A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to distance on the ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well as on the earth's surface) is an important factor in planning and executing military missions.


The numerical scale of a map indicates the relationship of distance measured on a map and the corresponding distance on the ground. This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always written with the map distance as 1. It is independent of any unit of measure. (It could be yards, meters, inches, and so forth.) An RF of 1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 50,000 units of the same measure on the ground.

a. The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring between the same two points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by the denominator of the RF or scale (Figure 5­1).

b. Since the distance on most maps is marked in meters and the RF is expressed in this unit of measurement in most cases, a brief description of the metric system is needed. In the metric system, the standard unit of measurement is the meter.

Appendix C contains the conversion tables.

c. The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no RF or scale. To be able to determine ground distance on such a map, the RF must be determined. There are two ways to do this:

RF = 1 ÷ X = MD ÷ GD


MD = 4.32 centimeters

GD = 2.16 kilometers
(216,000 centimeters)

RF = 1 ÷ X = 4.32 ÷ 216,000

216,000 ÷ 4.32 = 50,000


RF = 1 ÷ 50,000 or 1:50,000

d. Occasionally it may be necessary to determine map distance from a known ground distance and the RF:

e. When determining ground distance from a map, the scale of the map affects the accuracy. As the scale becomes smaller, the accuracy of measurement decreases because some of the features on the map must be exaggerated so that they may be readily identified.


A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances. The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the scale is marked in full units of measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most maps have three or more graphic scales, each using a different unit of measure (Figure 5­2). When using the graphic scale, be sure to use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.

a. To determine straight­line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight­edged piece of paper on the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and extends past them. Make a tick mark on the edge of the paper at each point (Figure 5­3).

b. To convert the map distance to ground distance, move the paper down to the graphic bar scale, and align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the primary scale so that the left tick mark (a) is in the extension scale (Figure 5­4).

c. The right tick mark (b) is aligned with the 3,000 meter mark in the primary scale, thus the distance is at least 3,000 meters. To determine the distance between the two points to the nearest 10 meters, look at the extension scale. The extension scale is numbered with zero at the right and increases to the left. When using the extension scale, always read right to left (Figure 5­4). From the zero left to the end of the first shaded square is 100 meters. From the beginning of the center square to the left is 100 to 200 meters; at the beginning of the second shaded square is 200 to 300 meters. Remember, the distance in the extension scale increases from right to left.

d. To determine the distance from the zero to tick mark (a), divide the distance inside the squares into tenths (Figure 5-4). As you break down the distance between the squares in the extension scale into tenths, you will see that tick mark (a) is aligned with the 950 meter mark. Adding the distance of 3,000 meters determined in the primary scale to the 950 meters you determined by using the extension scale, we find that the total distance between points (a) and (b) is 3,950 meters.

e. To measure distance along a winding road, stream, or other curved line, the straight edge of a piece of paper is used. In order to avoid confusion concerning the point to begin measuring from and the ending point, an eight­digit coordinate should be given for both the starting and ending points. Place a tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning point from which the curved line is to be measured. Align the edge of the paper along a straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper when the edge of the paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured (Figure 5­5A).

f. Keeping both tick marks together (on paper and map), place the point of the pencil close to the edge of the paper on the tick mark to hold it in place and pivot the paper until another straight portion of the curved line is aligned with the edge of the paper. Continue in this manner until the measurement is completed (Figure 5­5B).

g. When you have completed measuring the distance, move the paper to the graphic scale to determine the ground distance. The only tick marks you will be measuring the distance between are tick marks (a) and (b). The tick marks in between are not used (Figure 5-5C).

h. There may be times when the distance you measure on the edge of the paper exceeds the graphic scale. In this case, there are different techniques you can use to determine the distance.

i. The amount of time required to travel a certain distance on the ground is an important factor in most military operations. This can be determined if a map of the area is available and a graphic time­distance scale is constructed for use with the map as follows:

For example, if an infantry unit is marching at an average rate (R) of 4 kilometers per hour, it will take approximately 3 hours (T) to travel 12 kilometers.

12(D) ÷ 4(R) = 3(T)

j. To construct a time­distance scale (Figure 5­8A), knowing your length of march, rate of speed, and map scale, that is, 12 kilometers at 3 kilometers per hour on a 1:50,000­scale map, use the following process:

1-minute divisions--60

5-minute divisions--12

10-minutes divisions--6


Determining distance is the most common source of error encountered while moving either mounted or dismounted. There may be circumstances where you are unable to determine distance using your map or where you are without a map. It is therefore essential to learn methods by which you can accurately pace, measure, use subtense, or estimate distances on the ground.

a. Pace Count. Another way to measure ground distance is the pace count. A pace is equal to one natural step, about 30 inches long. To accurately use the pace count method, you must know how many paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. To determine this, you must walk an accurately measured course and count the number of paces you take. A pace course can be as short as 100 meters or as long as 600 meters. The pace course, regardless of length, must be on similar terrain to that you will be walking over. It does no good to walk a course on flat terrain and then try to use that pace count on hilly terrain. To determine your pace count on a 600­meter course, count the paces it takes you to walk the 600 meters, then divide the total paces by 6. The answer will give you the average paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. It is important that each person who navigates while dismounted knows his pace count.

b. Odometer. Distances can be measured by an odometer, which is standard equipment on most vehicles. Readings are recorded at the start and end of a course and the difference is the length of the course.

c. Subtense. The subtense method is a fast method of determining distance and yields accuracy equivalent to that obtained by measuring distance with a premeasured piece of wire. An advantage is that a horizontal distance is obtained indirectly; that is, the distance is computed rather than measured. This allows subtense to be used over terrain where obstacles such as streams, ravines, or steep slopes may prohibit other methods of determining distance.

d. Estimation. At times, because of the tactical situation, it may be necessary to estimate range. There are two methods that may be used to estimate range or distance.