Principles of physical science

Examples of the scientific method

It is nowadays taken for granted by scientists that every measurement is subject to error so that repetitions of apparently the same experiment give different results. In the intellectual climate of Galileo’s time, however, when logical syllogisms that admitted no gray area between right and wrong were the accepted means of deducing conclusions, his novel procedures were far from compelling. In judging his work one must remember that the conventions now accepted in reporting scientific results were adopted long after Galileo’s time. Thus, if, as is said, he stated as a fact that two objects dropped from the leaning tower of Pisa reached the ground together with not so much as a hand’s breadth between them, it need not be inferred that he performed the experiment himself or that, if he did, the result was quite so perfect. Some such experiment had indeed been performed a little earlier (1586) by the Flemish mathematician Simon Stevin, but Galileo idealized the result. A light ball and a heavy ball do not reach the ground together, nor is the difference between them always the same, for it is impossible to reproduce the ideal of dropping them exactly at the same instant. Nevertheless, Galileo was satisfied that it came closer to the truth to say that they fell together than that there was a significant difference between their rates. This idealization of imperfect experiments remains an essential scientific process, though nowadays it is considered proper to present (or at least have available for scrutiny) the primary observations, so that others may judge independently whether they are prepared to accept the author’s conclusion as to what would have been observed in an ideally conducted experiment.

The principles may be illustrated by repeating, with the advantage of modern instruments, an experiment such as Galileo himself performed—namely, that of measuring the time taken by a ball to roll different distances down a gently inclined channel. The following account is of a real experiment designed to show in a very simple example how the process of idealization proceeds, and how the preliminary conclusions may then be subjected to more searching test.

Lines equally spaced at 6 cm (2.4 inches) were scribed on a brass channel, and the ball was held at rest beside the highest line by means of a card. An electronic timer was started at the instant the card was removed, and the timer was stopped as the ball passed one of the other lines. Seven repetitions of each timing showed that the measurements typically spread over a range of 1/20 of a second, presumably because of human limitations. In such a case, where a measurement is subject to random error, the average of many repetitions gives an improved estimate of what the result would be if the source of random error were eliminated; the factor by which the estimate is improved is roughly the square root of the number of measurements. Moreover, the theory of errors attributable to the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss allows one to make a quantitative estimate of the reliability of the result, as expressed in the table by the conventional symbol ±. This does not mean that the first result in column 2 is guaranteed to lie between 0.671 and 0.685 but that, if this determination of the average of seven measurements were to be repeated many times, about two-thirds of the determinations would lie within these limits.

The representation of measurements by a graph, as in Figure 1, was not available to Galileo but was developed shortly after his time as a consequence of the work of the French mathematician-philosopher René Descartes. The points appear to lie close to a parabola, and the curve that is drawn is defined by the equation x = 12t2. The fit is not quite perfect, and it is worth trying to find a better formula. Since the operations of starting the timer when the card is removed to allow the ball to roll and stopping it as the ball passes a mark are different, there is a possibility that, in addition to random timing errors, a systematic error appears in each measured value of t; that is to say, each measurement t is perhaps to be interpreted as t + t0, where t0 is an as-yet-unknown constant timing error. If this is so, one might look to see whether the measured times were related to distance not by x = at2, where a is a constant, but by x = a(t + t0)2. This may also be tested graphically by first rewriting the equation as x = a(t + t0), which states that when the values of x are plotted against measured values of t they should lie on a straight line. Figure 2 verifies this prediction rather closely; the line does not pass through the origin but rather cuts the horizontal axis at −0.09 second. From this, one deduces that t0 = 0.09 second and that (t + 0.09)x should be the same for all the pairs of measurements given in the accompanying table . The third column shows that this is certainly the case. Indeed, the constancy is better than might have been expected in view of the estimated errors. This must be regarded as a statistical accident; it does not imply any greater assurance in the correctness of the formula than if the figures in the last column had ranged, as they might very well have done, between 0.311 and 0.315. One would be surprised if a repetition of the whole experiment again yielded so nearly constant a result.

A possible conclusion, then, is that for some reason—probably observational bias—the measured times underestimate by 0.09 second the real time t it takes a ball, starting from rest, to travel a distance x. If so, under ideal conditions x would be strictly proportional to t2. Further experiments, in which the channel is set at different but still gentle slopes, suggest that the general rule takes the form x = at2, with a proportional to the slope. This tentative idealization of the experimental measurements may need to be modified, or even discarded, in the light of further experiments. Now that it has been cast into mathematical form, however, it can be analyzed mathematically to reveal what consequences it implies. Also, this will suggest ways of testing it more searchingly.

