by Gregory McNamee


Beekeeper holding a frame hive--© Mike Rogal/

They are transported great distances, crowded into inadequate holding facilities and shipping compartments. They are exposed to artificial light to keep them awake and working extra hours. They are regularly doused with chemicals meant to keep their many parasites at bay. Out in the agricultural fields in which they work, gathering pollen from flowering plants, they are exposed to other chemical pesticides and fertilizers. And yet the bees keep plugging away, pollinating crops and yielding honey, playing their part in the great engine of industrial food production.

Added to the bees’ burden, in 2006 came a mysterious malady called colony collapse disorder (CCD). By the time zoologists and pathologists described the syndrome, some 40 percent of the honeybees in North America had succumbed to CCD, and it was beginning to spread farther afield, with die-offs recorded in Europe, Central America, and Asia.

The disorder is well named, for it manifests its arrival with the disintegration of tight-knit honeybee societies as their constituent worker bees simply disappear, flying off to die disoriented and alone. Absent those workers, an affected colony would not be able to support its brood, resulting in the eventual demise of the entire population.

That disappearance had been remarked on before, documented since at least the beginning of the 1970s and turning up in the apicultural literature by names such as “spring dwindle” or “disappearing disease.” But the 2006 manifestation offered more cause to worry than previous outbreaks, so sudden was its onset and so numerous were its victims. It was worrisome, too, in a time of widespread crop failures, oil shortages, and changing climate, all affecting what policymakers now call “food security”—for honeybees are directly responsible for pollinating crops such as blueberries, apples, squash, carrots, onions, and most kinds of cruciferous vegetables. As the food journalist Rowan Jacobsen puts it, “If it lowers cholesterol, improves eyesight, or turbocharges the immune system, it was probably fertilized by a bee.”

Scientists were quick to respond. In laboratories around the world, specialists worked to isolate the cause—or causes—of CCD. One suspect was industrial agriculture itself; bees evolved to eat a variety of plant materials, but often hives were placed in fields where a single monocultural crop was grown for miles in any direction, as with the horizon-to-horizon corn fields of central Iowa. Given that honeybees seldom travel more than a couple of miles beyond their hives, the result was widespread malnutrition.

Honeycomb and bee--© Comstock Images/Jupiterimages.

Another suspected cause was also directly related to the way honeybees are used in industrial agriculture: namely, the inbreeding that results as populations of bees are kept separate from one another, both artificially in the form of commercial hives and naturally, as it were, in the “island phenomenon” that follows the loss of critical habitat to urban and suburban development. Just this September, scientists at the University of Leeds, in England, published the results of the first long-term immunological study of inbred bee populations, showing, as BBC reporter Mark Kinver notes, that “although the inbreeding did not seem to affect the bees’ immune system directly, it did make the insects more susceptible to parasitic infection.”

Other suspected causes were mites, long the bane of hives everywhere; new varieties of nicotine-based pesticides, known to be toxic to bees; mutated forms of diseases such as the Israel acute paralysis virus; the increased use of genetically modified crops, some of which produce a powerful pesticide called Bt toxin; and stress related to climate change, which has been having some strange results in every corner of the world, affecting migratory patterns, breeding cycles, and many other aspects of life for countless varieties of animal life.

All of these suspected causes had some explanatory power, but most were not sufficient of themselves to account for the widespread devastation of CCD. This led scientists to suspect a multicausal pathway, an idea that became widespread after 2009, particularly as it became evident that multiple viruses were attacking bee colonies around the world—but, for all that, one that still pointed to pesticides as a strong contributing factor. A study published in the online scientific journal Public Library of Science (PLoS) in March 2010 indicated that three-fifths of the pollen and wax samples gathered from hives in nearly half of the states in the Union carried at least one systemic pesticide, one constructed to spread throughout every part of a plant and destroy parasites. Other animals that came into contact with the pesticide, of course, suffered as well.

Meanwhile, from October 2009 to April 2010, one-third of all the managed honeybee colonies in the United States died, a figure that, as the U.S. Department of Agriculture carefully stated, “is not economically sustainable for beekeepers.”

The news from October 2010, then, could not be more timely. Scientists working for the U.S. Army, in collaboration with other scientists at the University of Montana, Texas Tech University, Montana State University, and Mexico’s Instituto de Ecología, now offer convincing evidence that CCD is the result of a “one-two punch” of a fungal parasite called nosema and a virus formally known as insect iridescent virus (IIV) 6. The scientific team cannot yet say whether the fungus preceded the virus or vice versa, but it seems certain that the two are co-factors—and that, since both work inside the bees’ guts, compromised nutrition plays a role.

The scientists, too, cannot yet say with certainty whether the pairing of fungus and virus is a direct cause of CCD, or whether they simply work to create a setting in which an opportunistic CCD originating elsewhere can flourish. Neither, in light of their discovery, do we yet have a complete picture of how the other factors, environmental and industrial, figure. Yet, even with this incomplete knowledge, we are a step closer to understanding the true cause of colony collapse disorder, and, as one of the project’s lead scientists sagely remarks, “It is easier to fight the problem if we know what the culprit is.”