HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists 2007 (Part 20)


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HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists 2007 (Part 20)

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The most widely used analytical separation technique for the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical mixtures in solution in the pharmaceutical industry is high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). However, conventional detectors used to monitor the separation, such as UV, refractive index, ﬂuorescence, and radioactive detectors, provide limited information on the molecular structure of the components of the mixture. Mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are the primary analytical techniques that provide structural information on the analytes. NMR is widely recognized as one of the most important methods of structural elucidation, but it becomes cumbersome for the analysis of...

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  1. 20 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS* Maria Victoria Silva Elipe 20.1 INTRODUCTION The most widely used analytical separation technique for the qualitative and quantitative determination of chemical mixtures in solution in the pharmaceutical industry is high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). However, conventional detectors used to monitor the separation, such as UV, refractive index, ﬂuorescence, and radioactive detectors, provide limited infor- mation on the molecular structure of the components of the mixture. Mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are the primary analytical techniques that provide structural information on the analytes. NMR is widely recognized as one of the most important methods of structural elucidation, but it becomes cumbersome for the analysis of complex mixtures that require time-consuming sample puriﬁcation before the NMR analysis. During the last two decades, hyphenated analytical techniques have grown rapidly and have been applied successfully to many complex analytical prob- lems in the pharmaceutical industry. The combination of separation technolo- gies with spectroscopic techniques is extremely powerful in carrying out qualitative and quantitative analysis of unknown compounds in complex matrices in all the stages of drug discovery, development, production, and manufacturing in the pharmaceutical industry. The HPLC (or LC) and MS (LC-MS) or NMR (LC-NMR) interface increases the capability of solving *This chapter is an update reprinted from the reference 40, reprinted with permission from Elsevier, copyright 2003. HPLC for Pharmaceutical Scientists, Edited by Yuri Kazakevich and Rosario LoBrutto Copyright © 2007 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 901
  2. 902 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS structural problems of mixtures of unknown compounds. LC-MS has been one of the most extensively applied hyphenated techniques for complex mixtures because MS is more compatible with HPLC and has higher sensitivity than NMR [1–3]. Recent advances in NMR technology have made NMR more compatible with HPLC and MS and have enabled LC-NMR and even LC- MS-NMR (or LC-NMR-MS or LC-NMR/MS) to become routine analytical tools in many laboratories in the pharmaceutical environment. The present chapter provides an overview of the LC-NMR and LC-MS-NMR hyphenated analytical techniques with (a) a description of their limitations together with examples of LC-NMR and LC-MS-NMR to illustrate the data generated by these hyphenated techniques and (b) extensive references toward the appli- cation in the pharmaceutical industry (drug discovery, drug metabolism, drug impurities, degradation products, natural products, food analysis, and pharma- ceutical research). This chapter is not meant to imply that LC-MS-NMR will replace LC-MS, LC-NMR, or NMR techniques for structural elucidation of compounds. LC-MS-NMR together with LC-MS, LC-NMR, and NMR are techniques that should be available and applied in appropriate cases based on their advantages and limitations. 20.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NMR The ﬁrst part of this section (Section 20.2.1) will provide the reader with his- torical overview of NMR and with a brief description of the most typical experiments used in NMR for the structural elucidation of organic com- pounds. The second part of this section (Section 20.2.2) will focus mainly on the improvements carried out in the NMR as a hyphenated analytical tech- nique for the elucidation of organic compounds and an understanding of the need to develop LC-NMR for the analysis of complex mixtures. 20.2.1 Historical Development of NMR In 1945 NMR signals in condensed phases were detected by the physicists Bloch [4] at Stanford and Purcell [5] at Harvard, who received the ﬁrst Nobel Prize in NMR. Work on solids dominated the early years of NMR because of the limitations of the instruments and the incomplete development of theory. Work in liquids was conﬁned to relaxation studies. A later development was the discovery of the chemical shift and the spin–spin coupling constant. In 1951 the proton spectrum of ethanol with three distinct resonances showed the potential of NMR for structure elucidation of organic compounds [6]. Scalar coupling provides information on spins that are connected by bonds. Spin decoupling or double resonance, which removes the spin–spin splitting by a second radiofrequency ﬁeld, was developed to obtain information about the scalar couplings in molecules by simplifying the NMR spectrum [7]. Initial manipulation of the nuclear spin carried out by Hahn [8] was essential for further development of experiments such as insensitive nuclei enhanced by
