Broadcasting operations
Types of programs and development of studios

There are a number of distinguishable types of programs that are broadcast, but they often overlap in technique, subject matter, and style. Radio, for example, broadcasts speech and music, but in an endless number of combinations. Television adds the visual element, greatly increasing the number of possible program forms. Most sizable broadcast organizations, however, have several categories for administrative convenience. But the definitions cannot be too precise, and lines of demarcation are necessarily vague.


Entertainment can include comedy, impossible wholly to differentiate from drama; quizzes, not always easily distinguished from relatively serious programs of information and education; popular music, in which the frontier with jazz and serious music is anything but rigid; and variety, or a series of unrelated acts, nearly always linked by a popular presenter or established performer.

From the early days of radio there was a tendency to make use of a variety format, and, as this approach represented an extension of old music-hall traditions, success was achieved by many programs in this vein. From the music-hall–variety-type program emerged the “gang show,” in which a cast of performers remaining the same from week to week would make use of a series of humorous situations or catchphrases, gradually building up a familiar background against which the incongruities of the script could exploit humour to the full. A further development was the “situation comedy,” in which a number of characters, such as the members of a family, remain in the same situation week after week but experience comic adventures. Though these laughter programs lost popularity on radio as television gained popular acceptance, they have become the mainstays of television. A contemporary phenomenon has been the comedy program involving substantial amounts of political and social satire. The situation comedy has also been influenced by this trend.

The many types of comedy entertainment programs that are produced around the world all have one common characteristic: not only have the performers needed the stimulus of a studio audience, but also the listeners and viewers are stimulated by the laughter and applause of the audience. This has led to some abuses, such as the superimposition of laughter and applause on prerecorded programs, a practice that is frowned upon but still practiced. It has also meant that large studios are required to accommodate not only the performers, frequently including more than one music combination, but also the audience. In television there must be room for settings that have become increasingly ambitious and for dancers and choruses. Broadcasting organizations have generally been able to build studios of appropriate size, though radiobroadcasters in the early days preferred to purchase or rent small theatres.

In their form and structure, children’s entertainment shows resemble those for adults. Animated cartoons, however, represent an exception to this rule; the Hungarians, Poles, and French have achieved genuine distinction in this area.


Radio and television drama is not best produced in a theatre; the nature of the studio is therefore different. Early radio drama was produced in a relatively small studio, often with a single microphone, just as early television plays were produced with a single camera. Radio engineers soon began to employ a control panel with inputs from more than one studio and sound effects ingeniously achieved; their counterparts in television expanded their use of cameras and sets. Mixing in radio from one studio to another and in television from one set to another, plus increasingly sophisticated sound effects and background music, have all become accepted techniques in drama production. Inevitably, television drama has borrowed substantially from the techniques of film production.

Feature films, usually originally made for the cinema, continue to form an accepted and important element in television schedules throughout the world. Both radio and television occasionally broadcast live stage plays from theatres, but there is a general feeling that such offerings do not adequately exploit the advantages of either medium. From the earliest days of radio and television, the studio-produced drama has been an important ingredient in program schedules; in television, as in films, it was not long before shooting on location also became an accepted practice. Offerings have included classical Greek drama, Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists, the Spanish and French theatre, Russian and Scandinavian plays, and modern works.

Serial presentations on television and radio have included adaptations of famous works of literature, such as the novels of Charles Dickens, Honoré de Balzac, and Leo Tolstoy, the Forsyte Saga of John Galsworthy, historical costume dramas based on the lives of such figures as Henry VIII and Elizabeth I of England, and, of course, the romantic melodramas aimed largely at the daytime viewer or listener, known as “soap operas.” Radio and television serials of fantasy and adventure are also produced for children.

Three other distinguishable types of drama have achieved almost universal popularity: western adventures; shows involving gangsters, crime, and police; and shows set in hospitals and other medical situations. Violent episodes in some crime and western adventure programs have drawn criticism from those who believe that such violence is harmful to children. In response, many broadcasting organizations have introduced codes of practice to minimize such scenes.

Western adventure programs, largely produced in the United States, have been popular with studios because of their relatively low production costs and ready salability abroad. Dramatic series of this type have been shown all over the world, often with dubbed sound tracks. Although these exported U.S. productions are often much less expensive than home-produced programs, Australia has been able to produce some western-type series, and Canada has exploited its legendary “Mounties.” So many U.S. television programs have been exported, however, that broadcasting organizations in some nations, such as Japan and the United Kingdom, have taken steps to assure that home-produced dramas should have priority in terms of percentage of schedule hours and prime time (peak placing).

Spoken word

Spoken-word programs have included entertainment types, such as “This Is Your Life” and many of the “talk shows,” in which a personality interviewer questions celebrities, sometimes with interludes of music or comedy or with serious discussions, documentaries, or lectures. A fear of controversy, the problem of maintaining an overall impartiality, and sometimes the belief that the mass audience would be alienated by programs demanding a conscious effort and concentration, combined, in the early days of radio, to limit the time given to serious spoken-word programs. It was not long, however, before many broadcasters developed a sense of pride and responsibility in their function and regarded it as their duty to provide information and opinion. In countries where broadcasting achieved a substantial measure of independence, some broadcasters gradually became concerned not only with the exposition of fact and controversy but also with the task of exposing the ills and abuses of their society.

News continues to be the most important element in spoken-word radio. Since it was inescapable that broadcast news would affect the industry, newspaper proprietors in the early days of radio either made efforts to restrict the sources of news and the times at which it could be broadcast or sought themselves to enter the field. In areas where broadcasting was commercialized, the press was further concerned, because radio competed with it for advertising revenues and because radio could almost always get a story to the public before the newspapers could. Nevertheless, there is no evidence that radio news reduced the circulation of newspapers; some have even maintained that radio whetted the appetite of listeners for news and increased newspaper sales. It would seem, however, that television has adversely affected the daily press and, even more so, weekly or monthly magazines. Long before television outstripped radio, broadcasting organizations were employing reporters and special and foreign correspondents and were supplementing the service received from news agencies. Some broadcast reporters became public personalities in their own right.

