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Beryllium,  4Be
General properties
Name, symbol beryllium, Be
Pronunciation /bəˈrɪliəm/
Appearance white-gray metallic
Beryllium in the periodic table
Hydrogen (diatomic nonmetal)
Helium (noble gas)
Lithium (alkali metal)
Beryllium (alkaline earth metal)
Boron (metalloid)
Carbon (polyatomic nonmetal)
Nitrogen (diatomic nonmetal)
Oxygen (diatomic nonmetal)
Fluorine (diatomic nonmetal)
Neon (noble gas)
Sodium (alkali metal)
Magnesium (alkaline earth metal)
Aluminium (post-transition metal)
Silicon (metalloid)
Phosphorus (polyatomic nonmetal)
Sulfur (polyatomic nonmetal)
Chlorine (diatomic nonmetal)
Argon (noble gas)
Potassium (alkali metal)
Calcium (alkaline earth metal)
Scandium (transition metal)
Titanium (transition metal)
Vanadium (transition metal)
Chromium (transition metal)
Manganese (transition metal)
Iron (transition metal)
Cobalt (transition metal)
Nickel (transition metal)
Copper (transition metal)
Zinc (transition metal)
Gallium (post-transition metal)
Germanium (metalloid)
Arsenic (metalloid)
Selenium (polyatomic nonmetal)
Bromine (diatomic nonmetal)
Krypton (noble gas)
Rubidium (alkali metal)
Strontium (alkaline earth metal)
Yttrium (transition metal)
Zirconium (transition metal)
Niobium (transition metal)
Molybdenum (transition metal)
Technetium (transition metal)
Ruthenium (transition metal)
Rhodium (transition metal)
Palladium (transition metal)
Silver (transition metal)
Cadmium (transition metal)
Indium (post-transition metal)
Tin (post-transition metal)
Antimony (metalloid)
Tellurium (metalloid)
Iodine (diatomic nonmetal)
Xenon (noble gas)
Caesium (alkali metal)
Barium (alkaline earth metal)
Lanthanum (lanthanide)
Cerium (lanthanide)
Praseodymium (lanthanide)
Neodymium (lanthanide)
Promethium (lanthanide)
Samarium (lanthanide)
Europium (lanthanide)
Gadolinium (lanthanide)
Terbium (lanthanide)
Dysprosium (lanthanide)
Holmium (lanthanide)
Erbium (lanthanide)
Thulium (lanthanide)
Ytterbium (lanthanide)
Lutetium (lanthanide)
Hafnium (transition metal)
Tantalum (transition metal)
Tungsten (transition metal)
Rhenium (transition metal)
Osmium (transition metal)
Iridium (transition metal)
Platinum (transition metal)
Gold (transition metal)
Mercury (transition metal)
Thallium (post-transition metal)
Lead (post-transition metal)
Bismuth (post-transition metal)
Polonium (post-transition metal)
Astatine (metalloid)
Radon (noble gas)
Francium (alkali metal)
Radium (alkaline earth metal)
Actinium (actinide)
Thorium (actinide)
Protactinium (actinide)
Uranium (actinide)
Neptunium (actinide)
Plutonium (actinide)
Americium (actinide)
Curium (actinide)
Berkelium (actinide)
Californium (actinide)
Einsteinium (actinide)
Fermium (actinide)
Mendelevium (actinide)
Nobelium (actinide)
Lawrencium (actinide)
Rutherfordium (transition metal)
Dubnium (transition metal)
Seaborgium (transition metal)
Bohrium (transition metal)
Hassium (transition metal)
Meitnerium (unknown chemical properties)
Darmstadtium (unknown chemical properties)
Roentgenium (unknown chemical properties)
Copernicium (transition metal)
Ununtrium (unknown chemical properties)
Flerovium (post-transition metal)
Ununpentium (unknown chemical properties)
Livermorium (unknown chemical properties)
Ununseptium (unknown chemical properties)
Ununoctium (unknown chemical properties)


