Species complex

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This article is about a group of very similar species. For "species-group names" in zoological nomenclature, see ICZN Code. For individuals of different species grouping together, see Mutualism (biology).
"Cryptic species" redirects here. For the principles of hiding, see Crypsis, and for a supposed creature whose existence is not scientifically recognized, see Cryptid.

In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related species very similar in appearance, such that boundaries between them are often unclear. Terms sometimes used synonymously but with more precise meanings are: cryptic species for two or more species hidden under one species name, sibling species for two cryptic species that are each others' closest relative, and species flock for a group of closely related species living in the same habitat. As informal taxonomic ranks, species group, species aggregate, and superspecies are also in use.




A species complex is typically considered as a group of close, but distinct species.[1] Obviously, the concept is closely tied to the definition of a species, and thus to the species concept one adheres to. Following a morphological species concept, the members of a species complex although being very similar overall, will show some slight differences in appearance, while the biological species concept requires reproductive isolation to accept species as distinct.[2]


Some authors apply the term also to a species with intraspecific variability, which might be a sign of ongoing or incipient speciation. Examples are ring species[4][5] or species with subspecies, where it is often unclear if these should be considered separate species.[6]

Included concepts[edit]

The following terms are sometimes used as synonyms for a species complex, but apply in general to more narrow concepts:

  • Cryptic species: This describes "distinct species that are erroneously classified (and hidden) under one species name".[7] More generally, the term is often applied when species, even if known to be distinct, cannot be reliably distinguished based on their morphology.
  • Sibling species: Also "aphanic species", this term was initially used with the same meaning as cryptic species, but later authors emphasized the common phylogenetic origin.[8] A recent article defines sibling species as "cryptic sister species", meaning "two species that are the closest relative of each other and have not been distinguished from one another taxonomically".[7]
  • Species flock: Also "species swarm", this refers to "a monophyletic group of closely related species all living in the same ecosystem".[7] Conversely, the term has also been applied very broadly to a group of closely related species than can be variable and widespread.[9]
Picture showing two mushrooms with red caps on a meadow
The fly agaric comprises several cryptic species, as shown by genetic data.[10]
An adult and a young elephant bathing
The African forest elephant (shown) is the bush elephant's sibling species.[11]
A flock of differently coloured fish in a rocky setting
Mbuna cichlids form a species flock of several hundred species in Lake Malawi.[12]

Taxonomic treatment[edit]

In the nomenclature codes of botany, zoology, and bacteriology, no taxonomic ranks are defined at the level between subgenera and species,[13][14][15] although additional ranks are allowed in the botanical code as long as confusion is avoided.[13] Defining species groups is sometimes a convenient, informal way of subdividing well-defined genera with a large number of species.[16]

The term superspecies has sometimes been used as an informal rank to refer to a species complex around one "representative" species.[17][18] It was popularized by Bernhard Rensch and later Ernst Mayr, with the initial requirement that species forming a superspecies must have allopatric distributions.[19] For the component species of a superspecies, allospecies was proposed.[19]

Species aggregate has likewise been used, with the previous species collectiva introduced by Adolf Engler at the beginning of the 20th century, and alternative terms including conspecies and grex.[20] This has been applied especially to plant taxa in which polyploidy and apomixis are prevalent,[20] an example being Ranunculus auricomus agg.[3] The components of a species aggregate have been called segregates or microspecies.[20]

When a species is assumed to actually represent a species complex, this is often indicated by the abbreviation "agg." (for "aggregate") after the binomial species name.[3][21] Another possibility is the use of sensu lato, abbreviated as "s.l."[22][23][24]


Distinguishing close species within a complex requires the study of often very small differences. Morphological differences may be minute and only visible using adapted methods, such as microscopy. However, distinct species may sometimes have no morphological differences.[7] In these cases, other characters, e.g. in the species' life history, behavior, physiology, or karyology can be explored. As an example, territorial songs are indicative of species in the treecreepers, a bird genus with little morphological differences.[25] Mating tests are common in some groups such as fungi to confirm the reproductive isolation of two species.[23]

Analysis of DNA sequences is becoming increasingly standard for species recognition and may in many cases be the only useful method.[7] Different methods are used to analyse such genetic data, for example molecular phylogenetics or DNA barcoding. Such methods have greatly contributed to the discovery of cryptic species,[7] including such emblematic species as the fly agaric[10] or the African elephants.[11]

An individual of a yellow-spotted salamander
Salamandra corsica
An individual of a uniformly black salamander.
Salamandra atra
An individual of a fire salamander
Salamandra salamandra

Evolution and ecology[edit]

Speciation process[edit]





Hybrid speciation can lead to unclear species boundaries through a process of reticulate evolution, where species have two parent species as their most recent common ancestors. In such cases, the hybrid species may have intermediate characters, as demonstrated e.g. in Heliconius butterflies.[27] Hybrid speciation has been observed in various species complexes, such as insects, fungi, and plants. In plants, hybridization often takes place through polyploidization.


In regards to whether or not members of a species group share a range, sources differ. A source from Iowa State University Department of Agronomy says that members of a species group usually have partially overlapping ranges but do not interbreed with each other.[28] A Dictionary of Zoology (Oxford University Press 1999) describes a species group as complex of related species that exist allopatrically and explains that this "grouping can often be supported by experimental crosses in which only certain pairs of species will produce hybrids."[29] The examples given below may support both uses of the term "species group."




Practical implications[edit]

Biodiversity estimates[edit]

It has been suggested that cryptic species complexes are very common in the marine environment.[31] Although this suggestion came before the detailed analysis of many systems using DNA sequence data, it has been proven correct.[32] The increased use of DNA sequence in the investigation of organismal diversity (also called Phylogeography and DNA barcoding) has led to the discovery of a great many cryptic species complexes in all habitats. In the marine bryozoan Celleporella hyalina,[33] detailed morphological analyses and mating compatibility tests between the isolates identified by DNA sequence analysis were used to confirm that these groups consisted of more than 10 ecologically distinct species that had been diverging for many million years.

Evidence from the identification of cryptic species has led some[who?] to conclude that current estimates of global species richness are too low. For example, mitochondrial DNA research published in January 2008 suggests that there are at least 11 genetically distinct populations of giraffes.[34][35] Similar methods also found that the Amazonian frog Eleutherodactylus ockendeni is actually at least 3 different species that diverged over 5 million years ago.[36]

Disease and pathogen control[edit]

A mosquito sitting on the tip of a finger
The Anopheles gambiae mosquito complex contains malaria vector and non-vector species.[37]


Conservation biology[edit]



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