Television news presented additional production problems; the announcer at the microphone reading from a script or TelePrompTer was not satisfactory, and it was not long before the greater part of television news was appropriately accompanied by relevant pictures. The need for film shots and the cost and difficulty of obtaining them were, and to some extent remain, serious problems. In spite of substantial expenditure on the supply of such shots, television news is open to the criticism that news values and objectivity are distorted by the availability or nonavailability of pictures.

In general, however, broadcasting organizations have adjusted to the much higher cost of television news. The syndication of film reports, the development of live networks on an international basis, such as Eurovision, and satellite communications have overcome most problems of news reporting on television. On the other hand, it has become apparent that the psychological impact of film shots of war and civil disturbance, as of accidents and disasters, is far greater than that of the radio report. Television reports of, for example, the Vietnam War did far more to influence public opinion than radio news bulletins could have done. Radio has the advantage, however, of not requiring the same degree of attention; the trend has been toward frequently repeated short bulletins. In the United States there are radio stations that restrict themselves entirely to news, usually in a continuous magazine format, plus, of course, the advertising spots. The news magazine, or newsreel, in radio was introduced even earlier on BBC. A series of brief reports, interviews, and extracts from speeches, making use of many voices and exploiting the technique of frequent renewal of stimulus, proved to be a successful formula. This technique has spread into news bulletins and is increasingly used in the coverage of current affairs, both in radio and television. In all these programs of news and comment, one of the problems has been that of the anchors, or presenters, and the degree to which they may be given freedom to project their personalities or express their views. In the United States there have been fewer inhibitions in this area than in countries where broadcasting is or has been a monopoly and where the need for and tradition of impartiality have been dominant. In the case of the BBC, newsreaders were long anonymous; but on television the identity of a newsreader, or of the presenter of a magazine of news or comment, cannot be concealed, and these inhibitions have broken down. Nevertheless, in western Europe and Commonwealth countries the impartiality of broadcasting services remains an issue of greater importance than in the United States or Latin America. In Britain, when the Independent Television Authority was created, it was enjoined to see that in the coverage of controversial matters each program should be balanced in itself. The BBC, with greater freedom, makes no effort to ensure balance in any one program, provided that an overall balance in respect of any issue is achieved over a reasonable period of time. In all developed countries elaborate programs are prepared to report the results of elections, though it is in the United States and the United Kingdom that these are most ambitious.

In radio straight talk persists in some countries, though less so than in the heyday of the medium. Nevertheless, some successful lectures at much greater length have been scheduled occasionally on television and in some countries on radio. Straight talk of 10 minutes or more does not lend itself to exciting television production, unless accompanied by filmed illustrations to the point where it all but becomes a documentary.

Another pattern popular in many countries involves a panel of distinguished figures under a chairman, answering questions of a topical nature from members of a studio audience. In some cases a parabolic microphone is employed so that questions may be asked from any part of the studio or hall in which the program is mounted; others may call for written queries in advance so that questioners can be conveniently seated in the first row. Some radio panel programs also solicit queries from members of the listening audience who call them in on the telephone.

Development of the radio documentary stemmed from drama, as writers searched for new material especially appropriate for broadcasting. Not surprisingly, early documentary was in dramatic form, and most of it was based on well-known historical events, of which the programs were in effect dramatic reconstructions. Production of radio documentaries was simplified by the invention of magnetic recording tape that was far easier to edit and use on location than its predecessors, the wax-coated disc and the wire recorder. Ironically, just when these technical advances had made the best form of radio documentary possible, the television documentary on contemporary themes began to supplant its radio counterpart. Documentaries have become more expository of public (current) affairs concerned with international relations, domestic politics, and social problems.


There have been, in the main, two types of religious program: devotional and information–discussion. The former comprises prayer, religious services, or hymn singing, either mounted in a studio or as outside broadcasts from a church, chapel, or hall. A third type is the dramatization of a religious theme, though the tendency has been to devote a good proportion of religious broadcasting time to documentaries, discussions, and interviews. Some sects have produced broadcasts that combine political and religious material. Missionary bodies, mostly under the control of one of the many international or regional religious broadcasting organizations, either buy time on commercial stations or operate stations in many parts of the world, including Latin America, Africa, and Asia.

Outside broadcasts

Although broadcasts do not constitute a distinct and definable form, they nevertheless have been since the birth of radio the most popular and arresting of all material transmitted on either medium. Sports of every description and ceremonial and political events have exercised an unfailing appeal and, in general, attract the largest audiences. Outside broadcasts have stimulated the imagination and taxed the ingenuity of television-broadcasting engineers to such an extent that they have accustomed the public to feats unimaginable to the pioneers of radio. The improvement of line communications, the development of mobile transmitters, and, above all, the use of satellite communications have given the outside broadcast an elasticity and an almost limitless range.


Radio has had two important effects on the musical life of the world: it has widened the audience for all forms of music and has made easier the development of new forms, such as electronic music. Music remains a staple ingredient of radio in its own right, whereas in television, though there are programs of music as such, it is more often an adjunct to something else, as, for example, dancing, or as a small component of a mixed program. In the field of popular music, radio has immensely aided the rapid changes of fashion, which have coincided with technical advances in the making of recordings and their popularity and sales. A recognition by recording companies of the enormous power of radio in popularizing a song or performer has led to some abuses. In the United States “payola,” or bribes, were given to prominent radio personalities by record companies in return for promotion of their songs.

The development of stereophonic sound techniques has revolutionized the record industry and has played an important role on radio, though earliest in the field of serious music. Frequency modulated (FM) radio broadcasts of serious music, and later of other forms of music, have been popular in many areas; some recordings are broadcast stereophonically but can be received on monophonic radios (see sound).

Opera, too, has profited from broadcasting, and outside broadcasts from opera houses, as well as studio performances on both radio and television, have done much in European and many other countries to bring this form of music to a large public. Music programs have presented more difficulties than most others in the matter of studios, partly because of the size of studio required for a full symphony orchestra and partly because of the delicate balancing of acoustics for proper reproduction of such performances.

