apterygote broadly, any of the primitive wingless insects of the subclass Apterygota (class Insecta), distinct from the subclass Pterygota, or winged insects. Used in this sense, the term apterygotes commonly includes four groups of primitive insects: proturans, collembolans, diplurans, and thysanurans. The taxonomic status of these groups, however, remains unsettled.

A typical apterygote is wingless and has six legs. Although the presence of six legs was once an important feature in the identification of true insects, three groups commonly known as apterygotes (i.e., proturans, collembolans, diplurans) are now considered by some entomologists to be offshoots from the main insectan stem of evolution and have been given independent taxonomic status as classes equivalent to the class Insecta. The term apterygotes, therefore, has been redefined to include only those groups thought to be ancestors of pterygotes—i.e., the thysanurans (e.g., silverfish, firebrats, and bristletails), together with the archaeognathans (a group closely related to the Thysanura) and the extinct monurans. For completeness of discussion, however, and because of the similarities of these primitive hexapods, the proturans, collembolans, and diplurans, as well as the thysanurans, archaeognathans, and monurans, are included in this article.

General features

Protura are minute (to two millimetres in length), elongated, white, and lack antennae. Distributed throughout the world in soil and leaf litter, they number about 152 species. Collembola are diverse in form, coloration, and habitat. Most species are less than three millimetres in length, but some range to 10 millimetres. They have either elongated or globular bodies with antennae and may have a furcula (ventral abdominal springing organ). Collembolans occur in soil and leaf litter throughout the world, including Antarctica. There are over 3,500 known species. Diplura are white or yellowish, blind, elongated with long antennae, and less than 10 millimetres (0.4 inch) in length, although one group attains 50 millimetres. Their two tail filaments (or threadlike structures) can be long and thin, short and thick, or in the form of pincers. Diplurans are widely distributed in soil, leaf litter, and rotting logs. Over 400 species have been described. Thysanura and Archaeognatha are mainly long with three elongated tail filaments. Mostly 5 to 20 millimetres in length when fully grown, these insects are widely distributed in leaf litter, although some live in ant and termite nests. Thysanurans have small compound eyes and styli (i.e., bristlelike processes) only on the abdomen. Archaeognatha have large compound eyes and styli on the legs and abdomen. More than 350 species of Thysanura and Archaeognatha are known. The extinct Monura were about 11 millimetres in length. Only two species are known from fossils.

Natural history
Life cycle

The immature stages in all of these groups are called nymphs. The young are similar to adults, changing little (slight metamorphosis) from molt to molt until sexual maturity is attained. In some groups, molting may continue throughout adult life. The greatest changes occur in the Protura, which is the only anamorphic hexapod group (i.e., an increase in number of body segments occurs at time of molting). The complete number of segments is present only after the third molt. There are at least six stages between molts (instars), and the last is the adult. Little is known about the postembryonic development of Diplura. Most species feed on both living and dead vegetable matter and fungi, although one group preys on other small invertebrates.

The life cycles of the Collembola are diverse. Females may lay up to 800 eggs that hatch in 2 to 40 days. Three to 12 juvenile molts occur in intervals ranging from 11 days to a year, with up to 50 molts occurring in a lifetime, which can last from 4 to 18 months. Most Collembola feed on living or decaying plant material, including fungi, algae, and spores, while a few feed on carrion or are predatory.

In Thysanura there may be more than 40 instars, although the adult stage is usually reached after about 12 molts. Some silverfish reach sexual maturity in two or three years and molt three to five times in each subsequent year. They can live as long as seven years. In Archaeognatha there are six instars including adults. Both Thysanura and Archaeognatha feed on decaying or dried vegetable material. Domestic silverfish eat plant and animal remains, paper, and artificial silk.

Reproduction in apterygote groups is mainly sexual, but parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization) can occur. Males deposit sperm packets, often haphazardly, that are taken up by females and stored until the time for fertilization. In proturans small external genitalia of unusual form surround the gonopore in both sexes. Collembolans lack external genitalia, but the gonopore and surrounding area differ. In diplurans external genitalia are absent or vestigial. Thysanurans and archaeognathans have external genitalia similar to those of the pterygotes. However, the aedeagus in males is used to deposit sperm drops and not as a copulative organ. The deposition and pickup of sperm drops in thysanurans and archaeognathans must take place during each adult stage if young are to be produced since the contents of the female sperm receptacle are lost with each molt.


Most apterygotes live in soil and leaf litter or are associated with plants and rotting logs in moist regions. Collembolans are also found in aquatic environments, caves, permanent ice fields and snow, and insect and animal nests. Moisture is an important ecological factor in habitat selection. Most primitive wingless hexapods have a thin exoskeleton and must guard against dehydration.