Atomic number 4
Standard atomic weight (±) (Ar) 9.0121831(5)[1]
Element category   alkaline earth metal
Period period 2
Electron configuration [He] 2s2
per shell
2, 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 1560 K ​(1287 °C, ​2349 °F)
Density near r.t. 1.85 g/cm3
when liquid, at m.p. 1.690 g/cm3
Critical point 5205 K,  MPa (extrapolated)
Heat of fusion 12.2 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization 292 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity 16.443 J/(mol·K)
vapor pressure
at T (K) 1462 1608 1791 2023 2327 2742
Atomic properties
Oxidation states +2, +1[2] ​(an amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 1.57
Ionization energies 1st: 899.5 kJ/mol
2nd: 1757.1 kJ/mol
3rd: 14848.7 kJ/mol
Atomic radius empirical: 112 pm
Covalent radius 96±3 pm
Van der Waals radius 153 pm
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
Hexagonal close packed crystal structure for beryllium
Speed of sound thin rod 12890 m/s (at r.t.)[3]
Thermal expansion 11.3 µm/(m·K) (at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 200 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivity 36 nΩ·m (at 20 °C)
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 287 GPa
Shear modulus 132 GPa
Bulk modulus 130 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.032
Mohs hardness 5.5
Vickers hardness 1670 MPa
Brinell hardness 590–1320 MPa
CAS Registry Number 7440-41-7
Discovery Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1797)
First isolation Friedrich Wöhler & Antoine Bussy (1828)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of beryllium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
7Be trace 53.12 d ε 0.862 7Li
γ 0.477
9Be 100% 9Be is stable with 5 neutrons
10Be trace 1.36×106 y β 0.556 10B
· references





Physical properties[edit]


Nuclear properties[edit]

Naturally occurring beryllium, save for slight contamination by cosmogenic radioisotopes, is essentially beryllium-9, which has a nuclear spin of 32. Beryllium has a large scattering cross section for high-energy neutrons, about 6 barns for energies above approximately 10 keV. Therefore, it works as a neutron reflector and neutron moderator, effectively slowing the neutrons to the thermal energy range of below 0.03 eV, where the total cross section is at least an order of magnitude lower – exact value strongly depends on the purity and size of the crystallites in the material.


+ n → 2(4
) + 2n

Neutrons are liberated when beryllium nuclei are struck by energetic alpha particles[6] producing the nuclear reaction

+ 4
+ n , where 4
is an alpha particle and 12
is a carbon-12 nucleus.[7]

Beryllium also releases neutrons under bombardment by alpha rays. Thus, natural beryllium bombarded either by alphas or gammas from a suitable radioisotope is a key component of most radioisotope-powered nuclear reaction neutron sources for the laboratory production of free neutrons.


Isotopes and nucleosynthesis[edit]

Both stable and unstable isotopes of beryllium are created in stars, but the radioisotopes do not last long. It is believed that most of the stable beryllium in the universe was originally created in the interstellar medium when cosmic rays induced fission in heavier elements found in interstellar gas and dust.[8] Primordial beryllium contains only one stable isotope, 9Be, and therefore beryllium is a monoisotopic element.

Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in sunspot number (red) and 10Be concentration (blue). Note that the beryllium scale is inverted, so increases on this scale indicate lower 10Be levels

Radioactive cosmogenic 10Be is produced in the atmosphere of the Earth by the cosmic ray spallation of oxygen.[9] 10Be accumulates at the soil surface, where its relatively long half-life (1.36 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to boron-10. Thus, 10Be and its daughter products are used to examine natural soil erosion, soil formation and the development of lateritic soils, and as a proxy for measurement of the variations in solar activity and the age of ice cores.[10] The production of 10Be is inversely proportional to solar activity, because increased solar wind during periods of high solar activity decreases the flux of galactic cosmic rays that reach the Earth.[9] Nuclear explosions also form 10Be by the reaction of fast neutrons with 13C in the carbon dioxide in air. This is one of the indicators of past activity at nuclear weapon test sites.[11] The isotope 7Be (half-life 53 days) is also cosmogenic, and shows an atmospheric abundance linked to sunspots, much like 10Be.



The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is 13Be which decays through neutron emission. It has a half-life of 2.7 × 10−21 s. 6Be is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0 × 10−21 s.[15] The exotic isotopes 11Be and 14Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.[16] This phenomenon can be understood as the nuclei of 11Be and 14Be have, respectively, 1 and 4 neutrons orbiting substantially outside the classical Fermi 'waterdrop' model of the nucleus.


Beryllium ore
Emerald is a naturally occurring compound of beryllium.

