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Oyo Empire

Oyo Empire
Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́
c. 1400–1896
Oyo Empire at its furthest extent
Capital Oyo-Ile
Languages Yoruba
Religion Yoruba religion
Government Monarchy
 •  c. 1400 Oranyan
 •  1888–1905 Adeyemi I Alowolodu
Legislature Oyo Mesi and Ogboni
Historical era Middle Ages
 •  Established c. 1400
 •  Disestablished 1896
 •  1680[1] 150,000 km² (57,915 sq mi)



  • Mythical origins 1
  • Early period (14th century–1535) 2
    • Oyo-Ile 2.1
    • The Nupe occupation 2.2
  • Imperial period (1608–1800) 3
    • Reconquest and expansion 3.1
    • Organization 3.2
    • Political structure 3.3
      • The Alaafin of Oyo 3.3.1
        • Selection of the Alaafin
        • The Ilari
      • The Councils 3.3.2
        • The Ogboni
      • Removing an Alaafin of Oyo 3.3.3
    • Military 3.4
      • Cavalry 3.4.1
      • Infantry 3.4.2
      • Structure 3.4.3
        • The Eso
        • Metropolitan Army
        • Tributary Army
    • Commerce 3.5
      • Slave trade 3.5.1
    • Zenith 3.6
  • Decline 4
    • Loss of the Egbado Corridor 4.1
    • The Dahomey Revolt 4.2
    • The Fulani Jihad 4.3
    • Ago d'Oyo 4.4
    • Final demise 4.5
  • See also 5
  • Notes 6
  • References 7
  • External links 8

Mythical origins

The mythical origins of the Oyo Empire lie with Oranyan (also known as Oranmiyan), the second prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife (Ife). Oranyan made an agreement with his brother to launch a punitive raid on their northern neighbors for insulting their father Oba (King) Oduduwa, the first Ooni of Ife. On the way to the battle, the brothers quarreled and the army split up.[2] Oranyan's force was too small to make a successful attack, so he wandered the southern shore until reaching Bussa. There the local chief entertained him and provided a large snake with a magic charm attached to its throat.


Early period (14th century–1535)

A Survey of Old Oyo Palace Compound

Oranyan, the first oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba Ajaka, Alaafin of Oyo. Ajaka was deposed, because he lacked Yoruba military virtue and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence. Leadership was then conferred upon Ajaka's brother, Shango, who was later deified as the deity of thunder and lightning. Ajaka was restored after Shango's death. Ajaka returned to the throne thoroughly more warlike and oppressive. His successor, Kori, managed to conquer the rest of what later historians would refer to as metropolitan Oyo.[3]


The heart of metropolitan Oyo was its capital at Oyo-Ile, (also known as Katunga or Old Oyo or Oyo-oro).[4] The two most important structures in Oyo-Ile was the 'afin,' or palace of the Oba, and his market. The palace was at the center of the city close to the Oba's market called 'Oja-oba'. Around the capital was a tall earthen wall for defense with 17 gates. The importance of the two large structures (the palace and the Oja Oba) signified the importance of the king in Oyo.

The Nupe occupation


  • Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology

External links

  • Bascom, William (Aug 1962). "Some Aspects of Yoruba Urbanism". American Anthropologist 64 (4): 699–709.  
  • Goddard, Stephen (Jun 1971). "Ago That became Oyo: An Essay in Yoruba Historical Geography". The Geographical Journal (Blackwell Publishing) 137 (2): 207–211.  
  • Law, Robin (1975). "A West African Cavalry State: The Kingdom of Oyo". The Journal of African History 16 (1): 1–15.  
  • Oliver, Roland & Anthony Atmore (2001). Medieval Africa 1250-1800. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  
  • Smith, Robert S. (1989). Warfare & Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa Second Edition. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.  
  • Stride, G.T. & C. Ifeka (1971). Peoples and Empires of West Africa: West Africa in History 1000-1800. Edinburgh: Nelson.  
  • Thornton, John K. (1999). Warfare in Atlantic Africa 1500-1800. London and New York: Routledge.  
  • Thornton, John (1998). Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1800 (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 340 Pages.  
  • Easley, Dr. Larry. "The Four Forest States of Africa." Oyo Empire. Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau. 2 Mar. 2009.
  • Kehnide Salami, Yunusa Ph.D. "The Democratic Structure of Yorub Political-Cultural Heritage." Department of Philosophy Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 29 Apr. 2009.
  • Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Limited, 1995
  • Alpern, Stanley B. (1998). Amazons of Black Sparta: The Women Warriors of Dahomey. New York University Press.  


