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Not to be confused with Egocentrism.
Narcissus (1590s) by Caravaggio (Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica, Rome)



Narcissism is also considered a social or cultural problem. It is a factor in trait theory used in some self-report inventories of personality such as the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory. It is one of the three dark triadic personality traits (the others being psychopathy and Machiavellianism).



Main article: History of narcissism

The term "narcissism" comes from the Greek myth of Νάρκισσος, or in Latin Narcissus, a handsome Greek youth who rejected according to Ovid the desperate advances of the nymph Echo. These advances eventually led Narcissus to fall in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. Unable to consummate his love, Narcissus "lay gazing enraptured into the pool, hour after hour," and finally changed into a flower that bears his name, the narcissus.[1]

The concept of excessive selfishness has been recognized throughout history. In ancient Greece the concept was understood as hubris. It is only in recent times that it has been defined in psychological terms.

  • In 1898 Havelock Ellis, an English sexologist, used the term "Narcissus-like" in reference to excessive masturbation, whereby the person becomes his or her own sex object[2]
  • Sigmund Freud published a paper exclusively devoted to narcissism in 1914 called On Narcissism: An Introduction[3]
  • Since 2000, on psychological tests designed to detect narcissism, the scores of residents of the United States have continually increased. Psychologists have suggested a link to social networking.[4]

Traits and signs[edit]


Alexander Lowen, describing
the existence of a narcissist




Hotchkiss' seven deadly sins of narcissism[edit]



Clinical and research aspects[edit]

Narcissistic personality disorder[edit]

Narcissistic personality disorder affects an estimated 1% of the general population.[2][10]


Some may have a limited or minimal capability of experiencing emotions.[11]

Healthy narcissism[edit]

Main article: Healthy narcissism

Healthy narcissism is a structural truthfulness of the self, achievement of self and object constancy, synchronization between the self and the superego and a balance between libidinal and aggressive drives (the ability to receive gratification from others and the drive for impulse expression). Healthy narcissism forms a constant, realistic self-interest and mature goals and principles and an ability to form deep object relations.[12] A feature related to healthy narcissism is the feeling of greatness. This is the antithesis of insecurity or inadequacy.

A required element within normal development[edit]

Healthy narcissism might exist in all individuals. Freud says that this is an original state from which the individual develops the love object. He argues that healthy narcissism is an essential part of normal development.[3] According to Freud the love of the parents for their child and their attitude toward their child could be seen as a revival and reproduction of their own narcissism.[3] The child has an omnipotence of thought; the parents stimulate that feeling because in their child they see the things that they have never reached themselves. Compared to neutral observations, the parents tend to overvalue the qualities of their child. When parents act in an extreme opposite style and the child is rejected or inconsistently reinforced depending on the mood of the parent, the self-needs of the child are not met.[citation needed]

Karen Horney saw the narcissistic personality as the product of a certain kind of early environment molding a certain kind of temperament. She did not see narcissistic needs and tendencies as inherent in human nature.[13]

In relation to the pathological condition[edit]

Healthy narcissism has to do with a strong feeling of "own love" protecting the human being against illness. Eventually, however, the individual must love the other, "the object love to not become ill." The individual becomes ill as a result of the frustration created when he is unable to love the object.[14] In pathological narcissism such as the narcissistic personality disorder, the person’s libido has been withdrawn from objects in the world and produces megalomania. The clinical theorists Kernberg, Kohut and Millon all see pathological narcissism as a possible outcome in response to unempathic and inconsistent early childhood interactions. They suggested that narcissists try to compensate in adult relationships.[15] The pathological condition of narcissism is, as Freud suggested, a magnified, extreme manifestation of healthy narcissism.

