Doctor of Philosophy

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Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as PhD, Ph.D., D.Phil., or DPhil[1] in English-speaking countries and originally as Dr.Philos. or Dr.Phil. (for the Latin philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae), is in many countries a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities. The academic level known as a doctorate of philosophy varies considerably according to the country, institution, and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates. A person who attains a doctorate of philosophy is automatically awarded the academic title of doctor.


In the context of academic degrees, the term philosophy does not refer solely to the field of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom". In most of Europe, all fields other than theology, law, and medicine were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of (liberal) arts was known as the faculty of philosophy. The doctorate of philosophy as it exists today thus originated as a doctorate in the liberal arts at the Frederick William University, becoming common in large parts of the world in the 20th century.[2]




This situation changed in the early 19th century through the educational reforms in Germany, most strongly embodied in the model of the University of Berlin, founded and controlled by the Prussian government in 1810. The arts faculty, which in Germany was labelled the faculty of philosophy, started demanding contributions to research, attested by a dissertation, for the award of their final degree, which was labelled Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated as PhD)—originally this was just the German equivalent of the Master of Arts degree. Whereas in the Middle Ages the arts faculty had a set curriculum, based upon the trivium and the quadrivium, by the 19th century it had come to house all the courses of study in subjects now commonly referred to as sciences and humanities.[6] Professors across the humanities and Sciences focused on their advanced research.[7] Practically all the funding came from the central government, and could be cut off if the professor was politically unacceptable.[8]

These reforms proved extremely successful, and fairly quickly the German universities started attracting foreign students, notably from the United States. The American students would go to Germany to obtain a PhD after having studied for a bachelor's degrees at an American college. So influential was this practice that it was imported to the United States, where in 1861 Yale University started granting the PhD degree to younger students who, after having obtained the bachelor's degree, had completed a prescribed course of graduate study and successfully defended a thesis or dissertation containing original research in science or in the humanities.[9] This research degree of doctor of philosophy was the first to be given in North America.[10] Even though in Germany the name of the doctorate was adapted accordingly after the philosophy faculty started being split up − e.g. Dr. rer. nat. for doctorates in the faculty of natural sciences − in most of the English-speaking world the name of Doctor of Philosophy was retained for research doctorates in all disciplines.

Great Britain[edit]

The PhD degree spread to Canada in 1900, and then to Great Britain in 1917.[11] In particular in the English universities the introduction of the research doctorate largely happened to compete with Germany for American students, but the initiative was first halted by internal criticism. In first instance, in particular at the University of London (from about 1860 onwards), the degrees of Doctor of Science (DSc) and Doctor of Literature (DLit) were introduced, which could be awarded upon presentation of a thesis containing original work.[citation needed] This involved no research training however, and did not have the desired effect of attracting foreign research students. Finally in 1917 the current degree of PhD was introduced, along the lines of the American and German model, and quickly became popular with both British and foreign students.[12] The slightly older degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Literature/Letters still exist in British universities; together with the much older degrees of Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Music (DMus), Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) and Doctor of Medicine (MD) they form the higher doctorates, but apart from honorary degrees they are only infrequently awarded.


United States[edit]

Advanced degrees were not a criteria for professorships at most colleges. That began to change in the mid-19th century, as the more ambitious scholars at major schools went to Germany for 1 to 3 years to obtain a PhD in the sciences or humanities.[14][15] Graduate schools slowly emerged in the United States. In 1861, Yale awarded the first three PhDs in North America to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur William Wright, and James Morris Whiton.[16] In the next two decades, NYU, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, and Princeton also began granting the degree. Major shifts toward graduate education were foretold by the opening of Clark University in 1887, which only offered graduate programs, and the Johns Hopkins University which focused on its PhD program. By the 1890s, Harvard, Columbia, Michigan And Wisconsin were building major graduate programs, whose alumni were hired by new research universities. By 1900, 300 PhD's were awarded annually, most of them by six universities. It was no longer necessary to study in Germany.[17][18]