  1. ^ a b Thornton 1998, p. 104.
  2. ^ Stride & Ifeka 1971 p. 290
  3. ^ a b Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 291
  4. ^ Goddard 1971, pp. 207–211.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Stride & Ifeka p. 292
  6. ^ a b c Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 89.
  7. ^ a b Thornton 1999, p. 77.
  8. ^ Alpern 1998, p. 37.
  10. ^ a b c d e Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 293.
  12. ^ a b c Smith 1989, p. 122.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Smith 1989, p. 48.
  14. ^ Thornton 1999, p. 82.
  15. ^ a b Thornton 1999, p. 86.
  16. ^ Alpern 1998, p. 165.
  17. ^ a b Thornton 1999, p. 97.
  18. ^
  19. ^ Thornton 1999, p. 88.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 95.
  22. ^ Alpern 1998, p. 34.
  27. ^ a b c d e Smith 1989, p. 12.
  28. ^ a b Smith 1989, p. 10.
  29. ^ a b c d e Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 301.
  30. ^ Law 1975, pp. 1–15.
  31. ^ a b c d Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 302.
  32. ^ Smith 1989, p. 50.
  33. ^ Smith 1989, p. 43.
  34. ^ a b Thornton 1999, p. 80.
  35. ^ a b Smith 1989, p. 56.
  36. ^ a b c Smith 1989, p. 53.
  37. ^ Smith 1989, p. 57.
  38. ^ Smith 1989, p. 31.
  39. ^ a b Smith 1989, p. 20.
  41. ^ Johnson, Samuel. "The History of the Yorubas: From the Earliest Times to the Beginning of the British Protectorate". Cambridge University Press, 2010, p.178
  48. ^ Alpern 1998, p. 166.
  49. ^ a b Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 303.
  50. ^ Alpern 1998, p. 196.
  51. ^ a b Smith 1989, p. 123.
  52. ^ Bascom 1962, pp. 699-709.


See also

Atiba's gambit failed, and Oyo never regained its prominence in the region. It became a protectorate of Great Britain in 1888 before further fragmenting into warring factions. The Oyo state ceased to exist as any sort of power in 1896.[49] Oba Atiba otherwise called Atiba Atobatele died in 1859; His son Adeyemi I and the 3rd Alaafin to rule in the present Oyo died in 1905. See List of rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo. During the colonial period, the Yorubas were one of the most urbanized (living in city-like areas) groups in Africa. About 22% of the population lived in large areas with population exceeding 100,000 and over 50% lived in cities made up of 25,000 or more people. The index of urbanization in 1950 was close to that of the United States, excluding Ilorin. The Yoruba continue to be the most urbanised African ethnic group today. Old Oyo linked cities such as Ibadan, Osogbo, and Ogbomoso, which were some of the major cities that flourished after the collapse.[52]

Final demise

After the destruction of Oyo-Ile, the capital was moved further south, to Ago d'Oyo. Oba Atiba sought to preserve what remained of Oyo by placing on Ibadan the duty of protecting the capital from the Ilorin in the north and northeast.[51] He also attempted to get the Ijaye to protect Oyo from the west against the Dahomeans.[51] The center of Yoruba power moved further south to Ibadan, a Yoruba war camp settled by Oyo commanders in 1830.[13]

Ago d'Oyo

After Awole's rejection, Afonja, now master of Illorin, invited an itinerant Fulani scholar of Islam called Alim al-Salih into his ranks. By doing this, he hoped to secure the support of Yoruba Muslims (mainly slaves taking care of the Empire's horses) and volunteers from the Hausa-Fulani north in keeping Ilorin independent. Torn by internal struggle, Oyo could not defend itself against the Fulani.[49] Oyo-Ile was razed by the Fulani Empire in 1835 and the Oyo Empire collapsed in 1836.[50] To this day, the Illorin traditional ruler is an emir, whereas in the rest of Yoruba towns the kings are called oba or baale (Baale or Baba Onile meaning "father of the land" or "lord of the land").