  3. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF NMR 903 polarization transfer (INEPT) [9], which is the basis of many modern pulse sequence experiments. During the 1960s and 1970s the development of super- conducting magnets and computers improved the sensitivity and broadened the applications of the NMR spectrometers. The Fourier transform (FT) tech- nique was implemented in the instruments by Anderson and Ernst [10] in the 1960s, but it took time to become the standard method of acquiring spectra. Another milestone which increased the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio was the dis- covery of the nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) by Overhauser [11], which improves the S/N in less sensitive nuclei by polarization transfer. The three- fold enhancement generally observed for the weak carbon-13 (13C) signals was a major factor in stimulating research on this important nuclide. Several years later, the proton–proton Overhauser effect was applied to identify protons that are within 5 Å of each other. In the 1970s Ernst [12] implemented the idea of acquiring a two-dimensional (2D) spectrum by applying two separate radiofrequency pulses with different increments between the pulses, and after two Fourier transformations the 2D spectrum was created. Two-dimensional experiments opened up a new direction for the development of NMR, and Ernst obtained the second Nobel Prize in NMR in 1991. 2D correlation exper- iments are of special value because they connect signals through bonds. Exam- ples of these correlation experiments are correlation spectroscopy (COSY) [12], total correlation spectroscopy (TOCSY) [13], heteronuclear correlation spectroscopy (HETCOR) [14], and variations. Other 2D experiments such as nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) [15] and rotating frame Overhauser effect spectroscopy (ROESY) [16] provide information on protons that are connected through space to establish molecular conforma- tions. In 1979 Müller [17] developed a novel 2D experiment that correlates the chemical shift of two spins, one with a strong and the other with weak mag- netic moment. Initially the experiment was applied to detect the weak 15N nuclei in proteins, but was later modiﬁed to detect the chemical shift of 13C nuclei through the detection of the protons attached directly to the carbons [18]. The heteronuclear multiple quantum correlation (HMQC) experiment gives the same data as the HETCOR, but with greater sensitivity. Heteronu- clear single quantum correlation (HSQC) [19] is another widely used experi- ment that provides the same information as the HMQC and uses two successive INEPT sequences to transfer the polarization from protons to 13C or 15N. Heteronuclear multiple bond correlation (HMBC) [20] experiment gives correlations through long-range couplings, which allows two and three 1 H–13C connectivities to be observed for organic compounds. In 1981 a 2D incredible natural abundance double quantum transfer experiment (INADE- QUATE) [21] was developed and deﬁnes all the carbon–carbon bonds, thus establishing the complete carbon skeleton in a single experiment. However, due to the low natural abundance of adjacent 13C nuclei, this experiment is not very practical. All of these experiments became available with the develop- ment of computers in the 1980s. With the accelerated improvements in elec- tronics, computers, and software in the 1990s, the use of the pulsed ﬁeld
  4. 904 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS gradients as part of the pulse sequences was developed [22] and applied to improve solvent suppression and to decrease the time required to acquire 2D experimental data. This brief historical introduction is intended to give a simpliﬁed overview of some of the critical milestones of NMR mainly in chemical applications, excluding the innovations in the ﬁeld of proteins, solid state, and magnetic resonance in clinical medicine. To ﬁnd out more details, see the articles written by Emsley and Feeney [23], Shoolery [24], and Freeman [25], and their included references. 20.2.2 Historical Development of LC-NMR As mentioned at the end of the historical development of NMR section, the development of the pulse ﬁeld gradients extended the applications of NMR. One of the areas not mentioned is the hyphenated techniques. NMR is one of the most powerful techniques for elucidating the structure of organic com- pounds. Before undertaking NMR analysis of a complex mixture, separation of the individual components by chromatography is required. LC-MS is rou- tinely used to analyze mixtures without prior isolation of its components. In many cases, however, NMR is needed for an unambiguous identiﬁcation. Even though hyphenated LC-NMR has been known since the late 1970s [26–33], it has not been widely implemented until the last decade [34–40]. The ﬁrst paper on LC-NMR was published in 1978 [26] using stop-ﬂow to analyze a mixture of two or three known compounds. At that time, the limi- tations in the NMR side—for example, sensitivity, available NMR solvents, software and hardware, and resolution achieved only with sample-spinning— made direct coupling to the HPLC difﬁcult. Watanabe and Niki [26] modiﬁed the NMR probe to make it more sensitive, introducing a thin-wall teﬂon tube of 1.4 mm (inner diameter) and thereby transforming it into a ﬂow-through structure. The effective length and volume of this probe were about 1 cm and 15 µL, respectively. Two three-way valves connected this probe to the HPLC detector. This connection needed to be short to minimize broadening of the chromatographic peaks. During the stop-ﬂow mode, the time to acquire an NMR spectrum on each peak was limited to two hours to avoid excess broad- ening of the remaining chromatographic peaks. The authors also mentioned that use of tetrachloroethylene or carbon tetrachloride as solvents, along with ETH-silica as a normal-phase column, limited the applications for this tech- nique. Because solvent suppression techniques were not available at that time, the authors [26] recognized that more development was required in the soft- ware and hardware of the NMR side to include the use of reverse-phased columns and their solvents, which in turn would broaden the range of appli- cations. A year later, Bayer et al. [27] carried out on-ﬂow and stop-ﬂow exper- iments with a different ﬂow-probe design on standard compounds. They used normal phase columns and carbon tetrachloride as solvent. One of their obser- vations was that the resolution of the NMR spectra in the LC-NMR system