In Germany, the national government funded the universities and the research programs of the leading professors. It was impossible for professors who were not approved by Berlin to train graduate students. In the United States, by contrast, private universities and state universities alike were independent of the federal government. Independence was high, but funding was low. The breakthrough came from private foundations, which began regularly supporting research in science and history; large corporations sometimes supported engineering programs. The postdoctoral fellowship was established by the Rockefeller Foundation in 1919. Meanwhile the leading universities, in cooperation with the learned societies, set up a network of scholarly journals. "Publish or perish" became the formula for faculty advancement in the research universities. After World War II, state universities across the country expanded greatly in undergraduate enrollment, and eagerly added research programs leading to masters or doctorate degrees. Their graduate faculties had to have a suitable record of publication and research grants. Late in the 20th century, "publish or perish" became increasingly important in colleges and smaller universities.[19]


The detailed requirements for award of a PhD degree vary throughout the world and even from school to school. It is usually required for the student to hold an Honours degree or a Master's Degree with high academic standing, in order to be considered for a PhD programme.[citation needed] In the US, Canada, India and Denmark, for example, many universities require coursework in addition to research for PhD degrees. In other countries (such as the UK) there is generally no such condition, though this varies by university and field.[20] Some individual universities or departments specify additional requirements for students not already in possession of a bachelor's degree or equivalent or higher. In order to submit a successful PhD admission application, copies of academic transcripts, letters of recommendation, a research proposal and a personal statement are required. Most universities also invite for a special interview before admission.


Some universities in the non-English-speaking world have begun adopting similar standards to those of the anglophone PhD degree for their research doctorates (see the Bologna process).[22]


In a "sandwich PhD" program, PhD candidates do not spend their entire study period at the same university. Instead, the PhD candidates spend the first and last periods of the program at their home universities, and in between conduct research at another institution or field research.[23] Occasionally a "sandwich PhD" will be awarded by two universities.[24]

Value and criticism[edit]


The motivation may also include increased salary, but in many cases this is not the result. Research by Casey suggests that, over all subjects, PhDs provide an earnings premium of 26%, but notes that master's degrees provide a premium of 23% already. While this is a small return to the individual (or even an overall deficit when tuition and lost earnings during training are accounted for), he claims there are significant benefits to society for the extra research training.[25] However, some research suggests that overqualified workers are often less satisfied and less productive at their jobs.[26] These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students often have to take on debt to undertake their degree.

A PhD is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies. As well, in some cases, the Executive Directors of some types of foundations may be expected to hold a PhD. In the article "The Peril of Credential Creep in Foreign Policy", it states that "[m]ore and more foreign policy professionals are required to hold master's or PhD degrees to compete in their field."[27] The article states that "If having a master's degree at the minimum is de rigueur in Washington's foreign policy world, it is no wonder many are starting to feel that the Ph.D. is a necessary escalation, another case of costly signaling to potential employers."[27] An article on the Australian public service states that "credentialism in the public service is seeing an dramatic increase in the number of graduate positions going to PhDs and masters degrees [are] becoming the base entry level qualification."[28]

The Economist published an article citing various criticisms against the state of PhDs.[26] Richard B. Freeman explains that, based on pre-2000 data, at most only 20% of life science PhD students end up getting jobs specifically in research. In Canada, where the overflow of PhD degree holders is not as severe, 80% of postdoctoral research fellows earn less than or equal to the average construction worker (roughly $38,000 a year) during their postdoctoral research tenure.[26] Only in the fastest developing countries (e.g. China or Brazil) is there a shortage of PhDs.




Degrees around the globe[edit]







Requirements for completion[edit]






PhD students are sometimes offered a scholarship to study for their PhD degree. The most common of these are the government-funded Australian Postgraduate Award (APA), which provides a living stipend to students of approximately A$25,800 a year (tax free). APAs are paid for a duration of 3 years, while a 6-month extension is usually possible upon citing delays out of the control of the student.[37] Some universities also fund a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount. Due to a continual increase in living costs, many PhD students are forced to live under the poverty line.[38] In addition to the more common APA and university scholarships, Australian students have other sources of scholarship funding.