Relations with artists, speakers, authors, and unions

In the early days of radio, problems of fees, royalties, performing rights, copyright, and relations with unions rarely were regarded. Entertainers performed largely for publicity purposes. Only gradually did performers appreciate radio’s effect, first, as a threat to their theatre earnings and, second, as a highly lucrative substitute. To try to trace how a modus vivendi was reached in these matters in different countries would present a picture of baffling complexity in the light of the different prevailing laws and different union structures. Generally speaking, copyright issues have revolved around the rights of record manufacturers and fees for composers. Rates and fees for reproducing recordings often have been the subject of disputes with the unions. Radiobroadcasters soon found that purchasing records or making their own recordings from live musical performances meant substantial economies; these, however, came at the expense of the musicians. Consequently, the musicians’ unions sometimes attempted to prevent use of phonograph records or recording of live performances. In some countries, such as The Netherlands, the repeat problem has been solved by the performers receiving a fee for each repeat, the fee rising with each successive use of the recording until it ceases to represent an advantage to the broadcaster.

Relations of the broadcasting organizations with their staffs have also been complex. In Canada attempts to exercise a restrictive control have led to revolts and resignations, while in France editors and producers who have been unwilling to conform to government policy have been removed from their jobs, though often under other pretexts. The position of staff is particularly vulnerable in those countries where broadcasting is a state monopoly: an example is Czechoslovakia, where senior broadcasting officials were ousted after the fall in 1968 of Premier Alexander Dubček, who had attempted to liberalize the Communist regime.

Internal organization, administration, and policy control

The organization and administration of broadcasting bodies can, in the case of a small independent station, be relatively simple, and the policies can be implemented with ease. Sizable organizations, however, have a complex problem because it is not possible to determine success or failure purely on the basis of financial returns. Monopoly organizations, though in theory their sole purpose is public service, in practice often must take into account the views of the government. In the case of nonprofit–public-service operations dependent upon license fees for revenue but with commercial competition, ratings cannot be completely ignored, and these organizations must compete for mass audiences to some extent in order to justify their existence at the expense of the listening and viewing public.

The broadcasting administration has two essential functions: first, programming—i.e., allocation of funds and setting of schedules—and, second, production, the preparation of programs. The former is in effect a branch of direction, and those in charge of planning program schedules and allocating funds have a power that if not checked can be absolute. On the other hand, these planners are dependent on the goodwill of the production and supply departments.

A main problem arises in the treatment of controversial subjects in the field of current affairs. Where broadcasters are under no obligation to be impartial, as in The Netherlands, or where, as in totalitarian countries, only one point of view may be aired, the problem does not arise. In democratic countries, however, where the broadcaster has independence and where there is a need to achieve an overall impartiality, the problem is very serious. Even though decisions may be reached by discussion and a consensus of opinion, the responsibility usually has to be carried by one person. No broadcasting organization has been able to find a complete solution to the problem that does not involve rigid control and intrusion on the independence of the editorial and production staff.

Administration must also deal with routine matters, such as staff pay and conditions of service, recruitment, finance, accounting, negotiations with unions, procurement of equipment, and provision of office and studio space. In general, it has been found best to subordinate such routine management operations to the needs of those directly concerned with the principal function of broadcasting. Much the same may be said of engineering and technical staff, though their research work and technical advances influence the decisions of direction and development of broadcasting.

The state of broadcasting in selected countries

Broadcasting in Argentina is wholly controlled by the government but only partly operated by government agencies. Partly for historical reasons, the method of control is not clear-cut: all broadcasting is subject to the approval of the Consejo Federal de Radio y Televisión (Federal Radio and Television Council), a body working under the State Secretary of Communications, though the Secretary of Information can and does intervene on behalf of the president of the republic. All political activities were suppressed between 1966 and 1971, and, even after the government of Alejandro Agustín Lanusse lifted the ban, the restored freedom was not reflected in broadcasting. Of the approximately 150 radio stations in the country, nearly half are grouped into two large networks: an official cultural noncommercial network with about 30 stations, some strategically placed in relation to broadcasts from other countries; and a government-controlled commercial network. There are more than 70 private commercial stations; some are small and low-powered. Television is primarily commercial, and many channels are administered by the state. LS82 Canal 7 in Buenos Aires is state-owned; the other three stations in that city have separately owned provincial affiliates. Argentina has more than 80 television stations, about 20 of them private.

Early television in Argentina depended on U.S.-produced telefilms dubbed into Spanish, but today, though U.S.-dubbed feature films are still used, Argentine-produced programs dominate the market. Some material comes from Spain, Italy, and the United Kingdom. Argentine-produced programs can rarely be exported, because the Argentine accent in Spanish, particularly that of Buenos Aires, is not acceptable elsewhere in Latin America.


Australian broadcasting comprises four sectors: the national sector, the public sector, the commercial sector, and the Special Broadcasting Service. National broadcasting is the responsibility of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (formerly the Australian Broadcasting Commission), which provides a wide range of programming—including educational, news, sports, religious, and entertainment—designed to promote Australian culture. Public broadcasting serves specific interest groups and is sometimes associated with a college or university. Its primary outlet is radio. Commercial broadcasting seeks a wide appeal, and almost 50 percent of it is locally produced, as required by law. The Special Broadcasting Service provides programming in more than 50 languages for Australia’s ethnic communities. Both the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the Special Broadcasting Service are unlicensed, publicly funded government instrumentalities empowered under the Broadcasting and Television Act of 1942. Public broadcasting is funded by subscription, sales of air time to community groups, and sales of publications. Public stations are not-for-profit. Commercial stations are funded primarily through advertising. Both public and commercial broadcasting stations are subject to licensing renewal review every three years. Until it was abolished in 1976, the Australian Broadcasting Control Board was responsible for all aspects of broadcasting in Australia. Since that time, however, the Australian government’s Department of Transport and Communication has overseen that organization’s planning and technical aspects, while an independent, statutory authority, the Australian Broadcasting Tribunal, is responsible for regulation and licensing as well as for determining programming and advertising standards.