  5. LC-NMR 905 was poorer than for the uncoupled NMR system, which made the measure- ment of small coupling constants difﬁcult. The ﬁrst application of on-ﬂow LC- NMR was carried out in 1980 to analyze mixtures of several jet fuel samples [28]. Deuterated chloroform and Freon-113 and normal-phase columns were the common conditions used for LC-NMR [29–33], limiting the application of this technique. The use of reversed-phase columns in LC-NMR complicates the NMR analysis because of (1) the use of more than one protonated solvent, which will very likely interfere with the sample, (2) the change in solvent resonances during the course of the chromatographic run when using solvent gradients, and (3) small analyte signals relative to those of the solvent. In 1995 Small- combe et al. [41] overcame these problems by developing the solvent- suppression technique, which greatly improved the quality of the spectra obtained by on-ﬂow or stop-ﬂow experiments. The optimization of the WET (water suppression enhanced through T1 effects) solvent suppression tech- nique generates high-quality spectra and effectively obtains 1D on-ﬂow and stop-ﬂow spectra and 2D spectra for the stop-ﬂow mode, such as WET- TOCSY, WET-COSY, WET-NOESY, and others [41]. During the last few years, more progress has been achieved by hyphenat- ing LC-NMR to MS. The LC-NMR-MS or LC-NMR/MS (referred to as LC- MS-NMR in this chapter) has expanded the structure-solving capabilities by obtaining simultaneously MS and NMR data from the same chromatographic peak. There are some compromises that have to be taken into account because of the differences between MS and NMR, such as sensitivity, solvent compat- ibility, and destructive versus nondestructive technique, discussed below. LC- MS has been used for many years as a preferred analytical technique; however, with the development of electrospray ionization techniques, LC-MS has been routinely used for the analysis of complex mixtures in the pharmaceutical industry. LC-MS-NMR is a combination of LC-MS with electrospray and LC- NMR presented below. 20.3 LC-NMR 20.3.1 Introduction The decision to use either NMR or LC-NMR for the analysis of mixtures in the pharmaceutical industry depends on factors related to their chromato- graphic separation and the ability of NMR to elucidate the structure of organic compounds whether hyphenated or not. The major technical considerations of LC-NMR, discussed below, are NMR sensitivity, NMR and chromatographi- cally compatible solvents, solvent suppression, NMR ﬂow-probe design, and LC-NMR sensitivity or compatibility of the volume of the chromatographic peak with the volume of the NMR ﬂow cell for better detection. Figure 20-1 shows the schematic setup of the LC-NMR connected to other devices, such as radioactivity detector and MS (see Section 20.4).
  6. 906 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-1. Schematic setup for the LC-MS-NMR system. (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) NMR Sensitivity. NMR is a less sensitive technique compared to MS and hence requires much larger samples for structural analysis. MS analy- sis is routinely carried out in the picogram range. Modern high-ﬁeld NMR spectrometers (400 MHz and higher) can detect proton signals from pure demonstration samples well into the nanogram range (MW 300 Da). With the cryoprobes (for Bruker NMR instruments) or cold probes (for Varian NMR instruments), depending on the NMR vendor currently available, the sensi- tivity of NMR markedly improves. The samples in the low nanogram range can be detected. In the high nanogram range, structural analysis can be carried out. For real-world samples, however, purity problems become more intrusive with diminishing sample size and can be overwhelming in the submicrogram domain, even by the interference of the impurities from the deuterated solvent used for the NMR studies. This places a current practical lower limit for most structural elucidation by NMR, which is estimated by the writer to be close to 500 nanograms (MW 300 Da). Although several other important nuclides can be detected by NMR, proton (1H) remains the most widely used because of its high sensitivity, high isotopic natural abundance (99.985%), and ubiquitous presence in organic compounds. Of comparable importance is carbon (13C), 1.108% abundance, which, because of substantial improvements in instrument sensitivity, is now utilized as routinely as proton. Fluorine (19F), 100% abundance, is less used since it is present in only about 10% of pharmaceutical compounds. Another consequence of the intrinsic low sensitivity of NMR is that virtually all samples require signal averaging to reach an acceptable signal-to-noise level. Depend-