The Fulani Jihad

In 1823 Dahomey was reported to have raided villages that were under the protection of Oyo for slaves due to the high demand for them. Oyo immediately demanded a huge tribute from King Gezo for the unauthorized incursion, to which Gezo dispatched his Brazilian agent, Francisco Félix de Sousa, to the Alaafin at Oyo to make peace. The peace talks eventually broke down and Oyo attacked Dahomey.[47] The Oyo army was decisively defeated, ending Oyo's hegemony over Dahomey.[48] After gaining its independence, Dahomey began raiding the corridor.[12]

The Dahomey Revolt

As Oyo tore itself apart via political intrigue, its vassals began taking advantage of the situation to press for independence. The Egba, under the leadership of Lishabi, massacred the Ilari stationed in their area and drove off an Oyo punitive force.[9]

Loss of the Egbado Corridor


After the death of Awole there was a scramble for the throne by numerous contenders; some were reported to have spent less than six months on the throne; there was also a period of interregnum of almost twenty years where the various factions could not agree on a candidate for the throne.[44] This period of vacuum led to the rise of powerful military and regional commanders like Adegun, the Onikoyi and others like the otun Are-Ona Kakanfo, the Are-Ona kakanfo Alimi and Solagberu, who was the leader of a growing Muslim population in Oyo. These new powers had lost regard for the office of the Alaafin due to the various political wranglings and the lack of a central authority at the time; this situation eventually led up to Afonja seceding Ilorin from Oyo in 1817 with the help of Oyo Muslims. In 1823, after Afonja had been killed by his allies, Shehu Alimi and Solagberu (Slogberu was also later killed by Alimi's son), Ilorin became part of the Sokoto Caliphate.[46] By the time Captain Hugh Clapperton visited Oyo-Ile in 1825 during the reign of Alaafin Majotu, the empire was already in a state of decline. Clapperton's party recorded passing numerous Oyo villages burned by the Fulani (Ilorin) while Majotu had also sought the help of the English king and the Oba of Benin in putting down the Ilorin rebellion. Clapperton also noticed a shortage of horses, even though the Oyo were renowned as a great cavalry force; this might have something to do with the fact that most of the empire's soldiers and hence cavalry were stationed at Ilorin under the command of Afonja and later on Alimi's successors.[46]

The events that led to the secession of Ilorin began in 1793. Ilorin was a war camp headed by the Are-Ona Kakanfo Afonja, it had a large population of Hausa, Borgu and Nupe slaves who were principally in charge of the king's horses and cavalry. Afonja took cause with Awole when the latter had commanded him to attack Alaafin Abiodun's maternal home, Iwere-ile. Afonja being bound by an oath and also desirous not to fall under a curse from a previous Alaafin made to the effect that any Aare Ona Kakanfo who attacked Iwere-Ile (his paternal home) was to die miserably; this order Afonja ignored. Further cause was also given in 1795 when Awole again asked Afonja to attack the market town of Apomu which was a part of Ile-Ife. All Alaafins due to the Yoruba belief that Ife was the spiritual home of the Yorubas were made to swear an oath never to attack Ife.[44] Afonja carried out Awole's order and sacked Apomu but on the return of the army from Apomu Afonja marched on the capital Oyo-Ile (which was a taboo), and demanded that Awole abdicate.[45] Awole eventually committed ritual suicide.[44]

Alaafin Abiodun during his reign had also conducted failed campaigns against Borgu in 1783[42] and Nupe in 1789,[43] losing the equivalent of 11 and 13 Generals and their men respectively. Abiodun was subsequently murdered by his own son Awole who subsequently ascended his father's throne.

Many believe the decline of the Oyo empire had started as early as 1754 with the dynastic intrigues and palace coups sponsored by the Oyo Prime Minister Bashorun Gaha. Gaha, in his quest for absolute power, conspired with the Oyo Mesi and probably to some extent the Ogboni to force four successive Alaafins to commit ritual suicide after they had been presented with the symbolic parrot's egg. Between June and October of 1754 alone, two Alaafins had been forced to commit suicide by Gaha.[40] Because of this, Alaafin Awonbijou spent 130 days on the throne, while Alaafin Labisi only spent 17 days on the throne.[41] Gaha's treachery was not ended until 1774 during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun, the fifth Alaafin he served with. Gaha was subsequently executed by Abiodun but the instability that had been brought about by these intrigues had further weakened and impoverished Oyo.