The Australian Broadcasting Corporation operates about 240 radio stations and 360 television stations. In addition, Australia has about 140 commercial radio stations and 50 commercial television stations. Public broadcasting is heard on about 70 radio stations. The Special Broadcasting Service has two radio stations and two television stations and is Australia’s only UHF (ultrahigh frequency) outlet. Radio Australia broadcasts in nine different languages to foreign countries, primarily in Asia and in the Pacific. It operates 13 shortwave stations. The Australian National Satellite System has been in operation since 1985 with the launching of AUSSAT-1 and AUSSAT-2. Through the Australian Broadcasting Corporation it provides television and radio broadcasting to homes in outback regions as part of the Homestead and Community Broadcasting Satellite Service. An additional satellite, AUSSAT-3, launched in 1987, supplements the program with a similar commercial service known as the Regional Commercial Television Service.


There are more than 2,400 radio and about 180 television stations in Brazil; the majority are commercial. In general they are under the authority of the Ministry of Communications. All broadcasting is subject to censorship, and any station that runs counter to the government’s wishes can be closed. There are radio stations of the Ministry of Education in Rio de Janeiro and Brasília; some of the states have official radio outlets, and a few have television installations. There are also some university radio stations and a few television stations, apart from the Roman Catholic educational radio network. The remaining stations are private commercial enterprises, operating independently or linked to one of the networks, of which the best known are associated with large newspaper concerns, such as Diarios Associados or O Globo. The larger radio networks use shortwave broadcasting, which permits simultaneous transmissions on medium-wave provincial stations. Provincial television stations prepare their newscasts, often in cooperation with a local newspaper and radio station. The others employ film, telefilm, and videotape to supplement local production. All radio stations must devote one hour each day to “The Voice of Brazil,” a government news program supplied by the official Agencia Nacional; radio stations must also broadcast at least five hours a week of educational programs. Television stations may be called upon to broadcast programs produced by the Agencia Nacional, consisting mainly of government statements and ministerial and presidential speeches. In 1975 the government created Radiobras, the Brazilian Broadcasting Company, which broadcasts to the remote regions of the Amazon Basin, bringing those regions into closer contact with the political and cultural mainstream of Brazil. Television entertainment consists substantially of Brazilian-produced serials, supplemented by U.S.-produced and dubbed films and telecine programs. Brazil’s first communications satellites, Brasilsat I and Brasilsat II, were launched in 1985.


Canadian broadcasting is overseen by the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission, which administers, regulates, and supervises the country’s broadcasting. The principal broadcasting organization is the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), which is financed primarily by public funds supplemented by television advertising. The CBC has two main television networks, one in French and another in English, and two main AM and FM radio networks, one in each language. In addition, there are small FM networks and some shortwave transmission. The CBC has more than 90 principal radio stations and more than 600 low-power relay transmitters; in addition, more than 60 privately owned stations are affiliated with it and are paid for transmitting its output. The CBC has more than 25 television stations and more than 600 rebroadcasters. There are more than 250 private affiliates and rebroadcasters. In addition to the CBC television network, there are four commercially operated networks: CTV Network broadcasts in English from coast to coast; TVA and the Réseau de Télévision Quatre Saisons broadcast in French across Quebec; and the Global Communications Ltd. network broadcasts in English in parts of Ontario. In 1972 Canada became the first country in the world to offer a domestic communications satellite system with the establishment of its satellite company, Telesat, and the launching of its first Anik satellites. Remote communities receive satellite broadcasts through its CANCOM program. External services are smaller than in most comparable countries; there are broadcasts on shortwave to the Canadian armed forces overseas and an international service, Radio Canada International, in English, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian for listeners in Europe, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, the Middle East, Africa, and the United States.


Until it was disbanded in 1974, the Office de Radiodiffusion Télévision Française (ORTF), under the direction of the Minister of Information, oversaw all aspects of French broadcasting. It was replaced first by seven independent state-financed companies, then by a nine-member committee, followed in 1986 by the 13-member Commission Nationale de la Communication et des Libertés (CNCL). The CNCL was finally replaced by the Conseil Supérieur de l’Audiovisuel, which is charged with supervising all aspects of French broadcasting, including administration, programming, distribution of networks and frequencies, licensing, deregulation, and allocation of concessions for privatized channels. The following organizations are responsible for other aspects of French broadcasting: Télédiffusion de France operates the national transmitters; the Institut National de la Communication Audiovisuelle is responsible for broadcasting research and professional training as well as archival work; Radio Télévision Française d’Outre-Mer controls broadcasting to French overseas départements and territories; Société Française de Production et de Création Audiovisuelles is the national production company; Société France Media International is the national distribution company; and La Sept produces programs broadcast via satellite. Radio France comprises six national radio networks: (1) France-Inter, network A, a 24-hour service of entertainment and news, integrated with Inter-Variétés on regional transmitters and carrying programs produced by regional stations and France-Inter Paris, a morning program of popular music, and news flashes for Paris and the surrounding area; (2) Network B, a medium-wave network that includes Radio Bleue (programs for the elderly), programs for foreign workers, school programs, and university broadcasts; (3) France-Culture, network D, information and public affairs along with cultural programs; (4) France-Musique, network E, musical programming; (5) regional stations, network F, music and news, based in six major cities, along with Sorbonne R. France, with university lectures for the Paris region; and (6) France Info, 24-hour news and information. Radio France International broadcasts 24 hours daily to Europe, Africa, North America, Latin America, and Asia in seven different languages. There are also more than 1,500 private radio stations.

