Hybrid Vehicle
Get Hybrid Vehicle essential facts below. View Videos or join the Hybrid Vehicle discussion. Add Hybrid Vehicle to your Like2do.com topic list for future reference or share this resource on social media.
Hybrid Vehicle

A hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct types of power, such as internal combustion engine to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor,[1] e.g. in diesel-electric trains using diesel engines to drive an electric generator that powers an electric motor, and submarines that use diesels when surfaced and batteries when submerged. Other means to store energy include pressurized fluid in hydraulic hybrids.

The basic principle with hybrid vehicles is that the different power sources work better at different speeds and then switching from one to the other at the proper time during the speed transform yields a win-win in terms of energy efficiency, as such that translates into greater fuel efficiency, for example.[]


Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:

Vehicle type

A biodiesel hybrid bus in Montreal, Canada

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles



The first published prototype of an SHB is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SHB with power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed and built a "Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" for his 1995 diploma thesis. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SHB and in 1998 modified a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). Until 2005 they built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5] In 1999 Harald Kutzke described an "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.



Heavy vehicle

Bus Rapid Transit of Metz, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system by Van Hool[7]

Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives, buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. A diesel/turbine engine drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump, which powers electric/hydraulic motor(s) - strictly an electric/hydraulic transmission (not a hybrid), unless it can accept power from outside. With large vehicles conversion losses decrease, and the advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements become more prominent, especially when powering multiple drives -- e.g. driven wheels or propellers. Until recently most heavy vehicles had little secondary energy storage, e.g. batteries/hydraulic accumulators -- excepting non-nuclear submarines, one of the oldest production hybrids, running on diesels while surfaced and batteries when submerged. Both series and parallel setups were used in WW2 submarines.

Rail transport

The new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France is diesel/electric motors, using 1500 or 25000 V on different rail systems.[8] It was tested in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.



Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hybrid trains in January 2015. The train has a 1400 hp engine which uses fumigation technology.The first of these train is set to run on the 81 km long Rewari-Rohtak route.[10] CNG is less-polluting alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. Already many transport vehicles such as auto-rickshaws and buses run on CNG fuel.

North America
In the US, General Electric made a locomotive with sodium - nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) battery storage. They expect >=10% fuel economy.[11]

Variant diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies, with lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 hp electric motors, and a new clean burning ~160 hp diesel generator. No fuel is wasted for idling -- ~60-85% of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if regenerative braking is used; but in principle it is easily utilized.

Since these engines typically need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery pack's weight is a negligible penalty.[] The diesel generator and batteries are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused. Fuel savings of 40-60% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The advantages hybrid cars have for frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching yard use.[12] "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad among others.


Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50-70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.[13] First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.[14]

Road transport, commercial vehicles

GMC Yukon hybrid version

Hybrid systems are coming into use for trucks, buses and other heavy highway vehicles. Small fleet sizes and installation costs are compensated by fuel savings,.[15][needs update] With advances such as higher capacity, lowered battery cost etc. Toyota, Ford, GM and others are introducing hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive.[16][17]FedEx and others are investing in hybrid delivery vehicles -- particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first.[18] As of December 2013 FedEx is trialling two delivery trucks with Wrightspeed electric motors and diesel generators; the retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years. The diesel engines run at a constant RPM for peak efficiency.[19]

In 1978 students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle to a petro-hydraulic hybrid with off-the shelf components. A car rated at 32 mpg was returning 75 mpg with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine, and reached 70 mph.[20] In the 1990s, engineers at EPA's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory developed a petro-hydraulic powertrain for a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used. The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the cost.[21] Under EPA testing, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 mpg (7.4 L/100 km) City, and 22 mpg (11 L/100 km) highway.[21][22]UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.[23]

Military off-road vehicles

Since 1985, the US military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees[24][25] and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.


Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface.




The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing span of 16.3 meters (53 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at about 100 km/h (62 mph) on power from the fuel cell.[26]


Engine type

Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid Optare Solo


William H. Patton filed a patent application for a gasoline-electric hybrid rail-car propulsion system in early 1889, and for a similar hybrid boat propulsion system in mid 1889.[29][30] There is no evidence that his hybrid boat met with any success, but he built a prototype hybrid tram and sold a small hybrid locomotive.[31][32]

In 1899, Henri Pieper developed the world's first petro-electric hybrid automobile. In 1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed a series-hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub arrangements with an internal combustion generator set providing the electric power; Porsche's hybrid set two speed records.[] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978-79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75 mpg with plans still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website.[33]


Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)

Some battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can be recharged while the user drives. Such a vehicle establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this process--on the highway--and can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged. For example, some of the battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London Underground are capable of this mode of operation.

