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The traditional "Jolly Roger" of piracy.









Ancient origins[edit]

Mosaic of a Roman Trireme in Tunisia.





Many pirates had roles in Chinese history since the Three Kingdoms period. An example includes Gan Ning of Eastern Wu.




Early Polynesian warriors attacked seaside and riverside villages. They used the sea for their hit-and-run tactics – a safe place to retreat to if the battle turned against them.

Middle Ages to 19th century[edit]


Cartagena (Colombia) is the city most associated with pirates in the Caribbean, and the world.
French pirate Jacques de Sores looting and burning Havana in 1555
François l'Olonnais was nicknamed Flail of the Spaniards and had a reputation for brutality – offering no quarter to Spanish prisoners

In 1523, Jean Fleury seized two Spanish treasure ships carrying Aztec treasures from Mexico to Spain.[11] The great or classic era of piracy in the Caribbean extends from around 1560 up until the mid-1720s.[12] The period during which pirates were most successful was from 1700 until the 1730s. Many pirates came to the Caribbean after the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, staying in the Caribbean and becoming pirates. Others, the buccaneers, arrived in the mid-to-late 17th century and made attempts at earning a living by farming and hunting on Hispaniola and nearby islands; pressed by Spanish raids and possibly failure of their means of making a living (wild herds having been deliberately wiped out by the Spanish) they turned to a more lucrative occupation. Caribbean piracy arose out of, and on a smaller scale mirrored, the conflicts over trade and colonization among the rival European powers of the time including the empires of Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Portugal and France. Most of these pirates were of English, Dutch and French origin, but occasionally Spaniards turned to piracy as well. Because Spain controlled most of the Caribbean, many of the attacked cities and ships belonged to the Spanish Empire and along the East coast of America and the West coast of Africa. Dutch ships captured about 500 Spanish and Portuguese ships between 1623 and 1638.[7] Some of the best-known pirate bases were New Providence, in the Bahamas from 1715 to 1725,[13] Tortuga established in the 1640s and Port Royal after 1655. Among the most famous Caribbean pirates are Edward Teach or Blackbeard, Calico Jack Rackham, Henry Morgan and Bartholomew Roberts. Another famous pirate of this era was Hendrick Lucifer, who fought for hours to acquire Cuban gold, becoming mortally wounded in the process. He died of his wounds hours after having transferred the booty to his ship.[14] Most pirates were eventually hunted down by the Royal Navy and killed or captured; several battles were fought between the brigands and the colonial powers on both land and sea.

Piracy in the Caribbean declined for the next several decades after 1730, but by the 1810s many pirates roamed American waters though they were not as bold or successful as their predecessors. Throughout the first quarter of the 19th century, the United States Navy repeatedly engaged pirates in the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and in the Mediterranean. Several warships were designed specifically for the task. The most successful pirates of the era were Jean Lafitte and Roberto Cofresi. Lafitte's ships operated primarily in the Gulf of Mexico but Cofresi's base was in Puerto Rico where he was considered a type of Robin Hood by many Puerto Ricans. Eventually he was defeated by the schooner USS Grampus and captured in 1825. The United States landed shore parties on several islands in the Caribbean in pursuit of pirates; Cuba was a major haven. By the 1830s piracy had died out again, and the navies of the region focused on the slave trade.

In 1827, Britain declared that participation in the slave trade was piracy, a crime punishable by death. The power of the Royal Navy was subsequently used to suppress the slave trade, and while some illegal trade (mostly with Brazil and Cuba) continued, the Atlantic slave trade was eradicated by the middle of the 19th century.

In the 20th century, one notable pirate active in the Caribbean was Boysie Singh. He operated off northern South America. He and his pirate gang killed several people and plundered their ships from 1947 to 1956.[15]

Recently, with the proliferation of small private yachts cruising the Caribbean, piracy is again on the rise with many yachts being plundered and their crews often tortured, raped or slain.

East Asia[edit]

Sixteenth century Japanese pirate raids.


South East Asia[edit]

For the period January-March (1st quarter) of 2013, a total of 28 incidents comprising 27 actual incidents and one attempted incident were reported in Asia. Of the 27 actual incidents, five were Category 2 (moderately significant) incidents, eight were Category 3 (less significant) incidents and 14 were petty theft incidents (minimum significant). No Category 1 (very significant) incident was reported during the 1st quarter of 2013. Compared to the same period in 2010-2012, there has been a decrease in the number of incidents and its severity.[17]



Spanish warships bombarding the Muslim pirates of the southern Philippines in 1848.


The Buginese sailors of South Sulawesi were infamous as pirates who used to range as far west as Singapore and as far north as the Philippines in search of targets for piracy.[19] The Orang laut pirates controlled shipping in the Straits of Malacca and the waters around Singapore,[20] and the Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo.[21] The Moro pirates of the southern Philippines harassed Spanish shipping and terrorized Christian Filipino settlements. David P. Forsythe wrote: "Of particular significance in Southeast Asia were the incursions of Moro raiders in the southern Philippines who may have captured around 2 million slaves in the first two centuries of Spanish rule after 1565."[22]


Eastern Europe[edit]

Grigory Gagarin. Cossaks of Azov fighting a Turk ship

One example of a pirate republic in Europe from the 16th through the 18th century was Zaporizhian Sich. Situated in the remote Steppe, it was populated with Ukrainian peasants that had run away from their feudal masters, outlaws of every sort, destitute gentry, run-away slaves from Turkish galleys, etc. The remoteness of the place and the rapids at the Dnepr river effectively guarded the place from invasions of vengeful powers. The main target of the inhabitants of Zaporizhian Sich who called themselves "Cossacks" were rich settlements at the Black Sea shores of Ottoman Empire and Crimean Khanate.[23] By 1615 and 1625, Zaporozhian Cossacks had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Istanbul, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee his palace.[24] Don Cossacks under Stenka Razin even ravaged the Persian coasts.[25]



In the Late Middle Ages, the Frisian pirates led by respectively Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama, fought against the troops of Charles V, Holy Roman Empire with some success, capturing as many as 28 ships in one battle earning Donia the title "Cross of the Dutchman" and making him one of the most famous and iconic pirates of the era.