The condition and nature of soil are important factors in the distribution and nature of collembolan populations. Fungi in soil are especially important as collembolan food. Physical factors known to affect collembolans often do so secondarily, with the primary effect being on the soil microflora. Changes in macroflora also affect collembolan populations. Direct cultivation (e.g., plowing) has an immediate harmful effect on collembolan populations but does little long-range damage. Fertilizers increase the numbers of collembolans in soil, and herbicides have no effect. Some insecticides are lethal, while others are not. Increases in soil collembolans following insecticide applications are probably due to lethal effects on predators. Estimates of soil collembolans average about 100,000 per cubic metre. Soil collembolans usually form aggregations in soil. Certain species are more prevalent in a given layer (e.g., leaf litter, the fermentation layer, the humus-forming layer, or deep in the soil). Typically small species and young insects occur in deeper layers, although daily and seasonal vertical movements may occur. Occasional swarming of large numbers of collembolans occurs after unusually wet conditions.

The most important collembolan predators are mites. Others are pseudoscorpions, staphylinid and carabid beetles, an empid fly, and dacytine ants. Occasional collembolan feeders include spiders, fish, frogs, miscellaneous ants, and pulmonate snails. Collembolans are parasitized by gregarines, nematodes, virus, bacteria, fungi, and gordian worms.

Form and function

The bodies of proturans, collembolans, diplurans, thysanurans, and archaeognathans are divided into three segments: head, thorax, and abdomen. The three-segmented, leg-bearing thorax has one pair of legs on each segment. The extinct monurans, considered an offshoot of the Thysanura-Archaeognatha stem, have no separate abdomen or thorax; three pairs of legs occur on the first 3 of 14 segments. The monuran body, although similar to present day Thysanura, has one tail filament or telson (the median tail filament in present-day Thysanura-Archaeognatha and winged mayflies). Many proturans and collembolans have entirely cutaneous respiration (breathing through the skin). In some proturans, collembolans, diplurans, and archaeognathans, a breathing system of tracheae and spiracles (external openings) occurs in the trunk, while in thysanurans the tracheal system is like that in pterygote insects.


Proturans have anteriorly directed, prognathous mouthparts and a pair of sense organs. Collembola have either prognathous or hypognathous, ventrally directed, mouthparts and may or may not have a pair of postantennal sense organs and lateral ocelli (simple eyes). The diplurans lack eyes and sense organs, while the thysanurans have simple lateral eyes and are hypognathous. Archaeognatha have both large compound eyes and ocelli. Monurans had large compound eyes. Mouthparts are important taxonomically in primitive wingless hexapods. Movable mouthparts are generally recognized as walking limbs that were attached to ancestral body segments that became fused to form the posterior part of the head. The Protura, Collembola, and Diplura are entognathous, meaning that the mouthparts are withdrawn inside the head capsule. Monura, Thysanura, and Archaeognatha are ectognathous, meaning that the mouthparts are exposed, as in pterygote insects. Mandibles are present in the biting mouthparts of Diplura, Thysanura, Archaeognatha, Monura, and most Collembola. Although proturan mouthparts are modified for sucking, mandibles are retained. However, in collembolans with sucking mouthparts, mandibles may or may not be retained.


In general the three segments of the thorax are distinct, and each bears one pair of legs. Each leg has a terminal claw. Proturan legs are simple except that the anterior legs are longer, serving as tactile organs with the anterior tarsus having sensory organs. The three pairs of legs are similar to each other in the apterygote groups.

The abdomen of Protura undergoes anamorphosis: in the first and second instars it has 9 segments, the third 10, and the rest 12. Collembola have a maximum of six abdominal segments. Diplura, Thysanura, Archaeognatha, and the extinct Monura have 11 abdominal segments. The final abdominal tailpiece is the telson (see arthropod).

Modified abdominal structures

Primitive hexapods have abdominal structures that represent modified remnants of ancestral walking limbs. Many hexapods have cerci (sensory appendages) on the 11th abdominal segment, which aid in identification of the telson. The Protura, Collembola, and Monura lack cerci. In Diplura a pair of cerci arise from the small terminal segment. Cerci can be long with numerous segments, short with a central duct and terminal pore, or modified into a pair of pincers for holding prey. They are important taxonomic criteria in separating hexapod groups. The extinct monurans had pairs of abdominal structures, called ventral styli, that are modified limbs. Similar styli are present in Thysanura and Archaeognatha. These hexapods also have one or two pairs of vesicles on some abdominal segments, as do proturans. Collembolans have a single tube containing a pair of vesicles, a single median tenaculum (catchlike process that holds furcula in place), and a single median furcula (springing organ). Each of these is a modified pair of ancestral limbs.


