Nonverbal communication

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Understanding each other; seen in a street near the bell tower of Xi'an, China.

Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people. It is sometimes mistakenly referred to as body language (kinesics), but nonverbal communication encompasses much more, such as use of voice (paralanguage), touch (haptics), distance (proxemics), and physical environments/appearance.[1] Typically overlooked in nonverbal communication are proxemics, or the informal space around the body and chronemics: the use of time. Not only considered eye contact, oculesics comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate. This subject is diverse in meaning, relative to culture and not limited to these definitions specifically.


Nonverbal communication involves the processes of encoding and decoding. Encoding is the act of generating the information such as facial expressions, gestures, and postures. Decoding is the interpretation of information from received sensations from previous experiences.[2]

Only a small percentage of the brain processes verbal communication. As infants, nonverbal communication is learned from social-emotional communication, making the face rather than words the major organ of communication. As children become verbal communicators, they begin to look at facial expressions, vocal tones, and other nonverbal elements more subconsciously.[citation needed]



SymbolTable for non-verbal communication with patients

Nonverbal communication represents two-thirds of all communication.[4] Nonverbal communication can portray a message both vocally and with the correct body signals. Body signals comprise physical features, conscious and unconscious gestures and signals, and the mediation of personal space.[4] The wrong message can be established if the body language conveyed does not match a verbal message. Nonverbal communication strengthens a first impression in common situations like attracting a partner or in a business interview: impressions are on average formed within the first four seconds of contact.[4] First encounters or interactions with another person strongly affect a person's perception.[5] When the other person or group is absorbing the message, they are focused on the entire environment around them, meaning the other person uses all five senses in the interaction: 83% sight, 11% hearing, 3% smell, 2% touch and 1% taste.[6]


Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior was started in 1872 with the publication of Charles Darwin’s book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[6] In the book, Darwin argued that all mammals, both humans and animals, showed emotion through facial expressions. He posed questions such as: “Why do our facial expressions of emotions take the particular forms they do?” and “Why do we wrinkle our nose when we are disgusted and bare our teeth when we are enraged?”[7] Darwin attributed these facial expressions to serviceable associated habits, which are behaviors that earlier in our evolutionary history had specific and direct functions.[7] For example, a species that attacked by biting, baring the teeth was a necessary act before an assault and wrinkling the nose reduced the inhalation of foul odors. In response to the question asking why facial expressions persist even when they no longer serve their original purposes, Darwin’s predecessors have developed a highly valued explanation. According to Darwin, humans continue to make facial expressions because they have acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history.[7] In other words, humans utilize facial expressions as external evidence of their internal state. Although The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals was not one of Darwin’s most successful books in terms of its quality and overall impact in the field, his initial ideas started the abundance of research on the types, effects, and expressions of nonverbal communication and behavior.[8]

Despite the introduction of nonverbal communication in the 1800s, the emergence of behaviorism in the 1920s paused further research on nonverbal communication.[8] Behaviorism is defined as the theory of learning that describes people’s behavior as acquired through conditioning.[9] Behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner trained pigeons to engage in various behaviors to demonstrate how animals engage in behaviors with rewards.[9]



First impression[edit]

It takes just one-tenth of a second for someone to judge and make their first impression.[10] A first impression is a lasting non-verbal communicator. The way a person portrays themselves on the first encounter is non-verbal statement to the observer. “First impressions are lasting impressions.” There can be positive and negative impressions.[11] Positive impressions can be made through the way you present yourself. Presentation can include clothing and other visible attributes. Negative impressions can also be based on presentation and also on personal prejudice. First impressions, although sometimes misleading, can in many situations be an accurate depiction of others.[10]


Main article: Posture (psychology)





The way one chooses to dress tells a lot about one’s personality. In fact, there was a study done at the University of North Carolina, which compared the way undergraduate women chose to dress and their personality types. The study showed that women who dressed “primarily for comfort and practicality were more self-controlled, dependable, and socially well adjusted” (“Sarasota Journal” 38). Women who didn’t like to stand out in a crowd had typically more conservative and traditional views and beliefs. Clothing, although non-verbal, tells people what your personality is like. The way a person dresses is typically rooted from deeper internal motivations such as emotions, experiences and culture (“Forbes”). Clothing expresses who you are, or even, who you want to be that day. It shows people who you want to be associated with, and where you fit in. Clothing can start relationships, because you’re cluing other people in on what you are like (“Sarasota Journal” 38).[19][20]






Gestures can be subdivided into three groups:


Some hand movements are not considered to be gestures. They consist of manipulations either of the person or some object (e.g. clothing, pencils, eyeglasses) – the kinds of scratching, fidgeting, rubbing, tapping, and touching that people often do with their hands. Such behaviors are referred to as adapters. They may not be perceived as meaningfully related to the speech in which they accompany, but may serve as the basis for dispositional inferences of the speaker’s emotion (nervous, uncomfortable, bored.)[7]