Hanging of Captain Kidd

Meanwhile, Moor pirates were common in the Mediterranean Sea. Toward the end of the 9th century, Moor pirate havens were established along the coast of southern France and northern Italy.[26] In 846 Moor raiders sacked Rome and damaged the Vatican. In 911, the bishop of Narbonne was unable to return to France from Rome because the Moors from Fraxinet controlled all the passes in the Alps. Moor pirates operated out of the Balearic Islands in the 10th century. From 824 to 961 Arab pirates in the Emirate of Crete raided the entire Mediterranean. In the 14th century, raids by Moor pirates forced the Venetian Duke of Crete to ask Venice to keep its fleet on constant guard.[27]


Captain William Bainbridge paying the U.S. tribute to the Dey of Algiers, circa 1800.




Four Chinese pirates who were hanged in Hong Kong in 1863


A lesser-known example of inland piracy is the looting of salt transports that took place on lake Traunsee in medieval Austria. Salt from salterns at the upper Traun river was exported downstream by boat across the lake, and further on to Bohemia via the Danube. These boats were often captured by pirates between the years 955 and 1000 until duke Otakar V. of Chiemgau and duke Liutold II. of Raschenberg-Reichenhall seized a pirate stronghold on lake Traunsee.[28]

Attack by Moro Pirates on Brooke's Jolly Bachelor during the era of White Rajahs in Sarawak, 1843

H. Thomas Milhorn mentions a certain Englishman named William Maurice, convicted of piracy in 1241, as the first person known to have been hanged, drawn and quartered,[29] which would indicate that the then-ruling King Henry III took an especially severe view of this crime.



North Africa[edit]

French ship under attack by Barbary pirates, ca. 1615

The Barbary corsairs were pirates and privateers that operated from North African (the "Barbary Coast") ports of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and ports in Morocco, preying on shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea from the time of the Crusades as well as on ships on their way to Asia around Africa until the early 19th century. The coastal villages and towns of Italy, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them and long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary corsairs occasionally entered the Atlantic and struck as far north as Iceland. According to Robert Davis[30][31] between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured by Barbary corsairs and sold as slaves in North Africa and the Ottoman Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman Hayreddin and his older brother Oruç Reis (Redbeard), Turgut Reis (known as Dragut in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis and Koca Murat Reis. A few Barbary corsairs, such as the Dutch Jan Janszoon and the English John Ward (Muslim name Yusuf Reis), were renegade European privateers who had converted to Islam.

According to the U.S. Supreme Court, the United States treated captured Barbary corsairs as prisoners of war, indicating that they were considered as legitimate privateers by at least some of their opponents, as well as by their home countries.

North America[edit]

Jean Lafitte, New Orleans' legendary pirate

Ocean piracy, off the coasts of North America, continued as late as the 1870s. Pirates who operated in the Caribbean often sailed north to attack targets off the present day eastern seaboard of the United States. Possibly the most famous of these was Blackbeard, who operated in the American south, attacking ships and at one point even blockading Charleston, South Carolina. Later in the 19th century, after the Golden Age of Piracy, Jean Lafitte became what is considered by many to be the last buccaneer due to his army of pirates and fleet of pirate ships which held bases in and around the Gulf of Mexico. Lafitte and his men participated in the War of 1812 battle of New Orleans and later his ships fought the United States Navy and the United States Revenue Cutter Service. Eventually, Lafitte was evicted from the area by United States forces after several accidental sinking of U.S ships due to the rest of the crew attacking an American ship, thinking it was a Mexican ship, battles and raids. Between 1822 and 1825, the American West Indies Squadron fought against pirates in the Caribbean.

By 1830, piracy in the Gulf of Mexico became rare with the exception of slave traders, who were considered pirates. In 1860 during the Reform War, the United States Navy fought the Battle of Anton Lizardo against rebels which were declared pirates by the Mexican government. In 1870, the United States again fought pirates off Mexico during the Battle of Boca Teacapan. The pirates had attacked and captured Guaymas, Mexico, looted the foreign residents of their belongings and forced the United States consulate in Guaymas to provide their steamer with coal, after which they sailed for Boca Teacapan, Sinaloa. A United States Navy expedition under Willard H. Brownson was launched, resulting in the destruction of the pirate ship. The invention of steam powered vessels eventually put an end to piracy off North America though some isolated incidents continued to occur into the 1920s.

The hanging of pirate Stede Bonnet in Charleston, 1718

River piracy, in late 18th-mid-19th century America, was primarily concentrated along the Ohio River and Mississippi River valleys. River pirates usually located their operations in isolated frontier settlements, which were sparsely populated areas lacking the protection of civilized government. They resorted to a variety of tactics, depending on the number of pirates and size of the boat crews involved. They were involved in river piracy including; deception, concealment, ambush, and assaults in open combat, near natural obstacles and curiosities, such as shelter caves, islands, river narrows, rapids, swamps, and marshes. River travelers were robbed, captured, and murdered and their livestock, slaves, cargo, and flatboats, keelboats, and rafts were sunk or sold down river.