Unlike the great savannah empires, of which Oyo may not be called a successor since it was a successor of Ife, there was little if any Muslim influence in the empire.[20] It is known that at least some Muslim officials were kept in Metropolitan Oyo,[39] and men capable of writing and calculating in Arabic were reported by French traders in 1787.[39]

By 1680, the Oyo Empire spanned over 150,000 square kilometers.[1] It reached the height of its power in the 18th century.[10] And despite its violent creation, it was held together by mutual self-interest.[23] The government was able to provide unity for a vast area through a combination of local autonomy and imperial authority.[29]

Oyo Empire and surrounding states c. 1700.


Oyo's imperial success made Yoruba a lingua franca almost to the shores of the Volta.[31] Toward the end of the 18th century, the Oyo army was neglected as there was less need to conquer.[20] Instead, Oyo directed more effort towards trading and acted as middlemen for both the Trans-Saharan and Trans-Atlantic slave trade.[20] Europeans bringing salt arrived in Oyo during the reign of King Obalokun.[5] Thanks to its domination of the coast, Oyo merchants were able to trade with Europeans at Porto Novo and Whydah.[10] Here the Oyo Empire's captives and criminals were sold to Dutch and Portuguese buyers.[38]

Slave trade

Oyo became the southern emporium of the Trans-Saharan trade. Exchanges were made in salt, leather, horses, kola nuts, ivory, cloth and slaves.[31] The Yoruba of metropolitan Oyo were also highly skilled in craft making and iron work.[31] Aside from taxes on trade products coming in and out of the empire, Oyo also became wealthy off the taxes imposed on its tributaries. Taxes on the kingdom of Dahomey alone brought in an amount estimated at 638 thousand dollars a year.[29]


Tributary leaders and provincial governors were responsible for collecting tribute and contributing troops under local generalship to the imperial army in times of emergency.[9] Occasionally, tributary leaders would be ordered to attack neighbors even without the backing of the main imperial army.[9] These forces were often utilized in Oyo's distant campaigns on the coast or against other states.

Tributary Army

Since the Are-Ona-Kakanfo could not reside near the capital, arrangements had to be made for the latter's protection in case of emergency. Forces inside metropolitan Oyo were commanded by the Bashorun, leading member of the Oyo Mesi.[36] As stated earlier, Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces divided evenly by a river. Provincial forces were thus grouped into two armies, under the Onikoyi and the Okere for the east and west side of the river respectively.[36] Lesser war chiefs were known as Balogun, a title carried on by the soldiers of Oyo's successor state, Ibadan.[37]

Metropolitan Army

Oyo maintained a semi-standing army of specialist cavalry soldiers called the Eso or Esho.[35] These were 70 junior war chiefs who were nominated by the Oyo Mesi and confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.[35] The Eso were appointed for their military skill without regard to heritage and were led by the Are-Ona-Kakanfo.[25] After Oyo's return from exile, the post of Are-Ona-Kakanfo was established as the supreme military commander.[36] He was required to live in a frontier province of great importance to keep an eye on the enemy and to keep him from usurping the government.[25] During Oyo's imperial period, the Are-Ona-Kakanfo personally commanded the army in the field on all campaigns.[25]

The Eso

The Oyo Empire, like many empires before it, used both local and tributary forces to expand its domains. The structure of the Oyo military prior to its imperial period was simple and closer aligned to the central government in metropolitan Oyo. This may have been fine in the 15th century when Oyo controlled only its heartland. But to make and maintain farther conquest, the structure underwent several changes.