Developing a BEV infrastructure would provide the advantage of virtually unrestricted highway range. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a major highway, BEV technology could reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately, private use of the existing electrical system is almost universally prohibited. Besides, the technology for such electrical infrastructure is largely outdated and, outside some cities, not widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs could perhaps be funded by toll revenue or by dedicated transportation taxes.

Hybrid fuel (dual mode)



  • Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank -- typically gasoline and ethanol, methanol, or biobutanol.
  • Bi-fuel vehicle: Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example, some Chevrolet Silverado 2500 HDs can effortlessly switch between petroleum and natural gas, offering a range of over 1000 km (650 miles).[34] While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range, decreased cost of fuel, and flexibility where LPG or CNG infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the US Natural gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and already has 2600 CNG stations in place.[35] With a growing fueling station infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen in the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase these vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per MMBTU.[36] On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive.

Fluid power hybrid

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid
French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata

Hydraulic hybrid and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic (liquid) or pneumatic (compressed air) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless. Regenerative braking can be used to recover some of the supplied drive energy back into the accumulator.

Petro-air hybrid

A French company, MDI, has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid engine car. The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the cylinders.[37] A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the "active chamber", which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output.[38]Tata Motors of India assessed the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and moved into "completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific vehicle and stationary applications".[39][40]

Petro-hydraulic hybrid

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car
Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway


In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than electric battery charged hybrids using the current electric battery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[41] The charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests undertaken by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.[21][22]UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.[23]

Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been known for decades, and used in trains and very large construction vehicles, high costs of the equipment precluded the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense an experiment proved the viability of small petro-hydraulic hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis, Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. A car rated at 32 mpg-US (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) was returning 75 mpg-US (3.1 L/100 km; 90 mpg-imp) with the 60 hp engine replaced by a 16 hp engine. The experimental car reached 70 mph (110 km/h).[20]




Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups. One research project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130 mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints, reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes are used in industrial vehicles.[44] The aim is 170 mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator which will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using four wheel drive.[45][46][47]

In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production minvan was adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain for assessment.[21][48][49][50]

PSA Peugeot Citroën exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show.[51] The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive which supplements power from its conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage was estimated to be about 118 mpg-US (2 L/100 km; 142 mpg-imp) on the Euro test cycle if installed in a Citroën C3 type of body.[52][53] PSA Although the car was ready for production and was proven and feasible delivering the claimed results, Peugeot Citroën were unable to attract a major manufacturer to share the high development costs and are shelving the project until a partnership can be arranged.[54]

Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include such vehicles as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards.

Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

Parallel hybrid

Ford Escape Hybrid, a series-parallel drivetrain

In a parallel hybrid vehicle an electric motor and an internal combustion engine are coupled such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together. Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.

The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation Honda Insight.

Mild parallel hybrid

These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide auto-stop/start features and to provide extra power assist[55] during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).


Power-split or series-parallel hybrid

In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: a traction electric motor and an internal combustion engine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a power split device, which is a simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion engine to 100% for the traction electric motor, or anything in between, such as 40% for the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The combustion engine can act as a generator charging the batteries.

Modern versions such as the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive have a second electric motor/generator connected to the planetary gear. In cooperation with the traction motor/generator and the power-split device this provides a continuously variable transmission.



Series hybrid

Chevrolet Volt, a series hybrid plug-in hybrid, also called extended range electric vehicle (EREV).




In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan.[56]GM introduced the Chevy Volt series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 mi (64 km),[57] though this car also has a mechanical connection between the engine and drivetrain[58]. Supercapacitors combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid arrangement.[59]

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)



This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding - or at least minimizing - the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity generating company.


Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

The 2011 Nissan Leaf was the first plug-in electric car equipped with Nissan's Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians.



Vehicles in the market with such safety devices include the Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt, Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, 2012 Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and all Prius family cars recently introduced, including the standard 2012 model year Prius, the Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.

Environmental issues

Fuel consumption and emissions reductions






Hybrid vehicle emissions



Environmental impact of hybrid car battery

Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.[69]

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries--the type currently used in hybrids--are much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium according to one source.[70] Another source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them and disposing of them safely is difficult.[71] In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats.[72][73][74] The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive electrode.

The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory effect. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel-metal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming. [75]


There is two different levels of charging. Level one charging is the slower method as it uses a 120 V/15 A single-phase grounded outlet. Level two is a faster method; existing Level 2 equipment offers charging from 208 V or 240 V (at up to 80 A, 19.2 kW). It may require dedicated equipment and a connection installation for home or public units, although vehicles such as the Tesla have the power electronics on board and need only the outlet.[76] The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batteries is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt household outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1-4 hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 minutes to achieve 80% charge. Three important factors--distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge [77] In order for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must perform the action of braking in order to generate some electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most effectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline. In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely electricity for 70-130 miles (110-210 km) on a single charge. Hybrid battery capacity currently ranges from 4.4 kWh to 85 kWh on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs currently range from 0.6 kWh to 2.4 kWh representing a large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.[78]

Raw materials increasing costs

There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars.[79] For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems.[79][80]Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric motors.[81]

Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China,[82] and many analysts believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012.[79] In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an unknown amount of supply.[80][83]

A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development;[83] however, the barriers to entry are high[84] and require years to go online.