After the Revolutionary War, American river piracy began to take root; in the mid-1780s, along the upper Mississippi River, between Spanish Upper Louisiana, around St. Louis, down to the confluence of the Ohio River, at Cairo.


Ann Bonny and Mary Read convicted of piracy on November 28, 1720

Stack Island became associated with river pirates and counterfeiters, starting in the late 1790s. In 1809, the last major river pirate activity took place, on the Upper Mississippi River, and river piracy in this area came to an abrupt end, when a group of flatboatmen, meeting at the head of the Nine Mile Reach, decided to make a raid on Stack Island and wipe out the river pirates. They attacked at night, a battle ensued, and two of the boatmen and several outlaws were killed. The attackers captured 19 other men, a 15-year-old boy and two women. The women and teenager were allowed to leave. The remaining outlaws are presumed to have been executed.

From 1790–1834, Cave-In-Rock was the principal outlaw lair and headquarters of river pirate activity in the Ohio River region. The notorious cave, is today, within the peaceful confines of Illinois' Cave-in-Rock State Park. In 1797, it was anything but peaceful, as Samuel Mason, who was initially a Revolutionary War Patriot[disambiguation needed] captain in the Ohio County, Virginia militia and a former associate judge and squire in Kentucky, led a gang of highway robbers and river pirates on the Ohio River. Mason started his criminal organization in Red Banks and was driven out by regulators, sweeping through western Kentucky and first set up his new operation at Diamond Island, followed by Cave-In-Rock, and later, along the Mississippi River, from Stack Island to Natchez.

Puerto del Príncipe being sacked in 1668 by Henry Morgan

During Samuel Mason's 1797–1799 occupation of Cave-In-Rock and after his departure, the name of Bully Wilson became associated with cave; a large sign was erected near the natural landmark's entrance, "Liquor Vault and House for Entertainment." Wilson may have been an alias for Mason, a front man for his criminal operation, or another outlaw leader who ran a gang of pirates in the region. The Harpe Brothers who were allegedly America's first serial killers, were highwaymen, on the run from the law in Tennessee and Kentucky and briefly, joined Samuel Mason's gang at Cave-In-Rock. Peter Alston, the son of American counterfeiter, Philip Alston who through his father, became a river pirate and highwayman at Cave-In-Rock and made the acquaintance of Samuel Mason and Wiley Harpe, following them to Stack Island and Natchez. Around the late 18th century to early 19th century, on the Illinois side of the Ohio River, north of Cave-In-Rock, Jonathan Brown led a small gang of river pirates at Battery Rock.

The lower Ohio River country was routinely patrolled by the Legion of the United States and U.S. Army troops, garrisoned at Fort Massac, as constabulary against native Americans, colonial raiders from Spanish Upper Louisiana Territory, and river outlaws in the region.

Blackbeard's severed head hanging from Maynard's bowsprit

Between 1800 and 1820[citation needed], the legendary Colonel Plug also, known as Col. Plug or Colonel Fluger, ran a gang of river pirates on the Ohio River, in a cypress swamp, near the mouth of the Cache River, which was below Cave-In-Rock and Fort Massac and just above the confluence of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Plug's tactics were to sneak aboard, personally, or have one of his pirates, secretly, go into the hull of a boat and either, dig out the caulking between the floor planks or drill holes with an auger, causing the boat to sink and be easily attacked. The boat and the cargo would later be sold down river. Little is known about Colonel Plug except, from the folklorish descriptions provided in 1830 by Timothy Flint's "Col. Plug, the last of the Boat-wreckers," in The Western Monthly Review and "The Boat-Wreckers—Or Banditti of the West," in the Rochester, New York newspaper, Daily Advertiser, Jan 29, 1830. Fluger claimed to have been a Yankee native of Rockingham County, New Hampshire and was a former militia colonel. No historical evidence exists to justify this, as no Fluger surname can be found in the New Hampshire U.S. census records or the Rockingham County military muster rolls.

James Ford, an American Ohio River civic leader and businessman, secretly led a gang of river pirates and highwaymen from the 1820s to the mid-1830s, on the Ohio River in Illinois and Kentucky.

River piracy continued on the lower Mississippi River, from the early 1800s to the mid-1830s; these river pirates were mainly organized into large gangs similar to Samuel Mason's organization around Cave-In-Rock or smaller gangs under the operation of John A. Murrell. These gangs also existed, from the 1820s to the mid-1830s, between Stack Island and Natchez, in the state of Mississippi.

The decline of river piracy occurred, over time, as a result of direct military action taken and the combined strength of local law enforcement and regulator-vigilante groups that uprooted and swept out pockets of outlaw resistance.

The Haida and Tlingit tribes, who lived along the coast of southern Alaska and on islands in northwest British Columbia, were traditionally known as fierce warriors, pirates and slave-traders, raiding as far as California.[32]


South Asia[edit]

Instances of piracy in India are recorded on Vedas. However, the most interesting one is with the issue of war due to piracy. At the time of the Muslim invasion of Sindh, in the 7th century, the new kingdom of Hijaz launched trade ships to India especially Sindh. However, a ship en route from Sri Lanka to Baghdad was carrying valuables and some slave girls which were looted off Debal (near modern Karachi) by the Meds. One of the slave girls sent a letter challenging the Caliph saying that he cannot rescue them. The Caliph sent a portion of his army to save the slaves. But, the people of Sindh became wary and thought of this army as a threat. This became an excuse for war between Arabs and Sindh.[33] Since the 14th century the Deccan (Southern Peninsular region of India) was divided into two entities: on the one side stood the Muslim Bahmani Sultanate and on the other stood the Hindu kings rallied around the Vijayanagara Empire. Continuous wars demanded frequent resupplies of fresh horses, which were imported through sea routes from Persia and Africa. This trade was subjected to frequent raids by thriving bands of pirates based in the coastal cities of Western India. One of such was Timoji, who operated off Anjadip Island both as a privateer (by seizing horse traders, that he rendered to the raja of Honavar) and as a pirate who attacked the Kerala merchant fleets that traded pepper with Gujarat.


