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Decolonization (American English) or Decolonisation (British English) is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby a nation establishes and maintains its domination on overseas territories. The concept particularly applies to the dismantlement, during the second half of the 20th century, of the colonial empires established prior to World War I throughout the world.[1] Scholars focus especially on the movements in the colonies demanding independence, such as Creole nationalism.[2]

The fundamental right to self-determination is identified by the United Nations as core to decolonization, allowing not only independence, but also other ways of decolonization.[3] The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has stated that in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the colonizer but to allow a process of self-determination.[4] Self-determination continues to be claimed, also within independent states, to demand decolonization, as in the case of Indigenous Peoples.[5]

Decolonization may involve either nonviolent revolution or national liberation wars by pro-independence groups. It may be intranational or involve the intervention of foreign powers acting individually or through international bodies such as the United Nations. Although examples of decolonization can be found as early as the writings of Thucydides, there have been several particularly active periods of decolonization in modern times. These include the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; of the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires following World War I; of the British, French, Dutch, Japanese, Portuguese, Belgian and Italian colonial empires following World War II; and of the Soviet Union (successor to the Russian Empire) at the end of the Cold War in 1991.[6]

Decolonization has been used to refer to the intellectual decolonization from the colonizers' ideas that made the colonized feel inferior.[7][8][9]

Issues of decolonization persist and are raised contemporarily. In Latin America[10] and South Africa[11] such issues are increasingly discussed under the term decoloniality.

Methods and stagesEdit

Decolonization is a political process. In extreme circumstances, there is a war of independence. More often, there is a dynamic cycle where negotiations fail, minor disturbances ensue resulting in suppression by the police and military forces, escalating into more violent revolts that lead to further negotiations until independence is granted. In rare cases, the actions of the pro-independence movements are characterized by nonviolence, with the Indian independence movement led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi being one of the most notable examples, and the violence comes as active suppression from the occupying forces or as political opposition from forces representing minority local communities who feel threatened by the prospect of independence. For example, there was a war of independence in French Indochina, while in some countries in French West Africa (excluding the Maghreb countries) decolonization resulted from a combination of insurrection and negotiation. The process is only complete when the de facto government of the newly independent country is recognized as the de jure sovereign state by the community of nations.[citation needed]

Independence is often difficult to achieve without the encouragement and practical support from one or more external parties. The motives for giving such aid are varied: nations of the same ethnic and/or religious stock may sympathize with the people of the country, or a strong nation may attempt to destabilize a colony as a tactical move to weaken a rival or enemy colonizing power or to create space for its own sphere of influence; examples of this include British support of the Haitian Revolution against France, and the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, in which the United States warned the European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the newly independent states of the Western Hemisphere.

As world opinion became more pro-independence following World War I, there was an institutionalized collective effort to advance the cause of decolonization through the League of Nations. Under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, a number of mandates were created. The expressed intention was to prepare these countries for self-government, but the mandates are often interpreted as a mere redistribution of control over the former colonies of the defeated powers, mainly the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. This reassignment work continued through the United Nations, with a similar system of trust territories created to adjust control over both former colonies and mandated territories.


In referendums, some dependent territories have chosen to retain their dependent status, such as Gibraltar and French Guiana. There are even examples, such as the Falklands War, in which a geopolitical power goes to war to defend the right of a dependent territory to continue to be such. Colonial powers have sometimes promoted decolonization in order to shed the financial, military and other burdens that tend to grow in those colonies where the colonial governments have become more benign.

Decolonization is rarely achieved through a single historical act, but rather progresses through one or more stages of decolonization, each of which can be offered or fought for: these can include the introduction of elected representatives (advisory or voting; minority or majority or even exclusive), degrees of autonomy or self-rule. Thus, the final phase of decolonization may, in fact, concern little more than handing over responsibility for foreign relations and security, and soliciting de jure recognition for the new sovereignty. But, even following the recognition of statehood, a degree of continuity can be maintained through bilateral treaties between now equal governments involving practicalities such as military training, mutual protection pacts, or even a garrison and/or military bases.






American RevolutionEdit

Great Britain's Thirteen North American colonies were the first to break from the British Empire in 1776, and were recognized as an independent nation by France in 1778 and Britain in 1783. The United States of America was the first set of European established colonies to achieve independence and establish itself as a nation, and was the first independent settler state in the Americas.[14][15]

Haitian RevolutionEdit

The Haitian Revolution was a slave uprising that began in 1791 in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti, which later became a republic.

Spanish AmericaEdit

The Chilean Declaration of Independence on 18 February 1818

The chaos of the Napoleonic wars in Europe cut the direct links between Spain and its American colonies, allowing for process of decolonization to begin.[16]


Ottoman EmpireEdit


Cyprus was invaded and taken over by the Ottoman Empire in 1570. It was later relinquished by the Ottomans in 1878.[17] The Cypriots expressed their true disdain for Ottoman rule through revolts and nationalist movements. The Ottomans only suppressed these revolts in the harshest of fashion but that only ended up fuelling the revolts and desire for independence.[18] The Cypriots desired to merge with Greece because they felt a close connection with Greece. They were tired of 3 centuries of Turkic rule and openly expressed their desire for enosis. The Cypriots would embrace Greek culture and traditions. They abandoned Ottoman architecture and showed little respect for Ottoman rule.[19] All these acts of defiance could be attributed to decolonization. When the Cypriots made acts of nationalism, they were participating in a form of decolonization because they were attempting to remove all trace of Turkic and Muslim influence within their society.[20] The Greek War of Independence had major affects on Cyprus and after the Ottomans had left, Cyprus continued to create a Greek culture they wished to be a part of. Cyprus would continue to create this imagined identity of Greek culture. This can also be a form of imagined human geography because Cyprus used this identity to justify its revolts and nationalist movements.[21]



The Ottoman Empire had failed to raise revenue and a monopoly of effective armed forces.[22] This may have caused the fall of the Ottoman Empire.




Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence (1821–1829) was fought to liberate Greece from a three centuries long Ottoman occupation. Independence was secured by the intervention of the British and French navies and the French and Russian armies, but Greece was limited to an area including perhaps only one-third of ethnic Greeks, that later grew significantly with the Megali Idea project. The war ended many of the privileges of the Phanariot Greeks of Constantinople.






Centuries[25][26] of armed and unarmed struggle ended with the recognition of Serbian independence from the Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.



British EmpireEdit

The emergence of indigenous bourgeois elites was especially characteristic of the British Empire, which seemed less capable (or less ruthless) in controlling political nationalism. Driven by pragmatic demands of budgets and manpower the British made deals with the nationalist elites. Across the empire, the general protocol was to convene a constitutional conference in London to discuss the transition to greater self-government and then independence, submit a report of the constitutional conference to parliament, if approved submit a bill to Parliament at Westminster to terminate the responsibility of the United Kingdom (with a copy of the new constitution annexed), and finally, if approved, issuance of an Order of Council fixing the exact date of independence.[27]


Egypt became independent in 1922, although the UK retained security prerogatives, control of the Suez Canal, and effective control of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The Balfour Declaration of 1926 declared the British Empire dominions as equals, and the 1931 Statute of Westminster established full legislative independence for them. The equal dominions were six– Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, the Irish Free State, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa; Ireland had been an integral part of the United Kingdom until 1922 and not a colony. However, some of the Dominions were already independent de facto, and even de jure and recognized as such by the international community. Thus, Canada was a founding member of the League of Nations in 1919 and served on the Council from 1927 to 1930.[28] That country also negotiated on its own and signed bilateral and multilateral treaties and conventions from the early 1900s onward. Newfoundland ceded self-rule back to London in 1934. Iraq, a League of Nations mandate, became independent in 1932.


British Empire in 1952





Violence, civil warfare and partitionEdit

Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown in 1781


The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a revolt of a portion of the Indian Army. It was characterized by massacres of civilians on both sides. It was not a movement for independence, however, and only a small part of India was involved. In the aftermath, the British pulled back from modernizing reforms of Indian society, and the level of organised violence under the British Raj was relatively small. Most of that was initiated by repressive British administrators, as in the Amritsar massacre of 1919, or the police assaults on the Salt March of 1930.[30] Large-scale communicable violence broke out after the British left in 1947, turning India over to the new nations of India and Pakistan.[31]


Palestine became a British mandate from the League of Nations, and during the war the British gained support from both sides by making promises both to the Arabs and the Jews. See Balfour Declaration. Decades of enthno—religious violence resulted. The British pulled out, and the mandate was effectively partitioned.[33]

French EmpireEdit



Although France was ultimately a victor of World War II, Nazi Germany's occupation of France and its North African colonies during the war had disrupted colonial rule. On October 27, 1946 France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic, and substituted the French Union for the colonial empire. However power over the colonies remained concentrated in France, and the power of local assemblies outside France was extremely limited. On the night of March 29, 1947, a nationalist uprising in Madagascar led the French government headed by Paul Ramadier (Socialist) to violent repression: one year of bitter fighting, 11,000–40,000 Malagasy died.




After 1918Edit

Western European colonial powersEdit






United StatesEdit



After 1898 direct intervention expanded in Latin America. The United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 and annexed Hawaii in 1898. It added most of Spain's remaining colonies in 1898-99. Deciding not to annex Cuba outright, the U.S. established it as a client state with obligations including the perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay to the U.S. Navy. The attempt of the first governor to void the island's constitution and remain in power past the end of his term provoked a rebellion that provoked a reoccupation between 1906 and 1909, but this was again followed by devolution. Similarly, the McKinley administration, despite prosecuting the Philippine–American War against a native republic, set out that the Territory of the Philippine Islands was eventually granted independence.[35] In 1917, the US purchased the Danish West Indies (later renamed the US Virgin Islands) from Denmark and Puerto Ricans became full U.S. citizens that same year.[36] The US government declared Puerto Rico the territory was no longer a colony and stopped transmitting information about it to the United Nations Decolonization Committee. As a result, the UN General Assembly removed Puerto Rico from the U.N. list of non-self-governing territories. Four referenda showed little support for independence, but much interest in statehood such as Hawaii and Alaska received in 1959.[37]




U.S. troops in Korea, September 1945

Before World War I, Japan had gained several substantial colonial possessions in East Asia such as Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Japan joined the allies in World War I, and after the war acquired the South Pacific Mandate, the former German colony in Micronesia, as a League of Nations Mandate. Pursuing a colonial policy comparable to those of European powers, Japan settled significant populations of ethnic Japanese in its colonies while simultaneously suppressing indigenous ethnic populations by enforcing the learning and use of the Japanese language in schools. Other methods such as public interaction, and attempts to eradicate the use of Korean, Hokkien, and Hakka among the indigenous peoples, were seen to be used. Japan also set up the Imperial Universities in Korea (Keijō Imperial University) and Taiwan (Taihoku Imperial University) to compel education.