Regular television service began in 1938, was interrupted by World War II, and recommenced in 1945. Colour television was inaugurated in 1967. France has two state-run television channels, Antenne 2 and France Régions 3, and four private stations. The formerly state-run Télévision Française 1 was privatized in 1987. Canal Plus was the country’s first private channel in 1984. It is financed by subscription and broadcasts mostly films and sporting events. La Cinq broadcasts foreign light entertainment programs, sports, and films. M6 broadcasts general interest programs. TV5 broadcasts programs via satellite for Francophones in foreign countries. There are three private local stations. Cable television has been slow to develop in France and is primarily concentrated in the Paris region.


The origin and development of Radiotelevisione Italiana (RAI) is discussed above. Regular television broadcasts began in January 1954. RAI has three radio services on national networks on AM and FM: a First, or National, Program offering a balanced output; a Second Program essentially of entertainment; and a Third Program, which is educational. In addition, there is a substantial regional output. There are three television services: the first, on VHF (very high frequency), broadcasting 63 hours weekly, is the National Program; the Second Program also transmits 63 hours weekly on UHF; the Third Progam transmits 19 hours a week on Wednesdays and Sundays. The RAI provides limited regional television on special occasions only, except for a daily one and one-half hours in German for the German-speaking minority of the Trentino-Alto Adige region. RAI has 18 production centres and 21 regional offices. The Trieste and Bolzano offices are responsible, respectively, for radio output weekly in Slovene for the Friuli-Venezia Giulia region and, apart from the German television output, for broadcasts in German and in Ladin (Romansh) for the Trentino-Alto Adige region. RAI’s revenue comes from a proportion, determined by the government, of the proceeds of the sale of radio- and television-receiving licenses and from advertising. Advertising is closely regulated and may not “prejudice the good quality of programs”; it is guided by a code, and the percentage of time given to it is limited. RAI devotes 70 percent of its radio output to light entertainment, 16 percent to news and information, 4 percent to cultural programs, and 1 percent to youth and educational programs. On television 36 percent is news and information, 19 percent is entertainment, 4 percent is cultural, and 17 percent is programs for schools and education.

Radio Roma broadcasts to Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, the Mediterranean, Latin America, Australia, and New Zealand in 27 languages.


Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK) is the sole broadcast authority in Japan. A noncommercial, not-for-profit public station, it has two television and three radio networks (two AM and one FM), of which one television and one AM network are almost entirely devoted to education. The General Television program gives a balanced service, as does the First (AM) Radio service, while the FM (VHF) service is concerned mainly with cultural and local music programs. There is relatively little political broadcasting in Japan, and the first occasion on which candidates for election to the Japanese Diet were able to present their political views on television was in December 1969.

NHK has installed a system of computerized automation for its scheduling, resource allocation, and transmitting operations, probably the most advanced in the world, with a view to giving its production staff a maximum freedom for creative work. In 1978 the organization installed the 12,000,000,000-hertz (2.5-centimetre) wave for metropolitan area broadcasting and for broadcasting two television sound outputs simultaneously so that a single television image can be received with sound in either of two languages. NHK has 173 medium-wave transmitters for the First Radio network, 141 for the Second, and 474 for the VHF-FM network. General and educational television use about 2,800 transmitters each, most of which are rebroadcasting or relay stations. The so-called regional broadcasting is not so much regional as local and concerned mainly with news and practical information. Local television output averages one and a half hours, and local radio averages more than three and a half hours daily. In addition to NHK there are more than 130 broadcasting organizations that are members of the National Association of Commercial Broadcasters in Japan. They offer about 6,200 television stations and about 300 radio stations.

NHK is also responsible for Japan’s external services, which are divided into a general service—i.e., a worldwide service in English and Japanese that broadcasts daily—and a regional service for the Americas, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australasia, in about 20 languages.


There are about 850 radio stations in Mexico. Most are commercial, and more than 120 are grouped into two nationwide networks. There is a smaller, constantly growing number of television stations, many of which are grouped into networks of varying size. There are two nationwide networks: Televisa, which combined the former Telesistema Mexicano and Televisión Independiente de Mexico and is seen around the world, and the state-owned Imevision. Television, too, is nearly all commercial, though there are some university stations, of which the best-known is Radio Universidad, run by the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City; in addition, the Instituto Politécnico Nacional operates a cultural station in the capital. In theory there is no government control over broadcasting, but in practice there is no political broadcasting critical of the government or of the leading political party. Most stations carry the Hora Nacional, an hour-long officially produced program, every Sunday morning. The government has the right to use 12.5 percent of the total transmitting time of all radio and television stations. This right so far has not been fully exercised, though the announced intention is that the Comisión de Radiodifusión should acquire the resources to make full use of the time. Except for the few noncommercial stations, the majority of radio stations do little more than broadcast recorded popular music, news, and spot advertisements.

Television, with few exceptions, is substantially devoted to entertainment; a good proportion of material originates in the United States, though the government has banned some of the more violent shows. Production of programs for other Spanish-speaking countries is on the increase, with programs made for Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Central American countries, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, Chile, and the Hispanic community in the United States. The government has proposed a network of officially operated small stations to provide cultural and educational programs.

The Netherlands

In all democratic countries, governments have found it difficult to reflect minority views in broadcasting. The Netherlands has made perhaps the most determined attempt to deal with this problem. The Dutch system basically consists of two national organizations, the Nederlandse Omroepprogramma Stichting (NOS), which is responsible for the transmission of general-interest programs and the promotion of Dutch broadcasting interests, and the Nederlandse Omroepproductie Bedrijf, an independent production company, and eight broadcasting societies (or organizations) that, through the size of their membership, have earned the right to produce a proportion of NOS’s output. The Broadcasting Act of 1966 called upon the responsible minister to allocate time on the air, in both radio and television, to bodies that fulfilled certain conditions, in particular a sufficient membership; by October 1971 those bodies included broadcasting associations or organizations, groups aspiring to recognition as broadcasting societies, churches, associations of a nature comparable to churches, political parties, other reputable associations of approved purpose, an advertising foundation, and educational bodies. As far as the full-fledged associations are concerned, the amount of time they have on the air is determined by their category, in turn dependent upon the number of subscribers, whose subscriptions pay for a weekly program bulletin. Some of the other bodies with time on the air may prepare their own programs or have them produced by groups with more experience. Organizations with at least 60,000 members may petition to broadcast from one hour per week to four hours. The government, however, has moved to restrict access to broadcasting, with legislation requiring aspirant broadcasting groups to offer innovative proposals to the existing range of programs in order to qualify. The financing of broadcasting, when production time is allocated among so many, presents a complex problem of accountancy. The revenue comes from the sale of receiving-set licenses and from advertising profits. Advertising on radio and television was first permitted in 1967 and is provided by the Stichting Ether Reclame.