During the 16th and 17th centuries, there was frequent European piracy against Mughal Indian merchants, especially those en route to Mecca for Hajj. The situation came to a head, when Portuguese attacked and captured the vessel Rahimi which belonged to Mariam Zamani the Mughal queen, which led to the Mughal seizure of the Portuguese town Daman.[34] In the 18th century, the famous Maratha privateer Kanhoji Angre ruled the seas between Mumbai and Goa.[35] The Marathas attacked British shipping and insisted that East India Company ships pay taxes if sailing through their waters.[36]


The southern coast of the Persian Gulf became known as the Pirate Coast as raiders based there harassed foreign shipping. Early British expeditions to protect the Indian Ocean trade from raiders at Ras al-Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1819.[39] Captain Kidd captured many vessels of the Mughal King.

Popular image[edit]



Pirate democracy[edit]
















Ship prize shares
Rank Pre 1808 Post 1808
Captain 3/8 2/8
Admiral of fleet 1/8 1/8
Sailing Master
& Lieutenants
& Captain of Marines
1/8 1/8
Warrant Officers 1/8 1/8
Wardroom Warrant officers
& Petty Officers
1/8 1/8
Gunners, Sailors 1/8 2/8


There was a great deal of money to be made in this way. The record breaker, admittedly before our wars, was the capture of the Spanish frigate the Hermione, which was carrying treasure in 1762. The value of this was so great that each individual seaman netted £485 ($1.4 million in 2008 dollars).[48] The two captains responsible, Evans and Pownall, got just on £65,000 each ($188.4 million). In January 1807 the frigate Caroline took the Spanish San Rafael which brought in £52,000 for her captain, Peter Rainier (who had been only a Midshipman some thirteen months before). All through the wars there are examples of this kind of luck falling on captains. Another famous 'capture' was that of the Spanish frigates Thetis and Santa Brigada which were loaded with gold specie. They were taken by four British frigates who shared the money, each captain receiving £40,730. Each lieutenant got £5,091, the Warrant Officer group, £2,468, the midshipmen £791 and the individual seamen £182.


Rank Bartholomew Roberts George Lowther William Phillips Privateer
(Sir William Monson)
Royal Navy
(per month)
Boatswain 1.5 shares 1.25 shares 1.25 shares 5 shares £2
Gunner 1.5 shares 1.25 shares 1.25 shares 5 shares £2
Quartermaster 2 shares 4 shares £1, 6s
Carpenter 1.25 shares 5 shares £2
Mate 1.25 shares 5 shares £2, 2s
Doctor 1.25 shares 5 shares £5 +2d per man aboard
"Other Officers" 1.25 shares various rates various rates
Able Seamen (2 yrs experience)
Ordinary Seamen (some exp)
Landsmen (pressganged)

1 share

1 share

1 share


A flyer describing the public execution of 16th century pirate Klein Henszlein and his crew.







The famous Barbary Corsairs of the Mediterranean, authorized by the Ottoman Empire, were privateers, as were the Maltese Corsairs, who were authorized by the Knights of St. John, and the Dunkirkers in the service of the Spanish Empire. In the years 1626–1634 alone, the Dunkirk privateers captured 1,499 ships, and sank another 336.[51] From 1609 to 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates, and 160 British ships were captured by Algerians between 1677 and 1680.[52] One famous privateer was Sir Francis Drake. His patron was Queen Elizabeth I, and their relationship ultimately proved to be quite profitable for England.[53]

Privateers constituted a large proportion of the total military force at sea during the 17th and 18th centuries. During the Nine Years War, the French adopted a policy of strongly encouraging privateers (French corsairs), including the famous Jean Bart, to attack English and Dutch shipping. England lost roughly 4,000 merchant ships during the war.[54] In the following War of Spanish Succession, privateer attacks continued, Britain losing 3,250 merchant ships.[55] During the War of Austrian Succession, Britain lost 3,238 merchant ships and France lost 3,434 merchant ships to the British.[54]

During King George's War, approximately 36,000 Americans served aboard privateers at one time or another.[54] During the American Revolution, about 55,000 American seamen served aboard the privateers.[56] The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.[57] Between the end of the Revolutionary War and 1812, less than 30 years, Britain, France, Naples, the Barbary States, Spain, and the Netherlands seized approximately 2,500 American ships.[58] Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20% of United States government annual revenues in 1800.[59] Throughout the American Civil War, Confederate privateers successfully harassed Union merchant ships.[60]

Privateering lost international sanction under the Declaration of Paris in 1856.

Modern age[edit]


Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$13 to $16 billion per year),[61][62] particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year. In the late 2000s,[63] the emergence of piracy off the coast of Somalia spurred a multi-national effort led by the United States to patrol the waters near the Horn of Africa. In 2011, Brazil also created an anti-piracy unit on the Amazon river.[64]

In recent years, shipping companies claimed that their vessels suffer from regular pirate attacks on the Serbian and Romanian stretches of the international Danube river, i.e. inside the European Union's territory, starting from at least 2011.[65][66][67]


Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack/boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small motorboats.[68][69] Other active areas include the South China Sea and the Niger Delta. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy.


