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Study material
(2011 Admission)
School of Distance Education
Study material
Prepared by :
Module I, II & VI: Smt.U.SREEVIDYA
Assistant Professor,
Department of Commerce,
Govt.College, Malappuram.
Module III & IV
Assistant Professor,
Department of Commerce,
Govt.College, Malappuram
Module V
Assistant Professor
Department of Commerce
Govt.College Malappuram
Edited & Scrutinised by : Dr.K.VENUGOPALAN,
Associate Professor,
Department of Commerce,
Govt. College, Madappally
Marketing Management
School of Distance Education
Marketing Management
School of Distance Education
Marketing Management
School of Distance Education
Marketing is everywhere and it affects our day- to-day life in every possible manner. Formally or
informally people and organizations engage in a vast number of activities that could be called as
marketing. Good marketing is no accident, but a result of careful planning and execution. It is both an art
and science. Let’s discuss various concepts and issues in marketing.
growing customers through creating, delivering and communicating superior customer value.
In short Marketing is “Meeting needs profitably”. Marketing has been defined by different
authors in different ways which can be broadly classified into three
 Product Oriented Definition
The emphasis is given on products.
In1985 AMA redefined marketing as “Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception,
and organizational goals.”
 Customer- Oriented Definition
Here the emphasis is on customers and their satisfaction.
In the words of Philip Kotler “Marketing is the human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants
through an exchange process.”
 Value Oriented Definition (Modern Definition)
In 2004 the American Marketing Association defined “Marketing is an organizational function and a set
relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders.”
The scope of marketing can be understood by discussing what is marketing, how it works, what is
marketed and who doesthe marketing.
Peter Drucker, a leading management theorist, puts it this way, there will always, one can assume, be
know and understand the customer so well that the product or services fits him and sells itself. Ideally
product or service available.
What is marketed?
Marketing people market 10 types of entities; let’s take a quick look at these;
GOODS physical goods constitute the bulk of most countries production and marketing efforts.
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SERVICES services include the work of airlines, hotels, cars rental firms, barber and beauticians,
maintenance and repair people, and accountants, bankers, lawyers ,engineers doctors, software
programmers, and management consultants.
EVENTS marketers promote time-based events, such as major trade shows, artistic performances, and
company anniversaries. Global sporting events such as the Olympics and the World cup are promoted
aggressively to both companies and fans.
EXPERIENCES by orchestrating several services and goods, a firm can create, stage and market
experiences. Veega land, Black Thunder etc represents this kind of experiential marketing.
PERSONS celebrity marketing is a major business, Artists, Musicians, CEOs, physicians, high- profile
lawyers and financiers, and other professionals all get help from celebrity marketers.
PLACES cities, states, regions, and whole nations compete actively to attract tourists, factories, company
headquarters, and new residents. Place marketers include economic development specialists, real estate
agents, commercial banks, local business associations, and advertising and public relations agencies.
PROPERTIES properties are intangible rights of ownership of either real property (real estate) or
financial property (stocks and bonds). Properties are bought and sold, and these exchanges require
ORGANIZATIONS organizations actively work to build a strong, favorable, and unique image in the
minds of their target publics.
INFORMATION information is essentially what books, schools, and universities produce, market, and
distribute at a price to parents, students, and communities.
IDEAS Every market offering includes a basic idea. Social marketers are busy promoting such ideas as
“Friends Don’t Let Friends Drive Drunk” and “A Mind Is a Terrible Thing to Waste.”
Who markets?
A marketer is someone who seeks a response- attention, a purchase, a vote, a donation – from
another party, called the prospect. If two parties are seeking to sell something to each other, we call them
both marketers.
Marketing is important not only for organizations but for individuals, society and economy as a
whole. Financial success often depends on marketing ability. Finance, operations, and other business
functions will not really matter if there isn’t sufficient demand for products and services so the company
can make a profit. There must be top line for there to be a bottom line. Many companies have now created
a Chief Marketing Officer, or CMO, position to put marketing on a equal footing with other C-level
executives, such as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and Chief Financial Officer (CFO).
Also marketing steps its foot in every walk of life. Some of its importance can be discussed as follows.
Sound marketing is critical to the success of the organisation in the following ways:
 Helps in income generation.
 Helps in planning and decision-making.
 Helps in distribution.
Marketing Management
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 Helps in exchanging information.
 Helps to adapt to changing environment.
 Expands global presence.
 Helps to earn goodwill.
 Provides quality products.
 Provides variety of products.
 Improves knowledge of consumers.
 Helps in selection.
 Consumer satisfaction.
Marketing bridges the gap between firm and society.
 Provides employment.
 Raises standard of living.
 Creates utilities.
 Reduces costs.
 Solves social problems.
 Makes life easier.
 Enriches society.
It stimulates research and innovation
 Saves the economy from depression.
 Increase in national income.
 Economic growth.
 Ploughing back of resources
Marketing concept has undergone a drastic change over years. Earlier it was production or later
selling which was key to marketing idea but moving ahead now these have given way to customer
satisfaction rather delight developing a modern marketing concept. Let’s review the evolution of earlier
marketing ideas;
widely available and inexpensive. Managers of production- oriented business concentrate on achieving
high production efficiency, low costs, and mass distribution.
It proposes that consumers favor products that offer the most quality, performance, or innovative
features. Managers in these organizations focus on making superior products and improving them
It holds that consumers and businesses, if left alone, won’t buy enough of the organization’s
product. The organization must therefore undertake an aggressive selling and promotion effort.
Marketing Management
School of Distance Education
It emerged in mid-1950s, instead of a product- centered, make- and –sell philosophy, business
shifted to a customer- centered, sense-and-respond philosophy.
The marketing concept holds that the key to achieving organizational goals is being effective than
competitors in creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value to your chosen target markets.
Theodore Levitt of Harward drew a perceptive contrast between the selling and marketing
preoccupied with the seller’s need to convert his product into cash, marketing with the idea of satisfying
creating , delivering, and finally consuming it.
Several scholars have found that companies that embrace the marketing concept achieve superior
performance. This was first demonstrated by companies practicing a reactive market orientationunderstanding and meeting customers’ expressed needs.
The trends and forces defining the 21st century are leading business firms to a new set of beliefs
and practices. Today’s best marketers recognize the need to have a more complete, cohesive approach
that goes beyond traditional applications of the marketing concept.
This concept is based on the development, design, and implementation of marketing programs,
processes and activities that recognizes their breadth and interdependencies. Holistic marketing
recognizes that “everything matters” in marketing- and that a broad, integrated perspective is often
necessary. Holistic marketing is thus an approach that attempts to recognize and reconcile the scope and
complexities of marketing activities.
In the words of Philip Kotler, “Marketing Mix is the set of controllable variables and their levels
that the firm uses to influence the target market.” Marketing mix is a combination of various elements,
namely, Product, Price, Place (replaced by Physical Distribution) and Promotion.(see fig:1.5)
Fig: 1.5 Components of Marketing Mix
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The various important elements of marketing mix are briefly discussed as follows;
PRODUCT: It is the thing possessing utility. It is the bundle of value the marketer offers to potential
customers. Today manufacturers are realizing that customer expects more than just the basic product.
Therefore the product must satisfy the consumers needs. The manufacturer first understands the consumer
needs and then decides the type, shape, design ,brand, package etc. of the goods to be produced. The
product is a marketer’s primary vehicle for delivering customer satisfaction.
PRICE: it is the amount of money asked in exchange for product. It must be reasonable so as to enable the
consumer to pay for the product. While fixing the price of a product, the management considers certain
factors such as cost, ability of the consumers, competition, discount, allowances, margin of profit etc.
PLACE (PHYSICAL DISTRIBUTION): It is the delivery of products at the right time and at the right place. It
is the combination of decision regarding channel of distribution (wholesalers, retailers etc. ),
transportation, warehousing and inventory control.
PROMOTION: It consist of all activities aimed at inducing and motivating customers to buy the product.
The selection of alternatives determine the success of marketing efforts. Some firms use advertising,
some others personal selling or sales promotion. Thus promotion includes advertising public relations,
personal selling and sales promotion.
Recently Packaging and People are two more elements of marketing mix that have been emerged.
These are discussed as follows.
PACKAGING: Packaging is the art, science and technology of preparing goods for transport, sale and
exchange. A well designed pack is invaluable in building brand loyalty with the customer. Packaging
must be such that a customer is impressed at the very moment he or she sees the product.
PEOPLE :It consists mainly of the people to whom goods are sold(consumer) and the people through
whom goods are sold(sales people, wholesalers, retailers etc.) people include competitors also. This factor
will be the reoson as well as resources for success in marketing.
It includes all those factors which are external to a firm and which affect the Marketing process.
According to Philips Kotler, Marketing environment is constantly spinning out new opportunities and
new threats, and the firms find their marketing collapse. Therefore, the company’s Marketing executives
must constantly monitor the changing Marketing scene and observe the changing environment through
Marketing research. The Marketing Environment includes non- controllable variables that effects the
company’s ability to serve its markets.
The controllable factors are well within the grip of the firm and easy to adjust them to suit the
changes. These consist of Marketing policies and Marketing strategies. Framing of marketing policies is
the responsibility of top management and marketing strategies are developed by middle level
management. The selection of target marketing, Marketing objectives and Marketing control are the other
controllable factors which also helps in framing Marketing strategies.
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Controllable variables will have to be filtered through various uncontrollable environmental factors
before they reach to the customers. The uncontrollable environmental consist of two levels i.e., micro
environment and macro environment.
It consists of elements or forces that influence marketing directly. It includes Supplier, Marketing
Intermediaries, Costumers, Competitiors and the General Public. (see fig:1.6(a))
Fig 1.6(a) Micro- Environment Variables
SUPPLIER One who supply the resources to a company. Any shortage of Supply affect the Marketing
function and thus, should avoid dependence on any single supplier.
MARKETING INTERMEDIATES They are the middlemen who create place Utility, Time utility and
Quantity utility. These includes Physical Distribution Firms, Transport Companies, Marketing Consulting
Firms, Marketing Services Agencies and Assist the company in promoting the right products to the right
CUSTOMERS It refers to consumer markets, industrial markets, reseller markets, international markets
and govt. markets having its own characteristics.
PUBLIC The marketing decisions considerably influenced by public relations, govt. policies, the press,
the legislatures and the general public.
Macro-environment consist of forces affecting the entire society or economy at large. Macroenvironment influences entire industry as a whole.The various variables of Macro-environment are as
under (see fig 1.6(b))
Marketing Management
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Demographic environment.
Social-Cultural environment.
Economic environment.
Ethical environment.
Political environment.
Physical environment.
Technological environment.
Fig.1.6(b) Macro- Environmental Variables
It includes factors such as population growth, change in age-group, marriages, family sizes,
movement of people from big cities to rural or sub urban areas, literacy etc. It is essential for the market
to understand the demographic forces in a country which helps him frame optimal marketing-mix.
 Sociological Factors Consumers being social animal and their life style is deeply influenced by the social set up.
It is found to have deep influence on consumer taste, temperament, life and living. The needs, desires, hopes and
aspirations of the consumers are necessary to be understood.
 Psychological The study about the behaviour, attitude, temperament, mentality and personality is must
and how there wants and needs can be best satisfied?
 Anthropological these factors are vital in noting the national and regional characters, cultures and sub
cultures and the pattern of living.
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It comprises of economic system of the country, affects the demand structure of any industry/ product.
Changes in economic conditions provides marketers with new challenges and threats. Various economic factors
which directly affect the Marketing strategies are discussed below.
 Role of Govt: Marketing in greatly influenced by the role of govt. through fiscal policies, industrial
regulations, economic controls, import-export policies etc. Monetary and Non-Monetary policies of
the Govt. also determine the tempo of economic development.
 Consumers: Consumer welfare and interest should be taken into consideration while preparing
marketing programme. The marketer is to make available quality products at reasonable prices, in
sufficient qualities, at required time interval.
 Competition: Healthy competition is always in the interest of customers whereas unhealthy
competition is harmful and leads toward increasing cost and waste.
 Price: It is determinant of the fate of any business. If the Price is too high, reduces the consumer and
consumption and if too low, the producers and marketers are left in the lurch.
In the race of earning more and more profits, business people disintegrate the ethical values from
the business. This leads to adulteration, limitation etc. resulting in socio-economic pollution of minds and
The legal environment for marketing decision is characterized by various laws passed by Central or State
Govt. and even by local administration. Govt. agencies, political parties, pressure groups and laws create
tremendous pressure and constraints for marketer. Marketing managers required full knowledge and
understanding of political philosophy and ideologies of major political groups and legal environment for
framing marketing strategies and growth of business.
It refers to the physical distribution of goods and services. It needs the in depth study of cost and
convenience involved in the process of physical distribution of products from producer to consumer end.
It helps to shape changes in living style of the consumers. It has the responsibility of relating
changing life- style patterns, values and changing technology to market opportunities for profitable sales
to particular market segment.
Marketing Management
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More than a century ago, the father of our nation, Mahatma Gandhi had made a visionary
and deep meaningful statement at Johannesburg, South Africa at 1890 – “A customer is the most
interruption on our work. He is the purpose of it and not an outsider on our premises. He is the part of it.
We are not doing a favour by serving him. He is doing us a favour by giving us the opportunity to do so”.
Though this statement was not made in the marketing concept, there is a lot of wisdom and insight into
Mahatma’s words.
Today all the firms are engaged in the process of creating a life time value and
relationship with their customers. This chapter deals with studying consumer behavior as a related field of
Behaviour is the interaction with the ambient surrounding environment, inherent in living
creatures and mediated by their external and inner activeness. Thus consumer behaviour is actions of
consumers in the market place and the underlying motives for those actions. Marketers expect that by
understanding what causes consumers to buy particular goods and services, they will be able to determine
which products are needed in the market place, which are obsolete and how best to present those goods to
the consumer.
The study of consumer behaviour is the study of how individuals make decisions to
In the words of Walters and Paul “ consumer behaviour is the process whereby
individuals decide what, when, where, how and from whom to purchase goods and services.”
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buyer behaviour due to the following reasons.
 The study of consumer behaviour for any product is of vital importance to marketers in shaping the
fortunes of their organisations.
 It is significant for regulating consumption of goods and thereby maintaining economic stability.
helps in solving marketing management problems in more effective manner.
 Today consumers give more importance on environment friendly products. They are concerned about
consumers is essential for any firm.
 The growth of consumer protection movement has created an urgent need to understand how
consumers make their consumption and buying decision.
 Consumers tastes and preferences are ever changing. Study of consumer behaviour gives information
formulating of production policy.
 For effective market segmentation and target marketing, it is essential to have an understanding of
consumers and their behaviour.
There are four types of consumer behaviour. They are;
Complex Buying Behaviour: Consumers goes through complex buying behaviour when they are highly
involved in a purchase and aware of significant differences among brands. Consumers are highly involved
when the product is expensive, bought infrequently, risky and self-expensive. Here consumers go through
a rational/logical thinking process to collect as much information as possible about the available brands.
Behaviour exhibited while purchasing a car is an example of complex buying behaviour.