Other hand movements are considered to be gestures. They are movements with specific, conventionalized meanings called symbolic gestures. Familiar symbolic gestures include the “raised fist,” “bye-bye,” and “thumbs up.” In contrast to adapters, symbolic gestures are used intentionally and serve a clear communicative function. Every culture has their own set of gestures, some of which are unique only to a specific culture. Very similar gestures can have very different meanings across cultures. Symbolic gestures are usually used in the absence of speech, but can also accompany speech.[7]




According to Edward T.Hall,the amount of space we maintain between ourselves and the persons with whom we are communicating shows the importance of the science of proximics.In this process,it is seen how we feel towards the others at that particular time .Within American culture Hall defines four primary distance zones :(i) intimate ( touching to eighteen inches ) distance, (ii)Personal (eighteen inches to four feet) distance, (iii) Social(four to twelve feet ) distance, and (iv) Public (more than twelve feet) distance.Intimate distance is considered appropriate for familiar relationships and indicates closeness and trust. Personal distance is still close but keeps another "at arm's length" the most comfortable distance for most of our interpersonal contact,social distance is used for the kind of communication that occurs in business relationships and, sometimes, in the classroom. Public distance occurs in situations where two-way communication is not desirable or possible [24]

Eye contact[edit]


Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows.[citation needed] Disinterest is highly noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested however, the pupils will dilate.




Across cultures[edit]



Gestures vary widely across cultures in how they are used and what they mean. A common example is pointing. In the United States, pointing is the gesture of a finger or hand to indicate or "come here please" when beckoning a dog. But pointing with one finger is also considered to be rude by some cultures. Those from Asian cultures typically use their entire hand to point to something.[37] Other examples include, sticking your tongue out. In Western countries, it can be seen as mockery, but in Polynesia it serves as a greeting and a sign of reverence.[38] Clapping is a North American way of applauding, but in Spain is used to summon a waiter at a restaurant. Differences in nodding and shaking the head to indicate agreement and disagreement also exist. Northern Europeans nodding their heads up and down to say “yes”, and shaking their head from side to side to say “no”. But the Greeks have for at least three thousand years used the upward nod for disagreement and the downward nod for agreement.”[38] There are many ways of waving goodbye: Americans face the palm outward and move the hand side to side, Italians face the palm inward and move the fingers facing the other person, French and Germans face the hand horizontal and move the fingers toward the person leaving.[38] Also, it is important to note that gestures are used in more informal settings and more often by children.[38]

Displays of emotion[edit]

"In many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while in Asian cultures, the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly."[39] For people in Westernized countries, laughter is a sign of amusement, but in Africa it is a sign of wonder or embarrassment.[38] Emotional expression varies with culture.[40] Native Americans tend to be more reserved and less expressive with emotions.[41] Frequent touches are common for Chinese people; however, such actions like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in America are less frequent and publicly displayed.[42]

Nonverbal actions[edit]



Children's learning in indigenous American communities[edit]

Nonverbal communication is commonly used to facilitate learning in indigenous American communities. Nonverbal communication is pivotal for collaborative participation in shared activities, as children from indigenous American communities will learn how to interact using nonverbal communication by intently observing adults.[33] Nonverbal communication allows for continuous keen observation and signals to the learner when participation is needed. Children from both US Mexican (with presumed indigenous backgrounds) and European American heritages who watched a video of children working together without speaking found that the Mexican-heritage children were far more likely to describe the children’s actions as collaborative, saying that the children in the video were “talking with their hands and with their eyes.” [47]

A key characteristic of this type of nonverbal learning is that children have the opportunity to observe and interact with all parts of an activity.[48] Many Indigenous American children are in close contact with adults and other children who are performing the activities that they will eventually master. Objects and materials become familiar to the child as the activities are a normal part of everyday life. Learning is done in an extremely contextualized environment rather than one specifically tailored to be instructional. [48] For example, the direct involvement that Mazahua children take in the marketplace is used as a type of interactional organization for learning without explicit verbal instruction. Children learn how to run a market stall, take part in caregiving, and also learn other basic responsibilities through non-structured activities, cooperating voluntarily within a motivational context to participate. Not explicitly instructing or guiding the children teaches them how to integrate into small coordinated groups to solve a problem through consensus and shared space.[48] These Mazahua separate-but-together practices have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities establishes enculturation that is rooted in nonverbal social experience.[48] As the children participate in everyday interactions, they are simultaneously learning the cultural meanings behind these interactions. Children’s experience with nonverbally organized social interaction helps constitute the process of enculturation.[48]

One aspect of nonverbal communication that aids in conveying these precise and symbolic meanings is "context embeddedness." The idea that many children in Indigenous American Communities are closely involved in community endeavors, both spatially and relationally, helps to promote nonverbal communication given that words are not always necessary. When children are closely related to the context of the endeavor as active participants, coordination is based on a shared reference, which helps to allow, maintain, and promote nonverbal communication.[49] The idea of "context embeddedness" allows nonverbal communication to be a means of learning within Native American Alaskan Athabaskans and Cherokee communities. By observing various family and community social interactions, social engagement is dominated through nonverbal communication. For example, when children elicit thoughts or words verbally to their elders, they are expected to structure their speech carefully. This demonstrates cultural humility and respect as excessive acts of speech and conversational genre shifts reveal weakness and disrespect. This careful self-censorship exemplifies traditional social interactions of Athapaskin and Cherokee Native Americans are mostly dependent on nonverbal communication. [50]