The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage-taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder.[70] In 2007 the attacks rose by 10% to 263 attacks. There was a 35% increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006.[71] That number does not include hostages/kidnapping where they were not injured.

Aerial photograph of the Niger Delta, a center of piracy.

The number of attacks within the first nine months of 2009 already surpassed the previous year's due to the increased pirate attacks in the Gulf of Aden and off Somalia. Between January and September the number of attacks rose to 306 from 293. The pirates boarded the vessels in 114 cases and hijacked 34 of them so far in 2009. Gun use in pirate attacks has gone up to 176 cases from 76 last year.[72]

In some cases, modern pirates are not interested in the cargo but instead in taking the personal belongings of the crew and the contents of the ship's safe, which might contain large amounts of cash needed for payroll and port fees. In other cases, the pirates force the crew off the ship and then sail it to a port to be repainted and given a new identity through false papers often purchased from corrupt or complicit officials.[73]


Flag of Sea Shepherd, an environmental action group against marine poaching and overfishing.

Environmental action groups such as Sea Shepherd have been accused of engaging in piracy and terrorism, when they ram and throw butyric acid on the decks of ships engaged in commercial fishing, shark poaching and finning, seal hunting, and whaling. In two instances, they boarded a Japanese whaling vessel. Their tactics and methods are considered acts of piracy by some.[75][76]


Since 2008, Somali pirates centered in the Gulf of Aden made about $120 million annually, reportedly costing the shipping industry between $900 million and $3.3 billion per year.[78] By September 2012, the heyday of piracy in the Indian Ocean was reportedly over. Backers were now reportedly reluctant to finance pirate expeditions due to the low rate of success, and pirates were no longer able to reimburse their creditors.[79] According to the International Maritime Bureau, pirate attacks had by October 2012 dropped to a six-year low.[80] Only five ships were captured by the end of the year, representing a decrease from 25 in 2011 and 27 in 2010,[81] with only 1 ship attacked in the third quarter compared to 36 during the same period in 2011.[80] However, pirate incidents off on the West Africa seaboard increased to 34 from 30 the previous year, and attacks off the coast of Indonesia rose from 2011's total of 46 to 51.[80]

Many nations forbid ships to enter their territorial waters or ports if the crew of the ships are armed, in an effort to restrict possible piracy.[82] Shipping companies sometimes hire private armed security guards.


Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts:




Recent incidents[edit]