Dissonance Reduction Buying Behaviour: Sometimes consumers are highly involved in purchases but
see little difference in the brands. After the purchase they feel that the product does not perform to their
expectations. They may thing about alternative brand which has forgone in the brand selection process.
As a result, they feel some discomfort. This mental condition is known as Cognitive Dissonance.
Variety Seeking Buying Behaviour: Here consumers have a lot more brand options to choose. At the
same time there are significant brand differences. Unit price of product is low. Consumer involvement is
also low. But consumer show brand switching behaviour. They go on changing from one brand to
another. They like experiments for the sake of variety satisfaction. They exhibit variety seeking behaviour
in case of products like soap, detergents, toothpaste etc.
Habitual Buying Behaviour : In this situation consumers buy their products on regular basis. Brand
switching behaviour is quite common here. Variations among brands are significant. Products are usually
low priced. Gathering product knowledge is not so important. Consumers show habitual buying behaviour
in case of products like salt, matches etc.
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It is the buying motives which induce a consumer to buy a particular product. A lady may buy a
sari for physical protection or for wearing something to look beautiful or as a status symbol. Thus buying
motive is a strong feeling, instinct, desire or emotion that make the buyer to buy a product. According to
D J DUNCAN, “ buying motives are those influences or considerations which provide the impulse to buy,
induce action or determine choice in the purchase of goods and services.” In short, a buying motive is the
reasons why buyers buy.
Buying motives are of four types.
Emotional and Rational motives.
Product and Patronage motives.
Inherent and Learned motives.
Psychological and Social buying motives.
When a consumer decides to buy without much logical thinking, his decision is said to be
emotional. Emotional buying motives are the motives which are affected by the feeling of heart. The
emotional motives are of the following types.
 Sex or Romance Motive: Fancy clothes, cosmetics, perfumes etc. are in great demand on account of the
instinct of sex or a desire to attract the opposite sex. Men dress in their best to appeal to women; and women
put attractive jewellery, fancy clothes, hairdos, pleasing perfumes and make-up in a modern style to appeal to
men. Some examples of appeals made are:
“ Every woman has a right to look younger than she is”
“It gives your face a sex appeal”
 Love of Others( Affection Motives):This motives plays a important part when parents purchase
all kinds of things for their children like toy, fancy garments, and other presents and take insurance
policies to make provision for their future. Examples of its appeals are:
“ Because you love them; protect them”
“Wise mothers give their family a nourishing breakfast”
 Social Acceptance Motive: Every individual wants to have respect and acceptance from the group
to which he belongs. Taking advantage of this motive the marketers use appeals such as:
“ Your neighbours shops here- you should too”
“ It makes you nice to be near all days”
 Vanity Motive: People like to feel important in the society, among friends, in association and
clubs, to achieve status symbols. Hence ladies purchase costly costumes, jewellery or join
expensive clubs, have expensive home decoration object. Men purchases television, costly
furniture, air conditioners, scooters, cars, perfumes and other variety goods. Appeals are made as
the following:
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“ Be the first to own one”
“Designed exclusively with you in mind.”
 Recreation and Relaxation Motive: People purchase sports and games materials, indoor game,
horse racing, tickets for cinema, record players, magazines etc. examples of appeals are:
“Quiet heaven for you to spend your holidays- come and stay at Ashoka.”
 Curiosity Motive: Adolescent boys and girls and even adults are curious about certain things such
as old paintings, old coins, blue films, cabaret dancers etc. Examples of appeals are:
“For Adults only”
“Something new has been added- come and see”
 Emulate Motive: Some people are motivated to buy what is reported to be used by great people
whose opinions matter. For Example; Sachin Tendulkar says, “ Boost is the secret of my energy.”
 Comfort and Convenience Motive: Most people like to do everything in an easy way and in
comfort. Hence this motive may be well exploited by the marketers particularly for selling luxury
items like washing machine, vaccum cleaners, pressure cookers, electric irons, air conditioners,
electric oven etc.
When a buyer decides to buy after careful consideration or logical thinking, his decision is said to be
rational. Thus rational buying motives are motives where a consumer takes the decision of purchasing a
product by his head and mind. In making rational purchases, the consumer considers price, durability,
dependability, efficiency, convenience etc. Rational motives are of the following types:
 Monetary Gain: Almost all buyers would like to get monetary benefits or to purchase better
products at a comparatively low cost. Some Examples of appeals made are:
“ Shop at ours, get the choicest product at the cheapest price”.
“ A bumper sale at 20% discount.”
 Efficiency in Operation and Use: Most buyers buy products which function efficiently and
effectively. For example, knife sharpeners, razors, grinders in the kitchen and in offices etc.
Examples of appeals made are:
“ Fabrics that never needs ironing”.
“ Push button control”.
 Dependability Motive: It compels an individual to buy to satisfy his desire to obtain quality
goods of reliable and durable nature. Example of appeals made are:
“ A life partner”.
“ It is most dependable for health”.
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It refers to those influences and reasons which make the consumer buy a certain product in
preference to another. Product motives are of two types:
 Primary Product Motives: These motive induce a consumer to purchase general class of the
product. These motive relate to the basic needs of people like hunger, thirst, sleep etc.
 Selective Product Motives: These motives determine particular brand or item will purchased
from the general class.
Suppose a professor wants to purchase a scooter but his wife decides to have a refrigerator. They may
decide to purchase a scooter. The decision to purchase a scooter is primary product motive. Once a
decision to purchase a scooter is made additional decision must be made regarding the brand, colour and
model of the scooter to be purchased. The factor which influences the decision to buy a particular scooter
(eg. Bajaj) from among various brands or models is known as Selective Product Motive.
These are those motives which determine where or from whom products are purchased. These are
the considerations which induce a buyer to buy goods from specific shops. Following are the key
patronage motives:
 Price: As income is limited, an individual would like to purchase cheap products or at discount.
Hence following price appeals attract him:
“ price slashed by 30%”.
“ old price Rs 350. Today’s price Rs.190 only”.
 Location: Nearest to one’s residence may induce people to buy from a particular store which may
“ Location in the heart of the city, accessible from all sides”.
 Quality: It appeals some customers to buy standard quality goods, even if costly, The usual
appeals are.
“ We guarantee price back, if quality is found inferior”.
“We guarantee every product we sell”.
 Variety: Some people may buy products from a particular shop because of variety of goods
available there. Hence following appeal attracts buyers.
“We have the largest selection in town”.
 Services: Services like home delivery, credit, goods gift, free services etc. may induce people to
buy products. Examples of appeals are:
“ Free home delivery within the town”
“We service what we sell”
 Personality of the Owner or Salesmen: Even the personality of the owner or salesmen may
induce some people to buy goods from particular store.
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These are those which come from the physiological or basic needs such as hunger, thirst, sleep,
sex etc. these are the motives for the satisfaction of which a consumer makes his best efforts and if these
motives are not satisfied he feels mental tension.
Learned motives are those which are acquired or learned by a consumer from the environment
and education. These motives are social status, social acceptance, fear, security etc. while satisfying
learned motives, the consumer does not consider even the price of the product.
These are those which are driven by internal psychological processes like learning, perception and
Man is a social being. He cannot live away from the influence of the society. His consumption motives are
shaped by his interactions with members of hi family and society. Thus social motives are those motives which are
influenced by the society in which consumers live.
Buying is a mental process. A decision to buy a product is taken after passing through different
stages. According to Robinson, Faris and Wind ( in 1967) the buying decision process involve the
following five stages.
All buying decisions start with need recognition. When a need is not satisfied it creates tension.
This tension drives people to satisfy that need. Then need becomes motive. Thus motives arise from
needs and wants. The force that converts needs into motives is called motivation.
After recognizing a need or want consumers search for information about the various alternatives
available to satisfy it. If the need is usual, such as hunger, thirst etc. the consumer may rely on past
experience of what satisfies this need. If needs are unusual or unfamiliar, consumer may seek additional
information from friends, family, media, sales people etc. it is only through this information search that
we can identify the means of satisfying our need.
By collecting information during the second stage, an individual comes to know about the brands and
their features. Now he compares the alternative products or brands in terms of their attributes such as price,
quality, durability etc. during the evaluation stage he may consider the opinion of others such as wife, relatives
and friends. Then he selects the brand that will give him the maximum utility (or that he thinks the best).
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Finally the consumer arrives at a purchase decision. Purchase decision can be one of the three,
namely no buying, buying later and buying now. If he has decided to buy now, he will decide the shop
(dealer) to buy it from, when to buy it, how much money to spend etc. After deciding these, he will go to
the shop chosen and buy the product of the brand chosen.
It refers to the behaviour of a consumer after purchasing a product. After the consumer has
actually purchased the product/brand he will be satisfied or dissatisfied with it. If he is satisfied with the
product he would regularly buy the brand and develop a loyalty. He recommends the brand to his friends
and relatives. The negative feeling which arises after purchase causing inner tension is known as
Cognitive Dissonance (or Post Purchase Dissonance). The post purchase dissonance is also called Buyer’s
All factors which determine the buying or consumer behaviour are broadly classified into six.
Psychological factors, Social factors, Cultural factors, Personal factors, Economic factors and
Environmental factors.
Psychological Factors
The following are the important psychological factors:
1) Consumer Needs and Motivation: All buying decisions start with need recognition. People always seek
to satisfy their needs. When need is not satisfied it drives people to satisfy that need. Then the need
becomes a motive. Thus motive arises from needs and wants. The force that converts needs into motives
is called motivation.
2) Perception: It is the process of selecting, organizing and interpreting information in order to give
meaning to the world or environment we live in. the way the consumers display selective attention,
distortion or retention motivates marketers to design the product, package, promotional themes etc. The
marketers should understand the consumer perception and convert perception into a buying response.
3) Learning: Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge. Generally, learning results in four waysListening, Reading, Observing and experiencing. The importance of learning theory for marketers is that
they can create demand for a product by associating it with strong drives, using motivating cues and
providing positive reinforcement.
4) Belief and Attitude: A belief is a descriptive thought that a person holds about something. Such thoughts
are based on learning, opinion or faith. For example, A consumer believes that Maruti cars are less costly
and fuel efficient. Attitude means a person’s feelings towards a particular object or situation.
Social Factors
The major social factors are as follows
1) Reference Group: consumer behaviour is influenced by various groups within society known as
reference groups. We have several reference groups with whom an individual associate such as
friends, relatives, classmates, club memberships etc. In each groups there is an opinion leader
whose style is adopted by others. Marketers often identify such opinion leaders and develop
advertisement featuring them as endorsers.
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2) Role and Status: A person takes up many roles in different situations in his /her life. He can be
son, father, husband, employee etc. Each role has a status. A person’s role and status influence his
general as well as buying behaviour.
3) Family: Family is one of the important factors influencing buying behaviour.
Cultural Factors
Culture determines and regulates our general behaviour. The major cultural factors are as follows:
1) Culture: Culture simply refers to values and beliefs in which one is born and brought up. It is a set of
Ideas, Customs, Values, Art and Belief that are produced or shaped by a society and passed on from
generation to generation. Culture influence what we eat and wear, how we relax and where we live etc.
2) Sub-Culture: It is based on religion, language, geographic region, nationality, age etc. It is a segment
within a large culture that shares a set of beliefs, values or activities that differ in certain respects from
those of the main or overall culture. The food habits are different in different parts of India.
3) Social Class: A social class is a group of people with similar values, interest and behaviour within a
society. Consumers buying behaviour is determined by the social class to which they belong rather
than by their income alone. The social class is based on income, education, occupation, family history,
wealth, lifestyle, area of residence etc.
Personal Factors
Personal factors are unique to a particular person. These factors include demographic factors and are as
1) Age: Need and wants are determined by age. So buying changes with age, Taste for food, clothing
and recreation etc. changes with age.
2) Stages in the Life Cycle: People buy different goods during different life cycle stages. Life cycle of
an individual refers to the different phases of his or her life.
3) Occupation and Economic Status: Occupation influences product choice, brands beliefs etc. It
determines income, buying power and status.
4) Life Style: It indicates how people live, how they spend their time, how and what they choose and where
they shop. It is the way people eat, drink, spend leisure time, work and so on.
5) Personality: Personality refers to the unique psychological characteristics of an individual.
Personality of consumers influences brand preference and choice of products.
6) Self-Image: Self image implies what one thinks of himself/herself .It is the way one sees
himself/herself or wishes to see himself/herself or wants to be seen by others. Self-concept is an
important factor to marketers in planning advertising campaign.
Economic Factors
The various economic factors which determine consumer behaviour are as follows:
1) Personal Income: Gross income of a person is composed of disposable and discretionary income. When
disposable income rises, the expenditure on various items will increase and vice versa.
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2) Family Income: It is the aggregate income of all members of a family. The family income remaining
after the expenditure on the basic needs of the family is made available for buying goods, durables and
3) Income Expectations: If a person expects any increase in his income he will buy durables on hire
purchase etc, if his future income is likely to decline he will restrict his expenditure to bare necessities.
4) Savings: When a person decides to save more, he will spend less on comfort and luxuries.
5) Liquidity Position: If an individual has more liquid assets, he goes in for buying comfort and luxuries.
6) Consumer Credit: If Consumer Credit is available on liberal terms, expenditure on comfort and luxuries
will increase.
Environmental Factors
The various environmental factors which determine consumer behaviour are as follows:
1) Political Situation: In state monopolies, consumers have to be satisfied with a limited range of
products, but in market oriented economy like that of USA, consumers have wider choice.
2) Legal Forces: Consumers make purchases within the legal framework. All purchase dealings are
carried on within legal limits.
3) Technological Advancements: Technological advancements bring wide range of changes in
products/ services and makes consumers go in for latest products.
4) Ethical Considerations: Buying behaviour is influenced by the sense of social morality and
ethical considerations.
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Market consists of buyers, and buyers differ in one or more respects. Buyer’s behaivour is a
complex phenomenon. An understanding of the economic, psychological and socio-cultural
characteristics of the consumers and their motivations. Attitudes, cognitions.personalities and perceptions
can help to discover new market opportunities, clear and specific market segmentation. All markets are
made up of segments and these segments are made up of sub-segments.
Segmentation is a consumer oriented marketing strategy. It is a process of dividing the market on
the basis of interest, need and motive of the consumer. Market segmentation simply means dividing
market or grouping of consumers. It refers to grouping of consumers according to such characteristics as
income, age, race, education, sex, geographic location etc.Therefore market segmentation is the strategy
that subdivides the target market into sub-groups of consumers with distinct and homogenous
characteristics with a view to develop and follow a distinct and differentiated marketing programmes for
each sub-group in order to enhance satisfaction to consumers and profit to the marketer.
According to Philip Kotler, “ Market segmentation is the sub-dividing of a market into
homogenous sub-sects of consumers where any sub-sects may conceivably be selected as a market target
to be reached, With a distinct marketing mix.”
The main criteria’s of effective segmentation are
Nature of Demand
General considerations
consumers. The size, profile, and other relevant characteristics of the segment must be measurable and
obtainable in terms of data. Therefore, segments should be capable of giving accurate measurements.
