Penguin Feet: Avoiding Frostbite in the Antarctic

Penguin. (© Stan Shebs; Creative Commons)Penguins of the Antarctic endure winter temperatures that can range from as low as -70 °C (-94 °F) in the continent’s interior to -20 °C (-4 °F) along the coast. To stay warm, the birds rely on insulating layers of fat that lie beneath the skin of their bodies. The bottoms of their webbed feet, however, are in constant contact with snow and ice, and yet, amazingly, penguin feet remain free from frostbite.

The penguins’ secret to keeping their feet frostbite-free has to do with a combination of anatomical and physiological adaptations to cold. Anatomically, their feet and lower legs consist mainly of tendons, bone, and a thick layer of skin. The muscles that control the movement of the feet are found higher up on the leg, attached to bones lying beneath warm fat and feathers. This warmth is vital for the muscles to function and move the feet in the cold. In extremely cold conditions, penguins may stand on their heels, using their tails to balance in a resting position, which allows them to curl their toes up off the frozen ground.

Penguins of the cold Antarctic and sub-Antarctic also have feathered legs, which are believed to play an important role in conserving heat. In fact, black-footed penguins (Spheniscus demersus) and Humboldt’s penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), which live in warmer areas (Africa’s southwest coast and South America, respectively) have featherless legs.

In addition, the blood vessels running to and from the feet of penguins are organized to facilitate countercurrent heat exchange. Arteries carrying warm blood toward the feet run alongside veins carrying cool blood up from the feet. Some of the heat from the blood in the arteries is transferred to the blood in the veins. Thus, cool blood moving toward the heart is warmed, which is important for maintaining core body temperature. Warm blood moving toward the feet is cooled, which helps penguins keep their feet at temperatures just above freezing. This strategy minimizes the amount of energy needed for keeping their feet warm while also preventing frostbite.

Other birds have similarly mastered the art of heat conservation and frostbite prevention through countercurrent circulation in their legs and other unique adaptations. Sea gulls and ducks, for example, can stand in icy water with relatively no effect on core body temperature or their feet. The ptarmigan (Lagopus), a year-round resident of the Arctic, has feathers that completely cover its legs and toes. The ptarmigan’s distinct toe feathers are thought to provide some warmth, but perhaps more importantly they provide a snowshoe effect, preventing the bird from sinking into deep snow when foraging.A pair of Rock Ptarmigans (Lagopus muta). (Jan Frode Haugseth, Creative Commons)

Because the feet of penguins and other cold-adapted birds are so specialized for heat exchange, they also serve as important outlets for heat when their bodies become too warm. After vigorous swimming and on warm days, for example, blood vessels in the penguin’s feet dilate (expand), allowing blood flow to increase, which in turn facilitates heat loss from the body. Penguins that become too warm may lie on the ground with their feet in the air and flippers out to their sides to speed heat loss. Penguin flippers possess a countercurrent heat exchange mechanism similar to that of the legs, and hence their flippers, like feet, play an important role in thermoregulation.

But while penguin feet remain frostbite-free under bitterly cold conditions, birds such as rock pigeons (Colomba livia) and domestic chickens sometimes lose toes to frostbite. For pigeons in particular, multiple factors have been implicated in frostbite, including acclimatization to human-built environments, where window ledges, sunny rooftops, and vents offer warm havens in winter. Birds roosting in these areas may suffer from changes in thermoregulation that lead to inadequate blood flow to the feet. Thus, when the birds’ feet are again exposed to freezing temperatures, they are highly susceptible to frostbite.

This post was originally published in NaturePhiles on

Photo credits (from top): © Stan Shebs; Jan Frode Haugseth; both images Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.

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