How hybrid-electric vehicles work


  • Dual Power. Power can come from either the engine, motor or both depending on driving circumstances. Additional power to assist the engine in accelerating or climbing might be provided by the electric motor. Or more commonly, a smaller electric motor provides all of the power for low-speed driving conditions and is augmented by the engine at higher speeds.
  • Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down. This automation is much simpler with an electric motor. Also see dual power above.

Alternative green vehicles



Peugeot/Citroën Hybrid Vehicle



Automakers spend around $US8 million in marketing Hybrid vehicles each year. With combined effort from many car companies, the Hybrid industry has sold millions of Hybrids.[] Hybrid car companies like Toyota, Honda, Ford and BMW have pulled together to create a movement of Hybrid vehicle sales pushed by Washington lobbyist to lower the worlds emissions and become less reliant on our petroleum consumption.[] In 2005, sales went beyond 200,000 Hybrids, but in retrospect that only reduced the global use for gasoline consumption by 200,000 gallons per day -- a tiny fraction of the 360 million gallons used per day.[] According to Bradley Berman author of Driving Change--One Hybrid at a time, "Cold economics shows that in real dollars, except for a brief spike in the 1970s, gas prices have remained remarkably steady and cheap. Fuel continues to represent a small part of the overall cost of owning and operating a personal vehicle".[87] Other marketing tactics include greenwashing which is the "unjustified appropriation of environmental virtue."[88] Temma Ehrenfeld explained in an article by Newsweek. Hybrids may be more efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline consumption is concerned but as far as being green and good for the environment is completely inaccurate. Hybrid car companies have a long time to go if they expect to really go green. According to Harvard business professor Theodore Levitt states "managing products" and "meeting customers' needs", "you must adapt to consumer expectations and anticipation of future desires."[89] This means people buy what they want, if they want a fuel efficient car they buy a Hybrid without thinking about the actual efficiency of the product. This "Green Myopia" as Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus on the greenness of the product and not on the actual effectiveness. Researchers and analysts say people are drawn to the new technology, as well as the convenience of fewer fill ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own the better, newer, flashier, and so called greener car. In the beginning of the Hybrid movement car companies reached out to the young people, by using top celebrities, astronauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrids. This made the new technology of Hybrids a status to obtain for many people and a must to be cool or even the practical choice for the time. With the many benefits and status of owning a Hybrid it is easy to think it's the right thing to do, but in fact may not be as green as it appears.[]

Adoption rate

While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is small today (2.2% of new car sales in 2011),[90] this compares with a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011,[91] and it has the potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental costs decline due to learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids "will never comprise more than 10% of the US auto market."[92] Other sources also expect hybrid penetration rates in the US will remain under 10% for many years.[93][94][95]

More optimistic views as of 2006 include predictions that hybrids would dominate new car sales in the US and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years.[96] Another approach, taken by Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in the United States. The analogs are (1) the electric motors in US factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel electric locomotives on US railways in the 1920-1945 period, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the US over the past fifty years, and 4) e-bike purchases in China over the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the US passenger vehicle stock. [97]

