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The genetic information carried in the molecule called DNA determines every inherited physical characteristic of every living thing. DNA—more formally known as deoxyribonucleic acid—is found inside almost every cell. It controls how the cell replicates and functions and what traits are inherited from previous generations. DNA determines traits that can be seen—such as eye color in animals—as well as traits that are not visible, such as blood type. DNA is also found in some viruses.

The Structure of DNA

DNA molecules consist of two strands of biochemical compounds called nucleotides linked together by chemical bonds. Nucleotides are composed of three molecules: a phosphate, a sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base. In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose, and the base is either adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine (see biochemistry, “DNA Carries Heredity”). Adenine and guanine (symbolized for convenience as A and G, respectively) are classified as purines; cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are pyrimidines.

Within each strand the nucleotides are connected to each other by covalent bonds linking the phosphate of one nucleotide with the sugar of the next (see inorganic chemistry). This forms a chain from which the bases protrude. The bases of one strand are linked to bases of the second strand by hydrogen bonds. This base pairing is very specific—because of their structures, adenine can only pair with thymine, and cytosine can only pair with guanine. Thus joined, the ladder-shaped DNA strands are coiled around each other, forming a spiral, or double helix. This configuration makes the DNA molecule very stable.

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Within the cell, DNA and various proteins are organized into dense units called chromosomes. In prokaryotes—organisms such as bacteria whose cells lack a true nucleus—these float freely in the cell’s cytoplasm. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are located within the nucleus, though some DNA is found also in mitochondria and in chloroplasts (see genetics; living things).

Replication—How DNA Is Produced

When extra copies of DNA molecules are needed—as might occur prior to cell division—the molecule undergoes replication. In this process the two DNA strands separate—that is, the “rungs” of the ladder are broken. Each freed strand then serves as a template from which a new strand is produced. After the new strands are completed, each bonds to its respective template strand. This produces two new DNA molecules, each consisting of one “old” strand and one new strand. This method of replication is known as the semiconservative model. It is a key factor in the stable transfer of genetic traits from one generation of cells to the next.

The Genetic Code

The genetic information inside a DNA molecule is organized in nucleotide sequences called genes. These contain instructions for making proteins, which are needed for growth, repair, and other functions. More specifically, the genes code for amino acids, the small molecules that form proteins. The code, or codon, for each amino acid is just three nucleotides long. For example, the codon for the amino acid proline is the sequence cytosine–cytosine–thymine (notated as CCT). The combination of four nucleotides arranged into groups of three results in 64 possible triplet codons.

Although more than 100 different amino acids exist in nature, only 20 are found in living things. This latter group is called the essential amino acids. Some of the essential amino acids have more than one triplet codon. For example, the triplets AAA and AAG both code for lysine. Proline has four codons—CCA, CCT, CCC, or CCG—while tryptophan has only one: TGG. Three triplets do not code for any amino acid. Instead, they signal when transcription should be stopped. These three triplets—TAA, TAG, and TGA—are known as stop codons.

Transcription and Translation—The Work of DNA

When the cell needs to make proteins, instructions are sent to its DNA. This signals the appropriate gene to begin manufacturing RNA, or ribonucleic acid. RNA differs from DNA in that it is single-stranded and contains the sugar ribose. It also contains a base called uracil instead of thymine. The RNA molecule, which is called messenger RNA (mRNA), reads the appropriate DNA code in the gene, and then carries this information to another part of the cell, where it serves as a template for the manufacture, or synthesis, of the new protein. During protein synthesis, two other forms of RNA work with mRNA—these are called transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

It is important that no coding errors occur. The substitution of one base for another produces the wrong amino acid for the growing protein chain. Some coding errors are not serious; others have grave effects. For example, during the production of glutamate (GAG), if the cell substitutes thymine for adenine, the amino acid valine (GTG) will be produced. The substitution of valine for glutamate during the synthesis of human hemoglobin results in sickle cell anemia, a serious disease. Such coding errors are a form of the genetic mistake called mutation.

The History of DNA

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DNA was first discovered in 1869, but its role in genetics was not clear until the 1940s. In 1953 scientists James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin determined the double-helix structure of DNA, as well as its method of replication. Their work earned a Nobel Prize in 1962.