Substantiality refers to the size of the segmented market. Segments must be large enough to be
profitable. For small segment, it may not be possible for the marketer to develop separate marketing mix
for such non profitable segments.
The segment must be accessible, which means marketers must be able to reach the market segments at
lower costs. Segments must be reachable by company’s sales persons, distributors advertising media etc.
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The segment should be large enough to be considered as a separate market. Such segments must have
individuality of their own so that it leads to different segments.
The segments which the company wishes to pursue must be auctionable in the sense that there should
company, the segments should be selected.
Segmentation is required only if there are marked differences in the nature of demand. Nature of
demand refers to the different quantities demanded by various segments. Each segmented market must
exhibit difference in consumption rates from another segment.
Apart from the above characteristics, the segment must have growth potential, be profitable, carries no
unusual risks and has competitors who do not fight directly with the product or brand.
According to Sheth, “Market segmentation is the essence of modern marketing.” It is advantageous to
firms as well as consumers.
 Increases sale volume.
 Helps to win competition.
 Enables to take decisions.
 Helps to prepare effective marketing plan.
 Helps to understand the needs of consumers.
 Makes best use of resources.
 Expands markets.
 Creates innovations.
 Higher markets share.
 Specialised marketing.
 Achieves marketing goals.
 Customer oriented.
 Quality product at reasonable price.
 Other benefits such as discounts, prize etc.
Undifferentiated Marketing: Under this strategy, the producer or marketer does not differentiate
between different type of customers. One marketing mix is used for the whole market. Eg. Pepsi.
Differentiated Marketing: A number of market segments are identified and different marketing mix is
developed for each of the segments. Eg; consumer products.
Concentrated Marketing: It is concerned with the concentration of all marketing efforts on one selected
segment within the total market. Eg; Kid’s wear.
Customised or Personalised Marketing: In this case firms view each customer as a separate segment
and customised marketing programmes to that individuals specific requirements. Eg; civil engineers
designing flats, villas, bridges etc.
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Different variables are used to segment the consumer markets. They can be broadly put into four
categories.(see fig 3.5)
Fig 3.5Bases for Market Segmentation
DEMOGRAPHIC SEGMENTATION: Demos means people and graphein means to measure or to
study. In Demography means study of people or population. In Demographic segmentation, the market is
segmented on the basis of demographic variables such as age, sex, family size, family life cycle, income,
occupation, education etc. Demographic variables or characteristics are the most popular bases for
segmenting the market.
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(a) Age: Age is an important factor for segmenting the market. This is because demand and brand choice
of people change with age. On the basis of age, a market can be divided into four- Children,
Teenagers, Adults and Grown-ups. For consumers of different age groups, different types of products
are produced. Johnson and Johnson cater to the needs of children below 6 years by presenting baby
powders, baby soaps, oils etc.
(b) Sex: Sex based segmentation means grouping customers into males and females. The wants, tastes,
preferences, interests, choices etc, of men are different from that of women. For instance, women are
more fond of cosmetics and other fancy articles. Marketers use gender differences for marketing
garments, personal care products, bikes, cosmetics and magazines.
(c) Family Life Cycle: It refers to the important stages in the life of an ordinary family. Broadly
divided into the following stages.
Stage 1: Childhood.
Stage 2: Bachelorhood (unmarried).
Stage 3: Honeymooners- Young married couple.
Stage 4: Parenthood- (a) Couple with children.
(b) Couple with grown up children.
Stage 5: Post- parenthood- Older married couple with children living away from Parents (due to
job or marriage of sons and daughters).
Stage 6: Dissolution- One of the partners is dead.
Wants, tastes, interests, buying habits etc vary over different life cycles stages.
(d)Religion: Religious differences have important effect on marketing. The male folk among the muslims
have a demand for striped lungis and the woman folk for pardhas.
(e) Income: Income segmentation is used for automobiles, clothing, cosmetics, travel, financial services
etc. For example, BMW (car manufacturer concentrates on high income segment)
(f) Occupation: Market segmentation is done also on the basis of occupation of consumers. For instance,
doctors may demand Surgical equipment, lawyers may demand coat etc.
(g) Family Size: A marketer launches different sizes of products in the market according to size of the
family. For example, shampoos and oil are available in 100 ml. 200ml. 500ml etc.
(h) Education: On the basis of education, market for books may be divided as high school, plus two,
graduate and post graduate.
GEOGRAPHIC SEGMENTATION: The marketer divides the market into different geographical units.
Generally international companies segment markets geographically. The theory behind this strategy is
that people who live in same area have some similar need and wants and that need and wants differ from
those of people living in other areas.
(a) Area: This type of segmentation divides the market into different geographical units such as country,
state, region, district, area etc. Some manufacturers split up their sales territories either state-wise or
district-wise. Markets may also be divided into urban and rural markets.
(b) Climate: Different types of climate prevail in different places. On the basis of climate, areas can be
classified as hot, cold, humid and rainy region. Climate determines the demand for certain goods.
(c) Population Density: The size and density of population affects the demand for consumer goods. In those
areas where size and density of population is high, there will be good demand for consumer goods.
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BEHAVIOURAL SEGMENTATION: Behavioural segmentation is based on buyer behaviour i.e. the
way people behave during and after purchase.
(a) Attitude: Customers can be segmented on the basis of attitude such as enthusiastic, positive,
indifferent, negative, hostile etc. Fashionable and latest products are used by enthusiastic consumers.
Liquor, cigarette etc are used by negative consumers.
(b) Product Segmentation: The market segmentation is done on the basis of product characteristics that
are capable of satisfying certain special needs of customers.
(1) Prestige products, e.g., Automobiles, clothing, Home furnishing.
(2) Maturity products, e.g., Cigarettes, Blades etc.
(3) Status products, e.g., Most luxuries.
(4) Anxiety products, e.g., Medicines, soaps etc.
(5) Functional products, e.g., Fruits, vegetables etc.
(c) Occasion Segmentation: According to the occasions, buyers develop a need, purchase a product or
use a product. There can be two types of situations- regular and special. For example, for regular use,
women purchase cotton or polyester sarees or churidars. For attending marriage or reception(special
occasion) they buy silk sarees.
(d) Benefit Segmentation: Benefit segmentation implies satisfying one benefit group. The benefit may
be classified into Generic or Primary and Secondary or Evolved.
Generic or primary
Tooth paste
Secondary or Evolved
Breath freshing, brightness.
(e) Volume Segmentation: The market is segmented on the basis of volume or quality of purchase. The
buyers are grouped into categories like bulk buyers, moderate buyers, and small buyers. Heavy buyers
are often small percentage of the market but account for a high percentage of total consumption.
Marketers prefer to attract one heavy buyer rather than several small buyers.
(f) Loyalty Segmentation: Consumers have varying degree of loyality to specific brands. On the basis of
brand loyality, buyers can be divided into the following five groups. (1) Hard-core loyals (2) Softcore loyals (3) Shifting loyals (4) Switchers (5) Consumer innovators.
PSYCHOGRAPHIC SEGMENTATION: It refers to grouping of people into homogeneous segments
on the basis of psychological make up namely personality and life style.
(a) Life Style: A person’s life style is the pattern of living as expressed in the person’s activities, interests and opinions .They
express their life styles through the products they use. For example, the life style of a college student is different from that
of an ordinary worker. Car, clothing, cosmetics, furniture, liquor, cigarettes etc. are segmented by using life style
(b) Personality: Personality reflects a person’s traits, attitude and habits. It is in this background that a person is classified as
active or passive, rational or impulsive, creative or conventional, introvert or extrovert. For example, Raymond’s
advertisement says “Raymonds. The Complete Man”
(c) Social Class: On the basis of Social class, consumers may be grouped into lower class, middle class and upper class.
Social class is determined by income, occupation and education.
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Target marketing is the process of assessing the relative worth of different market segments and selecting
one or more segments in which to compete. These become the target segments. Titan is using the target marketing
strategy very effectively. German car manufacturer Mercedes target high status consumers with experience and
prestigious motor cars.
According to David Cravens and others “ Target market is a group of existing or potential
customers within a particular product market towards which an organisation directs its marketing efforts”.
 Total market approach: A company develops a single marketing mix and directs it at the entire
market for a particular product. This approach is used when an organisation defines the total
market for a particular product as its target market.
 Concentration approach: An organisation directs its marketing efforts toward a single market
segment through a single marketing mix. The total market may consist of several segments, but
the organisation selects only one of the segments as its target market.
 Multi-segment approach: An organisation directs its marketing efforts at two or more segments by
developing a marketing mix for each segment.
It involves the following four major steps:
Market segmentation: Markets are segmented on the basis of certain characteristic such as sex,
education, income, age etc.
Market targeting: It refers to evaluating each market segments attractiveness and selecting one or
more of the segments to enter. Thus target marketing and market targeting are not one and the same.
Market targeting is only a step in target marketing.
Designing the marketing mix: After selecting the segment, the next step is to design a suitable
product and other marketing mix elements for each segment selected.
Product Positioning: Market segmentation strategy and market positioning strategy are like two sides
of a coin. Target marketing begins with segmentation and ends with positioning.
The act of creating an image about a product or brand in the consumers mind is known as
In the words of Kotler, “Positioning is the act of designing the company’s offer and image so that
it occupies a distinct and valued place in the target consumers minds.” In short, the process of creating an
image for a product in the minds of targeted customers is known as product positioning. Close-up tooth
paste is looked upon by the consumers more as a mouth wash than a teeth cleaner, while ‘pepsodent’ has
created an impression of germ killer in the consumers minds.
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Identifying potential competitive advantages: Consumers generally choose products and services which
give them greatest value.The key to winning and keeping customers is to understand their needs and
buying processes far better than the competitors do and deliver more values.
Identifying the competitors position: When the firm understands how its customers view its brand relative
to competitors, it must study how those same competitors position themselves.
Choosing the right competitive advantages: It refers to an advantage over competitors gained by offering
consumers greater value either through lower price or by providing more benefits.
Communicating the competitive advantage: The company should take specific steps to advertise the
competitive advantage it has chosen so that it can impress upon the minds of consumers about the
superiority claimed in respect of the product over its competing brands.
Monitoring the positioning strategy: Markets are not stagnant. They keep on changing. Consumer tastes
shift and competitors react to those shifts. After a desired position is developed, the marketer should
continue to monitor its position through brand tracking and monitoring.
It is concerned with the following four elements.
1) The Product: Design, special feature, attributes, quality, package etc. of product create its own
image in the minds of the consumers. Material ingredient of a product is also important in the
process of product positioning.
2) The Company: The goodwill of a company lends an aura to its brand. For example, Tata, Godrej,
Bajaj etc have very good reputation in the market
3) The Competitors: Product image is build in consumers mind in relation to the competing product.
Thus a careful study of competition is required.
4) The Consumer: Ultimate aim of positioning policy is to create a place for the product in consumers
minds. Therefore, it becomes necessary to study the consumer behaviour towards the product.
Following technique are used in positioning a product in the market:
 Positioning by Corporate Identity: The companies that have become a tried and trusted household
name.For example, Tata, Sonyetc.
 Positioning by Brand Endorsement: Marketers use the names of company’s powerful brands for
line extentions or while entering another product category. Lux, Surf, Dettol etc.
 Positioning by Product Attributes and Benefits: It emphasize the special attributes and benefits of
the product.Close-up is positioned on fresh breath and cosmetics benefits.
 Positioning by use, Occasion and Time: It is to find an occasion or time of use and sit on it. For
example, Vicks vaporub is to be used for child’s cold at night.
 Positioning by Price and Quality: Company position its brand by emphasizing its price and
quality. Eg. Nirma detergent powder.
 Positioning by Product Category: Brand is perceived to be another product category. Eg. Maruti
positioned its van as omni , family car.
 Positioning by Product User: Positioning the product as an exclusive product for a particular class
of customers. Eg. Scooty as a two wheeler for teenagers.
 Positioning by Competitor: An offensive positioning strategy and is often seen in cases of
comparative advertising. Eg. Tide and Rin
 Positioning by Symbols: Some companies use some symbols for positioning their products.
Eg.vodafone symbol.
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The marketing mix, which is the means by which an organisation reaches its target market, is
made up of product, pricing, distribution, promotion and people decisions. These are usually shortened to
the an acronym "5P's". Product decisions revolve around decisions regarding the physical product (size,
style, specification, etc.) and product line management.
A product can be defined as a collection of physical, service and symbolic attributes which yield
satisfaction or benefits to a user or buyer. A product is a combination of physical attributes say, size and
shape; and subjective attributes say image or "quality". A customer purchases on both dimensions
According to Jobber(2004), “ A product is anything that has the ability to satisfy a consumer
need.” In the words of Dibb et al ,” A product is anything, favourable and unfavourable that is received in
A product's physical properties are characterized the same the world over. They can be
convenience or shopping goods or durables and nondurables; however, one can also classify products
according to their degree of potential for global marketing:
i) Local Products - seen as only suitable in one single market.
ii) International Products - seen as having extension potential into other markets.
iii)Multinational Products - products adapted to the perceived unique characteristics of national markets.
iv) Global Products - products designed to meet global segments.- Products and services fall into two
broad classes based on the types of consumers that use them
A - (1) Consumer Product
B - (2) Industrial Product
01. CONSUMER PRODUCT:- “Product bought
consumption”.Consumer products divided into four classes.
 Convenience product
 Shopping Product
 Specially Products
 Unsought Product
i) Convenience Product:-Consumer product that the customer usually buys frequently, immediately, and
with a minimum of comparison and buying effort consumer products can be divided further into staples,
impulse products, and emergency products.
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Staples Products are those product that consumers buy on a regular basis, such as ketchup, tooth
path etc., Impulse products are those product that purchased with little planning or search effort, such as
Candy bar, and magazine, Emergency product is those when consumer need is urgent, e.g. umbrellas
during a rainstorm etc.
ii) Shopping Product:-Consumer good that the consumer, in the process of selection and purchase,
characteristically compares as such bases as suitability, quality, price, and style. Example: Furniture,
clothing, used cars, major appliances and hotel and motel services.
iii) Specialty Products:-Consumer product with unique characteristics or brand identification for which a
significant group of buyers is willing to make a special purchase effort. e.g. Specific brands and types of
cars, high-priced photographic equipment, designer clothes etc.
iv)Unsought Products:-Unsought products are consumer products that the consumer either does not
knows about or knows about but does not normally think of buying. Most major new inventions are
unsought until the consumer become aware of them through advertising. E.g. Life Insurance and blood
donations to the Red Cross.
02. INDUSTRIAL GOODS It is meant for use in the production of other goods or for some business or
institutional purposes. Industrial goods are classified into four- production facilities and equipments,
production materials, production supplies and management materials.
Product lining is the marketingstrategy of offering for sale several related products. Unlike
or profits that are derived from only a few products in the line.If a line of products is sold with the same
brand name, this is referred to as family branding.
 Product Line Contraction
 Product Line Expansion
 Changing Models or Styles of the Existing Products
Product Simplification means limiting the number of products a dealer deals. Sometimes it
becomes necessary for a company to stop the production of unprofitable products.