The Sun has a concentration of 0.1 parts per billion (ppb) of beryllium.[17] Beryllium has a concentration of 2 to 6 parts per million (ppm) in the Earth's crust.[18] It is most concentrated in the soils, 6 ppm, and is found in 0.2 parts per trillion (ppt) of sea water.[19] Trace amounts of 9Be are found in the Earth's atmosphere.[19] In sea water, beryllium is exceedingly rare, comprising only 0.0006 ppb by weight.[20] In stream water, however, beryllium is more abundant with 0.1 ppb by weight.[21]

Beryllium is found in over 100 minerals,[22] but most are uncommon to rare. The more common beryllium containing minerals include: bertrandite (Be4Si2O7(OH)2), beryl (Al2Be3Si6O18), chrysoberyl (Al2BeO4) and phenakite (Be2SiO4). Precious forms of beryl are aquamarine, red beryl and emerald.[6][23][24] The green color in gem-quality forms of beryl comes from varying amounts of chromium (about 2% for emerald).[25]

The two main ores of beryllium, beryl and bertrandite, are found in Argentina, Brazil, India, Madagascar, Russia and the United States.[25] Total world reserves of beryllium ore are greater than 400,000 tonnes.[25]



Beryllium is most commonly extracted from the mineral beryl, which is either sintered using an extraction agent or melted into a soluble mixture. The sintering process involves mixing beryl with sodium fluorosilicate and soda at 770 °C (1,420 °F) to form sodium fluoroberyllate, aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide.[4] Beryllium hydroxide is precipitated from a solution of sodium fluoroberyllate and sodium hydroxide in water. Extraction of beryllium using the melt method involves grinding beryl into a powder and heating it to 1,650 °C (3,000 °F).[4] The melt is quickly cooled with water and then reheated 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) in concentrated sulfuric acid, mostly yielding beryllium sulfate and aluminium sulfate.[4] Aqueous ammonia is then used to remove the aluminium and sulfur, leaving beryllium hydroxide.

Beryllium hydroxide created using either the sinter or melt method is then converted into beryllium fluoride or beryllium chloride. To form the fluoride, aqueous ammonium hydrogen fluoride is added to beryllium hydroxide to yield a precipitate of ammonium tetrafluoroberyllate, which is heated to 1,000 °C (1,830 °F) to form beryllium fluoride.[4] Heating the fluoride to 900 °C (1,650 °F) with magnesium forms finely divided beryllium, and additional heating to 1,300 °C (2,370 °F) creates the compact metal.[4] Heating beryllium hydroxide forms the oxide, which becomes beryllium chloride when combined with carbon and chlorine. Electrolysis of molten beryllium chloride is then used to obtain the metal.[4]

Chemical properties[edit]

Beryllium's chemical behavior is largely a result of its small atomic and ionic radii. It thus has very high ionization potentials and strong polarization while bonded to other atoms, which is why all of its compounds are covalent.[4] It is more chemically similar to aluminium than its close neighbors in the periodic table due to having a similar charge-to-radius ratio.[4] An oxide layer forms around beryllium that prevents further reactions with air unless heated above 1000 °C.[4][27] Once ignited, beryllium burns brilliantly forming a mixture of beryllium oxide and beryllium nitride.[27] Beryllium dissolves readily in non-oxidizing acids, such as HCl and diluted H2SO4, but not in nitric acid or water as this forms the oxide.[4] This behavior is similar to that of aluminium metal. Beryllium also dissolves in alkali solutions.[4]

Beryllium hydrolysis as a function of pH
Water molecules attached to Be are omitted

The beryllium atom has the electronic configuration [He] 2s2. The two valence electrons give beryllium a +2 oxidation state and thus the ability to form two covalent bonds; the only evidence of lower valence of beryllium is in the solubility of the metal in BeCl2.[28] Due to the octet rule, atoms tend to seek a valence of 8 in order to resemble a noble gas. Beryllium tries to achieve a coordination number of 4 because its two covalent bonds fill half of this octet.[4] A coordination of 4 allows beryllium compounds, such as the fluoride or chloride, to form polymers.