Piracy incidents in 2010[83][84]
Regions Incidents Types of vessels attacked
Africa 259 Bulk carrier 80
America 40 Container 80
East Asia 44 General cargo 80
Indian sub-continent 28 Chemical tanker 80
South East Asia 70 Crude oil tanker 80
Rest of world 4 Product tanker 80
Tug 20
Trawler/fishing boat 19
Other 50
  • During the Troubles in Northern Ireland, two coaster ships were hijacked and sunk by the IRA in the span of one year, between February 1981 and February 1982.
  • A collision between the container ship Ocean Blessing and the hijacked tanker Nagasaki Spirit occurred in the Malacca Straits at about 23:20 on September 19, 1992. Pirates had boarded the Nagasaki Spirit, removed its captain from command, set the ship on autopilot, and left with the ship's master for a ransom. The ship was left going at full speed with no one at the wheel. The collision and resulting fire killed the entire crew of Ocean Blessing; there were only 2 survivors from Nagasaki Spirit. The fire on the Nagasaki Spirit lasted for six days; the fire aboard the Ocean Blessing burned for five weeks.[85]
  • The cargo ship Chang Song was boarded and seized by pirates posing as customs officials in the South China Sea in 1998. The entire crew of 23 was killed, and their bodies thrown overboard. Six bodies were eventually recovered in fishing nets. A crackdown by the Chinese government resulted in the arrest of 38 pirates and the group's leader, a corrupt customs official, and 11 other pirates who were then executed.[86]
  • The New Zealand environmentalist, yachtsman and public figure Sir Peter Blake was killed by Brazilian river pirates in 2001.[87]
  • Pirates boarded the supertanker Dewi Madrim in March 2003 in the Malacca Strait. Articles like those written by the Economist indicate the pirates did not focus on robbing the crew or cargo, but instead focused on learning how to steer the ship and stole only manuals and technical information. However, the original incident report submitted to the IMO by the IMB would indicate these articles are incorrect and misleading. See also: Letter to the Editor of Foreign Affairs.
  • The American luxury liner The Seabourn Spirit was attacked by pirates in November 2005 off the Somalian coast. There was one injury to a crewmember; he was hit by shrapnel.
  • Pirates boarded the Danish bulk carrier Danica White in June 2007 near the coast of Somalia. USS Carter Hall tried to rescue the crew by firing several warning shots but wasn't able to follow the ship into Somali waters.[88]
  • In April 2008, pirates seized control of the French luxury yacht Le Ponant carrying 30 crew members off the coast of Somalia.[89] The captives were released on payment of a ransom. The French military later captured some of the pirates, with the support of the provisional Somali government.[90] On June 2, 2008, the UN Security Council passed a resolution enabling the patrolling of Somali waters following this and other incidents. The Security Council resolution provided permission for six months to states cooperating with Somalia's Transitional Federal Government (TFG) to enter the country's territorial waters and use "all necessary means" to stop "piracy and armed robbery at sea, in a manner consistent with international law."[91]
  • Several more piracy incidents have occurred in 2008 including a Ukrainian ship, the MV Faina, containing an arms consignment for Kenya, including tanks and other heavy weapons, which was possibly heading towards an area of Somalia controlled by the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) after its hijacking by pirates[92] before anchoring off the Somali coast. The Somali pirates—in a standoff with US missile destroyer the USS Howard—asked for a $20 million ransom for the 20 crew members it held; shots were heard from the ship, supposedly because of a dispute between pirates who wanted to surrender and those who didn't.[93] In a separate incident, occurring near the same time (late September to early October), an Iranian cargo ship, MV Iran Deyanat, departing from China, was boarded by pirates off Somalia. The ship's cargo was a matter of dispute, though some pirates have apparently been sickened, lost hair, suffered burns, and even died while on the ship. Speculations of chemical or even radioactive contents have been made.[94]
    A suspected pirate skiff in the Gulf of Aden burns after being destroyed by the amphibious dock landing ship USS Ashland (LSD 48).
  • On April 8, 2009, Somali pirates briefly captured the MV Maersk Alabama, a 17,000-ton cargo ship containing emergency relief supplies destined for Kenya. It was the latest in a week-long series of attacks along the Somali coast, and the first of these attacks to target a U.S.-flagged vessel. The crew took back control of the ship although the Captain was taken by the escaping pirates to a lifeboat.[96] On Sunday, April 12, 2009, Capt. Richard Phillips was rescued, reportedly in good condition, from his pirate captors who were shot and killed by US Navy SEAL snipers.[97][98] Vice Admiral William E. Gortney reported the rescue began when Commander Frank Castellano, captain of the USS Bainbridge, determined that Phillips' life was in imminent danger and ordered the action.
  • In July 2009, Finnish-owned ship MV Arctic Sea sailing under the Maltese flag was allegedly hijacked in the territorial waters of Sweden by a group of eight to ten pirates disguised as policemen. According to some sources, the pirates held the ship for 12 hours, went through the cargo and later released the ship and the crew.[99]
  • On April 1, 2010, pirates attacked the USS Nicholas, an Oliver Hazard Perry-class missile frigate in international waters west of the Seychelles. The pirates opened fire from a small skiff at 12:27 am local time, presumably mistaking the warship for a merchant vessel in the dark. The USS Nichlolas returned fire, pursuing the small vessel until it stopped. The U.S. Navy crew detained the three occupants of the skiff as well as two more pirates aboard the mother ship, which was waiting nearby.[100]
  • Action of 6 May 2010 when the Liberian flagged Moscow University was attacked by Somali pirates in two speedboats when some 500 nautical miles (930 km) off the coast of Somalia. The Udaloy-class destroyer Marshal Shaposhnikov was reported to be en route to the aid of the crew of Moscow University. The crew was reported to have locked themselves in the ship's radar room.[101][102] On 6 May, Russian Naval Infantry from the Marshal Shaposhnikov landed on the hijacked vessel and rescued it, killing one pirate and detaining eleven. The entire crew escaped unharmed.[103][104]
  • On October 2, 2010, a 911 call transcript was released detailing an incident of an American tourist who was shot dead by Mexican pirates on a U.S.-Mexico border lake that has been plagued with drug cartel violence in recent years.[105]

Authorities estimate that only between 50%[106][107] to as low as 10%[108] of pirate attacks are actually reported (so as not to increase insurance premiums).

Successful attempts against piracy[edit]

U.S. Navy helicopters disrupt a pirate attack on Philippine merchant vessel, March 24, 2011

International ships equipped with helicopters patrol the waters where pirate activity has been reported, but the area is very large. Some ships are equipped with anti-piracy weaponry such as an LRAD, a sonic device that sends a sonic wave out to a directed target, creating a sound so powerful that it bursts the eardrums and shocks pirates, causing them to become disoriented enough to drop their weapons, while the vessel being pursued increases speed and engages in evasive maneuvering.[109] Additional measures used against pirates include the deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and remotely controlled boats.[110]

Legal principles and considerations[edit]






Self protection measures and increased patrol[edit]



In addition, while the non-wartime 20th century tradition has been for merchant vessels not to be armed, the U.S. Government has recently changed the rules so that it is now "best practice" for vessels to embark a team of armed private security guards.[126][127] In addition, the crew themselves can be given a weapons training,[128] and warning shots, using less-lethal ammunition, can be fired legally in international waters and/or when sailing under Israeli or Russian flag[dubious ]. Finally, similar to weapons training, remote weapon systems can be implemented to a vessel.[129]

Other measures vessels can take to protect themselves against piracy are implementing a high freewall[130] and vessel boarding protection systems (e.g., hot water wall, electricity-charged water wall, automated fire monitor, slippery foam).[131] Ships can also attempt to protect themselves using their Automatic Identification Systems (AIS).[132] Every ship over 300 tons carries a transponder supplying both information about the ship itself and its movements. Any unexpected change in this information can attract attention. Previously this data could only be picked up if there was a nearby ship, thus rendering single ships vulnerable. However recently specalised satellites have been launched to detect and retransmit this data. Large ships cannot therefore be hijacked without being detected. This can act as a deterrent to attempts to either hijack the entire ship or steal large portions of cargo with another ship since an escort can be sent more quickly than might otherwise have been the case.