  7. LC-NMR 907 ing on sample size and amount of sample for the structural analysis, signal averaging may range anywhere from several minutes to several days. For metabolites in the 1- to 10-µg range, for example, overnight experiments are generally necessary. NMR and Chromatographically Compatible Solvents. Liquid NMR requires the use of deuterated solvents. Conventionally the sample is analyzed as a solution using a 5- or 3-mm NMR tube depending on the NMR probe, which requires ca. 500 or 150 µL respectively of deuterated solvents. The increased solvent requirements for LC-NMR make this technique highly expensive. Deuterium oxide (D2O) is the most readily available, reasonably priced solvent (over $300/L). The cost of deuterated acetonitrile (CD3CN) is decreasing and varies depending on the percentage of included D2O, but is still over $1000/L. Deuterated methanol (CD3OD) is even more expensive. Deuterated solvents for normal-phase columns are not readily available, but those that are readily available have even more prohibitive prices. This neces- sitates the use of reversed-phase columns.Another factor to be concerned with is compatibility of the HPLC gradient-solvent system with the NMR opera- tions. An HPLC gradient-solvent system greater than 2–3%/min causes prob- lems in optimizing the magnetic ﬁeld homogeneity (shimming) due to solvent mixing in the ﬂow cell. A gradient-solvent system greater than 3%/min may take days for the mixture to equilibrate in the ﬂow cell before NMR experi- ments can be carried out. Recently, with the new technology developments in solid-phase extraction (SPE) as SPE-NMR and capillary-based HPLC as capLC-NMR or microﬂow NMR (see Section 20.3.3), the amount of deuter- ated solvents needed is much less and is in the microliter to milliter range to pump the analyte of interest to the ﬂow cell for the NMR analysis. These developments make the hyphenated NMR techniques economically more accessible. Solvent Suppression. During the LC-NMR run, the solvent signal in the chromatographic peak is much larger than those of the sample and needs to be suppressed. This applies even with deuterated solvents. In the case of acetonitrile, the two 13C satellite peaks of either the protonated or residual protonated methyl group for CH3CN or CD3CN also require suppression because they are typically much larger than signals from the sample. With the optimization of the WET solvent suppression technique by Smallcombe et al. [41] in 1995, the quality of spectra generated during LC-NMR has been greatly improved and is routine. The WET solvent suppression technique is the stan- dard technique for LC-NMR because it has the capability of suppressing several solvent lines without minimum baseline distortions, compared with others such as presaturation or watergate. One disadvantage of suppressing the solvent lines is that any nearby analyte signal will also be suppressed, resulting in loss of structural information. With the development of SPE-NMR and capLC-NMR or microﬂow NMR (see Section 20.3.3), the solvent
  8. 908 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS suppression is not as dramatic as for conventional LC-NMR improving the quality of the NMR data. NMR Flow-Probe Design. Conventional NMR ﬂow cells have an active volume of 60 µL (i.e., corresponds to the length of the receiver coil around the ﬂow cell) and a total volume of 120 µL. This means that NMR will only “see” 60 µL of the chromatographic peak. If the ﬂow rate in the HPLC is 1 mL/min, when 4.6-mm columns are used, only 3.6 sec of the chromatographic peak will be “seen” by NMR. Chromatographic peaks are generally much wider than 4 sec, indicating that less than half of the chromatographic peak will be detected. This is one of the disadvantages of LC-NMR compared with conventional 3-mm NMR probes where the amount of sample “seen” by the NMR receiver coil is independent of the width of the chromatographic peak. Recently, NMR ﬂow cells with an active volume of 10, 30, 60, and 120 µL are commercially available. Applications using solid-phase extraction (SPE) as SPE-NMR will be more appropriate for 10- or 30-µL ﬂow cells (see Section 20.3.3). Microcoil NMR ﬂow cells for capLC-NMR or microﬂow NMR have an active volument of 1.5 µL for applications of samples in low concentration (see Section 20.3.3). LC-NMR Sensitivity. Because NMR is a low-sensitivity technique, which requires samples in the order of several micrograms, analytical HPLC columns have to be saturated when injecting samples in that range. This will affect the chromatographic resolution and separation since resolution often degrades when sample injection is scaled-up to that level. Another factor that can affect chromatographic performance is the use of deuterated solvents. In many cases, analytes show broad chromatographic peaks and occasionally dif- ferent retention times when using deuterated solvents due to different polar- ity and hydrogen bonding of deuterated versus nondeuterated solvents. When this occurs, more chromatographic development is required in order to obtain reasonable resolution. One way to increase the LC-NMR sensitivity is by decreasing the ﬂow rate to less than 1 mL/min. At ﬂow rate lower than 1 mL/min, a greater portion of the chromatographic peak will be “seen” by NMR. However, this is only possible if the pump of the LC system is accurate at rates lower than 1 mL/min. In the case of the SPE-NMR, the LC-NMR sen- sitivity can be improved by concentrating the chromatographic peak into the SPE cartridge by injecting the sample several times (see Section 20.3.3). For capLC-NMR or microﬂow NMR, the LC-NMR sensitivity can improved if the sample is concentrated in a volume of 5 µL. 20.3.2 Modes of Operation for LC-NMR The HPLC is connected by red polyether ether ketone (PEEK) tubing to the NMR ﬂow cell which is inside the magnet. With shielded cryomagnets or ultra- shielded magnets the HPLC can be as close as 30–50 cm to the magnet versus