The primitive wingless hexapods are walking terrestrial invertebrates. Proturans, however, use only the middle and posterior legs for locomotion. The anterior pair of legs are held above the head and used as tactile organs. Collembolans have a furcula, a ventral abdominal springing organ that enables them to spring rapidly into the air. Apparently thysanurans and archaeognathans have developed the median tail filament (telson) to assist in supporting the abdomen during movement. Archaeognathans can also spring with considerable agility by using the body and tail filaments.

Evolution and paleontology

Evolution of the hexapods has occurred in conjunction with that of the myriapods. Both apparently had a common origin from early crustaceans. Among the myriapods, the Symphyla bear the closest relationship to hexapods, and both may have arisen from an ancestral symphylan stem. The evolution of Protura, Collembola, Diplura, Archaeognatha, and Thysanura plus Pterygota has usually been considered linear, with offshoots at successive intervals. The hexapodous state may have arisen several times. If this were the case, Protura, Collembola, and Diplura could have arisen separately. The extinct Monura and the extant Archaeognatha are offshoots from a thysanuran stem; earlier specialization may have led to the winged insects (pterygotes).

There are few fossil species of the primitive wingless hexapods. One extinct collembolan family (Protentomobryidae) contains a species (Protentombrya walkeri) of the Cretaceous Period (approximately 100 ,000,000 million years ago) Period of Canada. The oldest fossil collembolan species, Rhyniella praecursor (family Neanuridae), is found in the Middle Devonian (approximately 370,000,000 years398 million to 385 million years ago) sandstone of Scotland. Other species known from the Baltic amber include one campodeid dipluran. The extinct order Monura includes two species, Dasyleptus lucasi of the Upper Carboniferous (approximately 280,000,000 years318 million to 299 million years ago) of France and D. brongniarti of the Siberian Permian (approximately 252,000,000 years299 million to 251 million years ago) deposits. The extinct family Triassomachilidae (order Archaeognatha) includes Triassomachilis uralensis of the Triassic (approximately 210,000,000 years251 million to 200 million years ago) deposits of Russia. Other extinct species occur in the genera Machilis, Praemachilis, and Parastylus. One thysanuran family (Lepidotrichidae), thought to be extinct, has now been found in California.

Distinguishing taxonomic features

Apterygotes differ from pterygotes in lacking wings and undergoing simple metamorphosis. They differ also in the structure of the thorax and in the development of abdominal appendages.

Mouthparts are an important criterion in separating these hexapods into two groups, those with entognathous mouthparts (Protura, Collembola, and Diplura) and those with ectognathous mouthparts (Thysanura, Archaeognatha, and the extinct Monura). These groups are further differentiated on the basis of antennae (number of segments) if present, placement of eyes (simple and compound) if present, segmentation and specialization of legs, number and modifications of abdominal appendages, and number of abdominal segments.

Annotated classification

Three previous orders (Protura, Collembola, and Diplura) are treated here as separate classes. The Thysanura, Archaeognatha, and Monura are placed in the subclass Apterygota (class Insecta). Groups indicated by a dagger (†) are extinct and known only from fossils.