Infantry in the region around the Oyo Empire was uniform in both armor and armament. All infantry in the region carried shields, swords and lances of one type or another.[11] Shields were four feet tall and two feet wide and made of elephant or ox hide.[34] A 3-foot-long (0.91 m) heavy sword was the main armament for close combat.[34] The Yoruba and their neighbors used triple barbed javelins which could be thrown accurately from about 30 paces.[11]


Cavalry in highly developed societies such as Oyo was divided into light and heavy.[13] Heavy cavalry on larger imported horses was armed with heavy thrusting lances or spears and also with swords.[13] Light cavalry on smaller indigenous ponies was armed with throwing spears or bows.[32] Oyo's cavalry forces included not only nobles, the norm in West African warfare, but foreign slaves from the Hausa, Nupe and Bornu states.[33]

The Oyo Empire was the only Yoruba state to adopt cavalry; it did so because most of its territory was in the northern savannah.[13] The origin of the cavalry is disputed; however, the Hausa in neighboring territories also used cavalry and may have had the same historical source.[30] Oyo was able to purchase horses from the north and maintain them in metropolitan Oyo because of partial freedom from the tsetse fly.[31] Cavalry was the long arm of the Oyo Empire. Late 16th and 17th century expeditions were composed entirely of cavalry.[13] There were drawbacks to this. Oyo could not maintain its cavalry army in the south but could raid at will.[11]


There was a high degree of professionalism in the army of the Oyo Empire.[29] Its military success was due in large part to its cavalry as well as the leadership and courage of Oyo officers and warriors.[29] Because its main geographic focus was north of the forest, Oyo enjoyed easier farming and thus a steady growth in population.[29] This contributed to Oyo's ability to consistently field a large force. There was also an entrenched military culture in Oyo where victory was obligatory and defeat carried the duty of committing suicide.[25] This do-or-die policy no doubt contributed to the military aggressiveness of Oyo's generals.[25]


Chief among the responsibilities of the Bashorun was the all important festival of Orun. This religious divination, held every year, was to determine if the members of the Mesi still held favor with the Alafin. If the council decided on the disapproval of the Alafin, the Bashorun presented the Alafin with an empty calabash, or parrot's egg as a sign that he must commit suicide. This was the only way to remove the Alafin because he could not be legally deposed. Once given the parrot's egg, the Bashorun would proclaim, "the gods reject you, the people reject you, the earth rejects you." The Alafin, his eldest son, and the Samu, his personal counselor and a member of the Oyo Mesi all had to commit suicide in order to renew the government all together. The process and suicide ceremony took place during the Orun festival.

Removing an Alaafin of Oyo

The Oyo Mesi does not enjoy an absolute power or influence, and while the Oyo Mesi may wield political influence, the Ogboni represented the popular opinion backed by the authority of religion, and therefore the view of the Oyo Mesi could be moderated by the Ogboni. And most interestingly, there are checks and balances on the power of the Alafin and the Oyo Mesi and thus no one is arrogated absolute power. The Ogboni was a very powerful secret society composed of freemen noted for their age, wisdom and importance in religious and political affairs.[26] Its members enjoyed immense power over the common people due to their religious station. A testament to how widespread the institution was is the fact that there were Ogboni councils at nearly all sub-courts within Yorubaland.[26] Aside from their duties in respect to the worship of the earth, they were responsible for judging any case dealing with the spilling of blood.[26] The leader of the Ogboni, the Oluwo, had the unqualified right of direct access to the Alaafin of Oyo on any matter.[26]

The Ogboni

The head of the council of Oyo Mesi, the Bashorun, consulted the Ifa oracle for approval from the gods. New alaafins of Oyo were seen as appointed by the gods. They were regarded as Ekeji Orisa, meaning "companion of the gods." The Bashorun was a sort of prime minister. He had the final say on the nomination of the new Alaafin. The Oyo Mesi developed as a check on the Alaafin's power. The Bashorun's power rivaled that of the Alaafin. For example, the Bashorun orchestrated many religious festivals; in addition to being commander-in-chief of the army, this gave him considerable independent religious authority.

The Oyo Mesi were seven principal councilors of the state. They constituted the Electoral Council and possessed legislative powers, similar to today's United States Congress. The Bashorun, Agbaakin, Samu, Alapini, Laguna, Akiniku and an Ashipa are the seven members of this council. They represented the voice of the nation and had the chief responsibility of protecting the interests of the empire. The Alaafin was required to take counsel with them whenever any important matter affecting the state occurs. Each man had a state duty to perform at court every morning and afternoon. Each mesi had a deputy whom they would send to the Alaafin if his absence was unavoidable.