With regard to the condition of healthy narcissism, it is suggested that this is correlated with good psychological health. Self-esteem works as a mediator between narcissism and psychological health. Therefore, because of their elevated self-esteem, deriving from self-perceptions of competence and likability, high narcissists are relatively free of worry and gloom.[16] Other researchers suggested that healthy narcissism cannot be seen as ‘good’ or ‘bad’; however, it depends on the contexts and outcomes being measured. In certain social contexts such as initiating social relationships, and with certain outcome variables, such as feeling good about oneself, healthy narcissism can be helpful. In other contexts, such as maintaining long-term relationships and with other outcome variables, such as accurate self-knowledge, healthy narcissism can be unhelpful.[17]

Commonly used measures[edit]

Narcissistic Personality Inventory[edit]


The Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory[edit]


Empirical studies[edit]

Within psychology, there are two main branches of research into narcissism: clinical and social psychology. These approaches differ in their view of narcissism, with the former treating it as a disorder, thus as discrete, and the latter treating it as a personality trait, thus as a continuum. These two strands of research tend loosely to stand in a divergent relation to one another, although they converge in places.

Campbell and Foster (2007)[20] review the literature on narcissism. They argue that narcissists possess the following "basic ingredients":

  • Positive: Narcissists think they are better than others.[21]
  • Agentic: Narcissists’ views tend to be most exaggerated in the agentic domain, relative to the communion domain.[clarification needed][21][22]
  • Special: Narcissists perceive themselves to be unique and special people.[23]

Narcissists tend to demonstrate a lack of interest in warm and caring interpersonal relationships.[20] There are several ongoing controversies within narcissism literature, namely: whether narcissism is healthy or unhealthy; a personality disorder; a discrete or continuous variable; defensive or offensive; the same across genders; the same across cultures; and changeable or unchangeable.


Sorokowski et al. (2015) showed that narcissism is related to the frequency of posting selfie-type pictures on social media. This relationship was stronger among men than women.[27]

Heritability of narcissism utilizing twin studies[edit]

Livesley et al. concluded, in agreement with other studies, that narcissism as measured by a standardized test was a common inherited trait.[28] Additionally, in similar agreement with those other studies, it was found that there exists a continuum between normal and disordered personality.



Stigmatising attitude of narcissists to psychiatric illness[edit]

Arikan found that a stigmatising attitude to psychiatric patients is associated with narcissistic personality traits.[29]

Narcissism in evolutionary psychology[edit]


Evidence for assortative mating among humans is well established; humans mate assortatively regarding age, IQ, height, weight, nationality, educational and occupational level, physical and personality characteristics, and family relatedness.[30] In the "self seeking like" hypothesis, individuals unconsciously look for a mirror image of themselves in others, seeking criteria of beauty or reproductive fitness in the context of self-reference.


Narcissistic supply[edit]

Main article: Narcissistic supply



Narcissistic rage and narcissistic injury[edit]

Narcissistic rage is a reaction to narcissistic injury, which is a perceived threat to a narcissist's self-esteem or self-worth. Narcissistic injury (or narcissistic scar) is a phrase used by Sigmund Freud in the 1920s; narcissistic wound and narcissistic blow are further, almost interchangeable terms.[33] The term narcissistic rage was coined by Heinz Kohut in 1972.

Narcissistic rage occurs on a continuum from instances of aloofness, and expression of mild irritation or annoyance, to serious outbursts, including violent attacks.[34] Narcissistic rage reactions are not limited to personality disorders and may be also seen in catatonic, paranoid delusion and depressive episodes.[34] It has also been suggested that narcissists have two layers of rage. The first layer of rage can be thought of as a constant anger (towards someone else), with the second layer being a self-aimed wrath.[35]

Narcissistic defences[edit]

Main article: Narcissistic defences

Narcissistic defences are those processes whereby the idealized aspects of the self are preserved, and its limitations denied.[36] They tend to be rigid and totalistic.[37] They are often driven by feelings of shame and guilt, conscious or unconscious.[38]

Narcissistic abuse[edit]

Main article: Narcissistic abuse

Narcissistic abuse is a term that emerged in the late twentieth century, and became more prominent in the early 21st century because of the works of Alice Miller and other Neo-Freudians, rejecting psychoanalysis as being similar to the poisonous pedagogies.[39] Miller used "narcissistic abuse" to refer to a specific form of emotional abuse of children by what she considered narcissistic parents - parents who require the child to give up their own wants and feelings in order to serve the parent's needs for esteem, which constitutes narcissistic abuse.[40] The term has also come to be used more widely to refer to forms of abuse in adult relationships on the part of the narcissist.