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Product diversification means adding a new product or products to the existing product. It is a
strategy for growth and survival in the highly complex marketing environment.
Product differentiation involves developing and promoting an awareness in the minds of
customers that the company’s products differ from the products of competitors. This is made by using
trade mark, brand name, packaging, labeling etc.
Change in demand.
Marketing influences.
Production efficiencies.
Financial influence.
Use of waste.
Competitor’s strategy.
New product development tends to happen in stages. Although firms often go back and forth between
these idealized stages, the following sequence is illustrative of the development of a new product:
 New Product Strategy Development. Different firms will have different strategies on how to
approach new products. Some firms have stockholders who want to minimize risk and avoid
investing in too many new innovations. Some firms can only survive if they innovate frequently
and have stockholders who are willing to take this risk. For example, Hewlett-Packard has to
to manufacture the products at a lower cost.
 Idea Generation. Firms solicit ideas as to new products it can make. Ideas might come from
customers, employees, consultants, or engineers. Many firms receive a large number of ideas each
year and can only invest in some of them.
 Screening and Evaluation: Some products that after some analysis are clearly not feasible or are
not consistent with the core competencies of the firm are eliminated.
 Business Analysis. Ideas are now exposed to more rigorous analysis. Profit projections, risks,
market size, and competitive response are considered. If promising, market research may be done.
 Development: The product is designed and manufacturing facilities are planned.
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 Market Testing: Frequently, firms will try to “test” a product in one region to see if it will sell in
reality before it is released nationally and internationally. There is a lesser risk if the firm only
commits money to advertising and other marketing efforts in one region. Retailers will also be
sold well in one region. The firm may also experiment with different prices for the product.
 Commercialization: Facilities to manufacture the product on a larger scale are now put into
Products often go through a life cycle. Initially, a product is introduced.
on the innovators who are thought to be more knowledgeable about new products for advice. At later
vacuuming were also created.
Product Introduction/ Development Stage
This is the first stage in product life cycle. Before a new product is introduced in the market place,
it should be created first. The processes involve in this stage include generation of idea, designing of the
new product, engineering of its details, and the whole manufacturing process. This is also the phase where
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the product is named and given a complete brand identity that will differentiate it from the others,
particularly the competitors. Once all the tasks necessary to develop the product is complete, market
promotion will follow and the product will be introduced to the consumers. Product development is a
continuous process that is essential in maintaining the product’s quality and value to consumers. This
means that companies need to continuously develop or innovate their products to out ride new and
existing competitors.
Product Growth StageThis is a period where rapid sales and revenue growth is realised. However,
growth can only be achieved when more and more consumers will recognize the value and benefits of a
certain product. In most cases, growth takes several years to happen, and in some instances, the product
just eventually died without achieving any rise in demand at all. Hence, it is important that while the
product is still in the development and introduction stages, a sound marketing plan should be put in place
and a market and primary demand should be established.
Product Maturity and Saturation Stage
In the maturity stage, the product reaches its full market potential and business becomes more
profitable. During the early part of this stage, one of the most likely market scenarios that every business
should prepare for is fierce competition. As business move to snatch competitor’s customers, marketing
pressures will become relatively high. This will be characterised by extensive promotions and competitive
advertising, which are aimed at persuading customer to switch and encouraging distributors to continue
sell the product.
In the middle and late phases of the maturity stage, the rate of growth will start to slow down and
new competitors will attempt to take control of the market. In most cases, many businesses falls and lose
money in these stages as they focus more on increasing advertising spending in hope of maintaining their
grip of the market.
Product Decline Stage
The decline stage is the final course of the product life cycle. This unwanted phase will take place
if companies have failed to revitalize and extend the life cycle of their products during the maturity
stage’s early part. Once already in this phase, it is very likely that the product may never again recover or
experience any growth, eventually dying down and be forgotten.
Branding means giving a name to the product by which it could become known and familiar
among the public. When a brand name is registered and legalised, it becomes a Trade mark. All trade
marks are brands but all brands are not trade marks. Brand , brand name, brand mark, trade mark, copy
right are collectively known as the language of branding.
In many markets, brands of different strength compete against each other. At the top level are
national or international brands. A large investment has usually been put into extensive brand building—
including advertising, distribution and, if needed, infrastructure support. Although some national brands
are better regarded than others—e.g., Dell has a better reputation than e-Machines—the national brands
usually sell at higher prices than to regional and store brands. Regional brands, as the name suggests, are
typically sold only in one area. In some cases, regional distribution is all that firms can initially
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accomplish with the investment capital and other resources that they have. This means that advertising is
usually done at the regional level. Store, or private label brands are, as the name suggests, brands that are
owned by retail store chains or consortia thereof. (For example, Vons and Safeway have the same
corporate parent and both carry the “Select” brand). Typically, store brands sell at lower prices than do
national brands.
Co-brandinginvolves firms using two or more brands together to maximize appeal to consumers.
ingredients contained. Sometimes, this strategy may help one brand at the expense of the other. It is
widely believed, for example, that the “Intel inside” messages, which Intel paid computer makers to put
on their products and packaging, reduced the value of the computer makers’ brand names because the
emphasis was now put on the Intel component.
In order for a business organisation to successfully create an effective brand that is capable of
enhancing a product’s value, it needs to understand how the delivery of value differs across different
types of brands. This means that a company has to know the kind of brand suitable for its offering. So
what are the different kinds of brand? They are the following:
Manufacturer Brands: These are developed and owned by the producers, who are usually involved
with distribution, promotion and pricing decisions for the brands. For example, Apple computers.
Dealer Brands: These are brands initiated and owned by wholesalers or retailers.
Generic Brands: It indicates only the product category and do not includes the company name or
other identifying terms.
Family Brands: A single brand name for the whole line closely related items. For example, Amul
for milk products.
Individual Brands: Each product has a special brand name such as surf etc.
Co-Brands: It uses two individual brands on a single product.
Licensed Brands: It involves licensing of trade marks. For example, P&G licensed its camay
brand of soap in India to Godrej for a few years.
It simply means loyality of a buyer towards a particular brand.Wilkie defined loyality as, “ A
favourable attitude and consistent purchase of a particular brand.” For example, If a customer has a brand
loyality towards ‘Pears’, he will buy and use only that soap. There are three levels of Brand Loyality.
1) Brand Recognition: This means that people are familiar with the product and they are likely to
buy it.
2) Brand Preference: At this level people adopt the product- that is, they habitually buy it if it is
3) Brand Insistence: It is the stage at which people will not accept any substitute.
It simply refers to value associated with a brand. It is the Marketing and financial value associated with a
brand’s strength in a market. According to Aaker, “Brand equity is a set of assets and liabilities linked to
a brand’s name and symbol that add to or subtract from the value provided by a product or service to a
firm or that firm’s customers”.
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Packaging and Labelling are among the most important areas in product management. Packing
means putting article into small packets, boxes or bottles for sale to ultimate consumers or for transport.
Labelling is defined as a slip or tag attached with the product or with its package which provides
necessary information about the product and its producer.
Contrary to common perception that these two processes are all about creating an image and
decent presentation of a product, packaging and labelling have more relevant purpose and objectives.
These include physical protection of product from destructive things that may spoil or ruin it, e.g.
temperature, shock, vibration, etc. Other purposes include containment convenience, marketing, security,
and dissemination of information about the use, transportation, storage or disposal of the product.
Designing the labels and packages of products require careful planning. Moreover, there are
consumer safety regulations that every businesses should follow. It is the responsibility of every product
manufacturer to respects these rules. Thus, before you start designing product labels and packaging, it
makes good business sense to know what laws will affect you and what kind of materials will best suit
your product.
There are four kinds of labels:
1) Brand Label: It gives the brand name or mark. For example, Britannia Biscuits, Vicks Vaporub
2) Grade Label: It gives grade or quality of the product by a number, letter or words. For example, A
grade, B grade or 1and 2 category based on quality.
3) Descriptive Label: It gives details of product, its functions, price, warnings etc.
4) Information Label: It provides maximum information about the product. It contains fuller
instructions on the use and care of the product.
It has been introduced by Theodore Levitt. One of the main reasons for the failure of large
business enterprises is that they do not actually know what kind of business they are doing. This narrow
minded view of Marketing is called Marketing Myopia. Marketers suffer from marketing myopia when
they view their business as providing goods and services rather than as meeting customers needs and
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marketing mix that generates revenue (product, promotion and place are all about marketing costs).
competitor price change.
“Price is the amount of money or goods for which a thing is bought or sold”.
price is the monetary expression of the value to be enjoyed/benefits of purchasing a product, as compared
with other available items.
The concept of value can therefore be expressed as:
(perceived) VALUE = (perceived) BENEFITS – (perceived) COSTS
A customer’s motivation to purchase a product comes firstly from a need and a want:e.g.
• Need: "I need to eat
• Want: I would like to go out for a meal tonight")
The second motivation comes from a perception of the value of a product in satisfying that
need/want (e.g. "I really fancy a McDonalds").
The perception of the value of a product varies from customer to customer, because perceptions of
benefits and costs vary.
Perceived benefits are often largely dependent on personal taste (e.g. spicy versus sweet, or green versus
blue). In order to obtain the maximum possible value from the available market, businesses try to
‘segment’ the market – that is to divide up the market into groups of consumers whose preferences are
broadly similar – and to adapt their products to attract these customers.
In general, a products perceived value may be increased in one of two ways – either by:
(1) Increasing the benefits that the product will deliver, or,
(2) Reducing the cost.
best policy/strategy in various situations.
Cost Based Pricing Policies: Setting price on the basis of the total cost per unit.There are four
methods as follows:
1. Cost Plus Pricing- cost plus a percentage of profit
2. Target Pricing- cost plus a pre determined target rate of return
3. Marginal Cost Pricing- fixed plus variable costs
4. Break-Even Pricing- at break-even point i.e, where total sales=total cost{no profit,no loss point}
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Demand Based Pricing Policies: Setting price on the basis of the demand for the product. There
are two methods as follows:
1. Premium Pricing-Use a high price where there is a uniqueness about the product or service. This
2. Differential Pricing-Same product is sold at different prices to different consumers.
Competition Based Pricing Policies: Setting price on the basis of the competition for the
product. There are three methods as follows:
1. Going Rate Pricing-Many businesses feel that lowering prices to be more competitive can
be disastrous for them (and often very true!) and so instead, they settle for a price that is
close to their competitors.
2. Customary Pricing- Prices for certain commodities get fixed because they have prevailed
over a long period of time.
3. Sealed Bid Pricing-Firms have to quote less price than that of competitors. Tenders ,
winning contracts etc.
Value Based Pricing Policies: It is based on value to the customer. The following are the pricing
method based on customer value.
1. Perceived- Value Pricing: This is the method of judging demand on the basis of value
perceived by the consumer in the product. This method is concerned with setting the price on
the basis of value perceived by the buyer of the product rather than the seller’s cost.
2. Value Of Money Pricing: Price is based on the value which the consumers get from the
product they buy. It is used as a competitive marketing strategy.
This is done with the basis idea of gaining a premium from those buyers who always ready to pay
a much higher price than others. It refers to the high initial price charged when a new product is
introduced in the market. For example, mobile phones which when introduced were highly priced.
Competitive pricing
The producer of a new product may decide to fix the price at competitive level. This is used when market
is highly competitive and the product is not differentiated significantly from the competitive products.
When a firm sets a very low price for one or more of its products with the intention of driving its
competitors out of business.
often have economy brands for soups, spaghetti, etc.
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Price Skimming
other marketing strategies and pricing approaches are implemented.
Psychological Pricing
rational basis. For example 'price point perspective' 99 cents not one dollar.
Optional Product Pricing.
Companies will attempt to increase the amount customer spend once they start to buy. Optional 'extras'
Product Bundle Pricing.
and CDs are often sold using the bundle approach.
Geographical Pricing.
example rarity value, or where shipping costs increase price.
Value Pricing.
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The factors that businesses must consider in determining pricing policy can be summarized in four categories:
(1) Costs
(2) Competitors
somewhere in between. In such cases the chosen price needs to be very carefully considered relative to
those of close competitors.
(3) Customers
(4) Business Objectives
Possible pricing objectives include:
• To maximize profits
• To achieve a target return on investment
• To achieve a target sales figure
• To achieve a target market share
• To match the competition, rather than lead the market
Product pricing strategies frequently depend on the stage a product or service is in its life cycle; that is,
new products often require different pricing strategies than established products or mature products
Entrants often rely on pricing strategies that allow them to capture market share quickly. When
there are several competitors in a market, entrants usually use lower pricing to change consumer spending
habits and acquire market share. To appeal to customers effectively, entrants generally implement a
simple or transparent pricing structure, which enables customers to compare prices easily and understand
that the entrants have lower prices than established incumbent companies.
Complex pricing arrangements, however, prevent lower pricing from being a successful strategy in that
customers cannot readily compare prices with hidden and contingent costs. The long-distance telephone
market illustrates this point; large corporations have lengthy telephone bills that include numerous
contingent costs, which depend on location, use, and service features. Consequently, competitors in the
corporate long-distance telephone service market do not use lower pricing as the primary pricing strategy,
as they do in the consumer and small-business markets, where telephone billing is much simpler.
Another example is the computer industry. Dell, Fujitsu, HP, and many others personal computer
makers offer bundles of products that make it more difficult for consumers to sort out the true differences
among these competitors.
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Sometimes established companies need not adjust their prices at all in response to entrants and
their lower prices, because customers frequently are willing to pay more for the products or services of an
established company to avoid perceived risks associated with switching products or services.
However, when established companies do not have this advantage, they must implement other pricing
strategies to preserve their market share and profits. When entrants are involved, established companies
sometimes attempt to hide their actual prices by embedding them in complex prices. This tactic makes it difficult
for customers to compare prices, which is advantageous to established companies competing with entrants that
have lower prices. In addition, established companies also may use a more complex pricing plan, such as a twopart pricing tactic. This tactic especially benefits companies with significant market power. Local telephone
companies, for example, use this strategy, charging both fixed and per-minute charges.
According to the product life cycle a product passes through 4stages, they are:
Introduction: Product has been just introduced to the market – so the price will typically be at the
higher end;
Growth: This is the stage in which a products sales increases rapidly – price is set high at the
growth phase to skim the market;
Maturity & saturation: Here the product reached optimal sales and plateaus out – price is
gradually reduced to maintain market share and meet the threat of competition;
Decline: The product ceases to be popular due to a variety of reasons and decline sets in – price
cutting is in full swing to make sure that all inventory is exhausted before market demand runs
out, a type of harvesting the market.
The importance of the product life cycle in pricing cannot be understated. Obviously the pricing strategies
at the different stages should differ to ensure that profits are maximized.
The term product positioning has already been explained. It is avery important concept in setting
the price of the product. It is clearly very foolish to position a product as a high quality exclusive item,
and then price it too low.
Price is one of the clearest signals that the customer has about the value of the product being
offered. So there should always be a sensible relationship between the product and the price.