  9. LC-NMR 909 1.5–2 m for conventional magnets. Normally a UV detector is used in the HPLC system to monitor the chromatographic run. Radioactivity or ﬂuores- cent detectors can also be used to trigger the chromatographic peak(s) of interest. There are four general modes of operation for LC-NMR: on-ﬂow, stop-ﬂow, time-sliced, and loop collection. These modes described below are automated by software that controls the valves of the HPLC to stop the ﬂow when needed, depending on the mode of operation selected for LC-NMR. On-Flow. On the on-ﬂow or continuous-ﬂow mode, the chro- matographic run continues without stopping at any point of the run. The chro- matographic peaks are ﬂowing through the NMR ﬂow cell while NMR spectra are being acquired. In this mode, the NMR experiments require more amount of sample to analyze “on the ﬂy” because the resident time in the NMR ﬂow cell is very short (3.6 sec at 1 mL/min) during the chromatographic run, which limits this approach to 1D NMR spectra acquisition only. This mode can be used to analyze the major components of the mixture and, in many cases, to rapidly identify the major known compounds of the mixture. Stop-Flow. On the stop-ﬂow mode, the chromatographic peak is analyzed under static conditions. The chromatographic peak of interest is sub- mitted directly from the HPLC to the NMR ﬂow cell. Stop-ﬂow requires the calibration of the delay time, which is the time required for the sample to travel from the UV detector of the HPLC to the NMR ﬂow cell, which depends in turn on the ﬂow rate and the length of the tubing connecting the HPLC with the NMR. Because the chromatographic run is automatically stopped when the chromatographic peak of interest is in the ﬂow cell, the amount of sample required for the analysis can be reduced compared to the on-ﬂow mode and 2D NMR experiments, such as WET-COSY, WET-TOCSY, and others [41], can be obtained since the sample can remain inside the ﬂow cell for days. It is possible to obtain NMR data on a number of chromatographic peaks in a series of stops during the chromatographic run without on-column diffusion that causes loss of resolution, but only if the NMR data for each chromato- graphic peak can be acquired in a short time (30 min or less if more than four peaks have to be analyzed, and less than two hours for the analysis of no more than three peaks). The use of commercially available cryoprobes or cold probes improves the sensitivity of the stop-ﬂow mode (see Section For instance, stop-ﬂow is the preferred mode for the analysis of metabo- lites when the chromatography is reasonable or the metabolite is unstable. One example is the analysis of the major metabolites of compound I (Figure 20-2), a ras farnesyl transferase inhibitor in rats and dogs [42]. Preliminary studies by LC-NMR using a linear solvent gradient [5–75% B 0–25 min, 75–95% B 25–35 min, A: D2O, B: ACN (acetonitrile), 1 mL/min, 235 nm, BDS Hypersil C18 column 15 cm × 4.6 cm, 5 µm] indicated that even with the use of
  10. 910 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-2. Structure of compound I, a ras farnesyl transferase inhibitor in rats and dogs, and proposed structures by MS of its major metabolites in dog bile (M9) and dog and rat urine (M11). (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) Figure 20-3. 1H NMR spectrum of compound I in stop-ﬂow. (Reprinted from refer- ence 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) protonated acetonitrile in the solvent mixture, all the resonances were visible (Figure 20-3). Figures 20-4A and 20-4B are the UV chromatograms from a small injection of dog bile and dog urine for metabolites M9 (retention time 10 min) and M11 (retention time 21 min), respectively. These small injections
  11. LC-NMR 911 Figure 20-4. UV chromatograms from small injections of the dog bile containing metabolite M9 (A) and dog urine containing metabolite M11 (B). (Reprinted from ref- erence 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) were carried out to identify the UV chromatographic peaks of the analytes of interest to determine if there were other chromatographic peaks that could interfere the NMR studies by stop-ﬂow. Metabolite M11 was also found in rat urine. To analyze the structures of M9 and M11 by NMR, larger injections of dog bile, dog urine, and rat urine were carried out for the stop-ﬂow experi- ments.The 1H NMR spectrum on the LC-NMR system (Varian Inova 500 MHz equipped with an 1H–13C pulse ﬁeld gradient indirect detection microﬂow NMR probe with a 60-µL ﬂow cell, Palo Alto, CA) of M9 (Figure 20-5) revealed the presence of a 1,2,4-trisubstituted aromatic ring in the 3- chlorophenyl ring and the glucuronide moiety. Neither of the two possibilities for the position of the glucuronide moiety ring, positions 4 or 6, could be dis- tinguished. NOE experiments on the LC-NMR were not successful because of problems with the solvent suppression. The sample was collected and the NOE was performed (Varian Unity 400 MHz, equipped with a 3-mm 1H–13C pulse ﬁeld gradient indirect detection Nalorac probe, Palo Alto, CA) over a weekend (Figure 20-6). Even though the collected sample contained more impurities, the NOE experiment showed that the glucuronide moiety was attached at C-4 by irradiating the methylene at i which elicited NOE signals from H-2 and H-6, thus eliminating the C-6 possibility (Figure 20-6). LC-MS on M11 indicated it to be only the 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazinone moiety with an additional oxidation on the piperazinone ring. The 1H NMR spectrum on the LC-NMR system of M11 lacked the isolated methylene signal on the piperazine ring (Figure 20-7), indicating it to be the (1-(3-chlorophenyl)piper- azine-2,3-dione). Recently, a radioactive volatile metabolite M3 with a small molecular weight was studied using LC-NMR [43]. Conventional NMR was not possible because the radioactivity of the sample was lost when the fraction containing the metabolite was evaporated to dryness prior to the NMR studies. In this
  12. 912 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-5. 1H NMR spectrum of metabolite M9 from dog bile in stop-ﬂow mode. (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) Figure 20-6. 1H NMR (bottom) and 1D NOE spectra at i (top) of M9 from dog bile recovered from LC-NMR. (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permis- sion from Elsevier.)