Masterson's subtypes (exhibitionist and closet)[edit]

In 1993, James F. Masterson proposed two categories for pathological narcissism, exhibitionist and closet.[41] Both fail to adequately develop an age- and phase- appropriate self because of defects in the quality of psychological nurturing provided, usually by the mother. The exhibitionist narcissist is the one described in DSM-IV and differs from the closet narcissist in several important ways.



Millon's variations[edit]

Theodore Millon identified five variations of narcissist.[2] Any individual narcissist may exhibit none or one of the following:

Other forms of narcissism[edit]

Acquired situational narcissism[edit]





Aggressive narcissism[edit]

This is Factor 1 in the Hare Psychopathy Checklist,[citation needed] which includes the following traits:


Main article: Codependency


Collective or group narcissism[edit]

Main article: Collective narcissism

Collective narcissism (or group narcissism) is a type of narcissism where an individual has an inflated self-love of his or her own ingroup, where an “ingroup” is a group in which an individual is personally involved.[45] While the classic definition of narcissism focuses on the individual, collective narcissism asserts that one can have a similar excessively high opinion of a group, and that a group can function as a narcissistic entity.[45] Collective narcissism is related to ethnocentrism; however, ethnocentrism primarily focuses on self-centeredness at an ethnic or cultural level, while collective narcissism is extended to any type of ingroup beyond just cultures and ethnicities.[45][46]

Conversational narcissism[edit]




Derber distinguishes the "shift-response" from the "support-response,"as in the following hypothetical scenario:
John: I'm feeling really starved."
Mary: Oh, I just ate. (shift response)
John: I'm feeling really starved.

Cultural narcissism[edit]

In The Culture of Narcissism, Christopher Lasch defines a narcissistic culture as one where every activity and relationship is defined by the hedonistic need to acquire the symbols of wealth,[47] this becoming the only expression of rigid, yet covert, social hierarchies. It is a culture where liberalism only exists insofar as it serves a consumer society, and even art, sex and religion lose their liberating power.


Destructive narcissism[edit]


Malignant narcissism[edit]

Main article: Malignant narcissism


Medical narcissism[edit]

Medical narcissism is a term coined by John Banja in his book, Medical Errors and Medical Narcissism.[50][51]



He claims that:


Narcissism in the workplace[edit]

Narcissism as a personality trait, generally assessed with the Narcissistic Personality Inventory, is related to behavior in the workplace. For example, individuals high on narcissism are more likely to engage in counterproductive work behavior (CWB, behavior that harms organizations or other people in the workplace).[52] Although individuals high on narcissism might engage in more aggressive (and counterproductive) behaviors, they mainly do so when their self-esteem is threatened.[53] Thus narcissistic employees are more likely to engage in CWB when they feel threatened.[54] Individuals high in narcissism have fragile self-esteem and are easily threatened. Therefore, employees who are high on narcissism are likely to perceive the behaviors of others in the workplace as abusive and threatening, and are likely to perceive more sexual harassment from others than do individuals who are low on narcissism, are less easily threatened, and are less likely to perceive interactions with others as abusive or harassing.[55]

The narcissistic manager will have two main sources of narcissistic supply: inanimate - status symbols like cars, gadgets or office views; and animate - flattery and attention from colleagues and subordinates.[56] Teammates may find everyday offers of support swiftly turn them into enabling sources of permanent supply, unless they are very careful to maintain proper boundaries.[57] The need to protect such supply networks will prevent the narcissistic managers from taking objective decisions;[58] while long-term strategies will be evaluated according to their potential for attention-gaining for the manager themself.[59]


Primordial narcissism[edit]




Sexual narcissism[edit]

Sexual narcissism has been described as an egocentric pattern of sexual behavior that involves an inflated sense of sexual ability and sexual entitlement. In addition, sexual narcissism is the erotic preoccupation with oneself as a superb lover through a desire to merge sexually with a mirror image of oneself. Sexual narcissism is an intimacy dysfunction in which sexual exploits are pursued, generally in the form of extramarital affairs, to overcompensate for low self-esteem and an inability to experience true intimacy.[64] This behavioral pattern is believed to be more common in men than in women and has been tied to domestic violence in men and sexual coercion in couples.[65][66] Hurlbert argues that sex is a natural biological given and therefore cannot be deemed as an addiction. He and his colleagues assert that any sexual addiction is nothing more than a misnomer for what is actually sexual narcissism or sexual compulsivity.[67] While Hurlbert writes mainly of sexual narcissism in men, Schoenewolf (2013) describes what he calls "gender narcissism" which occurs in both males and females who compensate for feelings of sexual inadequacy by becoming overly proud and obsessed with their masculinity or femininity.[68]