Competition and Potential Competition
Although the product has been well positioned there will always be competitors and it goes
without saying that the threat of the competition should be carefully considered. In a situation of high
competition it is important to note that competing purely on price is counter productive. The business
should consider all elements of the marketing mix and how they interact to create demand and value for
the product should be considered in setting the overall competing strategy.
Some firms launch new products at high prices only to find that they have made the market attractive to
competitors who will launch similar products at much lower prices. A lower launch price might make
diffusion in the market quicker and allow for greater experience and the margin for a competition enter
the market will be reduced.
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Another key variable in pricing is costing – this is not only the business cost but also the cost to
competitors. There are many cost concepts but the two main concepts are marginal cost pricing and full
absorption costing.
The conventional economists model of product pricing indicates that pricing should be set at the
point where marginal cost is equal to marginal revenues i.e. where the additional cost of production is
equal to the additional income earned. The theory is undisputed but considers only price as variable. In
the real world there are many more variables than only price.
In practice the cost of production provides key guidelines to many businesses in setting price. This
is called the ‘cost plus method‘ of pricing where a fixed mark up is added to the price.
The standard product pricing theory does not provide insight to what should be one’s policy
toward distributor margins. The distributor performs a number of functions on behalf of the supplier
which enables which enables the exchange transaction between the producer and the customer.
There are a number of devices available for compensating the trade intermediaries, most of which take the
form of discounts given on theretail selling price to the ultimate customer.
Trade discount – This is the discount made on the list price for services made available by the
intermediary. e.g. holding inventory, buying bulk, redistribution etc.
Quantity discount – A quantity discount is given to intermediaries who order in large lots
Promotional discount – This is a discount given to distributors to encoutage them to share in the
promotion of the products involved.
Cash discount - In order to encourage prompt payments of accounts, a small cash discount on
sales price can be offered.
Gaining Competitive Advantage
It is possible to use price as a strategic marketing tool. The aspects of competitiveness have been
listed below:
 Reduce the life cycle/ alter the cost mix – customers are often willing to pay a considerably higher
initial price for a product with significantly lower post-purchase cost.
 Expand value through functional redesign. E.g. a product that increases customers production
capacity or throughput, product that improves quality of the customers product, product that
enhances end-use flexibility.
 Expand incremental value by developing associated intangibles. For example service, financing,
prestige factors etc.
We have considered some of the factors that affect the pricing decision. We now have to
amalgamate all these decisions into one framework. It has been demonstrated that as a firm develops
expertise in producing a particular product the cumulative cost of producing every additional unit falls.
This is demonstrated by the learning curve. The effect of the learning curve should be considered in
pricing of new products.
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There are in principle only two main pricing policies they are price skimming policy and price penetration
policy. The factors that should be considered before implementing either policy are given below.
The factors that favour a price skimming policy are:
1. Demand is likely to be price inelastic;
2. There are likely to be different price market segments, thereby appealing to those buyers first who
have a higher rage of acceptable prices.
3. Little is known about the cost and marketing the product
The variables that favour a price penetration policy are:
1. Demand is likely to be price elastic;
2. Competitors are likely to enter the market quickly;
3. There no distinct price-market segments;
4. There is possibility if large savings in production and marketing costs if large sales volumes can
be generated.
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Meaning and Definition
Creating a customer is a major task of marketing but delivering the goods to the customer so
created is the most critical task. Physical distribution is a marketing activity that concerns the handling
and the movement of goods. It is a major component of marketing mix and cost area of business.
In the words of Phillip Kotler, “Physical distribution involves planning, implementing and
controlling the physical flow of materials, and final goods from the point of origin of use to meet
customer needs at a profit.”
It involves the coordination of activities to place the right quantity of right goods at the desired
place and time. Like any other marketing mix component, physical distribution has two broad objectives
to attain, namely, consumer satisfaction and profit maximization. Physical distribution is not only a cost
but a powerful tool of competitive marketing.
Meaning of Channel of distribution:
A channel of distribution is an organized network or system of agencies and institutions, which, in
accomplish the marketing task.
According to Phillip Kotler,”It is a set of independent organizations involved in the process of making
a product or service available for use or consumption.” Thus, a channel of distribution is a path way directing
the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers composed of intermediaries through their
functions and attainment of the mutual objectives.
Difference between Physical distribution and Channel of Distribution
These are the two component of the distribution system. Physical distribution is a broader concept, it
includes channel of distribution. Physical distribution is concerned with transportation, storage, warehousing, etc,
where as channel of distribution refers to the process or intermediaries through which goods move from the
producer to the ultimate consumer.
The physical distribution system has a definite role. It provides a new orientation for marketing.
The following points will reveal the role of physical distribution system.
1. Creation of Utilities: Creation of or addition of utility is addition of value to a thing. The major
component of physical distribution are transportation and warehousing. It is transport system that
creates place utility, making goods more useful by bringing them from the places where they are
not needed. Warehousing system is known for creating time utility.
2. Improved consumer services: Customer service in physical distribution system consists of
providing products at the time and location corresponding to the customer needs. High level of
customer satisfaction can be possible through a viable distribution system that takes into account
the factors that affect customer service such as time, dependability, communication etc.
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3. Cut in distribution cost: The prices paid by the customer consists of not only production costs
but also delivery cost. Delivery cost can be minimized by systematic planning in inventory
levels, warehousing location and operation, transportation schedule and modes, material handling,
order processing and communication.
4. Increased market share: There are definite ways in which an efficient physical distribution
system can contribute towards the objective of increased market share. It is possible by
decentralizing its warehousing operations, devise the combination of efficient and economic
means of transport, planning inventory operations to avoid stock outs etc.
5. Price stabilization: It can contribute considerably to the attainment of price stabilization.
It is
the best use of available transport and warehousing facilities that can bring about amicable and
matching adjustment between the demand for and supply of goods thus preventing price
This indicates the number of intermediaries between the manufactures and consumers. Mainly there are
four channel levels. They are:
1. Zero level channel:- Here the goods move directly from producer to consumer. That is, no
intermediary is involved. This channel is preferred by manufactures of industrial and consumer
durable goods.
2. One level channel: In this case there will be one sales intermediary ie, retailer. This is the most
common channel in case of consumer durable such as textiles, shoes, ready garments etc.
3. Two level channel: This channel option has two intermediaries, namely wholesaler and retailer.
The companies producing consumer non durable items use this level.
4. Three level channel: This contains three intermediaries. Here goods moves from manufacture to
agent to wholesalers to retailers to consumers. It is the longest indirect channel option that a
company has.
The following factors will determine the length of the channel of distribution.
1. Size of the market: The larger the market size, longer the channel. Conversely the smaller the
market, smaller the channel.
2. Order lot size: If the average order lot size is small, it is better to have a longer channel and vice
3. Service requirements: If the product and market require a high level of service, and it a major
factor in the buying decision, it is better to keep a shorter channel.
4. Product variety: If a wide variety of the same type of product available in the market, then it is
advisable to select a wider channel.
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Marketing intermediaries are the individuals and the organizations that perform various functions
to connect the producers with the end users. These middlemen are classified into three:
1. Merchant middlemen, who take title to the goods and services and resell them.
2. Agent middlemen, who do not take title to the goods and services but help in identifying
potential customers and even help in negotiation.
3. Facilitators, to facilitate the flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumer,
without taking a title to them. Eg. Transport companies
Merchant middlemen are those who take title to the goods and channelize the goods from previous
step to the next step with a view to making profit. They buy and sell goods in their own risk and the price
for their effort is profit. They act as an intermediaries between producers and consumers. These
merchant middlemen are broadly classified into wholesalers and retailers.
Wholesaler is a trader who deals in large quantity. He purchases goods from the producers in
bulk quantity and sell it to the retailers in small quantity.
According to American Management
Association, “ wholesalers sells to retailers or other merchants and/or individual, institutional and
commercial users but they do not sell in significant amounts to ultimate consumers.”
Functions of wholesalers
1. Assembling and buying: It means bringing together stocks of different manufactures producing
same line of goods, and making purchases in case of seasonal goods.
2. Warehousing: The warehousing function of the wholesalers relieves both the producers and the
retailers from the problem of storage.
3. Transporting: In the process of assembling and warehousing, the wholesaler do undertake
transportation of goods form producers to their warehouse and back to retailers
4. Financing: They grant credit on liberal terms to retailers and taking early delivery of stock from
the manufacturers to reduce their financial burden.
5. Risk bearing: Wholesaler bear the risk of loss of change in price, deterioration of quality,
pilferage, theft. Fire etc.
6. Grading, Packing and packaging: By grading they sort out the stocks in terms of different size,
quality shape and so on.
7. Dispersing and selling: Dispersing the goods already stored with them to the retailers.
8. Market information: Finally providing the market information to the manufactures
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Services of wholesalers:
A. Services to Manufacturers:
1. The wholesaler
helps the manufacture to get the benefit of economies of large scale
2. Wholesalers helps the manufactures to save his time and trouble by collecting orders from
large number of retailers on behalf of the manufactures.
3. The wholesaler provides market information to the manufactures which will helps him to
make modifications in his product.
4. The wholesaler buys in large quantities and keeps the goods in his warehouses. This relieves
the manufacturer the risk of storage and obsolescence.
5. The wholesales helps to maintain a steady prices for the product by buying the product when
the prices are low and selling when the prices are high.
B. Services to Retailers:
1. He gives valuable advices to the retailers on his business related matters.
2. He helps the retailer to get the goods very easily and quickly.
3. He render financial assistance to the retailer by granting credit facilities.
4. The wholesalers bears the risk associated with storage and distribution of goods to a certain
5. The wholesaler helps the retailers to keep price steady.
The term ‘retail’ implies sale for final consumption. A retailer is the last link between final user
and the wholesaler or the manufacturer. According to Professor William Standton, ”retailing includes all
business use.” In other words retailer is one whose business is to sell consumers a wide variety of goods
which are assembled at his premises as per the needs of final consumers. In India, Most of the Indian
retail outlets are owner managed and have few or no sales assistant. Most important issues of these
outlets are those of inventory management and funds management.
Functions of retailers:
1. Buying and Assembling:- A retailer buys goods from the best and most dependable wholesalers
and assemble the goods in a single shop.
2. Warehousing: It helps the retailer to ensure adequate and uninterrupted supply of goods
3. Selling: A retailer sells the products in small quantities to the needy consumers.
4. Risk bearing: It is the basic responsibility of a retailer to bear the risk arising out of physical
deterioration and changes in prices.
5. Sales promotion: Retailer undertakes some sales promotion through displaying of goods in the
shop, distribution of sales literature, introduction of new product etc.
6. Financing: A retailer granting credit in liberal terms to the consumer and it helps the consumers a
lot to purchase the required goods.
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7. Supply of market information: As being in close and constant touch with the consumers, a
retailer can supply the market related information to the wholesalers and manufactures at the
8. Grading and Packing: Retailers undertake second round grading and packing activities left by
the manufacturers and wholesalers.
Services rendered by Retailers:
A retailer render a number of services to the manufacturers, wholesalers and to the final users. These
services are outlined below:A. Services to the manufactures and wholesalers:
(1). Providing information: Retailer do provide the wholesalers and manufactures the
information about the latest consumer movements and it helps the manufactures to produce goods
according to the needs of consumers.
(2) Looks after the distribution process: A retailer, in general, looks after the entire distribution
process and it helps the manufactures to concentrate on production.
(3 )Creation of demand: By giving local ad and display of goods, retailers helps to create
demand for the goods.
(4)A big relief: A retailer gives a relief to the manufacturers and wholesalers from the problem of
selling goods in small quantities.
B. Services to the consumers:
(1)No need to store goods: A retailer holds goods on behalf of the customers at a convenient
place and in convenient lot. Hence, the consumer need not buy and stock in large quantity.
(2)Largest choice: Retailers collects products of different manufactures and it enables the
consumers to have a largest choice at cost, quality and so on.
(3) Providing information: A retailer supplies information about the introduction of a new
product in the market and its features.
(4)Granting credit: Most of the retailers granting credit facilities to regular customers.
(5) After sale services: In certain cases a retailer provides after sales services to the ultimate
consumers to ensure the customers shop loyalty.
The retailers can be classified in to Small scale retailers and large scale retailers:
1. Small Scale Retailers: It includes
(a) Unit stores: These are the retail stores run on proprietory basis dealing in general stores or single line
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(b) Street traders: They are the retailers who display their stock on foot paths or the side walks of the
busy street.
(c) Market traders: These retailers open their shops on fixed days or dates in specified areas. The time
interval may be week, or a month.
(d) Hawkers and pedlars: This type of retailers do not have any fixed place of business. They carry
goods from one place to another. They keep on moving from locality to locality.
(e) Cheap-jacks: Cheap jacks is retailer who has fixed place of business in a locality but goes on
changing his place to exploit the market opportunities.
2. Large scale retailers: It includes
(a)Departmental stores: A departmental stores carries several product line, invariably all that is required
by a typical house hold. It includes food, clothing, appliances, other house hold goods, furnishings and
gifts etc. It is a central location and a unified control. In a typical department store each product line is
managed independently by specialist buyers.
(b)Multiple shops: It is a chain of retail store dealing in identical and generally restricted range of articles
operating in different localities under central ownership and control. It works on the principles of
centralized buying and administration and decentralized selling. It is also known as chain store.
(c)Mail order houses: Here, the customers do not visit the seller’s premises and there is no personal
inspection of goods before the purchase. Orders are received from customers through post and the
goods are also sold through post. The transaction is settled through postal medium. Eg. Leather goods,
ready made garments etc.
(d)Consumer co-operatives: These are the stores owned by a group of consumers themselves on cooperative principles. Here the store purchasing in bulk quantity and sells it to the consumers at a
reasonable price. It is formed to eliminate the exploitation of middlemen.
(e)Super markets: This is a large, low cost, low margin, high volume, self service operation designed to
serve customer’s need for food laundry and house hold products. The wide range of product mix
carried by these stores make them a favorite retail outlet.
(f) Discount stores: Discount stores are the ones that sell standard merchandise at lower prize than
conventional merchants by accepting lower margins but pushing for higher sales volume.
(g)Convenience store: These are generally food stores that are much smaller in size than in
supermarkets. They are conveniently located in residential areas. Due to a high degree of
personalized service and home delivery by store clerk, these stores fill in a very important need of a
house wife.
(h) Speciality store: These are ones that carry a narrow product line with a deep assortment within that
line. According to some marketing thinkers, the future scenario belongs to super speciality store as
they provide increasing opportunities for market segmentation, focused marketing, and creation of
brand equity.
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It is very important to select a channel for the distribution of goods and services to the ultimate
consumers in an effective way. The marketer has to select the most suitable channel. While selecting the
channel of distribution, the marketer has to consider the following factors:
Nature of Product: The selected channel must cope up perish ability of the product. If a commodity
is perishable, the producer prefer to employs few middlemen. For durable and standardized goods,
longer and diversified channel may be necessary. If the unit value is low , intensive distribution is
suggested. If the product is highly technical, manufacture is forced to sell directly, if it is not highly
technical, intensive distribution can be selected. Seasonal products are marketed through
Nature of market: If the market is a consumer market, then retailer is essential. If it is an industrial
market, we can avoid retailer. If consumers are widely scattered large number of middlemen are
required. When consumers purchase frequently, more buyer seller contacts are needed and
middlemen are suggested.