  13. LC-NMR 913 Figure 20-7. 1H NMR spectrum of metabolite M11 from dog urine in stop-ﬂow mode. (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) example, the LC-MS was not informative, suggesting a molecular weight less than 200 Da. LC-NMR was one of the alternatives used to solve this structural problem. To be able to identify the UV chromatographic peak corresponding to the radioactive metabolite, a radioactivity detector equipped with a liquid cell (Radiomatic C150TR, Packard) was connected on-line to the LC-UV system of the LC-NMR. Figure 20-1 shows the schematic diagram for this setup. Small injections were carried out initially to identify the metabolite UV chromatographic peak with the radioactive peak prior to the stop-ﬂow exper- iments (Figure 20-8). Stop-ﬂow experiments were triggered by UV because the transfer delay from the UV to the NMR was shorter than from the radioac- tive detector to the NMR, due to the thicker tubing used in the liquid cell of the radioactivity detector. 1H NMR spectrum revealed the presence of the p- ﬂuorophenyl ring with the characteristic splitting pattern, indicating that the compound was drug-related. The downﬁeld shift of the ortho protons at 7.91 ppm suggested the presence of a carbonyl substituent (Figure 20-8). The presence of a singlet at 4.85 ppm, integrating for approximately two protons, was consistent with a methylene that was ﬂanked by the carbonyl and a hydroxyl group (Figure 20-8). These features thus led to proposing the struc- ture for M3 as the p-ﬂuoro-α-hydroxyacetophenone (Figure 20-8). Time-Sliced Mode. The time-sliced mode involves a series of stops during the elution of the chromatographic peak of interest.A time-sliced mode is used when two analytes elute together or with close retention times, or when the separation is poor. Depending on the NMR vendor, the software can be
  14. 914 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-8. UV-radioactive (C-14) chromatograms of the fraction containing metabo- lite M3 (top) and expanded sections of the 1H NMR spectrum of metabolite M3 acquired for one day (bottom). designed to automate this mode, but sometimes the analyst may prefer to do it manually. Loop Collection. On the loop collection mode, the chromato- graphic peaks of interest are automatically stored in loops controlled by the software for later off-line NMR study. Then the stored chromatographic peaks are transferred to the NMR ﬂow cell individually for NMR studies. The soft- ware is designed to send the stored chromatographic peaks to the NMR ﬂow cell in the same or different order as they were stored from the chromato- graphic run. Loop collection can be used when there is more than one chro- matographic peak of interest in the same run. In this case the analytes must be stable inside the loops during the extended period of analysis. Capillary tubing should be used to avoid peak broadening with concomitant loss of analyte “seen” by the NMR spectrometer. Loop collection can be used in con- nection with SPE for SPE-NMR analysis (see Section 20.3.3). 20.3.3 Other Analytical Separation Techniques Hyphenated with NMR Recently, other chromatographic techniques have been coupled on-line to NMR for additional applications in the pharmaceutical environment, such as
  15. LC-NMR 915 size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) as SEC-NMR for the characterization of polymer additives [44], capillary electrophoresis (CE) as CE-NMR for small volume samples [45–47], capillary electrochromatography (CEC) as CEC- NMR, capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) as CZE-NMR for on-ﬂow iden- tiﬁcation of metabolites with small volume samples [46, 48–52], and gel-permeation chromatography (GPC) as GPC-NMR and supercritical ﬂuid chromatography (SFC) as SCF-NMR for polymer separation and identiﬁca- tion [53] as examples. CE-NMR and CEC-NMR are techniques that work with very small-volume NMR probes with capillary separations. Solid-phase extrac- tion (SPE) as SPE-NMR is becoming a popular technique for trace analysis. In SPE-NMR, the chromatographic peaks are trapped into trap cartridges using multiple injections to increase the concentration of the chromatographic peaks, and then the cartridges are dried with nitrogen to remove all residual solvents. With this technique, deuterated solvents are only used to ﬂush each peak from the cartridge to the NMR ﬂow cell, creating a sharp eluting band (25- to 30-µL eluting volume) that requires the use of small NMR ﬂow cells, such as 10- or 30-µL ﬂow cells. SPE-NMR allows increasing the sensitivity compared with regular LC-NMR. The recent use of cryogenic ﬂow probe with the SPE-NMR application improves tremendously the sensitivity of NMR [54]. SPE-NMR has been applied for trace analysis [55], microbial metabolites [56], and natural products [54, 57, 58]. Lately, more developments have been carried out to hyphenate capillary-based HPLC (capLC) with NMR as capLC- NMR or microﬂow NMR and the use of commercial microcoil NMR probes [46, 59–61]. With microcoil NMR probes, the range of sample used in capLC- NMR could reach the nanogram level (low nanogram level only for detection limit but not for structural analysis) [46, 59–61]. With this technique, the volume of the chromatographic peak is comparable to the volume of the microcoil NMR ﬂow cell. The volume observed for a commercial microcoil NMR ﬂow cell is approximately 1.5 µL, and there is a wider range of solvent gradient variation than in the standard LC-NMR. CapLC-NMR can be used without a column for analysis of low concentrated pure compounds, such as 1 µg, or with the column to study mixtures of compounds. One of the require- ments for capLC-NMR is that the sample has to be soluble in a volume of approximately 5 µL or less, which is not always possible. The delay time between the UV detector of the cap-LC and the NMR ﬂow cell has to be cal- ibrated for all chromatographic conditions due to the changes of viscosity of the different solvent compositions, which has an effect on the pump of the cap-LC. More recently, the development of multiple coils connected in paral- lel may be applicable to acquire NMR data of several samples at the same time [39, 62–64]. So far, four samples can be run at the same time, but recent developments are going toward analysis of 96-well plates emulating tech- niques such as LC-MS [39]. CapLC-NMR with single or multiple solenoidal microcoils can also be used with other capillary techniques such as capillary electrophoresis (CE) [63, 64], capillary isotachophoresis [63, 65, 66], and others [63].