European Union 2020 Regulation Standards




See also


  1. ^ "What is a Hybrid Vehicle?". What-is-what.com. Retrieved . 
  2. ^ Das Power bike (in German). ISBN 3-89595-123-4. Retrieved . 
  3. ^ Velomobile Seminar. 1999. ISBN 3-9520694-1-8. Retrieved . 
  19. ^ Golson, Jordan (2014-09-30). "FedEx's New Electric Trucks Get a Boost From Diesel Turbines". Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved . 
  20. ^ a b "Try a Hydraulic Drive Train: This Car of the Future Gets 75 MPG". Mother Earth News. March-April 1978. Archived from the original on 2012-10-25. Retrieved . 
  25. ^ "Hybrid Electric HMMWV". GlobalSecurity.Org. Retrieved . 
  26. ^ "Manned airplane powered by fuel cell makes flight tests. (METALS/POLYMERS/CERAMICS)." Advanced Materials & Processes. 165.6 (June 2007): 9(1). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. Gale Document Number:A166034681
  27. ^ Namowitz, Dan. "AOPA ONLINE". Thomas A. Horne. Retrieved . 
  28. ^ Fuel Saving Calculator[dead link][not in citation given]
  31. ^ "The Patton Motor". The Street Railway Journal. VII (10): 513-514. October 1891. 
  33. ^ An amazin 75 - MPG hybrid electric car. Motherearthnews.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. Archived 2009-05-08 at the Wayback Machine.
  34. ^ "Bi-Fuel Silverado 2500HD Can Switch Between Gasoline And Natural Gas". Retrieved . 
  35. ^ "Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State". Retrieved . 
  37. ^ "Learn everything about the compressed air cars!". Aircars.tk. Retrieved . 
  43. ^ "On-road". Retrieved . 
  44. ^ mmh.com (2011-08-01). "Lift Trucks: 15 ways the lift truck is evolving - Article from Modern Materials Handling". Modern Materials Handling. Retrieved . 
  47. ^ "Welcome". Valentintechnologies.com. Archived from the original on 2013-04-21. Retrieved . 
  49. ^ "EPA and Chrysler to Take Latest Hybrid Technology from Lab to Street/Partnership to adapt fuel efficient technology" (Press release). Yosemite.epa.gov. 2011-01-19. Retrieved . 
  50. ^ "Hydraulic Hybrid Research". US EPA. 2010-10-18. Retrieved . 
  51. ^ Tim Lewis (2013-03-23). "Peugeot's Hybrid Air: the car of the future that runs on air". The Observer The Guardian. Retrieved . 
  54. ^ "PSA Peugeot Citroen seeks partners for Hybrid Air tech". 
  55. ^ "Honda IMA technology". Honda Motor. Retrieved . 
  57. ^ Stossel, Sage (2008-05-06). "Electro-Shock Therapy - The Atlantic (July/August 2008)". The Atlantic. Retrieved . 
  58. ^ "Shocker". 2010-10-11. 
  59. ^ Afstrinity.com[not in citation given]Archived 2008-12-29 at the Wayback Machine.
  61. ^ "Prius PHEV". Electric Auto Association - Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle. Retrieved . 
  64. ^ American Council of the Blind Press Release (2010-12-16). "Critical Pedestrian Safety Legislation Moves to White House for President's Signature". PR Newswire. Retrieved . 
  67. ^ Garcia, J. (2008). Idaho Department of Environmental Quality. Retrieved November 22, 2009 from Air Quality: Vehicle Emissions and Air Quality: Deq.state.id.us[not in citation given]Archived 2010-01-17 at the Wayback Machine.
  72. ^ Gelani, S; M. Morano (1980). "Congenital abnormalities in nickel poisoning in chick embryos" (PDF). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Newark, NJ, USA: Springer New York. 9 (1): 17-22. doi:10.1007/bf01055496. PMID 7369783. Retrieved . /
  73. ^ Kasprzak, KS; Sunderman, FW; Salnikow, K (December 2003). "Nickel carcinogenesis". Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis. 533: 67-97. doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.08.021. PMID 14643413. 
  74. ^ Dunnick JK, et al. (November 1995). "Comparative carcinogenic effects of nickel subsulfide, nickel oxide, or nickel sulfate hexahydrate chronic exposures in the lung". Cancer Res. 55: 5251-6. PMID 7585584. 
  76. ^ Yilmaz, M.; Krein, P. T. (May 2013). "Review of Battery Charger Topologies, Charging Power Levels, and Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric and Hybrid Vehicles". IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. 28 (5): 2151-2169. doi:10.1109/TPEL.2012.2212917. ISSN 0885-8993. 
  77. ^ "Plug-in Hybrids". Retrieved . 
  78. ^ John Voelcker. "Electric-Car Battery Use: Already Higher Than Hybrids' Total?". Green Car Reports. Retrieved . 
  79. ^ a b c Cox, C (2008). "Rare earth innovation: the silent shift to china". Herndon, VA, USA: The Anchor House Inc. Archived from the original on 2008-04-21. Retrieved . /
  81. ^ Choruscars.com. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-04-18.
  82. ^ Haxel, G; J. Hedrick; J. Orris (2002). "Rare earth elements critical resources for high technology" (PDF). USGS Fact Sheet: 087-02. Reston, VA, USA: United States Geological Survey. 
  84. ^ Livergood, Reed CSIS.org
  85. ^ "Hybrid Cars Technology Overviews". www.green-vehicles.com. Retrieved . 
  92. ^ Marketwatch.com. Marketwatch.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-18.
  94. ^ Motorauthority.com. Motorauthority.com (2008-04-07). Retrieved on 2012-04-18.
  97. ^ Shah, Saurin D. (2009). "2 Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement". In Sandalow, David. Plug-In Electrical Vehicles: What Role for Washington. Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. Retrieved . 
  98. ^ "EU agrees deal on 2020 car emissions regulations". Retrieved . 

External links




Top US Cities

PopFlock.com : Music Genres | Musicians | Musical Instruments | Music Industry