Class ProturaEntognathous mouthparts.Order ProturaAntennae and eyes absent; anterior pair of legs elongated and sensory; 8th abdominal segment with paired openings to large abdominal glands; 3 pairs of ventral abdominal appendages; sparse setae (hairs or bristles) important for classification; scales absent.Suborder EosentomoideaTracheal system present; claw of middle and posterior legs claw-shaped; 8th abdominal segment with striate band; lids to gland openings small, unornamented.Family EosentomidaePairs of abdominal appendages alike, 2-segmented with 5 setae.Suborder AcerentomoideaTracheal system absent; claw of middle and hindlegs broadly boat-shaped; lids to gland openings large and with or without teeth on posterior border.Family ProtentomidaeAbdominal appendages 2-segmented with up to 4 setae, 2 pairs with terminal vesicles.Family AcerentomidaeAbdominal appendages 2-segmented with up to 4 setae, anterior pair with terminal vesicle.Class CollembolaEntognathous mouthparts.Order Collembola1 pair of 4- to 6-segmented antennae; a pair of postantennal organs; 0 to 8 simple eyes (ocelli) on each side of head; abdomen of 6 or fewer segments including telson, a ventral tube on 1st abdominal segment, usually a ventral furcula on 4th abdominal segment, tenaculum on 3rd abdominal segment; hairs, setae, bristles, or scales present.Suborder ArthropleonaHead prognathous (except Poduridae, Actaletidae); postantennal organ present or absent; trunk elongated, most segments distinct.Section PoduromorphaTrunk segments essentially similar; 1st thoracic segment distinct with dorsal setae; antennae short; scales absent.Family OnychiuridaeMouthparts mandibular; complicated sensory organs on antennae; ocelli absent.Family HypogastruridaeMouthparts mandibular; sensory organs of antennae simple; ocelli usually present.Family NeanuridaeMouthparts modified for sucking, mandibles present or absent; sensory organs of antennae simple; ocelli usually present.Family Poduridae1 species, Podura aquatica; hypognathous head; mouthparts mandibular; ocelli present.Section EntomobryomorphaTrunk segments usually dissimilar; 1st thoracic segment reduced dorsally, without dorsal setae; antennae usually long; scales present or absent.Family ActaletidaeHead hypognathous; mouthparts mandibular.Family IsotomidaePostantennal organ usually present; scales absent.Family OncopoduridaePostantennal organ present or absent; scales present.Family TomoceridaePostantennal organ absent; scales present, distinctly ribbed or fluted.† Family ProtentomobryidaeExtinct.Family EntomobryidaePostantennal organ generally absent; antennae and furcula long; scales present or absent.Suborder SymphypleonaHead hypognathous; postantennal organ absent; thorax and abdomen fused, segmentation lost or indistinct.Family NeelidaeAntennae small, shorter than head, situated midway or on anterior half; ocelli absent.Family SminthuridaeAntennae longer than head, situated on posterior half; ocelli usually present.Class DipluraEntognathous mouthparts.Order DipluraAntennae multijointed; compound eyes and ocelli absent; abdomen of 11 segments, telson included or absent; paired ventral styli; paired cerci of variable form; setae, rarely scales.Family CampodeidaeAntennae longer than head plus thorax; 1st abdominal segment with lobelike appendages; cerci as long as abdomen, multijointed.Family ProjapygidaeAntennae shorter than head plus thorax; 1st abdominal segment with styli; cerci less than half abdomen length, fewer than 10 joints; scales absent.Family JapygidaeAntennae shorter than head plus thorax; 1st abdominal segment with styli; cerci paired terminal forceps; scales absent.Class InsectaEctognathous mouthparts.Subclass ApterygotaPrimitive wingless insects.† Order MonuraExtinct; compound eyes present; trunk not obviously separated from thorax; telson a long median tail filament.† Family DasyleptidaeFine hairs; abdominal styli 2-jointed.Order ArchaeognathaCompound eyes present; 3 ocelli; telson a long median tail filament; cerci as lateral tail filaments; styli on thoracic legs and abdomen; setae and scales.† Family TriassomachilidaeExtinct.Family MachilidaeAbdominal segments with 1 or 2 pairs of vesicles, median ventral sclerites visible.Family MeinertellidaeAbdominal segments with 1 pair of vesicles, median ventral sclerites almost invisible.Order ThysanuraSmall compound eyes present or absent; trunk segments flattened; telson a long median tail filament; telson and cerci long or short; abdominal styli unjointed.Family LepismatidaeEyes present; scales usually present.Family NicoletiidaeEyes absent; scales present or absent.
Critical appraisal

Detailed studies of morphology, physiology, embryology, and life histories are required to further elucidate relationships of these hexapods.

The standard system of classification has been class Insecta; subclass Apterygota; orders Protura, Collembola, Diplura (or Aptera), Archaeognatha, and Thysanura; subclass Pterygota. This system is retained in many textbooks, but it is no longer accepted by most specialists, who have shifted the entognathous orders to separate subclasses or classes, and the culmination is the classification used above. Another classification is superclass Hexapoda, class Protura, class Collembola, class Diplura, class Thysanura, class Insecta. Under this system apterygotes are primitive wingless classes of Hexapoda.

K. Christiansen, “Bionomics of Collembola,” A. Rev. Ent., 9:147–178 (1964), a concise review of the early literature; A.D. Imms, Imm’s General Textbook of Entomology, 10th ed. rev. by O.W. Richards and R.G. Davies, 2 vol. (1977), the standard textbook; S.M. Manton, “Introduction to Classification of Arthropoda,” in R.C. Moore (ed.), Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, pt. R, Arthropoda 4 (1969), a brief coverage of the subject; Z. Massoud, “Monographie des Neanuridae, Collemboles Poduromorphes à pièces buccales modifiées,” Biologie de l’Amérique Australe, 3:7–399 (1967), an important revision and classification of Collembola with sucking mouthparts; J. Paclt, Biologie der primär flügellosen Insekten (1956), an extensive review of earlier literature and research; J.T. Salmon, An Index to the Collembola, 3 vol. (1964–65); A.G. Sharov, Basic Arthropodan Stock: With Special Reference to Insects (1966), an excellent work that is based on personal paleontological research and emphasizes phylogenetic relationships from worms to winged insects; S.L. Tuxen, Protura (1964, reissued 1986), a taxonomic coverage of this group.