  16. 916 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS 20.3.4 Applications of LC-NMR There are many examples in the literature for applications of LC-NMR in the pharmaceutical industry. In the area of natural products, LC-NMR has been applied to screen plant constituents from crude extracts [54, 57, 67, 68] and to analyze plant and marine alkaloids [69–72], ﬂavonoids [73], sesquiterpene lac- tones [74, 75], saponins [58, 76], vitamin E homologues [77], and antifungal and bacterial constituents [56, 78, 79] as examples. In the ﬁeld of drug metabolism, LC-NMR has been extensively applied for the identiﬁcation of metabolites [42, 80–88] and even polar [89] or unstable metabolites [43]. And ﬁnally, LC- NMR has been used for areas such degradation products [90–93], drug impu- rities [94–102], drug discovery [103, 104], and food analysis [105–107]. 20.4 LC-MS-NMR (OR LC-NMR-MS OR LC-NMR/MS) 20.4.1 Introduction The capability of analyzing a complex mixture in a chromatographic run by the hyphenation of several techniques, such as NMR and MS, to HPLC is becoming more popular in the pharmaceutical industry. NMR and MS data on the same analyte are crucial for structural elucidation. When different iso- lates such as metabolites are analyzed by NMR and MS, one cannot always be certain that the NMR and the MS data apply to the same analyte, espe- cially when the analytes have been isolated using analytical columns and prep columns for the MS and NMR analysis, respectively. HPLC conditions are not always reproducible when analytical and prep-HPLC columns are used to isolate different amounts of the analytes of interest. To avoid this ambiguity, LC-MS and LC-NMR are combined. MS data should be obtained initially because with NMR, data collection in the stop-ﬂow mode can take hours or days, depending on the complexity of the structure and the amount of sample. This is why it is preferable to designate this operation as LC-MS-NMR rather than LC-NMR-MS or LC-NMR/MS. Since MS is considerably more sensitive than NMR, a splitter is incorpo- rated after the HPLC to direct the sample to the MS and NMR units sepa- rately. In the example below, the MS used in these studies is a classic LCQ instrument (ThermoFinnigan, CA). A custom-made splitter was used with a splitting ratio of 1/100 (AcurateTM, LC Packings, CA). It was designed to deliver 1% of the sample initially to the MS and the balance 20 seconds later to the NMR. With a ﬂow rate of 1 mL/min, the ﬁnal ﬂow rate going to the NMR will be 0.990 mL/min, and the ﬁnal ﬂow rate going to the MS will be 0.010 mL/min. Electrospray is the only source of ionization that will work with such low ﬂow rate (10 µL/min) in LCQ. Figure 20-1 depicts the scheme of the LC-MS-NMR system used in the example for this chapter. The technical con- siderations of LC-MS-NMR are the same as LC-NMR (see Section 20.3) plus the effect of using deuterated solvents for the MS of the LC-MS-NMR.
  17. LC-MS-NMR (OR LC-NMR-MS OR LC-NMR/MS) 917 For the last 4–5 years, the LC-NMR-MS system has been commercially available only for the Bruker NMR instruments. For the Varian NMR instru- ments, the system has recently become available. The work presented here has been carried out by the author using a custom design of the LC-MS-NMR system on a Varian NMR instrument as explained above. The Use of Deuterated Solvents. Another consideration for the LC-MS-NMR is the use of deuterated solvents needed for NMR. Analytes with exchangeable or “active” hydrogens can exchange (i.e., equilibrate) with deuterium (2H) at different rates. The analyst should be alert to this possibil- ity because it could result in the appearance of several closely spaced molec- ular ions with pseudo-molecular ions increased, depending on the number of exchangeable hydrogens being deuterated. If the compound of interest exchanges all the active hydrogens for deuteriums, the pseudo-molecular mol- ecular ion will be [M + 2H]+ or [M − 2H]− in positive or negative mode, respec- tively, where M is the molecular weight with all the exchangeable hydrogens deuterated. When buffers or other compatible solvents for MS are needed, it is recommendable to use deuterated buffers to avoid the suppression of addi- tional solvent lines in the NMR spectra (see Section 20.4.2 Modes of Operation for LC-MS-NMR As mentioned in the section of modes of operation for LC-NMR (Section 20.3.2), with the use of shielded cryomagnets, the location of the MS instru- ment will follow the same rule as for the HPLC. The most common modes of operation for LC-MS-NMR are on-ﬂow and stop-ﬂow. With stop-ﬂow, the MS instrument can also be used to stop the ﬂow on the chromatographic peak of interest that is to be analyzed by NMR. These two modes are presented here with an example. In the loop collection mode, the MS of the LC-MS-NMR system may also monitor the trapping of the chromatographic peak inside the loop. In the last few years, there have been relatively few examples in the litera- ture dealing with the application of LC-MS-NMR in the pharmaceutical indus- try.The author of this chapter has been interested in evaluating this technology to determine the pros and cons and to decide which cases are suitable for this application. To illustrate these modes of operation, a group of ﬂavonoids was chosen. Eight ﬂavonoids were selected to mimic a real complex mixture of compounds of similar structure that may present some ambiguity in their analysis that can be resolved by this hyphenated technique versus the indi- vidual nonhyphenated techniques. Figure 20-9 shows the eight ﬂavonoids (Aldrich) chosen for this example. These compounds have simple structures composed primarily of aromatic protons; some have low-ﬁeld aliphatic protons which would not be hidden under the NMR solvent peaks. Phenolic protons exchange rapidly with D2O, so that each compound will only show one pseudo-molecular ion. Flavonoids are natural products with important