Central EuropeEdit



After 1945Edit

Planning for decolonizationEdit

U.S. and PhilippinesEdit



Although a small, poor country, Portugal had the oldest (it started, in 1415, with the conquer of Ceuta) and one of the largest colonial empires, due to the Portuguese discoveries. Portugal was an authoritarian state (ruled by António de Oliveira Salazar), with no taste for democracy at home or in its colonies. There was a fierce determination to maintain possession at all costs, and aggressively defeat any insurgencies. However, Portugal was helpless when India seized Goa in 1961. In 1961, nationalist forces began organizing in Portugal, and the revolts (and, then, war - Portuguese Colonial War) spread to Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique.[40] Lisbon escalated its effort in the war: for instance, it increased the number of natives in the colonial army and built strategic hamlets. Portugal sent another 300,000 European settlers into Angola and Mozambique until 1974. In 1974, left-wing revolution (Carnation Revolution) inside Portugal destroyed the old system and encouraged pro-Soviet elements to attempt to seize control in the colonies. The result was a very long and extremely difficult multi-party Civil War in Angola, and lesser insurrections in Mozambique.[41]



The NetherlandsEdit


United Nations Trust TerritoriesEdit


The emergence of the Third World (1945–present)Edit







Decolonization of AfricaEdit

British decolonisation in Africa






Most African countries became independent as republics. Morocco, Lesotho, and Swaziland remain monarchies under dynasties that predate colonial rule. Egypt and Libya gained independence as monarchies, but both countries' monarchs were later deposed, and they became republics.


Decolonization in the Americas after 1945Edit

Decolonization of AsiaEdit







Decolonization in EuropeEdit


Soviet control of its non-Russian member republics weakened rapidly as movements for democratization and self-government gained strength during 1990 and 1991. The Soviet coup d'état attempt in August 1991 began the breakup of the USSR, which formally ended on December 26, 1991. The Republics of the Soviet Union become sovereign states—Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia (later Belarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. Historian Robert Daniels says, "A special dimension that the anti-Communist revolutions shared with some of their predecessors was decolonization."[50] Moscow's policy had long been to settle ethnic Russians in the non-Russian republics. After independence, minority rights for Russian-speakers has been an issue; see Russians in the Baltic states.[51]

Decolonization of OceaniaEdit









Nation-building is the process of creating a sense of identification with, and loyalty to, the state. Nation-building projects seek to replace loyalty to the old colonial power, and/or tribal or regional loyalties, with loyalty to the new state. Elements of nation-building include creating and promoting symbols of the state like a flag and an anthem, monuments, official histories, national sports teams, codifying one or more indigenous official languages, and replacing colonial place-names with local ones.[52] Nation-building after independence often continues the work began by independence movements during the colonial period.

Settled populationsEdit

Decolonization is not an easy matter in colonies where a large population of settlers lives, particularly if they have been there for several generations. This population, in general, was often repatriated, often losing considerable property. For instance, the decolonization of Algeria by France was particularly uneasy due to the large European population (see also pied noir), which largely evacuated to France when Algeria became independent. In Zimbabwe, former Rhodesia, president Robert Mugabe has, starting in the 1990s, targeted white African farmers and forcibly seized their property. Other ethnic minorities that are also the product of colonialism may pose problems as well. A large Indian community lived in Uganda – as in most of East Africa – as a result of Britain colonizing both India and East Africa. As many Indians had considerable wealth Idi Amin expelled them for domestic political gain.

Economic developmentEdit





Effects on the colonizersEdit




Effects on the former coloniesEdit




Post-colonial organizationsEdit



Former Colonial Power Organisation Founded
United Kingdom Commonwealth of Nations 1931
France French Union 1946
French Community 1958
La Francophonie 1970
Spain & Portugal Latin Union 1954
Organisation of Ibero-American States 1991
Portugal Community of Portuguese Language Countries 1996
Russia Commonwealth of Independent States 1991
United States Commonwealths 1934
Freely Associated States 1982
Netherlands De Nederlandse Unie 1949
De Nederlandse Taalunie 1980

Assassinated anti-colonialist leadersEdit


A non-exhaustive list of assassinated leaders would include:

Timeline of independenceEdit

This list includes formerly non-self-governing territories, such as colonies, protectorates, condominia, and leased territories. Changes in status of autonomy leading up to and after independence are not listed, and some dates of independence may be disputed. For details, see each national history.

