9] Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[10] The occurrence of registers has also been attributed to effects of the acoustic interaction between the vocal fold oscillation and the vocal tract,[11] the term "register" can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:[12]

  • A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.
  • A certain vocal timbre or vocal "color"

In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system. Within speech pathology, the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogues.[12]

Vocal resonation[edit]

Cross-section of the head and neck

Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them, the main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[12] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators; in sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[13]

Chest voice and head voice[edit]


History and development[edit]

The first recorded mention of the terms chest voice and head voice was around the 13th century, when it was distinguished from the "throat voice" (pectoris, guttoris, capitis—at this time it is likely that head voice referred to the falsetto register) by the writers Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia.[14] The terms were later adopted within bel canto, the Italian opera singing method, where chest voice was identified as the lowest and head voice the highest of three vocal registers: the chest, passagio, and head registers,[15] this approach is still taught by some vocal pedagogists today. Another current popular approach that is based on the bel canto model is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are divided into "chest register", "head register", and "falsetto register" and woman's voices into "chest register", "middle register", and "head register", such pedagogists teach that the head register is a vocal technique used in singing to describe the resonance felt in the singer's head.[16]

However, as knowledge of physiology has increased over the past two hundred years, so has the understanding of the physical process of singing and vocal production, as a result, many vocal pedagogists, such as Ralph Appelman at Indiana University and William Vennard at the University of Southern California, have redefined or even abandoned the use of the terms chest voice and head voice.[15] In particular, the use of the terms chest register and head register have become controversial since vocal registration is more commonly seen today as a product of laryngeal function that is unrelated to the physiology of the chest, lungs, and head. For this reason, many vocal pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head, they argue that the vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to vocal resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the terms chest voice and head voice over the term register, this view believes that the problems which people identify as register problems are really problems of resonance adjustment. This view is also in alignment with the views of other academic fields that study vocal registration including speech pathology, phonetics, and linguistics. Although both methods are still in use, current vocal pedagogical practice tends to adopt the newer more scientific view. Also, some vocal pedagogists take ideas from both viewpoints.[12]

The contemporary use of the term chest voice often refers to a specific kind of vocal coloration or vocal timbre; in classical singing, its use is limited entirely to the lower part of the modal register or normal voice. Within other forms of singing, chest voice is often applied throughout the modal register. Chest timbre can add a wonderful array of sounds to a singer's vocal interpretive palette.[17] However, the use of overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.[18]

Classifying singing voices[edit]

In European classical music and opera, voices are treated like musical instruments. Composers who write vocal music must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and vocal properties of singers. Voice classification is the process by which human singing voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration,[19] the science behind voice classification developed within European classical music has been slow in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use within classical music including the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.[15]


Within choral music, singers' voices are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB, or soprano, alto, tenor, and bass), as a result, the typical choral situation gives many opportunities for misclassification to occur.[12] Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers, there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[20]


Vocal pedagogy[edit]

Ercole de' Roberti: Concert, c. 1490




Vocal technique[edit]


  1. Breath is taken
  2. Sound is initiated in the larynx
  3. The vocal resonators receive the sound and influence it
  4. The articulators shape the sound into recognizable units

Although these four processes are often considered separately when studied, in actual practice, they merge into one coordinated function, with an effective singer or speaker, one should rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the resulting unified function. Many vocal problems result from a lack of coordination within this process.[22]


Once the voice student has become aware of the physical processes that make up the act of singing and of how those processes function, the student begins the task of trying to coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers will become more concerned with one area of the technique than another, the various processes may progress at different rates, with a resulting imbalance or lack of coordination. The areas of vocal technique which seem to depend most strongly on the student's ability to coordinate various functions are:[12]

  1. Extending the vocal range to its maximum potential
  2. Developing consistent vocal production with a consistent tone quality
  3. Developing flexibility and agility
  4. Achieving a balanced vibrato

Developing the singing voice[edit]

Singing is a skill that requires highly developed muscle reflexes. Singing does not require much muscle strength but it does require a high degree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their voices further through the careful and systematic practice of both songs and vocal exercises. Vocal exercises have several purposes, including[12] warming up the voice; extending the vocal range; "lining up" the voice horizontally and vertically; and acquiring vocal techniques such as legato, staccato, control of dynamics, rapid figurations, learning to sing wide intervals comfortably, singing trills, singing melismas and correcting vocal faults.