  18. 918 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-9. Structures of eight ﬂavonoids used for the LC-MS-NMR technology development studies. (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) biological functions acting as antioxidants, free radical scavengers, and metal chelators and are important to the food industry. The chromatographic conditions are as follows: 35–50% B 0–10 min, 50–80% B 10–15 min; A, D2O; B, ACN; 1 mL/min, 287 nm, Discovery C18 column 15 cm × 4.6 cm, 5 µm. Stock solutions of each compound were prepared at 1 µg/µL in ACN : MeOH 1 : 1. A Varian Unity Inova 600-MHz NMR instrument (Palo Alto, CA) equipped with a 1H{13C/15N} pulse ﬁeld gradient triple resonance microﬂow NMR probe (ﬂow cell 60 µL; 3 mm O.D.) was used. Reversed-phase HPLC of the samples was carried out on a Varian modular HPLC system (a 9012 pump and a 9065 photodiode array UV detector). The Varian HPLC software was also equipped with the capability for programmable stop-ﬂow experiments based on UV peak detection. An LCQ classic MS instrument, mentioned in the previous section, was connected on-line to the HPLC-UV system of the LC-NMR by contact closure. The 2H resonance of the D2O was used for ﬁeld-frequency lock, and the spectra were centered on the ACN methyl resonance. Suppres- sion of resonances from HOD and methyl of ACN and its two 13C satellites was accomplished using a train of four selective WET pulses, each followed by a Bo gradient pulse and a composite 90-degree read pulse [41]. On-Flow. The on-ﬂow experiment was carried out on a mixture of eight ﬂavonoids (Figure 20-9) (20 µg each). MS and NMR data were obtained during this on-ﬂow experiment. The UV chromatogram is depicted in Figure 20-10. Table 20-1 and Figures 20-12A–D show the pseudo-molecular ion infor- mation [M − 2H]−, where M is the molecular weight with all the hydroxyl
  19. LC-MS-NMR (OR LC-NMR-MS OR LC-NMR/MS) 919 Figure 20-10. UV chromatogram of the on-ﬂow experiment injecting a mixture of eight ﬂavonoids (A: catechin + epicatechin; B: ﬁsetin; C: quercetin; D: apigenin; E: narin- genin; F: baicalein; G: galangin). (Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) TABLE 20-1. MS Data of Flavonoids in Negative Mode from the On-Flow Run in the LC-MS-NMR Peak Compound MWa Mb m/z, [M-2H]− A Catechin + Epicatechin 290 295 293 B Fisetin 286 290 288 C Quercetin 302 307 305 D Apigenin 270 273 271 E Naringenin 272 275 273 F Baicalein 270 273 271 G Galangin 270 273 271 a Molecular weight. b Molecular weight with all the hydroxyl protons deuterated. Source: Reprinted from reference 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier. protons deuterated, in negative mode for the eight ﬂavonoids obtained in this on-ﬂow experiment. Figure 20-11 is the 2D data set (time versus chemical shift) where each 1H NMR spectrum was acquired for 16 scans and decreas- ing the delays (total time per spectrum of 20 sec) to obtain more spectra during
  20. 920 LC-NMR OVERVIEW AND PHARMACEUTICAL APPLICATIONS Figure 20-11. 2D data set (time/min versus chemical shift/ppm) for the on-ﬂow exper- iment injecting a mixture of eight ﬂavonoids (A: catechin + epichatechin; B: ﬁsetin; C: quercetin; D: apigenin; E: naringenin; F: baicalein; G: galangin). (Reprinted from ref- erence 40, copyright 2003, with permission from Elsevier.) the chromatographic run and have more data points for the 1H NMR spectra of the different components of the chromatographic run. Figures 20-12A–D depict the 1H NMR traces of each ﬂavonoid extracted from the 2D data set. Notice that catechin and epicatechin co-elute under these conditions (peak A of the UV chromatogram of Figure 20-10). Distinguishing these diastereomers by MS alone is not feasible (Table 20-1 and Figure 20-12A) because both have the same pseudo-molecular ion information. Differences in the NMR spectra would be expected and are, in fact, observed (Figure 20-12A). The ability of LC-MS-NMR to distinguish signals from the individual diastereomers is illus- trated in Figures 20-11 and 20-12A. The protons H-2 and H-3 in catechin and H-2a and H-3a in epichatechin show different chemical shifts because of the slightly different local chemical environment around the chiral centers C-2 and C-3 for catechin and C-2a and C-3a for epicatechin as diasteromers. Those dif- ferences are enough for NMR to be able to distinguish well the diasteromers of organic molecules. The 1H NMR spectrum of naringenin in Figure 20-12C shows the ability of NMR to analyze a mixture of two components in differ- ent ratio (X indicates the signals coming from apigenin as the minor compo- nent of this chromatographic peak). In this particular case, NMR shows clearly the presence of the two components of the mixture and MS only shows the major component. Assignments can be easily carried out based on the differ- ent ratios of the NMR signals for both compounds. This is another advantage of NMR versus MS.
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