18th century to World War IEdit

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1776 Great Britain United States Thirteen colonies of British America declare their independence a year into a general insurrection. Recognized by Great Britain in 1783 at the Treaty of Paris.
1804 France Haiti After initially revolting only to restore French control, Saint-Domingue declares its independence as Haiti. Recognized by France in 1825 in exchange for a 150 million indemnity, financed through French banks.
1810 Spain West Florida (today part of the United States) West Florida declares independence, but is almost immediately annexed by the United States as part of Orleans Territory under its claims from the Louisiana Purchase. Annexation recognized by Spain in 1819.
1811 Spain Paraguay Paraguay achieves independence. Recognised by Spain in 1880.
Venezuela Venezuela declares its independence. During its revolution, it joins Gran Colombia, before seceding to achieve independence in 1830.
Gran Colombia (today Colombia and Panama) Cartagena declares its independence. Cundinamarca and the United Provinces of New Granada followed suit in 1813. Briefly retaken by Spain, saved by Simon Bolivar and united as Colombia in 1821. Panama seceded 1903.
1815 Spain Uruguay The Federal League declares its independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in 1811. Attacked by Portugal, some provinces united with the future Argentina; others, after a protracted struggle, successfully formed Uruguay in 1828. Recognized by Spain in 1870.
1816 Spain Argentina The United Provinces of South America formally declare their independence of the restored Spanish crown, after having successfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Became Argentina in 1826. Recognized by Spain in 1859.[55]
1818 Spain Chile Chile declares its independence of the restored crown, after having unsuccessfully revolted against Napoleonic Spain in its name in 1810. Recognized by the Spanish in 1844.
1819 Spain East Florida (today part of the United States) The Adams-Onís Treaty cedes Florida to the United States in exchange for US cession of its claims to Texas under the Louisiana Purchase and in exchange for settling $5 million of its residents' claims against Spain.
1821 Spain Mexico Following a failed liberal insurrection in New Spain, the colony declares its independence as the Mexican Empire after a liberal mutiny succeeds in Spain. Recognised by Spain in 1836. Texas independent in 1836, annexed to the United States in 1845. Upper California and New Mexico lost to the United States in 1848.
Central America (today Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Guatemala, El Salvador, and part of Mexico) Chiapas and then all of Guatemala declares its independence as part of the Mexican Empire. Independent from Mexico in 1823 as the Federal Republic of Central America. Divided into Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala in 1838; remnant renamed El Salvador in 1841.
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo declares independence as Spanish Haiti, requests union with Gran Colombia, and is swiftly annexed by Haiti. It will achieve independence in 1844 only to restore Spanish rule in 1861.
Peru A Chilean expeditionary force declares the independence of Peru. Bolivia formed from Upper Peru in 1825. Recognized by Spain in 1879.
Ottoman Empire Greece Greece revolts. Recognized by the Porte in 1832 in the Treaty of Constantinople.
1822 Spain Ecuador Quito declares independence as a part of Gran Colombia. Independent from Colombia as Ecuador in 1830. Recognized by Spain in 1840.
Portugal Brazil Brazil, long the seat of the Portuguese royal government, declares independence under a rogue prince after the king returns to Lisbon. Recognized by Portugal in 1825.
1847 United States Liberia Liberia declares its independence as an organised nation. Independence was officially recognized by the United States in 1862
1852 Ottoman Empire Montenegro Montenegro declares its independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin. Voluntarily united with Serbia as Yugoslavia in 1918.
1864 United Kingdom Ionian Islands (today part of Greece) The United States of the Ionian Islands, a majority Greek protectorate, peaceably united with modern Greece by the Treaty of London.
1865 Spain Dominican Republic Santo Domingo regains independence as the Dominican Republic after four years as a restored colony.
1867 United Kingdom Canada Britain grants internal autonomy to Canada, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Canada until 1931, and a role in Canada constitutional law until 1982.
1869 Ottoman Empire Serbia Serbia declares its full independence from the Ottoman Empire. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1877 Ottoman Empire Romania The United Principalities of Romania declare their independence. Recognized in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin.
1898 Spain Cuba, Philippines The United States (barred from annexing Cuba itself by the Teller Amendment) forces Spain to abjure its own claims to the island in the Treaty of Paris ending the Spanish–American War. Various other Spanish colonies are purchased for $20 million, including the Philippines, causing an immediate backlash among the Philippine revolutionaries who have been fighting for independence since 1896. The Philippine Republic would fall to the United States in 1901 following the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo. In 1935, the Insular Government over the Philippines was replaced with the Commonwealth.
1900 United Kingdom Australia Britain grants internal autonomy to Australia, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over Australia until 1942, and shared a role in Australia constitutional law until 1986.
1902 United States Cuba Cuba granted independence. Guantanamo Bay is leased in perpetuity as a US Naval base.
1908 Ottoman Empire Bulgaria Bulgaria, largely autonomous since the Congress of Berlin, declares itself fully independent of the Ottoman Empire.
1910 United Kingdom South Africa Britain grants internal autonomy to South Africa, while keeping control of foreign policy. Britain retained legal powers over South Africa until 1931, and shared a head of state until 1961.
1912 Ottoman Empire Albania Albania declares independence. Recognized in the 1913 Treaty of London.