Competitors’ Channel: The distribution channel used by the competitors will influence the channel
selection. There is nothing wrong in copying the channel strategy of the competitor if it is a right
The financial ability of channel members: Before selecting the channel, the manufacture has to
think about the financial soundness of the channel members. In most of the case financial assistance
are required to the channel members in the form of liberal credit facilities and direct financing.
The Company’s financial position: A company with a strong financial background can develop its
own channel structure. Then there is no need to depend other channel intermediaries to market their
Cost of Channel: The cost of each channel may be estimated on the basis of unit sale. The best type
of channel which gives a low unit cost of marketing may be selected.
Economic factors: The economic conditions prevailing in he country have bearing on channel
selection decision. During the period of boom, it is better to depend channels directly. During the
periods of deflation direct relation with the consumers are desirable.
The legal restrictions: Before giving the final shape to channels of distribution, we have to consider
the existing legal provisions of the various Acts. For eg. MRTP Act prevent channel arrangements
that tend to lessen competition, create monopoly and those are objectionable to the very public
Marketing policy of the company: The marketing policy of the company have a greater and deeper
bearing on the channel choice. The marketing policies relating to channels of distribution are
advertising, sales promotion, delivery, after sale service and pricing. A company has a heavy budget
on advertising and sales promotion, the channel selected is bound to be direct as it requires a few
layers of people to push the product.
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Meaning and Definition.
Promotion is a term taken from Latin word promovere . It means ‘move towards’. In marketing,
promotion means all those tools that a marketer uses to take his product from the factory to the customer
and hence it involves advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, and public relation. It is necessary
to flow the information about the product from the producer to the consumer either along with the product
or well in advance of the introduction of the product. This role is played by promotion.
In the words of Masson and Ruth, ”Promotion consists of those activities that are designed to
bring a company’s goods or services to the favorable attention of customers”.
Importance of Promotion:
It may be studied in the following heads:1. Importance to Business:- Now a days, it is very necessary to communicate information regarding
quality, features, price uses etc. of the product to the present and potential customers. Then only
the consumers will select the product from a wide range of competing products. Most modern
institutions cannot survive in the long run without performing promotion function effectively.
2. Economic importance: In economic sense, it helps to generate employment opportunities to
thousands of people. As a result of promotion sales will increase and it brings economies in the
production process and it reduces the per unit cost of product.
3. Social importance: Promotion has become an important factor in the campaign to achieve some
socially oriented objectives. For eg. Ad against smoking, drinking etc. It also helpful to provide
informative and educational service to the society
4. Importance to non business organizations: The non business organizations like govt. agencies,
religious institutions, educational institutions etc also realized the importance of promotion and
they are using the various elements of promotion mix very widely.
Firms select a mix of promotional tools to effectively communicate with their target customer group.
The different elements of this group are:
1. Advertising
2. Personal selling
3. Sales Promotion
4. Public relations and
5. Direct Marketing
1. Nature of the Product:- The product may be consumer product or industrial product, convenient
goods or specialty goods, simple or technical goods etc. In each case, the promotion mix element
may vary.
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2. Overall marketing strategy:- It means, whether the firm wishes to “push” the product or create
“pull” for the product. Depending upon the strategy, the elements of promotion mix will vary.
3. Buyer readiness stage:- The choice of different elements of promotion mix is depend on the
buyer’s readiness and awareness of the brand.
4. Product life cycle stages:- Different elements of promotion mix were used in different stages of
product life cycle.
5. Market size: -In narrow market, direct marketing is more effective. For a market having large
number of buyers the promotion tool is mainly advertising.
6. Cost of Promotion elements:- The cost of different tools is very important while selecting the
Promotion mix.
It is a paid form of mass communication and can be traced to an identified sponsor. Now a day s
Advertising plays a significant role in awareness creation and attitude formation. In a macro concept, it
stands for the managerial function of an organization intending to send information to the other members
of the society.
American Marketing Association defined it as, “Any paid form of non –personal presentation of
ideas, goods, or services by an identified sponsor.”
In the words of Albert Lasker,” Advertising is salesmanship in print, driven by a reason why?”.
Features of Advertising:
It is a mass communication medium.
It is a salesmanship in print.
It is a paid form of communication by an identified sponsor.
It is a non personal communication.
It helps to stimulate sales.
It may be written or spoken.
Advertising is an integral part of our social and economic system,. As a powerful technique of promoting
sales, it has been doing wonders in the domain of distribution. The role of advertising can be analysed
from five distinct angles.
1. Manufactures and Advertising(Advantages to Manufactures):
It maintains the existing market and explores the new.
It increases the demand for the product
It helps to build up or increase goodwill of the company.
It controls product price.
It helps to introduce a new product into the market .
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2. Middlemen and Advertising(Advantages to Middlemen):
a. It guarantees quick sales
b. It acts as a salesman.
c. It increases the prestige of the dealers.
d. It makes retail price maintenance possible.
e. It enables the dealers have a product information.
3. Sales-force and Advertising(Advantages to salesmen)
a. It creates a colourful background for a salesmen to begin his work.
b. It reduces his burden of job.
c. It helps to develop self confidence and initiative among the salesmen.
4. Consumers and Advertising(Advantages to consumers):
a. It ensures better quality product at reasonable price.
b. It provides product related information to the customers and thereby makes the purchasing an
easy task.
c. It helps the consumers to save time by providing information related to the availability of
d. Helps the consumers in intelligent buying.
5. Society and Advertising(Advantages to society):
a. It helps to uplifts t he living standards
b. It helps to generate gainful employment opportunities.
c. It provides new horizons of knowledge.
d. It up-holds the culture of a nation.
Ad Copy is the soul of any advertisement. An advertisement copy is all the written or spoken
matter in an advertisement expressed in words or sentences and figures designed to convey the desired
messages to the target consumers. A good ad copy has the following attributes:
1. It is brief: Being brief is not dropping words or chopping sentences, It is the work of eliminating and
substituting the words with out jeopardizing the meaning.
2. It is clear: A clear copy is one which is easily and quickly read and grasp by the readers.
3. It is apt: Writing an apt copy is the art of putting in the words that create strong desire to possess the
product where the product features satisfy the consumer’s desire to possess.
4. It is honest: Credibility of an ad message is decided by the extend of honesty.
5. It is conforming: Every ad copy is to conform to standards, rules and regulations acceptable to the
advertisement media and the laws of the land.
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It is that central idea around which the advertising campaign is built. The big selling idea is
known as USP. It is the heart of advertising campaign. It is an offer that an advertiser makes to his
consumers which is unique in relation to the competing offer or offers and promises to deliver a certain
distinctive package of satisfaction. Eg. MRF company says about its tyres as, ‘the tyre with muscles’ ,
“The beauty soap of film stars”(Lux soap).
It refers to the placement of company product or products in the minds of target consumers
relative to the competitive products , as having certain distinctive benefits and want satisfying potential.
Positioning represents more a state of mind or image than different ingredients or attributes; such a state
of mind is derived from advertising. Advertising is an instrument positioning or repositioning a product
or products in the minds of consumers.
Personal selling is the art of convincing the prospects to buy the given products and services.
Though it is basically a method of communication, it is two way as it involves direct face to face contact
between the salesman and the prospect. It is the ability to convert human needs into wants. It is the
process of contacting the prospective buyers personally and persuading them to buy the products.
According to American Marketing Association,” Personal selling is the oral presentation in a
conversation with one or more prospective purchasers for the purpose of making sales; it is the ability to
persuade the people to buy goods and services at a profit to the seller and benefit to the buyer”.
In the words of Garfield Blakde, ”Salesmanship consists of winning the buyers confidence for the
seller’s house and goods, thereby winning the regular and permanent customer.”
1. It is one of the important tools for increasing sales.
2. It is a two way communication between salesmen and the prospect.
3. It is a persuading process to buy the goods and services.
4. The objective of personal selling is to protect the interest of both seller and buyer.
5. The essence of personal selling is interpretation of product and service features in terms of benefit
and advantages.
Selling is the sequence of steps involved in the conversion of human desire into demand for a product
or service. Personal selling process involves the following stages.
1. Prospecting: It is the work of collecting the names and addresses of persons who are likely to
buy the firm’s product of services. While collecting the details, ‘suspects’ must be separated from
‘prospects’ to avoid waste of time.
2. Pre approach: Pre approach is to get more detailed facts about a specific individual to have
effective sales appeal on him or her. It is closer look of prospects like habits, financial status,
social esteem, family background, material status, tastes and preferences etc.
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3. Approach: Approach means the meeting of the prospect in person by the salesmen. It is a face to
face contact with the prospect to understand him better.
4. Presentation and demonstration: A good sales presentation is one that not only gives all the
benefits that the prospect gets but also proves to the latter that he or she will better off after the
product is bought and used. An effective sales presentation demands the sales person use skills
like presentation and explanation.
5. Managing objections: This is the most important stage of personal selling. For every action of
salesman there is prospect’s pro action or reaction, ie, approval or disapproval. An efficient sales
man has the ability to identify the reasons for raising objections by the prospects and the ways to
overcome these objections.
6. Sale: If all the above stages have been concluded successfully, then the next stage is ultimate sale
of the product.
1. Flexibility and adaptability: It is capable of providing more flexibility and adaptability.
2. Minimum waste: The chances of wastage is minimum in case of personal selling while
comparing to other methods of sales promotion.
3. Acts as feedback: Being in direct contact with the consumers, he can understand the feeling and
reactions of the customers. It helps to modify the product according to the requirements of
4. Creates lasting impression: It helps to create a long lasting relationship with the customers
through the personal contact of salesmen.
1. It is expensive: Personal selling as a method of promotion is quite expensive. Getting salesmen
and retaining him for a long period is very difficult and expensive.
2. Difficulty of getting right kind of salesman: In practice, it is very difficult to get a trained
salesmen from company’s point of view.
3. More administrative problems: Personal selling involves more administrative problems than
impersonal selling.
Sales promotion is another major component of promotion mix. The phrase sales promotion has a
distinct meaning. It stands for all those activities that supplement, co-ordinate and make more effective
the efforts of personal selling and advertising. It collectively comprises of the tools used to promote sales
in a given territory and time. It consists of short term incentives designed to achieve a specific marketing
goal in the immediate future.
According to American Marketing Association,” those marketing activities other than personal
display, shows and exhibitions, demonstrations and various non-recurrent selling effort in the ordinary
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The role or advantages of sales promotion to various parties like manufactures, middlemen and
consumers are given below:
1. Manufacturers and sales promotion:
It helps to retains the existing customers
It helps to create new customers.
It promote sales
It helps to enhance the goodwill of the firm
It helps to slashes down the cost
It helps to face the competition.
Middle men and sales promotion:
It reduces strain of the middlemen to a greater extend.
It helps to increase the sales of middlemen
It builds and enhance the goodwill of the shop
It gives some personal benefits to the middle men.
Consumers and sales promotion:
It helps to improve the standard of living of people by making available goods and services at least cost.
It gives knowledge of new products available in the market.
It gives both cash and non cash incentives.
It helps to get more credit facility and special concession because of his brand and store loyalty.
It has the shortest life impact as promotion tool like advertisement..
It is only a supplementary device of personal selling and advertising
In most of the cases, too much sales promotion may damage the brand image.
Sales promotion techniques are non-recurring in their nature.
The sales promotion tools can be seen from the angle of dealers, consumers and sales force.
1. Dealer promotion/Trade promotion: Trade promotion objectives are to motivate market
intermediaries to invest in the brand and aggressively push sales. It includes
(a) Price deals: Under this method, special discounts are offered over and above the regular
(b) Free goods: Here, the manufactures give attractive and useful articles as presents to the
dealers when they buy a certain quantity.
(c) Ad Materials: In this case, the manufacturer distributes some ad materials for display
(d) Trade allowance: It includes buying allowance, promotional allowance and slotting
(e) Dealer contests: It is a competition organized among dealers or salesmen.
(f) Trade shows: Trade shows are used to familiarize a new product to the customers.
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2. Consumer Promotion: The broad objective of consumer promotion is to create pull for the brand
and it includes(a) Rebates: Simply it is a price reduction after the purchase and not at the retail shop.
(b) Money refund offer: Here, if the customer is satisfied with the product, a part or whole of the
money will be refunded.
(c) Samples: While introducing a new product, giving samples to the customers at their doorstep.
(d) Price packs: In this method the customer is offered a reduction from the printed price of
(e) Premium offer: Here goods are offered at a lower price or free as an incentive to purchase a
special product.
(f) Consumer contests: Various competitions are organized among the customers. The winners
are given prizes.
(g) Free trials: In this case, inviting the buyers to try the product without cost.
3. Sales force promotion: It includes
(a) Sales force contests: Sales contests are declared to stimulate the sales force increase their
selling interest.
(b) Bonus to sales force: Bonus is the extra incentive payment made for those who cross the sales
quota set for a specific period.
(c) Sales meeting conventions and conferences: Sales meeting and conferences are conducted
with a view to educate, train and inspire the salesmen.
It is the actions of a corporation, store, government, individuals, etc. in promoting goodwill
between itself and the public, the community, employees, customers, etc. It can be defined as the practice
of managing communication between an organization and its public. Public relation is used to build
rapport with employees, customers, investors, or the general public. This method of marketing does not
aim at promoting a single product/service but the company as a whole.
This is done by spreading a positive feel about the company through various stories and articles or
positive feedback from customers about the company in different media channels. In comparison to
advertising, PR is a very cost effective method of marketing. A full page advertisement of a product may
fail to attract customers attention, but a positive response about the same from a satisfied customer when
appears in the form of an article in the same news paper will work wonders for the company. PR is quite
understandably considered as a very genuine method of marketing. It creates a favorable atmosphere for
conducting business of the firm.
According to UK Institute of Public relation, “ It is the deliberately planned and sustained efforts
to establish and maintain mutual understanding between the organisation and its public.”
Advantages of Public relations:
1. Credibility: The information communicated through public relation department is more reliable
and it has more credibility. For eg.an article in newspapers or magazines discussing the virtues of
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2. Cost: In both absolute and relative terms, the cost of PR is very low, especially when the possible
effects are considered. While a firm can employ advertisement agencies and spend millions of
dollars on advertisements, for smaller companies, this form of communication may be the most
affordable alternative available.
3. Lead Generation : Information about the technological innovations, medical break-through and
some quality sales lead.
4. Ability to reach specific groups: Because some products appeal to only small market segments,
have the financial capabilities, to engage in promotionalexpenditures, the best way to
communicate to these groups is through PR.
5. Image Building: Effective PR helps to develop positive image for the organization. A strong
image is insurance against later mis-fortunes.
6. Stimulate awareness: Public relation techniques helps to stimulate awareness among the
customers regarding the products of the company and thereby creating demand for your product.
Functions of public relations
The functions of public relations is given below:-
1. Creating awareness for a company or client and building a positive image for them through
articles and stories in the various channels of media.