This characteristic is employed in analytical techniques using EDTA as a ligand. EDTA preferentially forms octahedral complexes – thus absorbing other cations such as Al3+ which might interfere – for example, in the solvent extraction of a complex formed between Be2+ and acetylacetone.[29] Beryllium(II) readily forms complexes with strong donating ligands such as phosphine oxides and arsine oxides. There have been extensive studies of these complexes which show the stability of the O-Be bond.[citation needed]





Beryllium difluoride, BeF2, is different than the other difluorides. In general, beryllium has a tendency to bond covalently, much more so than the other alkaline earths and its fluoride is partially covalent (although still more ionic than its other halides). BeF2 has many similarities to SiO2 (quartz) a mostly covalently bonded network solid. BeF2 has tetrahedrally coordinated metal and forms glasses (is difficult to crystallize). When crystalline, beryllium fluoride has the same room temperature crystal structure as quartz and shares many higher temperature structures also. Beryllium difluoride is very soluble in water,[30] unlike the other alkaline earths. (Although they are strongly ionic, they do not dissolve because of the especially strong lattice energy of the fluorite structure.) However, BeF2 has much lower electrical conductivity when in solution or when molten than would be expected if it were fully ionic.[31][32][33][34]

Order and disorder in difluorides

Beryllium oxide, BeO, is a white refractory solid, which has the wurtzite crystal structure and a thermal conductivity as high as in some metals. BeO is amphoteric. Salts of beryllium can be produced by treating Be(OH)2 with acid.[27] Beryllium sulfide, selenide and telluride are known, all having the zincblende structure.[28]

Beryllium nitride, Be3N2 is a high-melting-point compound which is readily hydrolyzed. Beryllium azide, BeN6 is known and beryllium phosphide, Be3P2 has a similar structure to Be3N2. Basic beryllium nitrate and basic beryllium acetate have similar tetrahedral structures with four beryllium atoms coordinated to a central oxide ion.[28] A number of beryllium borides are known, such as Be5B, Be4B, Be2B, BeB2, BeB6 and BeB12. Beryllium carbide, Be2C, is a refractory brick-red compound that reacts with water to give methane.[28] No beryllium silicide has been identified.[27]


The mineral beryl, which contains beryllium, has been used at least since the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt.[35] In the first century CE, Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder mentioned in his encyclopedia Natural History that beryl and emerald ("smaragdus") were similar.[36] The Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis, written in the third or fourth century CE, contains notes on how to prepare artificial emerald and beryl.[36]

Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin discovered beryllium

Early analyses of emeralds and beryls by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, Torbern Olof Bergman, Franz Karl Achard, and Johann Jakob Bindheim always yielded similar elements, leading to the fallacious conclusion that both substances are aluminium silicates.[37] Mineralogist René Just Haüy discovered that both crystals are geometrically identical, and he asked chemist Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin for a chemical analysis.[35]

In a 1798 paper read before the Institut de France, Vauquelin reported that he found a new "earth" by dissolving aluminium hydroxide from emerald and beryl in an additional alkali.[38] The editors of the journal Annales de Chimie et de Physique named the new earth "glucine" for the sweet taste of some of its compounds.[39] Klaproth preferred the name "beryllina" due to fact that yttria also formed sweet salts.[40][41] The name "beryllium" was first used by Wöhler in 1828.[42]

Friedrich Wöhler was one of the men who independently isolated beryllium

Friedrich Wöhler[43] and Antoine Bussy[44] independently isolated beryllium in 1828 by the chemical reaction of metallic potassium with beryllium chloride, as follows:

BeCl2 + 2 K → 2 KCl + Be


The direct electrolysis of a molten mixture of beryllium fluoride and sodium fluoride by Paul Lebeau in 1898 resulted in the first pure (99.5 to 99.8%) samples of beryllium.[45] The first commercially successful process for producing beryllium was developed in 1932 by Alfred Stock and Hans Goldschmidt.[45] Their process involves the electrolysis of a mixture of beryllium fluorides and barium, which causes molten beryllium to collect on a water-cooled iron cathode.

A sample of beryllium was bombarded with alpha rays from the decay of radium in a 1932 experiment by James Chadwick that uncovered the existence of the neutron.[25] This same method is used in one class of radioisotope-based laboratory neutron sources that produce 30 neutrons for every million α particles.[18]



Pure beryllium metal did not become readily available until 1957, even though it had been used as an alloying metal to harden and toughen copper much earlier.[25] Beryllium could be produced by reducing beryllium compounds such as beryllium chloride with metallic potassium or sodium. Currently most beryllium is produced by reducing beryllium fluoride with purified magnesium. The price on the American market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was about $338 per pound ($745 per kilogram) in 2001.[48]

Between 1998 and 2008, the world's production of beryllium had decreased from 343 to about 200 tonnes, of which 176 tonnes (88%) came from the United States.[49][50]