Learning to sing is an activity that benefits from the involvement of an instructor. A singer does not hear the same sounds inside his head that others hear outside. Therefore, having a wise guide who can tell a student what kinds of sounds he or she is producing guides a singer to understand which of the internal sounds correspond to the desired sounds required by the style of singing the student aims to re-create.[citation needed]

Extending vocal range[edit]



  2. The space factor – "space" refers to the size of the inside of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher he or she sings, the internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by relaxing the throat. Vocal pedagogists describe this as feeling like the "beginning of a yawn".




There are eight components of the ideal singing posture:

  1. Feet slightly apart
  2. Legs straight but knees slightly bent
  3. Hips facing straight forward
  4. Spine aligned
  5. Abdomen flat
  6. Chest comfortably forward
  7. Shoulders down and back
  8. Head facing straight forward

Breathing and breath support[edit]

Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing, there are four stages of breathing: a breathing-in period (inhalation); a setting up controls period (suspension); a controlled exhalation period (phonation); and a recovery period.



Vibrato is a technique in which a sustained note wavers very quickly and consistently between a higher and a lower pitch, giving the note a slight quaver. Vibrato is the pulse or wave in a sustained tone. Vibrato occurs naturally and is the result of proper breath support and a relaxed vocal apparatus,[28] some studies have shown that vibrato is the result of a neuromuscular tremor in the vocal folds. In 1922 Max Schoen was the first to make the comparison of vibrato to a tremor due to change in amplitude, lack of automatic control and it being half the rate of normal muscular discharge,[29] some singers use vibrato as a means of expression. Many successful artists can sing a deep, rich vibrato.

Extended vocal technique[edit]

Vocal music[edit]

Vocal music is music performed by one or more singers, which are typically called songs, and which may be performed with or without instrumental accompaniment, in which singing provides the main focus of the piece. Vocal music is probably the oldest form of music since it does not require any instrument or equipment besides the voice. All musical cultures have some form of vocal music and there are many long-standing singing traditions throughout the world's cultures.Music which employs singing but does not feature it prominently is generally considered as instrumental music, for example, some blues rock songs may have a short, simple call-and-response chorus, but the emphasis in the song is on the instrumental melodies and improvisation. Vocal music typically features sung words called lyrics, although there are notable examples of vocal music that are performed using non-linguistic syllables or noises, sometimes as musical onomatopoeia. A short piece of vocal music with lyrics is broadly termed a song, although, in classical music, terms such as aria are typically used.

Genres of vocal music[edit]

A trio of female singers performing at the Berwald Hall in 2016.

Vocal music is written in many different forms and styles which are often labeled within a particular genre of music, these genres include Indian classical music, Art music, popular music, traditional music, regional and national music, and fusions of those genres. Within these larger genres are many subgenres, for example, popular music would encompass blues, jazz, country music, easy listening, hip hop, rock music, and several other genres. There may also be a subgenre within a subgenre such as vocalese and scat singing in jazz.

Popular and traditional music[edit]



One difference between live performances in the popular and Classical genres is that whereas Classical performers often sing without amplification in small- to mid-size halls, in popular music, a microphone and PA system (amplifier and speakers) are used in almost all performance venues, even a small coffee house. The use of the microphone has had several impacts on popular music, for one, it facilitated the development of intimate, expressive singing styles such as "crooning" which would not have enough projection and volume if done without a microphone. As well, pop singers who use microphones can do a range of other vocal styles that would not project without amplification, such as making whispering sounds, humming, and mixing half-sung and sung tones, as well, some performers use the microphone's response patterns to create effects, such as bringing the mic very close to the mouth to get an enhanced bass response, or, in the case of hip-hop beatboxers, doing plosive "p" and "b" sounds into the mic to create percussive effects. It n the 2000s, controversy arose over the widespread use of electronic Auto-Tune pitch correction devices with recorded and live popular music vocals. Controversy has also arisen due to cases where pop singers have been found to be lip-syncing to a pre-recorded recording of their vocal performance or, in the case of the controversial act Milli Vanilli, lip-syncing to tracks recorded by other uncredited singers.