Narcissistic parents[edit]

Main article: Narcissistic parents


Narcissistic leadership[edit]


Popular culture[edit]


Jessica Benjamin (2000), "The Oedipal Riddle," p. 233[70]

Some critics contend that pop-culture has become more narcissistic in recent decades.[71] This claim is supported by scholarship indicating some celebrities hire "fake paparazzi",[72] the frequency with which "reality" programs populate the television schedules,[71] and the growth of an online culture in which digital media and the "will-to-fame" are generating a "new era of public narcissism [that] is mutating with new media forms."[73] In this analysis, narcissism, rather than being the pathologized property of a discrete personality type, has been asserted as a constituent cultural feature of an entire generation since the end of World War II.[74]

Supporting the contention that American culture has become more narcissistic and that this is increasingly reflected in its cultural products is an analysis of US popular song lyrics between 1987 and 2007. This found a growth in the use of first-person singular pronouns, reflecting a greater focus on the self, and also of references to antisocial behavior; during the same period, there was a diminution of words reflecting a focus on others, positive emotions, and social interactions.[75][76] Similar patterns of change in cultural production are observable in other Western states. A linguistic analysis of the largest circulation Norwegian newspaper found that the use of self-focused and individualistic terms increased in frequency by 69 per cent between 1984 and 2005 while collectivist terms declined by 32 per cent.[76] References to narcissism and self-esteem in American popular print media have experienced vast inflation since the late 1980s.[76] Between 1987 and 2007 direct mentions of self-esteem in leading US newspapers and magazines increased by 4,540 per cent while narcissism, which had been almost non-existent in the press during the 1970s, was referred to over 5,000 times between 2002 and 2007.[76]

Cross-cultural studies of differences in narcissism are rare. Instead, as there is a positive association between narcissism and individualism and a negative one between it and collectivism, these traits have been used as proxies for narcissism in some studies.[77] This approach, however, risks the misapplication of the concepts of individualism and collectivism to create overly-fixed, "caricature-like",[78] oppositional categories.[79] Nonetheless, one study looked at differences in advertising products between an individualistic culture, America, and a collectivist one, South Korea. In American magazine advertisements, it found, there was a greater tendency to stress the distinctiveness and uniqueness of the person; conversely the South Korean ones stressed the importance of social conformity and harmony.[77] This observation holds true for a cross-cultural analysis across a wide range of cultural outputs where individualistic national cultures produce more individualistic cultural products and collectivist national cultures produce more collectivist national products; these cultural effects were greater than the effects of individual differences within national cultures.[77]

Fictional narcissists[edit]

  • Jay Gatsby, the titular character of F. Scott Fitzgerald's 1925 novel The Great Gatsby, "an archetype of self-made American men seeking to join high society," has been described as a "pathological narcissist" for whom the "ego-ideal" has become "inflated and destructive" and whose "grandiose lies, poor sense of reality, sense of entitlement, and exploitive treatment of others" conspire toward his own demise.[80]

See also[edit]


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  3. ^ a b c Freud, Sigmund, On Narcissism: An Introduction, 1914
  4. ^ Person of the Year 2010 Mark Zuckerberg Time Magazine December 15, 2010
  6. ^ Horton, R. S.; Bleau, G.; Drwecki, B. (2006). "Parenting Narcissus: What Are the Links Between Parenting and Narcissism?" (PDF). Journal of Personality 74 (2): 345–376. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00378.x.  See p. 347.
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Further reading[edit]

  • Golomb, Elan, Trapped in the Mirror - Adult Children of Narcissists in their Struggle for Self (1995)
  • McFarlin, Dean, Where Egos Dare: The Untold Truth About Narcissistic Leaders - And How to Survive Them (2002)
  • Thomas David, Narcissism: Behind the Mask (2010)

External links[edit]