  • Oyo Mesi

While the Alaafin of Oyo was supreme overlord of the people, he was not without checks on his power. The Oyo Mesi and the Yoruba Earth cult known as Ogboni kept the Oba's power in check.[26] The Oyo Mesi spoke for the politicians while The Ogboni spoke for the people backed by the power of religion.[25] The power of the Alaafin of Oyo in relation to the Oyo Mesi and Ogboni depended on his personal character and political shrewdness.

The Councils

All sub-courts of Oyo had Ilari who acted as both spies and taxmen.[21] Oyo appointed these to visit and sometimes reside in Dahomey and the Egbado Corridor to collect taxes and spy on Dahomey's military successes, so that the Alaafin of Oyo could get his cut.[28] Similar officials had existed in Ife, as attested by terracotta art depicting them.[28]

The Alaafin of Oyo appointed certain religious and government officials, who were usually eunuchs.[26] These officials were known as the ilari or half-heads, because of the custom of shaving half of their heads and applying what was believed to be a magical substance into it.[27] The hundreds of Ilari were divided evenly among the sexes.[27] Junior members of the Ilari did menial tasks, while seniors acted as guards or sometimes messengers to the other world via sacrifice.[27] Their titles related to the king, such as oba l'olu ("the king is supreme") or madarikan ("do not oppose him").[27] They carried red and green fans as credentials of their status.[27]

The Ilari

The Oyo Empire was not a hereditary monarchy, nor an absolute one.[23] The Oyo Mesi selected the Alaafin. He was not always directly related to his predecessor, although he did have to be descended from Oranyan (also known as Oranmiyan), a son of Oduduwa (also known as Odudua, Odua ) and to hail from the Ona Isokun ward (which is one of the three royal wards).[23] At the beginning of the Oyo Empire, usually the Alaafin's oldest son succeeded his father to the throne. But, this sometimes led to the oldest son, i.e. the first-born prince, the Aremo, hastening the death of his father. Independently of the possible succession, the Aremo was quite powerful in his own right. For instance, by custom the Alaafin abstained from leaving the palace, except during the important festivals, which in practice curtailed his power. By contrast, the Aremo often left the palace. This led noted historian S. Johnson to observe: "The father is the king of the palace, and the son the King for the general public".[24] The two councils which checked the Alaafin had a tendency to select a weak Alaafin after the reign of a strong one to keep the office from becoming too powerful.[25]

Selection of the Alaafin

The oba (meaning 'king' in the Yoruba language) at Oyo, who was referred to as the Alaafin of Oyo, (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba), was the head of the empire and supreme overlord of the people.[23] He was responsible for keeping tributaries safe from attack, settling internal quarrels between sub-rulers, and mediating between those sub-rulers and their people.[23] The Alaafin of Oyo was also expected to give his subordinates honors and presents.[23] In return, all sub-rulers had to pay homage to the Oba and renew their allegiance at annual ceremonies.[21] The most important of these was the Bere festival, marking the acclamation of successful rule by the Alaffin.[21] After the Bere festival, peace in Yorubaland was supposed to last for three years.[21]

The Alaafin of Oyo

The Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its territorial domains. Scholars have not determined how much of this structure existed prior to the Nupe invasion. Some of Oyo's institutions are clearly derivative of early accomplishments in Ife. After reemerging from exile in the early 17th century, Oyo took on a noticeably more militant character. The influence of an aggressive Yoruba culture is exemplified in the standards placed on the oba (king) and the roles of his council.

Political structure

Ajaland was the last layer added to the empire. It was the most restive and distant, and kept in line with threats of expeditions against it.[20] This territory extended from the non-Yoruba areas west of the Egbado Corridor far into Ewe controlled territory in modern Togo.[9] This area, like all tributary states, was allowed a fair degree of autonomy as along as taxes were paid, the orders from Oyo were strictly followed, and access to local markets was provided to Oyo merchants.[10] The Oyo often demanded tribute in slaves. The tributary sometimes made war on other peoples to capture slaves for this.[22] Oyo punished disobedience by wholesale slaughter of the community, as it accomplished in Allada in 1698.[10]

  • Ajaland


  • Egbado Corridor

The second layer of the empire was composed of the towns closest to Oyo-Ile, which were recognized as brothers.[20] This area was south of metropolitan Oyo, and its Yoruba inhabitants spoke different dialects from that of Oyo.[9] These tributary states were led by their own rulers, titled Obas,[21] who were confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.[21]