Requirements for completion[edit]










Requirements for completion[edit]





In Colombia, the PhD course admission may require a Master's degree (Magíster) in some universities, specially public universities. However, it could also be applied for a direct doctorate in specific cases, according to the jury's recommendations on the thesis proposal.


Most of postgraduate students in Colombia must finance their tuition fees by means of teaching assistant seats or research works. Some institutions such as Colciencias, Colfuturo and Icetex grant scholarships or provide awards in the form of forgivable loans [40]

Requirements for completion[edit]

After two or two and a half years it is expected the research work of the doctoral candidate to be submitted in the form of oral qualification, where suggestions and corrections about the research hypothesis and methodology, as well as on the course of the research work are performed. The PhD degree is only received after a successful defense of the candidate's thesis is performed (four or five years after the enrollment), and most of the times also requiring the most important results having been published in at least one peer-reviewed high impact international journal.


In Finland, the degree of filosofian tohtori (abbreviated FT) is awarded by traditional universities, such as University of Helsinki. A Master's degree is required, and the doctorate combines approximately 4–5 years of research (amounting to 3-5 scientific articles, some of which must be first-author) and 60 ECTS points of studies.[41] Other universities such as Aalto University award degrees such as tekniikan tohtori (TkT, engineering), taiteen tohtori (TaT, art), etc., which are translated in English to Doctor of Science (D.Sc.), and they are formally equivalent. The licentiate (filosofian lisensiaatti or FL) requires only 2–3 years of research, and is sometimes done before a FT.









In India, generally a Master's degree is required to gain admission to a doctoral program. Direct admission to a Ph.D. programme after bachelors is also offered by the IITs, the NITs and the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research. In some subjects, doing a Masters in Philosophy (M.Phil.) is a prerequisite to starting a PhD. For funding/fellowship, it is required to qualify for the National Eligibility Test for Lectureship and Junior Research fellowship (NET for LS and JRF) [42] conducted by the federal research organisation Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and University Grants Commission (UGC).

In the last few years, there have been many changes in the rules relating to a Ph.D. in India .[citation needed] According to the new rules described by UGC, universities must have to conduct entrance exams in general ability and the selected subject. After clearing these tests, the shortlisted candidates need to appear for an interview by the available supervisor/guide. After successful completion of the course work, the students are required to give presentations of the research proposal (plan of work or synopsis) at the beginning, submit progress reports, give a pre-submission presentation and finally defend the thesis in an open defence viva-voce.



In Germany, admission to a doctoral program is generally on the basis of having an advanced degree (i.e., a master's degree, diplom, magister, or staatsexamen), mostly in a related field and having above-average grades. A candidate must also find a tenured professor from a university to serve as the formal advisor and supervisor (Betreuer) of the dissertation throughout the doctoral program called 'Promotion'. This supervisor is informally referred to as Doktorvater or Doktormutter, which literally translate as "doctor's father" or "doctor's mother", respectively. Due to the different college systems in Germany, only professors from universities (Univ.-Prof.) can serve as a doctor's supervisor and therefore, Universities of Applied Sciences (Fachhochschulen) are not entitled to award a doctorate.[43]


Depending on the university, doctoral students (Doktoranden) can be required to attend formal classes or lectures, some of them also including exams or other scientific assignments, in order to get one or more certificates of qualification (Qualifikationsnachweise). Depending on the doctoral regulations (Promotionsordnung) of the university and sometimes on the status of the doctoral student, such certificates may not be required. Usually, former students, research assistants or lecturers from the same university, may be spared from attending extra classes. Instead, under the tutelage of a single professor or advisory committee, they are expected to conduct independent research. In addition to doctoral studies, many doctoral candidates work as teaching assistants, research assistants, or lecturers.




