


Refining is the final procedure for removing (and often recovering as by-products) the last small amounts of impurities left after the major extraction steps have been completed. It leaves the major metallic element in a practically pure state for commercial application. The procedure is accomplished in three ways: refining by fire, by electrolytic, or by chemical methods.

Fire refining


The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is a vessel used to convert pig iron, of about 94 percent iron and 6 percent combined impurities such as carbon, manganese, and silicon, into steel with as little as 1 percent combined impurities. The BOF is a large pear-shaped unit that can be tilted to charge and pour. Molten blast-furnace iron and steel scrap are charged into the furnace; then it is turned to an upright position and a lance inserted to blow high-tonnage oxygen gas into the bath. Oxidation reactions occur rapidly, with silicon and manganese oxidizing first and combining to form an oxide slag, then carbon oxidizing to carbon monoxide gas and burning to carbon dioxide as it leaves the furnace mouth. These reactions are strongly exothermic and keep the vessel up to its reaction temperature without any external heat or fuel being added.

Converter-produced blister copper and blast-furnace lead also are treated by fire refining, with both processes depending on the weaker affinity for oxygen of the metals than the impurities they contain. Molten copper in a small reverberatory-type furnace has compressed air blown into it through steel pipes below the surface. This oxidizes zinc, tin, iron, lead, arsenic, antimony, and sulfur; the sulfur goes off as sulfur dioxide gas, while the other impurities form an oxide slag that is skimmed off. Lead is refined in much the same way, with compressed air blown into a molten lead bath and the major impurities of tin, antimony, and arsenic oxidizing in that order, rising to the surface as skims and being scraped off.

Other fire-refining operations use fractional distillation. By this method, zinc metal of 98 percent purity can be upgraded to 99.995 percent purity. The main impurities in blast-furnace zinc are lead and cadmium, with lead boiling at 1,744 °C (3,171 °F), zinc at 907 °C (1,665 °F), and cadmium at 765 °C (1,409 °F). In the first stage zinc and cadmium are boiled off, leaving liquid lead, and in the second stage cadmium is boiled off to leave special high-purity zinc metal.

Electrolytic refining

This method gives the highest-purity metal product as well as the best recovery of valuable impurities. It is used for copper, nickel, lead, gold, and silver. The metal to be refined is cast into a slab, which becomes the anode of an electrolytic cell; another sheet of metal is the cathode. Both electrodes are immersed in an aqueous electrolyte capable of conducting an electric current. As a direct current is impressed on the cell, metal ions dissolve from the anode and deposit at the cathode. The insoluble sludge left in the cell is treated to recover any valuable by-product metals.

Chemical refining

An example of chemical refining is the nickel carbonyl process, in which impure nickel metal is selectively reacted with carbon monoxide gas to form nickel carbonyl gas. This gas is then decomposed to give high-purity nickel metal.


Hydrometallurgy is concerned with the selective leaching of metallic compounds to form a solution from which the metals can be precipitated and recovered. Leaching processes are used when it is the simplest method or when the ore is of too low a grade for more expensive extractive procedures.


Because not all ores and concentrates are found naturally in a form that is satisfactory for leaching, they must often be subjected to preliminary operations. For example, sulfide ores, which are relatively insoluble in sulfuric acid, can be converted to quite soluble forms by oxidizing or sulfatizing roasts. On the other hand, oxide ores and concentrates can be given a controlled reducing roast in order to produce a calcine containing a reduced metal that will dissolve easily in the leaching solution. These treatments are described in more detail above (see Pyrometallurgy: Roasting).

A second popular treatment for converting sulfides is pressure oxidation, in which the sulfides are oxidized to a porous structure that provides good access for the leaching solution. This treatment was developed for the recovery of gold from sulfide ores, which are not suitable for cyanide leaching without first being oxidized. A finely ground concentrate slurry is preheated to 175 °C (350 °F) and pumped into a four- or five-compartment autoclave, each compartment containing an agitator. Gaseous oxygen is added to each compartment, and retention time in the autoclave is two hours in order to achieve the desired oxidation.

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