While some bands use backup singers who only sing when they are onstage, it is common for backup singers in popular music to have other roles; in many rock and metal bands, the musicians doing backup vocals also play instruments, such as rhythm guitar, electric bass, or drums. In Latin or Afro-Cuban groups, backup singers may play percussion instruments or shakers while singing; in some pop and hip-hop groups and in musical theater, the backup singers may be required to perform elaborately choreographed dance routines while they sing through headset microphones.


Sketches by artist Marguerite Martyn of women trying out for the chorus at the Delmar Theater in St. Louis in May 1906, with quotations from some of those pictured


Aspiring singers and vocalists must have musical skill, an excellent voice, the ability to work with people, and a sense of showmanship and drama. Additionally, singers need to have the ambition and drive to continually study and improve,[30] Professional singers continue to seek out vocal coaching to hone their skills, extend their range, and learn new styles, as well, aspiring singers need to gain specialized skills in the vocal techniques used to interpret songs, learn about the vocal literature from their chosen style of music, and gain skills in choral music techniques, sight singing and memorizing songs, and vocal exercises.

In order to become independent and survive the competitive atmosphere and stay for a longer time and have a long career, singers must learn the skill of Music composing, Music producing and Lyrics writing, they should take advantage of social media platforms like YouTube and upload their musical contents. Many musicians gained popularity because of social media and got recognition, example Justin Bieber, after getting recognition and popularity for their "original" or "cover" songs, they can get offers for doing Live shows from the event organisers, which is a large source of income for musicians across the world, YouTube also pays if the channel of the singer in YouTube is popular and have significant amount of subscribers and viewership. This they can also monetise (earn revenues) from Streaming apps, they must also take steps to market themselves to buyers of vocal talent, by doing auditions in front of an Music Director. Depending on the style of vocal music that a person has trained in, the "talent buyers" that they seek out may be Record company, A&R representatives, Music Director, choir directors, nightclub managers, or concert promoters. A CD or DVD with excerpts of vocal performances, some singers hire an agent or manager to help them to seek out engagements and other performance opportunities; the agent or manager is often paid by receiving a percentage of the fees that the singer gets from performing onstage.

Singing competitions[edit]

In recent years, the talent of singing has become competitive. Currently, there are several television shows that showcase these talents. American Idol was one of the prominent of these shows. Debuted in 2002, it was one of the first singing competition shows.The first singing reality show was Sa Re Ga Ma Pa launched by Zee TV in the 1995,[31] at the American Idol Contestants audition in front of a panel of judges to see if they can move on to the next round in Hollywood, from then, the competition begins. The field of contestants is narrowed down week by week until a winner is chosen; in order to move on to the next round, the contestants fate is determined by public vote. The Voice is another well-known singing competition program. Similar to American Idol, the contestants audition in front of a panel of judges, however, the judges chairs are faced towards the audience during the performance. If the coaches are interested in the artist, they will press their button signifying they want to coach them. Once the auditions conclude, coaches have their team of artists and the competition begins. Coaches then mentor their artists and they compete to find the best singer. Other well-known singing competitions include The X Factor, America's Got Talent, Rising Star and The Sing-Off.

Health benefits[edit]

Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[32] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[33] Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[34]

A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[35] Singing provides physical, cognitive, and emotional benefits to participants. When they step on stage, many singers forget their worries and focus solely on the song. Singing is becoming a more widely known method of increasing an individual's overall health and wellness, in turn helping them to battle diseases such as cancer more effectively due to decreased stress, releasing of endorphin's, and increased lung capacity.[36]

Effect on the brain[edit]

John Daniel Scott, among others, have cited that "people who sing are more likely to be happy." This is because "singing elevates the levels of neurotransmitters which are associated with pleasure and well being." Humans have a long prehistory of music, especially singing; before written language, stories were passed down through song, because song is often more memorable. There is also evidence that music or singing may have evolved in humans before language. Levitin, in his This is Your Brain on Music, argues that "music may be the activity that prepared our pre-human ancestors for speech communication" and that "singing. . . might have helped our species to refine motor skills, paving the way for the development of the exquisitely fine muscle control required for vocal . . . speech" (260).[37] On the other hand, he cites Pinker, who "argued that language is an adaptation and music is its Spandrel . . . an evolutionary accident piggybacking on language" (248).[37]

Studies have found evidence suggesting the mental, as well as physical, benefits of singing. When conducting a study with 21 members of a choir at three different points over one year, three themes suggested three areas of benefits; the social impact (connectedness with others), personal impact (positive emotions, self-perception, etc.), and functional outcomes (health benefits of being in the choir). Findings showed that a sense of wellbeing is associated with singing, by uplifting the mood of the participants and releasing endorphins in the brain. Many singers also reported that the singing helped then regulate stress and relax, allowing them to deal better with their daily lives, from a social perspective, approval from the audience, and interaction with other choir members in a positive manner is also beneficial.