Early precursors of the word beryllium can be traced to many languages, including Latin Beryllus; French Béry; Greek βήρυλλος, bērullos, beryl; Prakrit veruliya (वॆरुलिय‌); Pāli veḷuriya (वेलुरिय), veḷiru (भेलिरु) or viḷar (भिलर्) – "to become pale", in reference to the pale semiprecious gemstone beryl. The original source is probably the Sanskrit word वैडूर्य (vaidurya), which is of Dravidian origin and could be related to the name of the modern city of Belur.[51] For about 160 years, beryllium was also known as glucinum or glucinium (with the accompanying chemical symbol "Gl",[52]), the name coming from the Greek word for sweet: γλυκυς, due to the sweet taste of beryllium salts.[53]


It is estimated that most beryllium is used for military applications, so information is not readily available.[54]

Radiation windows[edit]




Mechanical applications[edit]

Because of its stiffness, light weight and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium metal is used for lightweight structural components in the defense and aerospace industries in high-speed aircraft, guided missiles, spacecraft, and satellites. Several liquid-fuel rockets have used rocket nozzles made of pure beryllium.[57][58] Beryllium powder was itself studied as a rocket fuel, but this use has never materialized.[25] A small number of bicycle frames were built with beryllium, at "astonishing" prices.[59] From 1998 to 2000, the McLaren Formula One team used Mercedes-Benz engines with beryllium-aluminium-alloy pistons.[60] The use of beryllium engine components was banned following a protest by Scuderia Ferrari.[61]

Mixing about 2.0% beryllium into copper forms an alloy called beryllium copper that is six times stronger than copper alone.[62] Beryllium alloys are used in many applications because of their combination of elasticity, high electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, as well as good corrosion and fatigue resistance.[25][4] These applications include non-sparking tools that are used near flammable gases (beryllium nickel), in springs and membranes (beryllium nickel and beryllium iron) used in surgical instruments and high temperature devices.[25][4] As little as 50 parts per million of beryllium alloyed with liquid magnesium leads to a significant increase in oxidation resistance and decrease in flammability.[4]

Alt text
Beryllium Copper Adjustable Wrench

The high elastic stiffness of beryllium has led to its extensive use in precision instrumentation, e.g. in inertial guidance systems and in the support mechanisms for optical systems.[6] Beryllium-copper alloys were also applied as a hardening agent in "Jason pistols", which were used to strip the paint from the hulls of ships.[63]





The James Webb Space Telescope[64] will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors. Because JWST will face a temperature of 33 K, the mirror is made of gold-plated beryllium, capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass – and remains more uniform – in such temperatures.[65] For the same reason, the optics of the Spitzer Space Telescope are entirely built of beryllium metal.[66]

Magnetic applications[edit]

Sphere Beryllium B52 - Gyrocompass

Beryllium is non-magnetic. Therefore, tools fabricated out of beryllium-based materials are used by naval or military explosive ordnance disposal teams for work on or near naval mines, since these mines commonly have magnetic fuzes.[67][dubious ] They are also found in maintenance and construction materials near magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines because of the high magnetic fields generated by them.[68] In the fields of radio communications and powerful (usually military) radars, hand tools made of beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons, magnetrons, traveling wave tubes, etc., that are used for generating high levels of microwave power in the transmitters.[69]

Nuclear applications[edit]



Two CANDU fuel bundles: Each about 50 cm in length and 10 cm in diameter. Notice the small appendages on the fuel clad surfaces

Beryllium is also used in fuel fabrication for CANDU reactors. The fuel elements have small appendages that are resistance brazed to the fuel cladding using an induction brazing process with Be as the braze filler material. Bearing pads are brazed on to prevent fuel bundle to pressure tube contact, and inter-element spacer pads are brazed on to prevent element to element contact.