2. Keeping an eye on all media channels for any public feedback on the client company or its
3. Crisis management in cases where the company may be endangered.
4. Building goodwill and rapport with customers through special events, charity and community
Types of public relation tools:
The important types of tools available to carry out the public relations function include:
Media Relations
Media Tours
Special Events
Speaking Engagements
Employee Relations
Community Relations and Philanthropy
Promotion mix includes all those activities undertaken to promote sales. There are two types of promotion blend – Push blend and Pull
blend. A push blend is related to personal selling and an Pull blend give emphasis on impersonal selling. There are many factors which
influence the promotion mix. The important factors among them are briefly explained below:-
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Nature of the Market: It is an important factor which affect the promotion mix. Depending up on the customers the promotion
strategy may vary. For individual customers the strategy may vary according to the age, sex, income etc. For industrial customers
it directly depends up on size of the company, bargaining power etc.
Nature of the Product: Depending up on the nature of product, the promotion mix may vary. For marketing consumer goods, a
mass advertisement is necessary. But at the same time marketing of industrial goods and speciality goods requires personal selling.
Complex and complicated products are also require personal selling.
Market size: If the market size is comparatively very small, then direct selling is used. For a market having large number of
buyers, advertising is the most suitable promotion tool.
Buyer readiness stage: The choice of different elements of the promotion mix is also dependent on the buyer’s readiness and
awareness of the brand. Advertising will play a major role in creating awareness, while demonstration and samples will helps to
bring about a change in the behavioral level.
Overall marketing strategy: It means, whether the firm wishes to “push “the product or create a “pull” for the product. Often the
marketing strategy of a firm is a combination of both these strategies.
Product life cycle stages: This will also play a role in deciding on the promotion mix. For eg. In the introduction stage,
advertising and publicity are very important. But in the maturity stage, sales promotion and personal selling are very necessary.
Cost : Cost of promotion element is also very important. If the total cost incurred for using a particular element of promotion tool
is not affordable to the manufacturer, then it is better to select the next best promotion mix.
Direct marketing is a channel-agnostic form of advertising that allows businesses and non profits organisation to communicate
straight to the customer, with advertising techniques such as mobile messaging, email, interactive consumer websites, online display ads,
fliers, catalog distribution, promotional letters, and outdoor advertising. Direct marketing is practiced by businesses of all sizes — from the
Direct marketing is concerned with establishing an
individual relationship between the business offering a product or service and the final customer.
Direct marketing has been defined by the Institute of Direct Marketing as “The planned recording, analysis and tracking of
customer behaviour to develop a relational marketing strategies”
Direct Marketing Channels
Any medium that can be used to deliver a communication to a customer can be employed in direct marketing and it includes:
Email Marketing: Sending marketing messages through email is one of the most widely used direct-marketing methods.
According to one study email is used by 94% of marketers, while 86% use direct mail.
Mobile Marketing: Through mobile marketing, marketers engage with prospective customers and donors in an interactive
manner through a mobile device or network, such as a cell phone, smart phone , or tablet. Types of mobile marketing
messages include: SMS: (short message service) — marketing communications are sent in the form of text messages, also
known as texting. MMS: (multi-media message service)
Direct Mail: The term "direct mail" is used to refer to communications sent to potential customers or donors via the postal
buying pattern, etc.
Direct mail includes advertising circulars, catalogs, free-trial CDs, pre-approved credit card applications, and other unsolicited
merchandising invitations delivered by mail to homes and businesses.
Telemarketing: Another common form of direct marketing is telemarketing in which marketers contact customers by phone.
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5. Voicemail Marketing: Voicemail marketing emerged out of the market prevalence of
cost effective means by which to reach people directly, by voice
6. Direct Response TV : Direct marketing via television (commonly referred to as DRTV) has
7. Catalogue marketing: In catalogue marketing , an organisation provides a catalogue from
which customers make selection and place orders by mail or telephone. It involves selling of
products through catalogues mailed to selected customers.
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In recent years, rural markets have acquired significance, as the overall growth of the economy has
Current population of India in 2011 is 1.21 billion. 70% of this population lives in the rural areas. That
means 847 million people consist of the rural market. Thus rural market is a vast market. On account of
Meaning of Rural Market
Rural market simply means markets in rural areas. Rural market consists of small farmers, primary
producers etc and village people (ie. Buyers). A majority of the rural markets are small strips of land
where producers and buyers meet for a few hours on an appointed day and time.
Meaning of Rural Marketing
Rural marketing simply means marketing in the rural areas. Often, rural marketing is confused with
services to rural producers or consumers.
Rural marketing broadly involves reaching rural customers, estimating their needs and wants and then
supplying goods and services to meet these requirements. This could mean carrying out after sales service
that leads to customer satisfaction and repeat sales.
There are different types of rural markets. They are Regular periodic markets, seasonal markets and daily
markets. In Regular periodic markets, the rural people gather once or twice a week on a fixed day to
exchange or sell their produce or buy necessities. The seasonal markets are those markets which
specialize in few crops like onion, bananas etc.
The daily markets are permanent with continuous trading activity.
Unique features of rural marketing
When compared to urban marketing in India, rural marketing has certain unique features. These are
summarized as follows.
Consumer: The people living in rural areas are traditional and innocent by nature. Their needs are
simple. The literacy rate is around 36 percent of the population. Women are mostly illiterate.
Cultural diversity: Indian villages are truly diverse with respect to languages, religion, culture,
tradition and social customs.
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Income levels: Majority of rural people are living below the poverty line. The higher income group
have a tendency to migrate to urban areas. It si therefore, obvious that rural market consists of
cheaper and low quality necessaries of life. However, after the advent of television, radio and press
and improvement in literacy, the life style of rural people is changing. There is growing preference
for new products and luxuries. Toilet soaps, tooth pastes, ready-made garments, radio, TV etc. have
been appearing in rural areas. Bicycles,motor cycles, tractors have been replacing old bullock carts.
As a result of this a closed rural market is slowly opening up. Due to agricultural revolution,
increased education the average income level of Indian rural mass is rising and their purchasing
power has also increased considerably.
It is vast and scattered market. India’s rural market is vast and scattered. The total road length in
the rural areas was about 2650 thousand kms. Railways also have developed in the rural areas.
Seasonal demand: Farmers receive the income during harvest. Most of the purchases are made
during this season. There is heavy rush for shopping on the eve of Diwali, Onam, Ed-ul-fittar, Durga
puja, Holi etc. For meeting the heavy demand, marketing centers and shops need to be ready with
Market structure: Rural market consists of private sole traders, co-operatives, fair price shops, and
itinerant traders like hawkers, peddlers, cheap jacks etc. and weekly markets. These marketing
organisations are small with less stock and financially not so well.
Infrastructural facilities: Even after more than 60 years of independence the transport and
communication systems have not developed in rural areas. Most roads are dusty and useless during
rainy seasons. There is lack of storage facilities in most of the villages.
Traditional Life: Life in rural areas is still governed by old customs and superstitions. People do not
easily adapt to new practices and products. For example, even the rich farmers do not wear jeans or
branded shoes.
Buying decisions: Rural consumers are cautious in buying anything. Decisions are made slowly and
often delayed for months together. Often, they move from shop to shop inquiring about the prices of
products. Moreover men are the main decision makers even in the case of purchase of ladies garments.
Marketing mix
Marketing mix refers to the set of actions, tactics, tools or variables that a company uses to promote
and sell its brand or product in markets.
4 Ps of rural marketing are :
Though the marketing mix for urban and rural areas is the same, every product and promotion
which was a hit in the cities may not work in rural areas.
Product : Product for the rural market should be built or modified to suit the lifestyle or needs of rural
consumers. The packing should be less sophisticated and small unit packaging should be adopted. The
product should give more value to the customers at less cost.
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Price: The villagers due to their limited resources are very price sensitive by nature. Hence low volume
and low price of the products should be designed for rural market. For eg. Godrej introduced three soap
brands Cinthol, Fair Glow and Godrej in 50-gm packs, priced at Rs.4-5 meant specially for the rural
Place: A village as a place for promotion, distribution and consumption is very different from town or
city. Lack of transportation and warehousing is a big problem in such areas. Most of the retail shops in
rural areas are run on small scale with limited storage facilities.
Promotion: Promotion aspects always create a challenge in rural markets because of the fact that village
have thin population density and are widely spread over large remote areas. The promotional vehicles
used are televisions, radio, print media, cinema, hoardings etc.
Examples of rural marketing mix are: ICICI rural ATMs are battery operated so that power failure is
not an issue. BP sells smoke less biomass run stoves (Oorja) for rural markets priced attractively at
Rs.675. Bank of India introduced Boomiheen credit card for providing credit card facilities to landless
Planning for rural market
In order to succeed in rural marketing, firms should adopt the following strategies.
1. Research should be undertaken with a view to identify the actual needs and life styles of the rural
people. Such research should be conducted on a continuous basis. Further, market should be
segmented on the basis of density of population, age, education, occupation, income, religion and
caste etc.
2. Products should be designed to suit the rural consumers. The cost should be low and product size
should be kept small.
3. Advertisement should be in the local language projecting their cultural background and ethos.
Advertising media like T.V. and radio are more effective than print media. Door to door
canvassing is a good strategy. Cinema is also useful medium.
4. Large sales forces are to be employed to cover the widely scattered rural market. As far as
possible village people can be employed as salesmen or salesgirls after proper on the job training.
5. For distribution, it is better to adopt ‘Satellite distribution system’. Under this system a stockiest is
appointed at centrally located town surrounded by small villages. The stockiest is supplied goods
on credit or consignment basis and he will supply to small retailers of surrounding villages. When
any of such retailers grows bigger he is made stockiest, and asked to create his own satellite retail
points. Thus the marketer can penetrate deep into the rural market.
In short, the marketers should adopt scientific marketing management so that they can get ultimate
success in the rural marketing.
Meaning and Definition of Service
A service is intangible product involving a deed, a performance or an effort that cannot be physically
possessed. The customer can touch carpet, but not the act of cleaning it.
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According to Kotler, “any act or performance that one party can offer to another that is essentially
intangible and does into result in the ownership of anything. Its production may or may not be tied to a
physical product.” Examples of service include: 1. A technician repairing a computer, 2. The services of a
doctor, 3. Hair cutting etc.
Characteristics of Services
1) Intangibility: Services are intangible. Hence one cannot touch, taste, hear, smell or use them like
physical products. For example it is impossible to touch, taste or smell the education that students
derive form attending classes.
2) Perishability : Services cannot be inventoried. Because they’re perishable, it’s difficult to match
supply with demand. A cab is available even when there are no riders, and the restaurant pays rent
even when it's empty. Perishability increases costs, and therefore the price, of services. A marketer
must pay attention to the timing of offerings.
3) Lack of ownership: When goods are purchased the buyer gets a title of ownership to the goods.
But services are not physical in nature. We can use the services without any right to ownership.
For example, medical services at a hospital can be used for a charge without any claim on the
ownership of hospital bed.
4) Inseparability : Services are not separable from the person who provides them. When a lawyer
pleads for his client in a court he has to be physically present there.
5) Variability : Various service providers will perform the same service differently. Even the same
service provider will provide various levels of service at different times. Thus the quality of
service is highly variable. For instance, the quality of the food served by a restaurant often varies.
6) Word-of-Mouth :Word-of-mouth is much more influential in a service purchase than it is to a
goods purchase. This consumer-to-consumer promotion includes Internet communications.
Service Marketing vs Product marketing
Service marketing is different from product marketing. The customer can touch carpet, but not the act of
cleaning it--and that's an important difference. Nearly all products are a bundle of goods and services.
When a customer purchases a car, he’s also purchasing a warranty. Nonetheless, there are products, such
as cleaning, that are nearly pure services.
The following are the important differences:
In product marketing, the marketer markets a tangible thing. But in service marketing a marketer
markets an intangible thing or object.
In product marketing the customer can evaluate the product before purchasing. He can try on a jean
before buying it. But how does a person evaluate a hair cut before the service is performed?
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A service cannot be advertised effectively. Because a service cannot be pictured in an advertisement
or displayed in a store. In product marketing there is no such problem.
Price of a product is determined on the basis of its cost of production. Determining the cost of
producing and delivering a product is much easier than for a service. Thus pricing is very difficult in
service marketing.
In service marketing services are produced and consumed simultaneously. Products can be purchased
and stored at home. This is not possible with service.
Since the production and consumption of service is simultaneous, unused service capacity cannot be
stored for future time. Thus marketers face difficulty in balancing supply and demand of services.
Product marketers handle the supply demand through production scheduling and inventory
Standardization is possible in product marketing, while it is not possible inservice marketing.
Green MarketingAccording to the American Marketing Association, green marketing is the
changes, as well as modifying advertising.
or produced and/or packaged in an environmentally friendly way.
Social Marketing is the systematic application of marketing, along with other concepts and techniques,
prompting to make them follow speed limits.
on sales transactions.
the long term value of customer relationships and extends communication Relationship Marketing refers
to a long-term `arrangement where both the buyer and seller have an interest in providing a more
purchase, and uses the experience to create stronger ties beyond intrusive advertising and sales
promotional messages
Niche Marketing A niche market is a focused, targetable portion of a market.
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for that market. In general a niche is a very targeted and focused market. An example of a market is "pets",
whereas an example of a niche market could be "tropical aquarium fish" or "Golden Retriever dogs"
One of the most effective niche market strategies involves starting small. The end goal of internet
marketing is to make money, and the best place to make money is in the most competitive niches. Weight
loss, as an example, is an extremely competitive niche. The reason for this is that it's such a profitable
niche. If you manage to have a website or business which is an authority in the weight loss niche, you will
earn considerable profits.
or previous customers, to encourage customer loyalty and repeat business,
to purchase something immediately,
sending email messages over the Internet, as email did and does exist outside the Internet (e.g.,
network email and FIDO).
It is also known as digital marketing, web marketing, online marketing,search marketing or emarketing, is referred to as the marketing (generally promotion) of products or services over the Internet.
iMarketing is used as an abbreviated form for Internet Marketing.
together under internet marketing.
along many different stages of the customer engagement cycle through search engine
marketing, mobile advertising, and Web 2.0 strategies.
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like to think we have) and marketing has too.
telling our stories and getting our marketing messages out there. E Marketing is the product of the
have always applied.
 Scope
 Interactivity
Whereas traditional marketing is largely about getting a brand's message out there, eMarketing
 Immediacy
Imagine you're reading your favorite magazine. You see a double-page advert for some new product
or service, maybe BMW's latest luxury sedan or Apple's latest iPod offering. With this kind of
traditional media, it's not that easy for you, the consumer, to take the step from hearing about a
product to actual acquisition.
With e Marketing, it’s easy to make that step as simple as possible, meaning that within a few
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consumer's buying cycle is speeded up and advertising spend can go much further in creating
immediate leads.
 Demographics and Targeting
Generally speaking, the demographics of the Internet are a marketer's dream. Internet users,
group skewed towards the middle-classes.
creates the perfect environment for niche marketing to targeted groups.
 Adaptivity and Closed Loop Marketing
marketer can be far more dynamic in adapting to consumers' wants and needs.