"In the study of nonverbal communications, the limbic brain is where the action is...because it is the part of the brain that reacts to the world around us reflexively and instantaneously, in real time, and without thought."[52] There is evidence that the nonverbal cues made from person-to-person do not entirely have something to do with environment.[6]


Movement and body position[edit]



Kinesic messages are more subtle than gestures.[53] Kinesic messages comprise the posture, gaze, and facial movements.[54] American looks are short enough just to see if there is recognition of the other person, Arabs look at each other in the eye intensely, and many Africans avert the gaze as a sign of respect to superiors.[55] There are also many postures for people in the Congo; they stretch their hands and put them together in the direction of the other person.[56]

It is the study of body movements.The aspects of kinesics are face,eye contact,gesture,posture,body movements. 1.Face:-The face and eyes are the most expressive means of body communication.It can facilitate or hamper feedback. 2.Eye contact:-It is the most powerful forms of non-verbal communication.It builds emotional relationship between listener and speaker. 3.Gesture:-It is the motion of the body to express the speech. 4.Posture:-The body position of an individual conveys variety of messages. 5.Body movements:-It is used to understand what people are communicating with their gestures and posture[57]

Haptics: touching in communication[edit]

Main article: Haptic communication
A high five is an example of communicative touch.





In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire feeding apparatus wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, the monkey who had the real parent were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)



Main article: Proxemics




Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:[64]

  • Express emotions
  • Express interpersonal attitudes
  • Self-presentation of one's personality
  • Rituals (greetings)


Versus verbal communication[edit]











Structure versus non-structure[edit]

Verbal communication is a highly structured form of communication with set rules of grammar. The rules of verbal communication help to understand and make sense of what other people are saying. For example, foreigners learning a new language can have a hard time making themselves understood. On the other hand nonverbal communication has no formal structure when it comes to communicating. Nonverbal communication occurs without even thinking about it. The same behavior can mean different things such as crying of sadness or of joy. Therefore these cues need to be interpreted carefully to get the correct meaning of them.[71]

Linguistic versus non-linguistic[edit]

There are only a few assigned symbols in the system of nonverbal communication. Nodding the head is one symbol that indicates agreement in some cultures but in others it means disagreement. On the other hand, verbal communication has a system of symbols that have specific meanings to them.[72]

Continuous and discontinuous[edit]

Verbal communication is based on discontinuous units whereas nonverbal communication is continuous. Communicating nonverbally cannot be stopped unless one would leave the room but even then the intrapersonal processes still take place (individuals communicating with themselves). Without the presence of someone else the body still manages to undergo nonverbal communication. For example, after a heated debate there are no other words being said but there are still angry faces and cold stares being distributed. This is an example of how nonverbal communication is continuous.[72]

Learned versus innate[edit]



Left versus right-hemispheric processing[edit]


Clinical studies[edit]

From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[74] Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr. Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin addicts[75] and phencyclidine abusers[76] was contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts. Men with major depression[77] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when compared with euthymic men.

In some subjects tested for ability to read nonverbal cues, intuitive paradigms were apparently employed while in others a cause and effect approach was used.[78] Subjects in the former group answered quickly and before reinforcement occurred. They could not give a rationale for their particular responses. Subjects in the latter category delayed their response and could offer reasons for their choice. The level of accuracy between the two groups did not vary nor did handedness.[79]

Freitas-Magalhaes studied the effect of smile in the treatment of depression and concluded that depressive states decrease when you smile more often.[80]

Obese women[81] and women with premenstrual syndrome[82] were found to also possess diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed increased abilities.[83] A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found unable to transmit or receive any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[84] Because of the changes in levels of accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed.[85]

Child comprehension[edit]

An increased emphasis on gestures exists when intonations or facial expression are used. "Speakers often anticipate how recipients will interpret their utterances. If they wish some other, less obvious interpretation, they may "mark" their utterance (e.g. with special intonations or facial expressions)."[86] This specific emphasis known as 'marking' can be spotted as a learned form of non-verbal communication in toddlers. A groundbreaking study, from the Journal of Child Language has concluded that the act of marking a gesture is recognized by three-year-olds, but not by two-year-olds.




Comprehension of nonverbal facial cues[edit]

A byproduct of the work of the Pittsburgh/Yale/ Ohio State team was an investigation of the role of nonverbal facial cues in heterosexual nondate rape. Males who were serial rapists of adult women were studied for nonverbal receptive abilities. Their scores were the highest of any subgroup.[88] Rape victims were next tested. It was reported that women who had been raped on at least two occasions by different perpetrators had a highly significant impairment in their abilities to read these cues in either male or female senders.[89] These results were troubling, indicating a predator-prey model. The authors did note that whatever the nature of these preliminary findings the responsibility of the rapist was in no manner or level, diminished.


See also[edit]


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External links[edit]