Page semi-protected


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  (Redirected from Mothers)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Motherly" redirects here. For the 2009 Belgian film, see Motherly (film).
Firmin Baes - Doux rêves.jpg
Mother and daughter laughing together.jpg
Baby got Back.jpg
Mother-Child face to face.jpg


The above concepts defining the role of mother are neither exhaustive nor universal, as any definition of 'mother' may differ based on how social, cultural, and religious roles are defined. The parallel conditions and terms for males: those who are (typically biologically) fathers do not, by definition, take up the role of fatherhood. It should also be noted that mother and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, though such applications tend to be less readily applied to (biological) fathers or adoptive parents.[1][2]


Mother with her child


Biological mother

Biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). Typically a fetus develops from the viable zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until the fetus (assuming it is carried to term) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the child's life.[3][4][5]

Non-biological mother


Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history.[6] Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations. In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common.


Surrogate mother

Main article: Surrogacy



Motherhood in same-sex relationships

The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships (and/or women without a partner) to become mothers has increased over the past few decades[when?] due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting (a term that somewhat erases the bisexual case) originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Another way for such women to become mothers is through adopting and/or foster parenting. There is also the option of self-insemination and clinically assisted donor insemination, forms of artificial insemination. As fertility technology has advanced, more women not in a heterosexual relationship have become mothers through in vitro fertilization.[9][10]

Social role

Sikkimese mother with child


Mother and child in Cambodia

Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.[12][13] The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work.

The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children.[14] Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation.[15][16][17][18] The way mothers speak to their children ("motherese") is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers.[15]

Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood.[19][20] This is, however a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio, typhus and malaria.



In the United States, the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman.[21] In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women.[22]

Health and safety issues

Main article: Maternal mortality





Childbirth is an inherently dangerous and risky procedure, subject to many complications. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is done to avert maternal death—has been estimated as being 1500 deaths per 100,000 births.[28] Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births.[29]




Major world religions which have specific religious law or scriptural canon regarding mothers include: Christianity,[30] Judaism,[31] and Islam.[32] Some examples of honoring motherhood include the Madonna or Blessed Virgin Mother Mary for Catholics, and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the book of Proverbs.


Mother-offspring violence

Main articles: Matricide and Filicide


In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide ((the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both,[33][34] and young, indigent mothers with a history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide.[34][35] Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger.[36] Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons.[37]


Mothers in art

Charity, by French painter William-Adolphe Bouguereau


Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodos depicted mothers with children.[39]



Many contemporary movies portray mothers.

Synonyms and translations

A mother and child
Main article: Mama and papa


Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are:

In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply:

Famous motherhood figures

See also


  2. ^ "Define Mother at". 
  3. ^ "". Retrieved 2011-10-27. 
  4. ^ [1][dead link]
  5. ^ [2][dead link]
  6. ^ [3] Archived December 22, 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ "The Changing Role of Women in North American Mammology" (PDF). Retrieved 2015-07-01. 
  12. ^ [4]< Archived August 15, 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  13. ^ "". Retrieved 2015-07-01. 
  16. ^ Hladik, E.; Edwards, H. (1984). "A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment". Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 13: 321–332. 
  18. ^ Mannle, S.; Tomasello, M. (1987). "Fathers, siblings, and the bridge hypothesis". In Nelson, K. E.; vanKleeck, A. Children's language 6. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. pp. 23–42. 
  21. ^ a b "The World Factbook". 
  22. ^ "FastStats". 
  24. ^ "Over 99 percent of maternal deaths occur in developing countries". 
  25. ^ [5] Archived May 1, 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  29. ^ ibid, p10
  32. ^ 'Moga, Prince. Happy Mothers Day 2015 Quotes. Happy Mothers Day 2015. Retrieved 2015-03-28. 
  33. ^ Bourget, Dominique; Gagné, Pierre; Labelle, Mary-Eve (September 2007). "Parricide: A Comparative Study of Matricide Versus Patricide". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law 35 (3): 306–312. Retrieved 2 July 2015. 
  34. ^ a b West, Sara G. (Feb 2007). "An Overview of Filicide". Psychiatry 4 (2): 48–57. PMID 2922347. Retrieved 2 July 2015. 
  35. ^ Friedman, SH; Horwitz, SM; Resnick, PJ (Sep 2005). "Child murder by mothers: a critical analysis of the current state of knowledge and a research agenda.". American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (9): 1578–87. PMID 16135615. Retrieved 2 July 2015. 
  37. ^ Heide, KM (Mar 2013). "Matricide and stepmatricide victims and offenders: an empirical analysis of U.S. arrest data.". Behavioral Science and Law 31 (2): 301–14. PMID 23558726. Retrieved 2 July 2015. 
  41. ^ "Prince Charles pays tribute to 'Mummy'". ITN website. 5 June 2012. Retrieved 5 June 2012. 

Further reading

External links

  • Media related to Mothers at Wikimedia Commons
  • The dictionary definition of mother at Wiktionary