Interwar periodEdit

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1916 Russia Poland The independence of Russian Poland as a new kingdom is proclaimed by occupying German and Austro-Hungarian forces. Recognized by Soviet Russia in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Absorbed Polish regions from Germany, Austria, and Hungary following World War I and from Soviet Russia and Soviet Ukraine after the Polish-Soviet War.
1917 Russia Finland Finland declares its independence. Recognized in the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, although Karelia remained disputed.
Crimea (since 1954 de jure part of Ukraine, since 2014 de facto part of Russia) Crimean People's Republic declares independence but Crimean Tatar forces hold out less than a month against the Bolsheviks.
Idel-Ural (today part of Russia) Volga Tatars declare independence of the Idel-Ural State; other ethnic groups including Volga Germans and Bashkirs join them. The republic was crushed by the Bolsheviks a few months later.
Kazakhstan Kazakhs declare independence of the Alash Autonomy. This lasted for less than three years before being defeated by the Bolsheviks.
1918 Russia Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the Republic of Georgia and the Republic of Armenia declare independence on May 26–28. All three would be conquered by the Red Army in 1920–1921.
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declare independence. All three were initially able to secure their independence by 1920; however, on 1940, all three were invaded by the Soviet Union and were later annexed.
Ukraine The Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR) declared independence in January 1918, and was recognized by several states from February, including by Bolshevik Russia in the March Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. It would lose its international recognition after the Paris Peace Conference, and its territory to the Russian-created Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, which was formally subordinated to Moscow by the formation of the Soviet Union in 1922.
Austria-Hungary Czechoslovakia (today the Czech Republic and Slovakia) Bohemia, Moravia, and sections of Silesia, Galicia, and Hungary declare their independence as Czechoslovakia. Recognized in the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. Slovakia independent from 1939 to 1945. Carpathian Ruthenia independent in 1939, eventually annexed to Ukraine. Secession of Slovakia in 1993.
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (today Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina) Croatia-Slavonia and Dalmatia declare their independence as the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and swiftly unites with Serbia as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes which later became Yugoslavia.
Ukraine The West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) declared independence November 1, 1918, and symbolically united with the Ukrainian People's Republic on January 22, 1919. It allied with Poland in the 1920 Treaty of Warsaw, but was absorbed after the 1921 Peace of Riga.
Denmark Iceland After the signing of the Danish–Icelandic Act of Union, Iceland becomes a sovereign state in personal union with Denmark.
1919 United Kingdom Afghanistan End of the protectorate over Afghanistan, when the United Kingdom accepts the presence of a Soviet ambassador in Kabul.
1920 Ottoman Empire Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine (today Israel and Palestine) The San Remo conference establishes League of Nations mandates from Ottoman Mesopotamia and Syria. The 1920 Iraqi revolt prevents the mandate over Mesopotamia from being enacted, and was replaced with the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty in 1922. In 1926, Greater Lebanon became the Lebanese Republic.
1921 China Mongolia Communist Mongolian revolutionaries, with the help of the Red Army, expel the Chinese government presence from Outer Mongolia. Mongolia was recognized by the United Nations in 1961.
1922 United Kingdom Egypt Egypt is unilaterally granted independence by the United Kingdom. However, four matters (imperial communications, defence, the protection of foreign interests and minorities, as well as Sudan) remain "absolutely reserved to the discretion" of the British government, which greatly restricts the full exercise of Egyptian sovereignty.
1926 United Kingdom Canada, South Africa The Balfour Declaration declares the dominions of the British empire as autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status.
1930 United Kingdom Weihai (today part of China) The United Kingdom returns the leased port territory at Weihaiwei to China.
1931 United Kingdom Canada, South Africa The Statute of Westminster grants virtually full independence to Canada, the Irish Free State, and the Union of South Africa when it declares the British parliament incapable of passing law over these former colonies without their own consent. This doesn't take effect over New Zealand, Newfoundland, and the Commonwealth of Australia, until independently ratified by these dominions.
1932 United Kingdom Iraq End of League of Nations Mandate over Iraq. The United Kingdom continues to station troops in the country and influence the Iraqi government until 1958.
1940 France Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia[56] After the Fall of France, the new French State de facto cedes control of French Indochina to Japan, weakening the colonial system that would make it difficult for France to control their colony once it is returned to them.
1941 Italy Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia[57] Eritrea, Tigray Province (appended to it), Italian Somaliland, and Ethiopia are taken by the Allies after an uneasy occupation of Ethiopia since 1935–36, and no longer joined as one colonial federal state. Ethiopia, the only African state to escape the Scramble for Africa, returns to being a sovereign nation, while the Ogaden desert (disputed by Somalia) remains under British military control until 1948.
1942 United Kingdom Australia Australia ratifies the Statute of Westminster.
Netherlands[58] Indonesia[59] Japanese seize control of the Dutch East Indies. Throughout the occupation the Japanese dismantle the colonial system and stirs national fervour among the native population, which will cause major problems for the Dutch when the colony is returned to them.
1943 France Lebanon Lebanon declares independence, effectively ending the French mandate (previously together with Syria).
1944 Denmark[60] Iceland Following a plebiscite, Iceland formally becomes a republic, ending the personal union between Denmark and Iceland.
1945 Japan Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia[56] In the last months of World War II, Japanese forces in French Indochina overthrew the largely powerless colonial administration and declare the independence of the Vietnam (which was formed from three separate colonies) Cambodia, and Laos. After the surrender of Japan, all three states would be disestablished and, in theory, returned to French colonial rule.
Korea (today North Korea and South Korea) After the surrender of Japan, Korea is occupied by the Soviet Union and the United States.
Taiwan (today de jure part of China, de facto an independent state with limited recognition), Mengjiang (today part of China), Manchuria (today part of China)[61] After the surrender of Japan, Mengjiang and Manchukuo are returned to China. Taiwan is put under the post-war occupation of China in accordance with the arrangement in General Order No. 1; this would prove to very useful for Nationalist-led China, as within four years, Taiwan would serve as a refuge for Chiang Kai-shek and his forces following the Communist takeover of China.
Indonesia[59] After the surrender of Japan, the Dutch East Indies is returned to the Netherlands.
Netherlands Indonesia However, just two days later, the Dutch East Indies declares independence, which after four years of armed struggle and mounting international pressure is recognised by the Netherlands in 1949.
France Vietnam Before France is able to regain control over French Indochina, Vietnam declares independence. France will recognize Vietnam in 1954 following a humiliating defeat, although between that year and 1975 Vietnam was divided into a communist north and a largely anti-communist south under American influence, before reuniting under North Vietnam rule.