The Netherlands has five radio networks and three independent television services. There is no regional television, but there are several regional radio organizations. The main categories of overall radio output are 25 percent news, public affairs, and information, 22 percent classical music, 14 percent light music, and 28 percent entertainment and other light programs. Television output is more diversified, with 32.3 percent entertainment (of which more than half is of foreign origin), 2.9 percent Dutch-produced drama, 5 percent films (mostly foreign), and 31.2 percent news, public affairs, and information.

Radio Nederland Wereldomroep (Radio Netherlands International) broadcasts daily shortwave transmissions to most areas of the world in Dutch and eight other languages (Portuguese, Spanish, Sranan Tongo, PapiamentoPapiamentu, Arabic, English, French, and Indonesian).

New Zealand

In New Zealand the relatively small population means that broadcasting personnel are closely in touch with their audience, whose demand for a high-standard broadcasting service presents financial problems. The National Broadcasting Service, a government department set up in 1936, was faced with the competition of the National Commercial Broadcasting Service a year later. The two were amalgamated and reorganized as a government department, the New Zealand Broadcasting Service, in 1946. The service had some degree of independence from the start, and the inauguration of a television service in June 1960 provided the opportunity for the Broadcasting Act of 1961, by which was created the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation. In 1977 the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand was created, incorporating two previously independent networks. Dissolved in 1988, it was replaced by Radio New Zealand Ltd and Television New Zealand Ltd. Radio New Zealand has two radio medium-wave networks that include some broadcasts in Maori, Samoan, Tongan, Niuean, and Tokelauan. The corporation has more than 50 radio stations in more than 30 cities and towns. Television New Zealand operates two television networks, TV 1 and TV 2. It has more than 10 television stations with more than 600 relay stations, mainly low-powered. TV 3 is a private commercial station. The corporation is also responsible for the Foreign Service (Radio New Zealand), which broadcasts to Australia, the Pacific Islands, and the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic in English, twice a week to Samoa in Samoan, and once a fortnight to the Cook Islands, in Rarotongan, and to Niue, in Niuean. There are nine private radio stations.

Soviet Union

In the former Soviet Union the State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting operated a substantial undertaking under the Council of Ministers. The chairman of the committee had four deputies, one each for television, external services, domestic radio, and for administration and finance, and there was an editorial board of 13 members. The committee controlled output and was responsible for the equipment of television centres and for all personnel, but all lines, radio stations, and studios were under the control of the Ministry of Communications. Under the committee, domestic radio was run by seven Chief Editorial boards: program planning and presentation; propaganda; information (news); children; youth; literature and drama; and music, comedy, and satire. There was a joint radio and television department for sports. No program could go on the air without the approval of the editor in chief (or his deputy) of the appropriate editorial board. Though regional stations had a measure of autonomy, the committee controlled the work of the regional committees handling radio in the various republics, regions, and districts. Radio required between 300 and 400 transmitters for its networks and regional broadcasts. To achieve maximum coverage, it made use of long waves, medium waves, and shortwaves, as well as FM. Moscow was responsible for five outputs as follows:

Program I was a mixed program covering the entire union. Program II was a 24-hour musical service with news and commentaries every half-hour, also covering the entire population. Program III was primarily a musical and literary program for the European regions of the Soviet Union and reached more remote regions by shortwave and FM. There was also a local output of some three half-hours a day for the Moscow area on some of the channels used for Program III. Program IV was on FM and offered classical music nine hours a day. Program V was directed toward Soviets abroad. The regional effort was impressive, with broadcasts in about 70 languages in use within the territory of the Soviet Union. There were 23 principal regional stations. With so diverse an output there was no means of making a meaningful percentage breakdown of program categories, but Soviet radio on the whole devoted more time to information, educational, and cultural programs and less to entertainment than other countries.

The Moscow television station began broadcasting in 1939 and claimed to have been the first European television station to renew operation after the World War II interruption. Colour was introduced in 1967. About four-fifths of the population was within reach of a television signal, for which there were about 900 main and 4,000 relay transmitters. In most of the principal cities there were at least two outputs to choose from. The satellites Molniya I and Ekran, combined with 90 Orbita ground and relay stations, greatly increased the size of the potential audience. At the Moscow television centre, Ostankino, the 1,739-foot (530-metre) tower was used for television and other communications. The services broadcast could not be easily analyzed, and it was claimed that from Moscow six could be broadcast simultaneously. There were four main channels: the First Program, all-Union since 1962; the Second Program, all-Union since 1982; the Third Program, educational at primary, secondary, and university levels; and the Fourth Program, which featured locally produced programs in the various regional languages.

The external services described above were probably the largest for any country. The output could be divided into six types: (1) for foreign countries from Moscow, (2) for foreign countries from regional stations, (3) relays of domestic services for listeners abroad, (4) broadcasts for Soviets abroad, under the aegis of the Committee for Cultural Relations, (5) a service for the merchant marine and for fishermen, and (6) the “Peace and Progress” station. It was the Moscow output, supplemented by the foreign services from the regional stations, that had the widest coverage and made use of more than 70 languages, including more for Africa and Asia than any other country and including even, for example, Quechua (for Peru). The “Peace and Progress” output was in German and English for Europe; in Persian, Azerbaijani, and English for Asia; in Arabic and Hebrew for the Middle East; and in Spanish, Portuguese, Creole (for Haiti), and Guaraní (for Paraguay) for Latin America. In 1978 Soviet broadcasting initiated its “World Service in English.”