From a graph such as Figure 1, which shows how x depends on t, one may deduce the instantaneous speed of the ball at any instant. This is the slope of the tangent drawn to the curve at the chosen value of t; at t = 0.6 second, for example, the tangent as drawn describes how x would be related to t for a ball moving at a constant speed of about 14 cm per second. The lower slope before this instant and the higher slope afterward indicate that the ball is steadily accelerating. One could draw tangents at various values of t and come to the conclusion that the instantaneous speed was roughly proportional to the time that had elapsed since the ball began to roll. This procedure, with its inevitable inaccuracies, is rendered unnecessary by applying elementary calculus to the supposed formula. The instantaneous speed v is the derivative of x with respect to t; if

The implication that the velocity is strictly proportional to elapsed time is that a graph of v against t would be a straight line through the origin. On any graph of these quantities, whether straight or not, the slope of the tangent at any point shows how velocity is changing with time at that instant; this is the instantaneous acceleration f. For a straight-line graph of v against t, the slope and therefore the acceleration are the same at all times. Expressed mathematically, f = dv/dt = d2x/dt2; in the present case, f takes the constant value 2a.

The preliminary conclusion, then, is that a ball rolling down a straight slope experiences constant acceleration and that the magnitude of the acceleration is proportional to the slope. It is now possible to test the validity of the conclusion by finding what it predicts for a different experimental arrangement. If possible, an experiment is set up that allows more accurate measurements than those leading to the preliminary inference. Such a test is provided by a ball rolling in a curved channel so that its centre traces out a circular arc of radius r, as in Figure 3. Provided the arc is shallow, the slope at a distance x from its lowest point is very close to x/r, so that acceleration of the ball toward the lowest point is proportional to x/r. Introducing c to represent the constant of proportionality, this is written as a differential equation

Here it is stated that, on a graph showing how x varies with t, the curvature d2x/dt2 is proportional to x and has the opposite sign, as illustrated in Figure 4. As the graph crosses the axis, x and therefore the curvature are zero, and the line is locally straight. This graph represents the oscillations of the ball between extremes of ±A after it has been released from x = A at t = 0. The solution of the differential equation of which the diagram is the graphic representation is

where ω, called the angular frequency, is written for (c/r). The ball takes time T = 2π/ω = 2π(r/c) to return to its original position of rest, after which the oscillation is repeated indefinitely or until friction brings the ball to rest.

According to this analysis, the period, T, is independent of the amplitude of the oscillation, and this rather unexpected prediction is one that may be stringently tested. Instead of letting the ball roll on a curved channel, the same path is more easily and exactly realized by making it the bob of a simple pendulum. To test that the period is independent of amplitude two pendulums may be made as nearly identical as possible, so that they keep in step when swinging with the same amplitude. They are then swung with different amplitudes. It requires considerable care to detect any difference in period unless one amplitude is large, when the period is slightly longer. An observation that very nearly agrees with prediction, but not quite, does not necessarily show the initial supposition to be mistaken. In this case, the differential equation that predicted exact constancy of period was itself an approximation. When it is reformulated with the true expression for the slope replacing x/r, the solution (which involves quite heavy mathematics) shows a variation of period with amplitude that has been rigorously verified. Far from being discredited, the tentative assumption has emerged with enhanced support.

Galileo’s law of acceleration, the physical basis of the expression 2π(r/c) for the period, is further strengthened by finding that T varies directly as the square root of r—i.e., the length of the pendulum.

In addition, such measurements allow the value of the constant c to be determined with a high degree of precision, and it is found to coincide with the acceleration g of a freely falling body. In fact, the formula for the period of small oscillations of a simple pendulum of length r, T = 2π(r/g), is at the heart of some of the most precise methods for measuring g. This would not have happened unless the scientific community had accepted Galileo’s description of the ideal behaviour and did not expect to be shaken in its belief by small deviations, so long as they could be understood as reflecting inevitable random discrepancies between the ideal and its experimental realization. The development of quantum mechanics in the first quarter of the 20th century was stimulated by the reluctant acceptance that this description systematically failed when applied to objects of atomic size. In this case, it was not a question, as with the variations of period, of translating the physical ideas into mathematics more precisely; the whole physical basis needed radical revision. Yet, the earlier ideas were not thrown out—they had been found to work well in far too many applications to be discarded. What emerged was a clearer understanding of the circumstances in which their absolute validity could safely be assumed.

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