Cold WarEdit

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1946 United States Philippines The treaty of Manila is signed, effectively ending over 380 years of foreign domination in the Philippines. United States military bases continued to be stationed in the islands.
United Kingdom Jordan The former Emirate of Transjordan became an independent Hashemite kingdom when the United Kingdom relinquishes its League of Nations mandate.
France Syria The former Mandate of Syria became an independent Republic.
1947 United Kingdom New Zealand New Zealand ratifies the Statute of Westminster 1931.
United Kingdom India, Pakistan The British government leaves India, which is partitioned into the secular, but Hindu-majority state of India and the Muslim state of Pakistan.
1948 United Kingdom Myanmar, Sri Lanka Burma, which had separated from British India earlier and did not gain independence in 1947, and Ceylon, which despite being a part of the Indian subcontinent was only briefly a part of British India, became independent.
Israel, Palestine The Jewish-controlled part of Palestine declares independence as the state of Israel; the remainder of Palestine became de facto part of the Arab states of Egypt (Gaza strip) and Transjordan (West Bank).
United States South Korea The Republic of Korea is established in the southern part of the Korean peninsula.
Soviet Union North Korea The Democratic People's Republic of Korea is established in the northern part of the peninsula.
1949 United Kingdom Newfoundland (today part of Canada) The Dominion of Newfoundland joins Canada.
1951 United Kingdom Eritrea The Mandate of Eritrea is given by the British to Ethiopia.
France, United Kingdom Libya The British-controlled Tripolitania and the French-controlled Fezzan unifies with the Emirate of Cyrenaica to form the Kingdom of Libya.
1952 France Chandernagore (today part of West Bengal state of India) The French enclave of Chandernagore (present-day Chandannagar) is formally ceded to India.
1953 France Cambodia, Laos The two non-Vietnamese protectorates of French Indochina, Cambodia and Laos, became independent.
1954 France Pondicherry (today part of India) The Puducherry enclave is incorporated into India.
United Kingdom Suez Canal (today part of Egypt) In the aftermath of July 23 revolution, the United Kingdom withdraws from the last part of Egypt it controls: the Suez Canal zone.
1956 United Kingdom, Egypt (de jure, de facto just United Kingdom) Sudan (today Sudan and South Sudan) Egypt ends it claims of sovereignty over Sudan, forcing the United Kingdom to do the same. The southern non-Arab half will later became an independent state in 2011.
France Tunisia Tunisia achieve independence.
France, Spain Morocco After large-scale protests forces France to return the sultan of Morocco, the French-controlled territories, most of the Spanish-controlled territories (except Cape Juby and Ifni) and the Tangier International Zone are united into an independent kingdom.
1957 United Kingdom Ghana The Gold Coast became independent, initiating the decolonization of sub-Saharan Africa.
Malaysia The Federation of Malaya became independent.
1958 France Guinea After being the only colony to vote against the 1958 French constitution, Guinea is granted independence.
1960 United Kingdom Cyprus (today de facto Cyprus and Northern Cyprus) Most of Cyprus became independent, though the UK retains sovereign control over Akrotiri and Dhekelia. In 1983, the northern Turkish half of Cyprus declared its independence (this state is only recognized by Turkey).
Nigeria Nigeria became independent.
Italy, United Kingdom Somalia (today de facto Somalia and Somaliland) British Somaliland became independent. As the State of Somaliland, the former British Somaliland protectorate merges as scheduled five days later with the Trust Territory of Somaliland (the former Italian Somaliland) to form the Somali Republic. (In the aftermath of the Somali Civil War, the former British Somaliland split from Somalia and has been an internationally unrecognized independent state called Somaliland since 1991.)
France Ivory Coast, Benin, Mauritania, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali Federation (today Mali and Senegal) All remaining colony members of French West Africa became independent, including Côte d'Ivoire, Dahomey, Mauritania, Niger, Upper Volta, French Sudan, and Senegal (the last two originally as a single-entity called the Mali Federation; within the same year the two split off into Mali and Senegal).
Chad, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Gabon All colony members of French Equatorial Africa became independent, including Chad, Ubangi-Shari, the French Congo, and Gabon.
Cameroon, Togo The United Nations trust territories of Cameroun and French Togoland became independent.
Madagascar Madagascar became independent.
Belgium Democratic Republic of the Congo The Belgian Congo (also known as Congo-Kinshasa, later renamed Zaire and presently the Democratic Republic of the Congo) became independent.
1961 United Kingdom Tanzania The United Nations trust territory of Tanganyika became independent.
Sierra Leone Sierra Leone became independent.
Kuwait The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Sheikhdom of Kuwait.
British Cameroons (today part of Nigeria and part of Cameroon) After a referendum, United Nations trust territory of Cameroons is dissolved, with the northern Muslim half deciding to merge with Nigeria and the southern Christian half deciding to merge with Cameroon.
South Africa The Union of South Africa declares itself a republic.
Portugal Goa, Daman and Diu (today part of India) The former coastal enclave colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu are taken over by India.
1962 United Kingdom Uganda Uganda achieves independence.
Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago With the collapse of the West Indies Federation, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago became independent as separate entities.
France Algeria Following the end of the Algerian War and the signing of the Évian Accords, both French and Algerian voters approve the independence of Algeria.
Belgium Rwanda, Burundi Following a period of ethnic violence in Rwanda that led to abolition of its monarchy, Belgium ends its trusteeship over it and Burundi.
New Zealand Samoa The South Sea UN trusteeship over Western Samoa (formerly German Samoa and nowadays called just Samoa) is relinquished.
1963 United Kingdom Kenya, Zanzibar (today part of Tanzania) The United Kingdom and the Sultanate of Zanzibar ceded its sovereignty over Kenya. Zanzibar, itself a British Protectorate, would also have its protectorate terminated in the same year. After the Zanzibar Revolution that occurred a year later, Zanzibar merged with Tanganyika, which promptly renamed itself the United Republic of Tanzania.
Sarawak (today part of Malaysia), North Borneo (today part of Malaysia), Singapore Sarawak, North Borneo and Singapore merges with the independent Federation of Malaya, which promptly renamed itself Malaysia. Within two years, however, Singapore would be expelled from Malaysia.
United Nations Western New Guinea (today part of Indonesia) Less than a year after Netherlands transferred Netherlands New Guinea to the United Nations, the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority transfers West Papua to Indonesia.
1964 United Kingdom Zambia, Malawi Following the dissolution of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland declare independence.
Malta The Mediterranean island of Malta became independent.
1965 United Kingdom Zimbabwe Southern Rhodesia declares independence as Rhodesia, but is not recognized due to its unwillingness to accommodate to black-majority rule.
The Gambia The Gambia receives independence.
Maldives The British protectorate over the Maldives archipelago in the Indian Ocean ends.
1966 United Kingdom Barbados, Guyana In the British West Indies, Barbados (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) and British Guiana became independent.