  • Yorubaland

Metropolitan Oyo corresponded, more or less, to the Oyo state prior to the Nupe invasion.[20] This was the hub of the empire, where the Yoruba spoke the Oyo dialect.[9] Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces, with three on the west side of the Ogun River and three to the river's east.[9] Each province was supervised by a governor appointed directly by the Alaafin of Oyo.[21]

  • Metropolitan Oyo

At the beginning, the people were concentrated in metropolitan Oyo. With imperial expansion, Oyo reorganized to better manage its vast holdings within and outside of Yorubaland. It was divided into four layers defined by relation to the core of the empire.[20] These layers were Metropolitan Oyo, southern Yorubaland, the Egbado Corridor and Ajaland.


With its cavalry, Oyo campaigned successfully in conquest and suppression over great distances. The Oyo army was able to attack defensive fortifications, but it was harder to supply an army, and they withdrew when supplies ran out.[17] The Oyo did not use guns in its major conquests. The military waited until the 19th century to adopt them.[17] In 1764, a joint Akan(Akyem)-Dahomey-Oyo[18] force defeated an Asante army.[11] The alliance victory defined borders between the neighboring states.[11] Oyo led a successful campaign into Mahi territory north of Dahomey in the late 18th century.[11] The Yoruba also used the forces of their tributaries; for instance, they accomplished a 1784 naval blockade of Badagri with an Oyo-Dahomey-Lagos force.[19]

  • Later conquest

The reinvigorated Oyo Empire began raiding southward as early as 1682.[11] By the end of its military expansion, Oyo's borders would reach to the coast some 200 miles southwest of its capital.[12] It met little serious opposition until the early 18th century. In 1728, the Oyo Empire invaded the Kingdom of Dahomey in a major campaign of its cavalry.[11][13] Dahomey warriors, on the other hand, had no cavalry but many firearms. Their gunshots scared the Oyo cavalry horses and prevented their charging.[14] Dahomey's army also built fortifications such as trenches, which forced the Oyo army to fight as infantry.[15] The battle lasted four days, but the Yoruba were eventually victorious after reinforcements arrived.[15] Dahomey was forced to pay tribute to Oyo. The Yoruba invaded Dahomey seven times before finally subjugating the small kingdom in 1748.[16]

  • Dahomey Wars

Under his successor, Abipa, the Yoruba repopulated Oyo-Ile and rebuilt the original capital.[5] Despite a failed attempt to conquer the Benin Empire sometime between 1578 and 1608,[5] Oyo continued to expand. The Yoruba allowed autonomy to the southeast of metropolitan Oyo, where the non-Yoruba areas could act as a buffer between Oyo and Imperial Benin.[9] By the end of the 16th century, the Ewe and Aja states of modern Benin were paying tribute to Oyo.[10]

The key to Yoruba rebuilding of Oyo was a stronger military and a more centralized government. Taking a cue from their Nupe enemies (whom they called "Tapa"), the Yoruba rearmed with armor and cavalry.[6] Oba Ofinran, Alaafin of Oyo, succeeded in regaining Oyo's original territory from the Nupe.[5] A new capital, Oyo-Igboho, was constructed, and the original became known as Old Oyo.[5] The next oba, Eguguojo, conquered nearly all of Yorubaland.[5] After this, Oba Orompoto led attacks to obliterate the Nupe to ensure Oyo was never threatened by them again.[5] During the reign of Oba, Ajiboyede, he held the first Bere festival, an event to celebrate peace in the kingdom. Celebrated regularly, it would retain much significance among the Yoruba long after the fall of Oyo.[5]

Oyo Empire and surrounding states, c. 1625.

Reconquest and expansion

The Yoruba of Oyo went through an interregnum of 80 years as an exiled dynasty after its defeat by the Nupe. They re-established Oyo as more centralized and expansive than ever. The people created a government that established its power over a vast empire.[6] During the 17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire.[7] Oyo never encompassed all Yoruba-speaking people, but it was the most populous kingdom in Yoruba history.[8]

Imperial period (1608–1800)

[7] The Nupe sacked the capital, destroying Oyo as a regional power until the early 17th century.[6]