Finally, in an emergency, warships can be called upon. In some areas such as near Somalia, naval vessels from different nations are present that are able to intercept vessels attacking merchant vessels. For patrolling dangerous coastal waters (and/or keeping financial expenses down), robotic or remote-controlled USVs are also sometimes used.[133] Also, both shore-launched and vessel-launched UAVs are also used by the U.S. Army.[134][135]

Commerce raiders[edit]


National law[edit]

United Kingdom[edit]




Definition of piracy jure gentium


See also:

  • Re Piracy Jure Gentium [1934] AC 586, PC



Piracy committed by or against aircraft

See section 5 of the Aviation Security Act 1982.






United States[edit]



Title 18 U.S.C. § 1651 states:


Citing the United States Supreme Court decision in the year 1820 case of United States v. Smith,[139] a U.S. District Court ruled in 2010 in the case of United States v. Said that the definition of piracy under section 1651 is confined to "robbery at sea." The piracy charges (but not other serious federal charges) against the defendants in the Said case were dismissed by the Court.[140]

International law[edit]

Effects on international boundaries[edit]


Law of nations[edit]





International conventions[edit]

Articles 101 to 103 of UNCLOS[edit]


Articles 101 to 103 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982) contain a definition of piracy iure gentium.[143] They read:

Article 101

Definition of piracy

Piracy consists of any of the following acts:

Article 102



Article 103

Definition of a pirate ship or aircraft


This definition was formerly contained in articles 15 to 17 of the Convention on the High Seas signed at Geneva on April 29, 1958.[145] It was drafted[146] by the International Law Commission.[143]


IMB definition[edit]

The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) defines piracy as:


Uniformity in Maritime Piracy Law[edit]


In popular culture[edit]


Pirates are a frequent topic in fiction and are associated with certain stereotypical manners of speaking and dress, some of them wholly fictional: "nearly all our notions of their behavior come from the golden age of fictional piracy, which reached its zenith in 1881 with the appearance of Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island."[149] Some inventions of pirate culture such as "walking the plank" were popularized by J. M. Barrie's novel, Peter Pan, where Captain Hook's pirates helped define the fictional pirate archetype.[150] A West Country native where many famous English pirates such as Blackbeard and Calico Jack hailed from, Robert Newton's portrayal of Long John Silver in Disney's 1950 film adaptation also helped define the modern rendition of a pirate, including the stereotypical West Country "pirate accent".[151] Other influences include Sinbad the Sailor, and the recent Pirates of the Caribbean films have helped kindle modern interest in piracy and have performed well at the box office.



See also[edit]

This image shows many of the characteristics commonly associated with a stereotypical pirate in popular culture, such as a parrot, pegleg, hook, cutlass, bicorne hat, Jolly Roger, Royal Navy jacket, bad teeth, maniacal grin, earrings, beard, and eyepatch.




Further reading[edit]



