Saltation (geology)

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Saltation of sand

In geology, saltation (from Latin saltus, "leap") is a specific type of particle transport by fluids such as wind or water. It occurs when loose material is removed from a bed and carried by the fluid, before being transported back to the surface. Examples include pebble transport by rivers, sand drift over desert surfaces, soil blowing over fields, and snow drift over smooth surfaces such as those in the Arctic or Canadian Prairies.

Saltation process[edit]

At low fluid velocities, loose material rolls downstream, staying in contact with the surface. This is called creep or reptation. Here the forces exerted by the fluid on the particle are only enough to roll the particle around the point of contact with the surface.

Once the wind speed reaches a certain critical value, termed the impact or fluid threshold,[1] the drag and lift forces exerted by the fluid are sufficient to lift some particles from the surface. These particles are accelerated by the fluid, and pulled downward by gravity, causing them to travel in roughly ballistic trajectories.[2] If a particle has obtained sufficient speed from the acceleration by the fluid, it can eject, or splash, other particles in saltation,[3] which propagates the process.[4] Depending on the surface, the particle could also disintegrate on impact, or eject much finer sediment from the surface. In air, this process of saltation bombardment creates most of the dust in dust storms.[5] In rivers, this process repeats continually, gradually eroding away the river bed, but also transporting-in fresh material from upstream.

Suspension generally affects small particles ('small' means ~70 micrometres or less for particles in air[5]). For these particles, vertical drag forces due to turbulent fluctuations in the fluid are similar in magnitude to the weight of the particle. These smaller particles are carried by the fluid in suspension, and advected downstream. The smaller the particle, the less important the downward pull of gravity, and the longer the particle is likely to stay in suspension.

Saltating dune sand in a wind tunnel. (Photo credit: Wind Erosion Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Manhattan, Kansas)



Saltation layers can also form in avalanches.

See also[edit]

External links[edit]


  1. ^ Bagnold, Ralph (1941). The physics of wind-blown sand and desert dunes. New York: Methuen. ISBN 0486439313. [page needed]
  2. ^ Kok, Jasper; Parteli, Eric; Michaels, Timothy I; Karam, Diana Bou (2012). "The physics of wind-blown sand and dust". Reports on Progress in Physics. 75 (10): 106901. Bibcode:2012RPPh...75j6901K. PMID 22982806. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/75/10/106901. 
  3. ^ Rice, M. A.; Willetts, B. B.; McEwan, I. K. (1995). "An experimental study of multiple grain-size ejecta produced by collisions of saltating grains with a flat bed". Sedimentology. 42 (4): 695–706. Bibcode:1995Sedim..42..695R. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3091.1995.tb00401.x. 
  5. ^ a b Shao, Yaping, ed. (2008). Physics and Modelling of Wind Erosion. Heidelberg: Springer. ISBN 9781402088957. [page needed]
  6. ^ Electric Sand Findings, University of Michigan Jan. 6, 2008