Two important developments affecting Sveriges Radio, the Swedish broadcasting corporation, occurred in 1967, embodied in the Broadcasting Law, effective from July 1 of that year. Public authorities and agencies were specifically forbidden to examine programs in advance or to attempt to prevent them from being broadcast; this meant that the government had not even the power of veto. The legal responsibility for any program rests not with the organization, its board of directors, or even the director general but with the program supervisor, and no program may be broadcast against his will. Program content is ultimately controlled by the Radio Council, which supervises both radio and television. The Radio Council may rule only on shows that have already been aired, thus avoiding a role of censorship. The financing is almost entirely from licenses for receiving sets (a small amount of revenue is derived from the international sale and distribution of some radio and television programs), but the proceeds are allocated by Parliament to Sveriges Radio, which produces most of the programs; the Swedish Telecommunications Administration, which transmits them; and the Swedish General Services Administration, which is responsible for the construction of broadcasting facilities. In 1979 Sveriges Radio was broken up into several subsidiary companies: Swedish Radio Company, Swedish Television Company, Swedish Local Radio Company, and Swedish Educational Broadcasting Company. Sveriges Radio became the parent company responsible for long-range planning and development and the distribution of finances to the subsidiaries.

Sweden has three radio and two television networks. A substantial number of stations and transmitters on long waves, medium waves, and shortwaves ensures national coverage of the three radio services, as well as allowing for regional broadcasting. Twenty-four regional stations have substantial autonomy and their own budgets, but they must negotiate with the heads of the national networks to opt out, with their own regional programs, of up to a total of 25 percent of the network programming. In radio, one network broadcasts spoken-word programs almost exclusively, with some classical music during the day; the second consists of education and light as well as classical music in the evening; and the third, a 24-hour operation, features popular music, news, light entertainment, and regional broadcasts. The two television networks offer a wide variety of features, which include information (17.9 percent), drama and film (13.6 percent), entertainment (13.1 percent), programs for children (10.8 percent), news (9.6 percent), sports (9.5 percent), and education (8.9 percent). Colour television was inaugurated in April 1970.

Sveriges Radio is also responsible for Sweden’s external services, the cost of which (as with the cost of educational broadcasts) is separately budgeted and paid for from government funds. The broadcasts are in Swedish and six foreign languages: English, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian. They are beamed as appropriate to all parts of the world.

United Kingdom
British Broadcasting Corporation

A monopoly until 1954, the BBC operates under a royal charter. It is funded from a fixed-term license fee paid by households with a television set. The BBC has four national radio networks: Radio 1, broadcasting mostly popular music, mainly during the day; Radio 2, primarily transmitting light music, sports, and entertainment; Radio 3, broadcasting mainly classical music and news during the day and cultural programs in the evening; and Radio 4, scheduling spoken word primarily, school programs in the midmorning and early afternoon, and a mixed program in the evenings. The main ingredients of overall output are 42.9 percent entertainment and music, 21.2 percent classical music, 9.1 percent news and outside broadcasts, 4.8 percent drama, 3.6 percent education, and 2.2 percent features. Some 30 local radio stations have been added to the BBC since 1967. The BBC has two national television services, which together transmit more than 200 hours a week; both have mixed programs that are coordinated to avoid conflicts. The main ingredients are news, documentaries, and information (31 percent); British and foreign films and series (15.5 percent); outside broadcasts, substantially sports, and sports news (14 percent); drama (8 percent); “family” programs and light entertainment (13.5 percent); education (11.1 percent); and religion (2.2 percent).

There is substantial regional activity in both media. Of the six regions in the kingdom that formerly operated with a fair degree of autonomy, only the “national” regions remain for Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. In place of the other three regions, North, Midland, and West and South, there are 20 production centres for both radio and television. Regions broadcast their own programs by opting out of Radio 4 or BBC 1 and using their own section of the corresponding network. Radio Cymru broadcasts in the Welsh language for Wales. There are about 50 local FM (VHF) stations as authorized by the government: these are mostly placed to cover the larger city areas. Many competitive commercial local stations have been set up under the supervision of the Independent Broadcasting Authority.

The BBC is also responsible for the United Kingdom’s external services, which are paid for by annual grants-in-aid from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Though no longer among the leaders in quantity of output, the BBC remains among them in terms of penetration. Seventy transmitters, of which 13 are overseas relay stations, provide a shortwave worldwide service and a medium-wave service in many areas, including Europe (from Berlin), Asia, East Africa, and Latin America. Of the weekly output of about 740 hours, roughly one-third in the World Service is in English, and the remainder is in nearly 40 foreign languages.

Independent broadcasting

Independent broadcasting was established by an act of Parliament in 1954. Broadcasting began under the control of the Independent Television Authority (ITA) a year later (it was renamed Independent Broadcasting Authority [IBA] under the terms of the Sound Broadcasting Act in 1972). Although the authority had substantial independence, it did not produce any programs or advertising; these tasks were performed by commercial program companies. These latter, organized on a regional basis, supplied all the material broadcast except for news, for which a separate group, Independent Television News, was created; it was jointly owned and financed by the program companies. TV-am originated in 1983 and operated outside the system with an early morning breakfast-show format. Channel 4 was a wholly owned subsidiary of the Independent Broadcasting Authority, which was funded through compulsory annual subscriptions of Independent Television companies in exchange for advertising rights. It was authorized by the Broadcasting Act of 1980 and began broadcasting in 1982. A separate Welsh fourth channel was authorized at the same time; it is funded by the government. The cable system, created in 1985, was placed under the control of the Cable Authority.

The Broadcasting Act of 1990 substantially reorganized independent broadcasting. It reassigned the regulatory duties of the Independent Broadcasting Authority and Cable Authority to two newly formed bodies, the Independent Television Commission (ITC) and the Radio Authority. The ITC is in charge of licensing and regulating all non-BBC television services, including ITV (renamed Channel 3 in 1993), Channel 4, and cable and satellite services. The Radio Authority has responsibility for granting franchises for up to three new national commercial radio channels and for licensing and regulating local commercial stations.