  1. ^ TEDx Talk: What is Piracy?
  7. ^ a b The Pirates Hold – Piracy Timeline.
  8. ^ Phoenician Economy and Trade.
  10. ^ Plutarch, Caesar 1–2.
  11. ^ "Spanish Claim to Land". 
  13. ^ Woodard, Colin (2007). The Republic of Pirates. Harcourt, Inc. ISBN 978-0-15-603462-3. 
  14. ^ Dreamtheimpossible (September 14, 2011). "Examples of greed". Retrieved October 4, 2011. 
  15. ^ Derek Bickerton. The Murders of Boysie Singh: Robber, Arsonist, Pirate, Mass-Murderer, Vice and Gambling King of Trinidad. Arthur Barker Limited, London. (1962).
  17. ^ [1]
  19. ^ "The Buginese of Sulawesi". 
  20. ^ "Pirates of the East". 
  23. ^ "Places which had been raided or besieged by the Cossacks". 
  25. ^ "The History of Maritime Piracy – Stepan Razin". 
  26. ^ The Pirates of St. Tropez.
  27. ^ Piracy on Crete, Creta News.
  28. ^ Hutter, Andreas (2012). "Freibeuter des weißen Goldes". Damals (in German) (2): 74–77. 
  32. ^ "Haida Warfare". 
  33. ^ Naseem Hijazi, Muhammad Bin Qasim
  34. ^ Findly, Elison B (April – June 1988). "The Capture of Maryam-uz-Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Women and European Traders," Journal of the American Oriental Society, 108 (2): 227–238.
  36. ^ "Soldiers, Seahawks and Smugglers". 
  38. ^ "Libertatia". 
  39. ^ "From Pirate Coast To Trucial". 
  41. ^ Piratesofamerica.com[dead link]
  42. ^ a b c "Treasure". Retrieved April 21, 2009. 
  43. ^ The Hudson River Valley Institute
  44. ^ University of Notre Dame
  48. ^ Current value is based on the average annual income for the respective years.
  49. ^ Nelson and His Navy – Prize Money Historical Maritime Society.
  50. ^ Pirates by John Matthews
  56. ^ Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War.
  57. ^ Privateers.
  58. ^ US Navy Fleet List War of 1812.
  60. ^ The Confederate Privateers.
  65. ^ Riječni gusari u Srbiji pljačkaju hrvatske brodove (Serbian)
  67. ^ Romanian Pirats Attack Ukrainian Ships More Frequently (Ukrainian)
  68. ^ BBC Piracy documentary.
  69. ^ Piracy at Somalian coasts.
  70. ^ Security Management:Piracy on the high seas. Retrieved October 23, 2007.
  72. ^ World pirate attacks surge in 2009 due to Somalia
  73. ^ "Anarchy at Sea" Atlantic Monthly. September 2003.
  82. ^ Maritimesecurity.com article, Guns On Board.
  83. ^ International Maritime Bureau on Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships report
  84. ^ 1,181 seafarers taken hostage, eight killed and 53 ships hijacked cf. 188 seafarers taken hostage in 2006 and 1,050 in 2009.
  85. ^ Law Lords Department (February 6, 1997). "House of Lords – Semco Salvage & Marine Pte. Ltd. v. Lancer Navigation". The Stationery Office Ltd. p. 1. Retrieved May 26, 2007. 
  86. ^ "China Executes Pirates". BBC News. January 28, 2000. Retrieved January 6, 2010. 
  87. ^ Latitude 38, the West's Leading Sailing and Marine Magazine
  88. ^ "Navy: U.S. ship fired at pirates off Somalia". USA Today. June 6, 2007. 
  89. ^ "Pirates seize French yacht". CNN. Associated Press. April 4, 2008. Archived from the original on April 7, 2008. Retrieved April 5, 2008. 
  90. ^ "France raid ship after crew freed". BBC News. April 12, 2008. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  91. ^ UN (June 5, 2008). "UN maritime agency welcomes Security Council action on Somalia piracy". United Nations. Retrieved June 5, 2008. 
  92. ^ "Al Jazeera English – Africa – "Somalia rebels" in control of ship". English.aljazeera.net. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  93. ^ Shooting reported on pirate ship surrounded by U.S. destroyer Doug Stanglin, USA Today blog, September 30, 2008.
  94. ^ Mysterious Cargo Aboard Iranian Ship Seized by Pirates Raises WMD Concerns Joseph Abrams, September 30, 2008. Quotation by "Jonathan Tucker, a senior fellow at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies": "It's baffling. I'm not aware of any chemical agent that produces loss of hair within a few days. That's more suggestive of high levels of radioactive waste."
  95. ^ Andrew England, Robert Wright and Demetri Sevastopulo (November 17, 2008). "Pirates seize another ship in Gulf of Aden". FT. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  96. ^ Roberts, Rebecca; Konrad, John (April 11, 2009). "Mariner Details Life Aboard Maersk Alabama Lifeboat". NPR. 
  97. ^ Verjee, Zain; Starr, Barbara (April 12, 2009). "Captain jumps overboard, SEALs shoot pirates, official says". CNN. Retrieved April 12, 2009. 
  98. ^ "US captain held by pirates freed". BBC News. April 12, 2009. Retrieved April 14, 2009. 
  99. ^ "Finnish ship hijacked off Swedish coast". July 31, 2009. Retrieved July 31, 2009. 
  100. ^ Lewis, Michael (April 1, 2010). "USS Nicholas Captures Suspected Pirates". United States Department of Defense American Forces Press Service. 
  101. ^ "Moscow University". Well and Canal. Retrieved 5 May 2010. 
  102. ^ "Pirates attack Russian oil tanker off Somalia coast". BBC News Online. 5 May 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2010. 
  103. ^ Ferris-Rotman, Amie (6 May 2010). "Russian warship frees hijacked tanker, no one hurt". Reuters. Retrieved 6 May 2010. 
  104. ^ "Russian special forces arrest Somali pirates". The Independent (London). 6 May 2010. 
  105. ^ "911 Tape Released in Mexican Pirate Attack on U.S. Couple". Fox News. Fox News. October 3, 2010. 
  106. ^ "Sea Piracy". Uniorb.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  107. ^ Cindy Vallar. "Pirates & Privateers: the History of Maritime Piracy – Modern Piracy 2005 update". Cindyvallar.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  108. ^ "Modern High Seas Piracy". Cargolaw.com. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 
  109. ^ "Missing title". November 30, 2008. 
  110. ^ Logan, Tracey (December 14, 2005). "Robotic vessels against pirates". BBC World Service. Retrieved August 25, 2011. 
  111. ^ "Cruise ship evades pirate attack". December 2, 2008 BBC News. 
  112. ^ "Captain freed unhurt, pirates killed.". The Irish Times. April 12, 2009. [dead link]
  113. ^ "Somali pirates beaten off in second attack on Maersk Alabama". The Guardian (London). Associated Press. November 18, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2011. 
  114. ^ "French forces seize pirates mother ship". Press TV. April 16, 2009. 
  115. ^ "http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7999350.stm". BBC. April 15, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2011. 
  116. ^ Pirates attack tanker; NATO frees 20 fishermen. Associated Press, April 18, 2009
  117. ^ Su-Hyun Lee and Kevin Drew (January 21, 2011). "South Korea Rescues Crew and Ship From Pirates". the New York Times. Retrieved January 23, 2011. 
  125. ^ Anti-piracy radar
  128. ^ Weapons training for crew
  129. ^ What can be done to counter piracy?
  130. ^ High wall providing extra protection
  131. ^ Hot/electricity charged water wall
  132. ^ BBC,[2] Satellite tracking of AIS
  133. ^ Robotic/remote-controlled USVs
  134. ^ Vessel-launched UAV's
  135. ^ Shore-launched UAVs
  136. ^ Woolf, Marie (April 13, 2008). "Pirates can claim UK asylum [[The Sunday Times]], April 13, 2008". The Times (London). Retrieved April 22, 2009.  Wikilink embedded in URL title (help)
  139. ^ 18 U.S. 153 (1820).
  142. ^ Black's Law Dictionary, p. 528 (5th ed. 1979).
  146. ^ Yearbook of the ILC [1956] Vol 2, 282
  147. ^ "cargolaw.com". 

External links[edit]