Botswana, Lesotho Near South Africa, Bechuanaland and Basutoland became independent.
1967 United Kingdom South Yemen (today part of Yemen) On the Arabian peninsula, the Protectorate of South Arabia and the Federation of South Arabia became independent as a single entity called the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (or South Yemen). In 1990, South Yemen merged with the Yemen Arab Republic (or North Yemen), which promptly renamed itself as the Republic of Yemen.
1968 United Kingdom Mauritius Mauritius achieves independence.
Swaziland The Kingdom of Swaziland has its protectorate terminated.
Spain Equatorial Guinea Spanish Guinea achieves independence.
Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom (de jure, de facto just Australia) Nauru Australia relinquishes UN trusteeship (nominally shared by the United Kingdom and New Zealand) of Nauru in the South Sea.
1970 United Kingdom Oman The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over Muscat and Oman.
1971 United Kingdom Fiji, Tonga In Oceania, Fiji became independent, while the protectorate over the Kingdom of Tonga ends.
United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar All seven members of the Trucial States became independent upon the termination of their protectorates, with six (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain) forming the United Arab Emirates; the seventh, Ras al-Khaimah, would join the UAE a year after. Two other Arab monarchies in the Persian Gulf, Bahrain and Qatar (which despite discussions of joining the UAE were not considered part of the Trucial States) also became independent as their British protectorates are lifted.
Pakistan Bangladesh Rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan led to the Liberation War and eventually resulted in the emergence of Bangladesh as an independent sovereign in 1971
1973 United Kingdom The Bahamas The Bahamas are granted independence.
Portugal Guinea-Bissau After more than a decade of fighting, guerrillas unilaterally declare independence in the Southeastern regions of Portuguese Guinea. It would not be recognized by Portugal until a year later, in the aftermath of Carnation Revolution.
1974 United Kingdom Grenada Grenada, a former member of the West Indies Federation became independent.
1975 France Comoros The Comoros archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Africa is granted independence.
Portugal Angola, Mozambique After the Carnation Revolution, the two other colonies who have been fighting against colonial rule, Angola and Mozambique achieve independence. East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently occupied and annexed by Indonesia nine days later.
Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe After the Carnation Revolution, the Western African island groups of Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe achieve independence.
East Timor After the Carnation Revolution, East Timor declares independence, but is subsequently invaded and occupied by Indonesia nine days later.
Netherlands Suriname Surinam (also known as Dutch Guiana) achieves independence.
Australia Papua New Guinea Released from Australian trusteeship, Papua New Guinea gains independence.
India Kingdom of Sikkim In 1975, After disarming the palace, a referendum on the monarchy was held, in which the Sikkimese people overwhelmingly voted to abolish the monarchy, and the new parliament of Sikkim, led by Kazi Lhendup Dorjee, proposed a bill for Sikkim to become an Indian state, which was promptly accepted by the Government of India.
1976 United Kingdom Seychelles The Seychelles archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the African coast became independent (one year after granting of self-rule).
Spain Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic The Spanish colonial rule is de facto terminated over the Western Sahara (then Rio de Oro), when the territory was passed on to and partitioned between Mauritania and Morocco (which annexes the entire territory in 1979), rendering the declared independence of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic ineffective to the present day.
1977 France Djibouti French Somaliland, also known as the "French Territory of the Afars and the Issas" (after its dominant ethnic groups), gains independence.
1978 United Kingdom Dominica Dominica, a former member of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
Solomon Islands, Tuvalu The Solomon Islands and the Ellice Islands (which previously split off from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands) became independent.
1979 United States Panama Canal (today part of Panama) The United States promises to return the Panama Canal Zone (held under a regime sui generis since 1903) to the republic of Panama after 1999.
United Kingdom Kiribati The Gilbert Islands became independent.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia, both former members of the West Indies Federation, became independent.
1980 United Kingdom Zimbabwe In the aftermath of the Rhodesian Bush War, Rhodesia, which temporary regained its colonial status, became formally independent under black-majority rule.
United Kingdom, France Vanuatu The joint Anglo-French colony of the New Hebrides became the independent island Republic of Vanuatu.
1981 United Kingdom Belize, Antigua and Barbuda In the British West Indies, British Honduras and Antigua and Barbuda (which was a former member of the West Indies Federation) became independent.
1982 United Kingdom Canada Canada gains full independence from the British parliament with the Canada Act 1982.
1983 United Kingdom Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Kitts and Nevis (an associated state since 1963) became independent.
1984 United Kingdom Brunei The United Kingdom ends its protectorate over the Brunei sultanate.
1986 United Kingdom Australia, New Zealand Australia and New Zealand became fully independent with the Australia Act 1986 and the Constitution Act 1986.
1990 South Africa Namibia South West Africa, the only League of Nation mandate that did not become a United Nation trust territory via independence, became independent from South Africa. South Africa would continue hold on to Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands until 1994.
Soviet Union Lithuania Declared the end of Soviet occupation and restoration of its 1918 independence on March 11.
United States Marshall Islands, Micronesia The UN Security Council gives final approval to end the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific (dissolved already in 1986), finalizing the independence of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of Micronesia, having been a colonial possession of the empire of Japan before UN trusteeship.
1991 Soviet Union Estonia Adopted a resolution on March 30 that its independent status had never been suspended and only subject to an illegal occupation since 1940, and another on August 20 restoring an Estonian republic.
Georgia Declared independence on April 9 after a referendum.
Latvia Restored pre-Soviet-occupation independence on May 4, and full independence on August 21.
Belarus, Ukraine Following a coup attempt by Russian hardliners against the Soviet government, Ukraine declared independence on August 24, and its people ratified this in a referendum on December 1, gaining international recognition, including by the Russian Republic, the following day. Belarus declared independence August 25. With Russia, both agreed to dissolve the Soviet Union when they signed the Belavezha Accords on December 8.
Moldova, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Russian Federation, Kazakhstan With Belarus and Ukraine, the remaining Soviet republics signed the Almaty Protocol on December 21, agreeing to dissolve the Soviet Union and create a Commonwealth of Independent States. On December 25, Soviet president Gorbachev resigned and the Soviet Union was effectively dissolved.