With e Marketing, responses can be analyzed in real-time and campaigns can be tweaked
continuously. Combined with the immediacy of the Internet as a medium, this means that there's
minimal advertising spend wasted on less than effective campaigns.
Maximum marketing efficiency from e Marketing creates new opportunities to seize
strategic competitive advantages. The combination of all these factors results in an improved ROI and
E-advertising is defined as the placement of electronic messages on a website or in e-mail to:
Generate awareness for a brand
Stimulate interest/preference for a product or service
Provide the means to contact the advertiser for information to make a purchase
"E-advertising" is unique in that it can provide a one-tool process from introduction of a product
to close of sale. Traditional advertising requires that the consumer take some action to make a purchase…
call a phone number, mail a coupon, go into a store, etc. Electronic advertising allows a company to
develop a tool capable of closing the sale by offering a "click here" button… the consumer need never get
out of their chair.
The Web has become a pathway through multiple access points created to allow consumers to
compare goods and services from one company to the next - with the click of a mouse. The ease of
information flow has required some retailers and service organizations to re-think the way that they
distribute information about their product, thus requiring integration between traditional and interactive
advertising and marketing techniques.
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Things happen fast on the internet and if you want to stay competitive you need to keep up with
the latest trends. This is especially true for marketing. For almost every market, there are lots of online
businesses competing, so you need to keep abreast of the latest internet marketing trends if you want
your business to thrive. The barriers to entry on the internet are lower than in physical markets because of
the reduced overhead and this means lots of competition is the popular business fields. The key is to use
the latest marketing trends to make sure that your business will stand out.
There are plenty of websites offering marketing trends and advice, but you have to choose
carefully because many are not updated often enough so the information is older and not very useful.
What you want is up to date information that will put you on the cutting edge. A lot of the marketing
ideas are good ones, but once lots of people start using them then they no longer serve to make your
business stand out. And that is the goal.
Online classifieds and article marketing are two examples of trends that have been around and are
quite useful at getting your site into the search engine rankings. Of course, your website had better be
good and ready to go as the links are gradually created and people come to visit and see what your
business has to offer. These marketing tools are ones that you should still take advantage of, but they are
not the most critical current trends.
The most recent important trend is social networking. With the rise of Facebook, as well as
MySpace, LinkedIn, and Twitter, people are focusing their internet experience around these social
networking sites. To market successfully, you need to go to where the customers are, and right now that
means on social networks. This makes advertising a little more difficult than on a normal commercial
website because you cannot just buy advertising space. There are some innovative ways to advertise on
Facebook however, many of them tied into features people want to add.
Another marketing trend that all sorts of companies are starting to take advantage of is blogging.
Blogs are free and relatively easy to maintain and keep current and people like them. They are a great
way to put your information out there in a way that is more casual and seemingly more personal than
traditional advertising. This fits the current trend that seems to be a result of push back against very
forceful, in your face type advertising.
Today’s consumers do not want to have advertising right in their face because they see so much of
every day and they get immune. The blog puts information in a very non-pushy way that appeals to lots of
people. And a blog is a great way to get your most up to date information out there. Blogs also allow the
public to make comments which is a great way to foster communication that creates a bond between you
and your customer. This creates loyalty and will likely result in peat business and good word of mouth
advertising which is always the best kind, and not just because it is free.
The last major marketing trend happening now is the use of video. More and more people have
high speed internet connections now so they can watch videos without it being a hassle. Younger people
are apt to start any search on the internet by looking for videos on the subject. So you want your
business’s products or services represented in this medium. The most effective videos are ones that offer
useful information that the customer might be seeking and make the product advertising secondary.
For example, a bicycle company might produce a series of how to videos with bike riding tips and
bike tuning tips. These are subjects that people will be searching for even if they are not looking for a new
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bike. They see the video and appreciate the information. They might not run out and buy a new bike right
then, but when the time comes; they already have a good opinion of the company that created the videos.
Name recognition and a positive reputation can be created in a lot of ways that are not traditional
forms of advertising. These trends are apt to continue to be more important as consumers get more and
sophisticated and demanding. Consumers have so many choices because of the internet that businesses
must use all the latest trends to create and maintain their reputation.
Business have now started the potential of electronic means for building brand awareness. By
using trade and service marks as their domain names, business attract potential customers to their
websites and increase their market visibility.
E-branding simply means using electronic channels to support brands. In other words, e-branding
means supporting the brand by developing an online experience of the brand.
legal tender. The various factors that have lead the financial institutions to make use of electronic
payments are:
Decreasing technology cost:
The technology used in the networks is decreasing day by day, which is evident from the fact that
computers are now dirt-cheap and Internet is becoming free almost everywhere in the world.
Reduced operational and processing cost:
Due to reduced technology cost the processing cost of various commerce activities becomes very
less. A very simple reason to prove this is the fact that in electronic transactions we save both paper and
Increasing online commerce:
The above two factors have lead many institutions to go online and many others are following
We began E-Commerce with EDI, this was primarily for large business houses not for the
common man. Many new technologies, innovations have lead to use of E-Commerce for the common
man also. We will now briefly enumerate these innovations based on whom they affected:
Affecting the consumers:
Credit cards, Debit Cards, ATMs (Automated Teller Machines), Stored value cards, E-Banking.
Enabling online commerce:
Digital Cash, E-Cash, Smart cards (or Electronic Purse) and encrypted Credit cards.
Affecting Companies:
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The payment mechanisms that a bank provides to a company have changed drastically. The
Company can now directly deposit money into its employee’s bank account. These transfers are done
through Automated Transfer Houses.
There are also many problems with the traditional payment systems that are leading to its fade out.
Some of them are enumerated below:
Lack of Convenience:
Traditional payment systems require the consumer to either send paper cheques by snail-mail or
require him/her to physically come over and sign papers before performing a transaction. This may lead
to annoying circumstances sometimes.
Lack of Security:
This is because the consumer has to send all confidential data on a paper, which is not encrypted,
that too by post where it may be read by anyone.
Lack of Coverage:
When we talk in terms of current businesses, they span many countries or states. These business
houses need faster transactions everywhere. This is not possible without the bank having branch near all
of the companies offices. This statement is self-explanatory.
Lack of Eligibility:
Not all potential buyers may have a bank account.
Lack of support for micro-transactions:
Many transactions done on the Internet are of very low cost though they involve data flow between two
entities in two countries. The same if done on paper may not be feasible at all.
We will now focus attention on the various ways available to pay online these methods of
payment are still new even when seen as a technology. Each has its own benefits and shortcomings:
1.Electronic Tokens:
An electronic token is a digital analog of various forms of payment backed by a bank or financial
institution. There are two types of tokens:
Real Time: (or Pre-paid tokens) - These are exchanged between buyer and seller, their users pre-pay for
tokens that serve as currency. Transactions are settled with the exchange of these tokens. Examples of
these are DigiCash, Debit Cards, Electronic purse etc.
Post Paid Tokens – are used with fund transfer instructions between the buyer and seller. Examples –
Electronic cheques, Credit card data etc.
2.Electronic or Digital Cash:
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This combines computerized convenience with security and privacy that improve upon paper cash.
Cash is still the dominant form of payment as: The consumer still mistrusts the banks. The non-cash
transactions are inefficiently cleared. In addition, due to negative real interests rates on bank deposits.
Now we will enumerate some qualities of cash:
Cash is a legal tender i.e. payee is obligatory to take it.
It is negotiable i.e. can be given or traded to someone else.
It is a bearer instrument i.e. possession is proof of ownership.
It can be held & used by anyone, even those without a bank certificate.
It places no risk on part of acceptor.
The following are the limitations of Debit and Credit Cards:
They are identification cards owned by the issuer & restricted to one user i.e. cannot be given
They are not legal tender
Their usage requires an account relationship and authorization system.
Properties of Digital Cash
Must have a monetary value: I t must be backed by cash (currency), bank authorized credit or a
bank certified cashier’s check.
Must be interoperable or exchangeable as payment for other digital cash, paper cash, goods or
services, lines of credit, bank notes or obligations, electronic benefit transfers and the like.
Must be storable and retrievable: Cash could be stored on a remote computer’s memory, in smart
cards, or on other easily transported standard or special purpose devices. Remote storage or
retrieval would allow users to exchange digital cash from home or office or while traveling.
Should not be easy to copy or tamper with while it is being exchanged. This is achieved by using
the following technologies, these are nothing but new and very efficient versions of the old art of
Digital cash is based on cryptographic systems called "Digital Signatures" similar to the signatures
used by banks on paper cheques to authenticate a customer.
Purchase of digital cash from an online currency server (or bank) involves 2 steps:
Establishment of an account in this step we are given a unique digital number which also becomes
our digital signature. As it is a number known only to the customer and the bank, forgery, which
may be done in paper cheques becomes very difficult.
Maintenance of sufficient money in the account is required to back any purchase.
3. Electronic Cheques
The electronic cheques are modeled on paper checks, except that they are initiated electronically.
They use digital signatures for signing and endorsing and require the use of digital certificates to
authenticate the payer, the payer’s bank and bank account. They are delivered either by direct
transmission using telephone lines or by public networks such as the Internet.
Benefits of electronic Cheques:
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Well suited for clearing micro payments. Conventional cryptography of e-cheques makes them
easier to process than systems based on public key cryptography (like digital cash).
They can serve corporate markets. Firms can use them in more cost-effective manner.
They create float and the availability of float is an important requirement of Commerce.
Security fear are a major barrier ti internet adoption, by both businesses and consumers. The
customer may lose the amount, if the credit card issuer does not cover them.
The business organisation need to acquire technology solutions to overcome the risks of Internet
based transaction. The following are the major risks faced in Internet based transactions.
1) Spoofing: It involves someone masquerading as someone else.
2) Unauthorized disclosure: Hackers can catch the transmissions to obtain customers sensitive
3) Unauthorized action: Altering a website so that it refuses service to potential clients.
4) Eavesdropping: The private content of a transaction if unprotected can be intercepted, when
it goes through the route over the internet.
5) Data alteration: The content of a transaction may be altered either maliciously or accidently.
6) Phishing: It is a specialized form of online identity theft. It means obtaining personal details
online through sites and e-mails masquerading as legitimate business.
The areas that contain security risks are as follows:
1) Business practices: The retailer may disappear with the money without sending the goods.
This is a risk for the customer.
2) Information privacy practices; Sometimes the website owner do not keep the privacy of
sensitive information of customer.
3) Transaction integrity: Electronic transactions and documents may get lost, changed,
duplicated or incorrectly processed. Dispute may arise regarding terms of transactions or
billing issues.
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4) Information protection: The people behind website should take appropriate steps to protect
customer information in connection to disruption, destruction, disaster and unauthorized
5) Consumer recourse: They are concerned about how their rights are protected.
There are numerous threats that appear on the internet or are spread through the internet. Such
threats include viruses, worms, Trojans, hackers, denial of services and information theft. The following
methods can be used for managing the risks in Internet marketing;
Anti-Virus Programme: It scans the computer for signatures of a virus. Good anti-virus will find
viruses that have not yet infected your PC and eliminate the ones that have.
Integrity Checking Software: It should be installed on the server to face many threats. The
integrity checker will run at regular intervals to ascertain whether data have been changed by a
Audit Logs: The audit logs along with the firewall logs are examined on a semi-regular basis with
the aim of detection of abnormal activity. It will be used to identify the source of some hacking
attempts or denial of service attacks.
Firewalls: It can be used to minimize the risk of security breaches and viruses. It is a software
mounted on a separate server at the point the company is connected to the internet.
Backups: In order to protect the data in the system we take backups of all critical files on the web
server. Hardware and software can be used for backups.
Encryption: It is a process that conceals meaning by changing messages into unintelligible
messages. It is the scrambling of information into a form that cannot be readable. There are two
main methods as follows:
 Symmetric encryption: Both parties have identical key that is known only to them.
It is used to encrypt and decrypt messages.
 Asymmetric encryption: A pair of keys namely a public key(known to everyone)
and private key (known only to the owner). One key is used to encrypt and the
other to decrypt messages.
Digital Signature: It is used not only to verify the authenticity of the message and claimed
identity of the sender but also to verify message integrity. A message is encrypted by sender’s
private key to generate the signature and the recipient decrypts the signature using sender’s public
Digital Certificates: It is issued by Certification Authorities to users who wish to engage in
secure communication. Once sender has provided proof of identity, the Certification Authority
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creates a message containing sender’s name and his Public key. This message is digitally signed
by the Certification Authority is known as digital certificate.
Secure Sockers Layer Protocol: It enables a private link to be set up between customer and
merchant. The main facility the SSL provides is security and confidentiality.
Secure Electronic Transaction: SET is a security protocol based on digital certificates. It allows
parties to confirm each other’s identity.
Hardware Technologies: The hardware technologies include network intrusion hardware,
physical security measures and virtual private network and smart cards.
It is a computer crime in which the criminal breaks into a computer system for exploring details of
information etc. It means destroying, deleting or altering any information residing in a computer resource
or diminishing its value or utility or affecting it injuriously by any means with the intent to cause
wrongful loss or damage to the public or person.
Lecture Hours per week: 5 Credits: 4
To provide basic knowledge about the concepts, principles, tools andtechniques of marketing.
To impart necessary knowledge which help the student to choose a career in the field of
 To expose the students to the latest trends in marketing.
Marketing-meaning and definition-scope and importance-evolution of marketingconcepts-modern
concept of marketing-marketing mix-marketing environment-consumer behaviour- buying motivesconsumer buying process-factors influencing consumer buying decision-market segmentation-basis-target
marketing-product positioningimportance and bases
20 Hours
Product-meaning and importance-classification-concept of product mix-packagingbranding-brand loyalty
and brand equity-labeling-product life cycle-new product development-pricing-factors influencing
product price-pricing policies and strategies
15 Hours
Physical distribution-meaning and importance-levels of marketing channels-wholesaling and retailingtypes of retailing - factors influencing choice of distribution channel
10 Hours
Promotion-meaning and importance –promotion mix-advertising-personal selling-sales promotion-public
relation-factors affecting promotion mix decisions
10 Hours
Rural marketing-growing importance-unique features of rural markets-market mixplanning for rural
market-service marketing Vs. product marketing-green marketing social
marketing-niche marketing
15 Hours
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E-marketing-traditional marketing vs. e-marketing-internet marketing-e advertising-new
internet marketing-e branding - e-payment systems and security features in internet.
5 Hours
Reference Books:
1. S.A. Sherlakar - Marketing Management, Himalaya.
2. Fundamentals of Marketing, William J Stanton, Mc Graw Hill Publishing Co,
New York
3. Marketing by Lamb, Hair, Mc Danniel – Thomson.
4. Marketing by Evans & Berman, 2/e, Biztantra.
5. Marketing – Concepts, strategies byWilliam M Pride, O C Fewell,
6. Marketing Management, Ramaswamy & Namakumari, Macmillan.
7. Marketing Management, Arun Kumar & Meenakshi, Vikas.
8. Principles of Marketing, Philip Kotler, Armstrong,Pearson Education.
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