The television program companies are under a substantial measure of control from the Independent Television Commission, which is responsible for the appointment of program companies, control of program and advertising output, and its transmission. The commission enforces codes with respect to advertising and violence on the screen. Television companies broadcast throughout the week within their respective areas, except for two that share the London area. The program companies are entirely financed by spot advertising in “natural breaks” in and between programs, by commercial sponsorship, and, on some cable and satellite services, by subscription; they pay a rental to the commission to cover the latter’s transmitting and administrative costs and a fiscal levy to the exchequer. The program companies cooperate in a network committee, and a substantial number of the principal programs are broadcast by all companies. The contribution to the network made by each company varies in accordance with its size and resources. The revenue of each company is substantially dependent upon the number of homes with television receivers able to receive the Independent Television Commission signal in the area it covers, which varies significantly from the Channel Islands to the London area. The diversified output makes valueless any percentage analysis of program categories; but the principal types of output, in order of size, are as follows: drama, including telefilm series; light entertainment; children’s programs; news, news magazines, features, and documentaries; sports; feature films (British and foreign); education; and religion.

United States

Broadcasting in the United States is regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), created in 1934, which assigns frequencies and grants licenses. So great is the broadcasting operation in the United States, so many are the stations, both radio and television, and so extensive are the ramifications and links with other industries that it is not possible to produce a summary on the lines of those for countries where broadcasting has been more tightly organized. Some idea of the magnitude of the broadcasting scene is provided by the number of broadcasting stations in operation in the late 1980s, as authorized by the FCC: radio AM, about 5,000; radio FM, about 4,000; educational radio FM, about 1,200; commercial television, about 1,000; educational television, about 300; and television relay stations, more than 4,000. In most categories more stations have been authorized than are operating. The largest proportional increase has been in educational radio FM. Commercial broadcasting on television, as on radio in the past, is dominated by the three great national networks: the American Broadcasting Company, Columbia Broadcasting System, and the National Broadcasting Company. In radio, where the networks are no longer dominant, there is also the Mutual Broadcasting System; the majority of radio stations are as independent of the large networks as of the government, and many of the commercial stations specialize in a single type of output, which may be one or another of various kinds of popular music, classical music, news, or even traffic information. A few are owned by or affiliated with the national networks or with smaller local networks; some even are small local stations offering a basic fare of neighbourhood gossip interspersed with recorded music and spot advertising. After a slump following the major onset of television, radio, even network radio, has again become profitable. In television the three major networks own and operate their own stations in some of the larger cities and substantially control a majority of affiliates.

Noncommercial broadcasting has risen in the United States. The National Association of Educational Broadcasters serves educational stations with transcriptions produced by its members and by other domestic as well as foreign broadcasters. The National Public Radio is also largely educational, supported by donations from foundations and other sources. There are radio stations supported by donations and subscriptions from listeners, in particular the Pacifica group. The Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) has a loose organization. Its production facilities are not jointly organized, and it makes use of noncommercial stations for its network. Its revenue is uncertain; for example, it received $137,000,000 in 1982 from a congressional appropriation (such must be renewed annually) and the rest from foundations, public contributions, and individual stations.

Another system is community antenna television (CATV), increasingly known as cable TV, originally set up in areas of poor reception or where the choice of television services was poor and cable television could offer additional choices. By 1964 about 1,000 such systems were in operation. At the time, no one thought of “cablecasting”—i.e., that the cable television companies should originate their own programs—but in many areas cablecasting has proved a success. Cable television, transmitted via direct cables connected to each television set, offers viewers a large choice of programs, as well as excellent reception.

Official external services are operated by the Board for International Broadcasting, known as the Voice of America. They are broadcast to all parts of the world and have a number of relay stations overseas. Apart from English, 41 languages are used. In addition there are the international broadcast station KGEI, offering a shortwave service to Latin America in English, Spanish, and German and to Asia in Russian, Belorussian, Polish, and Ukrainian; and World International Broadcasters, whose shortwave commercial service is broadcast in English to Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The United States Armed Forces Radio and Television Service has a network of shortwave stations broadcasting a worldwide service; stations are located in Alaska, Canada, Europe, North Africa, Ethiopia, the Caribbean, East Asia, the Middle East, Antarctica, the North Atlantic, and the Pacific.


Although Germany was one of the first countries to begin radio transmissions (October 1923), the state organization owes nothing to earlier development. It was the occupying powers at the end of World War II that established the present system based on state (Länder) organizations.

All state organizations have a First Radio service on medium wave, supported by FM. Several have a Second, Third, and Fourth Radio service on FM, and the Cologne group has a Fifth. Berlin has an AM channel, as well as FM for each of its three radio services. In many cases, two or more Länder organizations cooperate and broadcast simultaneously a single output on one of their FM services. The latter in most cases is broadcast for only three to four hours daily and is substantially, sometimes entirely, devoted to foreign languages for foreign workers in Germany. The output of the First and Second Radio services is to some extent mixed, but the Second focuses on more serious output.

The First German Television service is nationally coordinated with contributions from each Land organization. Each organization broadcasts a substantial amount of regional material for its own audience. The Second Television service is centrally planned and produced, with headquarters in Mainz; schedules are coordinated to give the viewer a maximum choice. Each organization also has a Third Television service for only a few hours a day, often of an educational nature; this service, like the Third Radio service, is sometimes produced and simultaneously broadcast by groups of two or three Länder organizations. The Federal government has no authority for the control of broadcasting within the German territory, and legislative and administrative competence for broadcasting rests with the Länder. But even the Land governments and parliaments are legally barred from intervening beyond a statutory supervision and may not interfere with the basic independence of the broadcasting organizations.

There are two external service organizations. Deutschlandfunk broadcasts to France, the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, and northern and eastern Europe in 12 languages. Deutsche Welle broadcasts in 34 foreign languages to most areas of the world for a total of about 800 hours weekly.