Motor neuron

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Neuron: Motor neuron
Medulla oblongata - posterior - cn xii - very high mag.jpg
Location Ventral horn of the spinal cord, some cranial nerve nuclei
Function Excitatory projection (to NMJ)
Neurotransmitter UMN to LMN: glutamate; LMN to NMJ: ACh
Morphology Projection neuron
Presynaptic connections Primary motor cortex via the Corticospinal tract
Postsynaptic connections Muscle fibers and other neurons
NeuroLex ID nifext_103

A motor neuron (or motoneuron) is a nerve cell (neuron) that originates in the motor region of the cerebral cortex or the brain stem, whose cell body is located in the spinal cord and whose fiber (axon) projects outside the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control muscles.[1] Motor neurons are efferent nerves (also called effector neurons), that carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce (effect) movement.[2] Examples of motor neurons are primary motor neurons, alpha motor neurons, beta motor neurons and gamma motor neurons.

A single motor neuron may innervate many muscle fibres (muscle cells), and a muscle fibre can undergo many action potentials in the time taken for a single muscle twitch (fasciculation). As a result, if an action potential arrives before a twitch has completed, the twitches can superimpose on one another, either through summation or tetanus. In summation, the muscle is stimulated repetitively such that additional action potentials coming from the somatic nervous system arrive before the end of the twitch. The twitches thus superimpose on one another, leading to a force greater than that of a single twitch. On the other hand, tetanus is caused by constant, very high frequency stimulation - the action potentials come at such a rapid rate that individual twitches are indistinguishable, and tension rises smoothly eventually reaching a plateau.[3]

Anatomy and physiology[edit]

Branch of NS Position Neurotransmitter
Somatic n/a Acetylcholine
Parasympathetic Preganglionic Acetylcholine
Parasympathetic Ganglionic Acetylcholine
Sympathetic Preganglionic Acetylcholine
Sympathetic Ganglionic Norepinephrine*
*Except fibers to sweat glands and certain blood vessels
Motoneuron neurotransmitters

According to their targets, motor neurons are classified into three broad categories[citation needed]:

Somatic motor neurons, which originate in the central nervous system, project their axons to skeletal muscles [4] (such as the muscles of the limbs, abdominal, and intercostal muscles), which are involved in locomotion .

Special visceral motor neurons, also called branchial motor neurons, which directly innervate branchial muscles (that motorize the gills in fish and the face and neck in land vertebrates).


In consequence:


It could be argued that, in the command of visceral muscles, the ganglionic neuron, parasympathetic or sympathetic, is the real motor neuron, being the one that directly innervates the muscle (whereas the general visceral motor neuron is, strictly speaking, a preganglionic neuron).[citation needed] But, for historical reasons, the term motor neuron is reserved for the CNS neuron.



The interface between a motor neuron and muscle fiber is a specialized synapse called the neuromuscular junction. Upon adequate stimulation, the motor neuron releases a flood of neurotransmitters that bind to postsynaptic receptors and triggers a response in the muscle fiber which leads to muscle movement.

  • For vertebrates, however, the response of a muscle fiber to a neurotransmitter can only be excitatory, in other words, contractile. Muscle relaxation and inhibition of muscle contraction in vertebrates is obtained only by inhibition of the motor neuron itself. Muscle innervation may eventually play a role in the maturation of motor activity. This is how muscle relaxants work by acting on the motoneurons that innervate muscles (by decreasing their electrophysiological activity) or on cholinergic neuromuscular junctions, rather than on the muscles themselves.

Somatic motor neurons[edit]

Somatic motor neurons are the alpha efferent neurons, beta efferent neurons, and gamma efferent neurons. They are called efferent to indicate the flow of information from the central nervous system (CNS) to the periphery.

  • Alpha motor neurons innervate extrafusal muscle fibers (a type of slow switch fiber) located throughout the muscle. Their cell bodies are in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and they are sometimes called ventral horn cells.


  • Beta motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers of muscle spindles, with collaterals to extrafusal fibres.
  • Gamma motor neurons innervate intrafusal muscle fibers found within the muscle spindle. They regulate the sensitivity of the spindle to muscle stretching. With activation of gamma neurons, intrafusal muscle fibers contract so that only a small stretch is required to activate spindle sensory neurons and the stretch reflex.

Motor units[edit]

A single motor neuron may synapse with one or more muscle fibers.[5] The motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers to which it connects is a motor unit. Motor units are split up into 3 categories:[5]

  • Slow (S) motor units stimulate small muscle fibres, which contract very slowly and provide small amounts of energy but are very resistant to fatigue, so they are used to sustain muscular contraction, such as keeping the body upright.[5]
  • Fast fatiguing (FF) motor units stimulate larger muscle groups, which apply large amounts of force but fatigue very quickly. They are used for tasks that require large brief bursts on energy, such as jumping or running.[5]
  • Fast fatigue-resistant motor units stimulate moderate-sized muscles groups that don't react as fast as the FF motor units, but can be sustained much longer (as implied by the name) and provide more force than S motor units.[5]

See also[edit]


  1. ^ How Stuff Works
  2. ^ Schacter D.L., Gilbert D.T., and Wegner D.M. (2011) Psychology second edition. New York, NY: Worth
  3. ^ Russell, Peter (2013). Biology - Exploring the Diversity of Life. Toronto: Nelson Education. p. 946. ISBN 978-0-17-665133-6. 
  4. ^ Silverthorn, Dee Unglaub (2010). Human Physiology: An Integrated Approach. Pearson. p. 398. ISBN 978-0-321-55980-7. 
  5. ^ a b c d e Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, et al., editors: Neuroscience. 2nd edition, 2001 [1]


  • Sherwood, L. (2001). Human Physiology: From Cells to Systems (4th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks-Cole. ISBN 0-534-37254-6. 
  • Marieb, E. N.; Mallatt, J. (1997). Human Anatomy (2nd ed.). Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-4068-8.