Singing is beneficial for pregnant mothers. By giving them another medium of communication with their newborns, mothers in one study reported feelings of love and affection when singing to their unborn children, they also reported feeling more relaxed than ever before during their stressful pregnancy. A song can have nostalgic significance by reminding a singer of the past, and momentarily transport them, allowing them to focus on singing and embrace the activity as an escape from their daily lives and problems.[38]

Effect on body[edit]

A recent study by Tenovus Cancer Care found that singing in a choir for just one hour boosts levels of immune proteins in cancer patients and has a positive overall effect on the health of patients, the study explores the possibility that singing could help put patients in the best mental and physical shape to receive the treatment they need, by reducing stress hormones, and increasing quantities of cytokines- proteins of the immune system that can increase the body's ability to fight disease. "Singing gives you physical benefits like breath control and muscle movement and enunciation, as well as the learning benefits of processing information" says a musical director and accompanist in the study. The enunciation and speech benefits tie into the language benefits detailed below.[39]

A recent newspaper article by the Toronto Star states that everyone to sing, even if they are not musically talented, because of the benefits it has for the health of the individual. Singing lowers blood pressure by releasing pent up emotions, boosting relaxation and reminding them of happy times, it also allows singers to breathe more easily. Patients with lung disease and chronic pulmonary disease experience relief from their symptoms from singing just two times a week; in addition to breathing related illness, singing also has numerous benefits for stroke victims when it comes to relearning the ability to speak and communicate by singing their thoughts. Singing activates the right side of the brain when the left side cannot function (the left side is the area of the brain responsible for speech), so it is easy to see how singing can be an excellent alternative to speech while the victim heals.[40]

Singing and language[edit]

Every natural or non natural language has its own intrinsic musicality which affects singing by means of pitch, phrasing and accent.

Neurological aspects[edit]

Much research has been done recently on the link between music and language, especially singing, it is becoming increasingly clear that these two processes are very much alike, and yet also different. Levitin describes how, beginning with the eardrum, sound waves are translated into pitch, or a tonotopic map, and then shortly thereafter "speech and music probably diverge into separate processing circuits" (130).[37] There is evidence that neural circuits used for music and language may start out in infants undifferentiated. There are several areas of the brain that are used for both language and music, for example, Brodmann Area 47. Levitin recounts how in certain studies, "listening to music and attending its syntactic features," similar to the syntactic processes in language, activated this part of the brain; in addition, "musical syntax . . . has been localized to . . . areas adjacent to and overlapping with those regions that process speech syntax, such as Broca's area" and "the regions involved in musical semantics . . . appear to be [localized] near Wernicke's area." Both Broca's area and Wernicke's area are important steps in language processing and production.

Singing has been shown to help stroke victims recover speech. According to neurologist Gottfried Schlaug, there is a corresponding area to that of speech, which resides in the left hemisphere, on the right side of the brain,[41] this is casually known as the "singing center." By teaching stroke victims to sing their words, this can help train this area of the brain for speech. In support of this theory, Levitin asserts that "regional specificity," such as that for speech, "may be temporary, as the processing centers for important mental functions actually move to other regions after trauma or brain damage."[37] Thus in the right hemisphere of the brain, the "singing center" may be retrained to help produce speech.[42]

Accents and singing[edit]


Singing animals[edit]

Scholars agree that singing is strongly present in many different species.[45][46] Wide dispersal of singing behavior among very different animal species, like birds, gibbons, whales, and many others strongly suggests that singing appeared independently in different species. Currently, there are about 5400 species of animals that are known to sing, at least some singing species demonstrate the ability to learn their songs, to improvise and even to compose new melodies.[47] In some animal species singing is a group activity (see, for example, singing in gibbon families.[48])

See also[edit]

Art music[edit]

Other music[edit]


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