Post–Cold War eraEdit

Year Colonizer Decolonized state Event
1993 Ethiopia Eritrea Eritrea, a former Italian colony declares independence and is subsequently recognized.
1994 United States Palau Palau (after a transitional period as a Republic since 1981, and before part of the U.S. Trust territory of the Pacific) becomes independent from its former trustee, having been a mandate of the Japanese Empire before UN trusteeship.
1997 United Kingdom Hong Kong The British overseas territory of Hong Kong is given to People's Republic of China.
1999 Portugal Macau Macau is given to People's Republic of China. It is the last in a series of coastal enclaves that militarily stronger powers had obtained through treaties from the Ming and Qing Empire which ruled China. Macau, like Hong Kong, is not organised into the existing provincial structure applied to other provinces of the People's Republic of China, but is guaranteed an autonomous system of government within the People's Republic of China as a "Special Administrative Region" or S.A.R.
2002 Indonesia East Timor East Timor formally achieves independence after a transitional UN administration, three years after Indonesia ended its quarter-century occupation of the former Portuguese colony.
2006 Serbia and Montenegro Montenegro
2011 Sudan South Sudan South Sudan formally achieves independence.

See alsoEdit


  1. ^ Hack, Karl (2008). International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 255–257. ISBN 978-0-02-865965-7.
  2. ^ John Lynch, ed. Latin American Revolutions, 1808-1826: Old and New World Origins (1995)
  6. ^ Robert Strayer, “Decolonisation, Democratisation, and Communist Reform: The Soviet Collapse in Comparative Perspective,” Journal of World History 12#2 (2001), 375–406. online
  7. ^ Prasad, Pushkala (2005). Crafting Qualitative Research: Working in the Postpositivist Traditions. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781317473695. OCLC 904046323.
  9. ^ Mignolo, Walter D. (2011). The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822350606. OCLC 700406652.
  10. ^ "Decoloniality". GLOBAL SOCIAL THEORY. Retrieved 2019-10-15.
  16. ^ Nicole Bousquet, "The Decolonisation of Spanish America in the Early Nineteenth Century: A World-Systems Approach." Review (Fernand Braudel Center) (1988): 497–531. in JSTOR
  18. ^ Sant Cassia, Paul (1986). "Religion, politics and ethnicity in Cyprus during the Turkocratia(1571–1878)."". Archives Europeennes de Sociologie.
  24. ^ Patterson, Michelle (August 1996). "The Road to Romanian Independence". Canadian Journal of History. Archived from the original on 2008-03-24. Retrieved 2008-08-31.
  28. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia - League of Nations
  30. ^ On the nonviolent methodology see Jim Masselos, "Audiences, actors and congress dramas: Crowd events in Bombay city in 1930." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 8.1-2 (1985): 71-86.
  31. ^ Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2007).
  32. ^ Yiannis Papadakis, "Narrative, Memory and History Education in Divided Cyprus: A Comparison of Schoolbooks on the 'History of Cyprus'." History & Memory 20.2 (2008): 128-148.
  33. ^ * Laqueur, Walter; Schueftan, Dan (2016). The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict: 8th edition. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 9781101992418.
  37. ^ Kelly M. Torres, "Puerto Rico, the 51st state: the implications of statehood on culture and language." Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies/Revue canadienne des études latino-américaines et caraïbes 42.2 (2017): 165-180.
  39. ^ H. W. Brands, Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (1992) pp 138-60. online free
  40. ^ John P. Cann, Counterinsurgency in Africa: The Portuguese Way of War 1961-74 Solihull, UK (Helion Studies in Military History, No. 12), 2012.
  42. ^ Henri Grimal, Decolonisation: The British, French, Dutch and Belgian Empires, 1919-63 (1978).
  43. ^ Frances Gouda (2002). American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949. Amsterdam UP. p. 36. ISBN 9789053564790.
  44. ^ Henri Baudet, "The Netherlands after the Loss of Empire" Journal of Contemporary History 4#1 (1969), pp. 127- 139 online
  45. ^ John Hatch, Africa: The Rebirth of Self-Rule (1967)
  46. ^ William Roger Louis, The transfer of power in Africa: decolonisation, 1940-1960 (Yale UP, 1982).
  47. ^ John D. Hargreaves, Decolonisation in Africa (2014).
  48. ^ for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Decolonisation: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960 (Doubleday, 1971).
  50. ^ David Parker, ed. (2002). Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition: In the West 1560–1991. Routledge. pp. 202–3. ISBN 9781134690589.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Askel Kirch, et al. "Russians in the Baltic States: To be or not to be?." Journal of Baltic Studies 24.2 (1993): 173–188. in JSTOR
  55. ^ Spain proffered a treaty of recognition in 1857, but it was rejected by the Argentine legislature.
  56. ^ a b The Japanese rule over French Indochina is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  57. ^ The Italian rule over Ethiopia is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  58. ^ Occupied by Germany.
  59. ^ a b The Japanese rule over the Dutch East Indies is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.
  60. ^ Occupied by Germany.
  61. ^ The Japanese rule over large parts of China is usually seen on par with other occupations at that time.

Further readingEdit

  • Monroe, Elizabeth. Britain's Moment in the Middle East, 1914-1956 (1963) online

Primary sourcesEdit

  • Madden, Frederick, ed. he End of Empire: Dependencies since 1948 : Select Documents on the Constitutional History of the British Empire and Commonwealth - Vol. 1 (2000) online at Questia, 596pp
  • Mansergh, Nicholas, ed. Documents and Speeches on Commonwealth Affairs, 1952-1962 (1963) online at Questia
  • Wiener, Joel H. ed. Great Britain: Foreign Policy and the Span of Empire, 1689-1971: A Documentary History - Vol. 4 (1972) online at Questia 712pp; Covers 1872 to 1968.

External linksEdit