Beryllium is also used at the Joint European Torus nuclear-fusion research laboratory, and it will be used in the more advanced ITER to condition the components which face the plasma.[72] Beryllium has also been proposed as a cladding material for nuclear fuel rods, because of its good combination of mechanical, chemical, and nuclear properties.[6] Beryllium fluoride is one of the constituent salts of the eutectic salt mixture FLiBe, which is used as a solvent, moderator and coolant in many hypothetical molten salt reactor designs, including the liquid fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR).[73]


The low weight and high rigidity of beryllium make it useful as a material for high-frequency speaker drivers. Because beryllium is expensive (many times more than titanium), hard to shape due to its brittleness, and toxic if mishandled, beryllium tweeters are limited to high-end home,[74][75][76] pro audio, and public address applications.[77][78] Due to the high performance of beryllium in acoustics, for marketing purposes some products are claimed to be made of the material when they are not.[79]





Main article: Beryllium poisoning

Approximately 35 micrograms of beryllium is found in the human body, but this amount is not considered harmful.[83] Beryllium is chemically similar to magnesium and therefore can displace it from enzymes, which causes them to malfunction.[83] Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by inhalation of dust or fumes contaminated with beryllium; either large amounts over a short time or small amounts over a long time can lead to this ailment. Symptoms of the disease can take up to five years to develop; about a third of patients with it die and the survivors are left disabled.[83] The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) lists beryllium and beryllium compounds as Category 1 carcinogens.[84]

Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. A survey found that about 5% of workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in 1949 in the United States had beryllium-related lung diseases.[85] Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult. It killed some early workers in nuclear weapons design, such as Herbert L. Anderson.[86]

Beryllium may be found in coal slag. When the slag is formulated into an abrasive agent for blasting paint and rust from hard surfaces, the beryllium can become airborne and become a source of exposure.[87]

Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this highly toxic substance.[4] Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium-laden dust). Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.[88]


See also[edit]


  2. ^ "Beryllium: Beryllium(I) Hydride compound data" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-12-10. 
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Jakubke, Hans-Dieter; Jeschkeit, Hans, eds. (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. trans. rev. Eagleson, Mary. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 
  5. ^ Puchta, Ralph (2011). "A brighter beryllium". Nature Chemistry 3 (5): 416. Bibcode:2011NatCh...3..416P. doi:10.1038/nchem.1033. PMID 21505503. 
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Behrens, V. (2003). "11 Beryllium". In Beiss, P. Landolt-Börnstein – Group VIII Advanced Materials and Technologies: Powder Metallurgy Data. Refractory, Hard and Intermetallic Materials 2A1. Berlin: Springer. pp. 1–11. doi:10.1007/10689123_36. ISBN 978-3-540-42942-5. 
  7. ^ a b Hausner, Henry H (1965). "Nuclear Properties". Beryllium its Metallurgy and Properties. University of California Press. p. 239. 
  8. ^ Ekspong, G. (1992). Physics: 1981–1990. World Scientific. pp. 172 ff. ISBN 978-981-02-0729-8. 
  9. ^ a b Emsley 2001, p. 56.
  10. ^ "Beryllium: Isotopes and Hydrology". University of Arizona, Tucson. Retrieved 10 April 2011. 
  11. ^ Whitehead, N; Endo, S; Tanaka, K; Takatsuji, T; Hoshi, M; Fukutani, S; Ditchburn, Rg; Zondervan, A (Feb 2008). "A preliminary study on the use of (10)Be in forensic radioecology of nuclear explosion sites". Journal of environmental radioactivity 99 (2): 260–70. doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2007.07.016. PMID 17904707. 
  12. ^ Boyd, R. N.; Kajino, T. (1989). "Can Be-9 provide a test of cosmological theories?". The Astrophysical Journal 336: L55. Bibcode:1989ApJ...336L..55B. doi:10.1086/185360. 
  13. ^ Arnett, David (1996). Supernovae and nucleosynthesis. Princeton University Press. p. 223. ISBN 0-691-01147-8. 
  14. ^ Johnson, Bill (1993). "How to Change Nuclear Decay Rates". University of California, Riverside. Retrieved 30 March 2008. 
  15. ^ Hammond, C. R. "Elements" in Lide, D. R., ed. (2005). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (86th ed.). Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-0486-5. 
  16. ^ Hansen, P. G.; Jensen, A. S.; Jonson, B. (1995). "Nuclear Halos". Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 45: 591. Bibcode:1995ARNPS..45..591H. doi:10.1146/annurev.ns.45.120195.003111. 
  17. ^ "Abundance in the sun". Mark Winter, The University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd, UK. WebElements. Retrieved 6 August 2011. 
  18. ^ a b Merck contributors (2006). O'Neil, Marydale J.; Heckelman, Patricia E.; Roman, Cherie B., eds. The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals (14th ed.). Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA: Merck Research Laboratories, Merck & Co., Inc. ISBN 0-911910-00-X. 
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