In 2013, the average age of new PhD graduates was 32.5 years of age.[44]

Other nations[edit]


USSR, Russian Federation and former Soviet Republics[edit]

The degree of Candidate of Sciences (Russian: кандидат наук - Kandidat Nauk) was the first advanced research qualification in the former USSR and some Eastern Bloc countries (Czechoslovakia, Hungary) and is still awarded in some post-Soviet states (Russian Federation, Ukraine, Belarus and others). According to "Guidelines for the recognition of Russian qualifications in the other countries", in countries with a two-tier system of doctoral degrees (like Russian Federation, some post-Soviet states, Germany, Poland, Austria and Switzerland), should be considered for recognition at the level of the first doctoral degree, and in countries with only one doctoral degree, the degree of Kandidat Nauk should be considered for recognition as equivalent to this PhD degree. As most education systems only have one advanced research qualification granting doctoral degrees or equivalent qualifications (ISCED 2011,[45] par.270), the degree of Candidate of Sciences (Kandidat Nauk) of the former USSR counties is usually considered at the same level as the doctorate or PhD degrees of those countries.[46][47] According to the Joint Statement by the Permanent Conference of the Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder of the Federal Republic of Germany (Kultusministerkonferenz, KMK), German Rectors' Conference (HRK) and the Ministry of General and Professional Education of the Russian Federation, the degree of Kandidat Nauk is recognised in Germany at the level of the German degree of Doktor and the degree of Doktor Nauk at the level of German Habilitation.[48][49] The Russian degree of Kandidat Nauk is also officially recognised by the Government of the French Republic as equivalent to French doctorate.[50][51] In Ukraine, the Supreme Certifying Commission (official English self-denomination, also known as Higher Attestation Commission or "VAK", Ukrainian: Вища атестаційна комісія України), before it was merged into the Ministry of Education and Science, Youth and Sport of the Ukraine, would issue official international diploma supplements to holders of Ukrainian degrees of Kandydat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences, Ukrainian: кандидат наук)[52] stating that the degree was "comparable to the academic degree of Doctor of Philosophy, Ph.D.".[53][54][55] In several former Eastern Bloc countries (Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary), in which the Candidate of Sciences degrees used to be modeled after the Soviet ones, those degrees have been replaced with PhD or equivalent doctoral degrees, with the recognition of the essential equivalency between the old and the new degrees.[56][57]

According to the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011, for purposes of international educational statistics, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) belongs to ISCED level 8, or "doctoral or equivalent", together with PhD, DPhil, D.Lit, D.Sc, LL.D, Doctorate or similar. It is mentioned in the Russian version of ISCED 2011 (par.262) on the UNESCO website as an equivalent to PhD belonging to this level.[45] In the same way as PhD degrees awarded in many English-speaking countries, Kandidat Nauk (Candidate of Sciences) allows its holders to reach the level of the Docent.[55][56] The second doctorate[46] (or post-doctoral degree)[54][58] in some post-Soviet states called Doctor of Sciences (Russian: доктор наук - Doktor Nauk) is given as an example of second advanced research qualifications or higher doctorates in ISCED 2011[45] (par.270) and is similar to Habilitation in Germany, Poland and several other countries.[46][58][59] It constitutes a higher qualification compared to PhD as against the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) or Dublin Descriptors.[58]

About 88% of Russian students studying at state universities study at the expense of budget funds.[60] The average stipend in Russia (as of August 2011) is $430 a year ($35/month).[61] The average tuition fee in graduate school is $2,000 per year.[62]


The Dottorato di ricerca (research doctorate), abbreviated to "Dott. Ric." or "Ph.D.", is an academic title awarded at the end of a course of not less than three years, admission to which is based on entrance examinations and academic rankings in the Bachelor of Arts ("Laurea Triennale") and Master of Arts ("Laurea Magistrale" or "Laurea Specialistica"). While the standard PhD follows the Bologna process, the MD-PhD programme may be completed in two years.

The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program (PhD) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento".[63][64] Further, the research doctorates or PhD (Italian: Dottorato di ricerca) in Italy were introduced by law and Presidential Decree in 1980,[65][66] referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.[67][68]

Hence, the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy [69] (Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria),[70] also called Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza)[69][71] such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento" PhD title by law[64][72] and MIUR Decree.[73][74]






A doctoral degree (Pol. doktor), abbreviated to PhD (Pol. dr) is an advanced academic degree awarded by universities in most fields [75][76][77][78][79] as well as by the Polish Academy of Sciences,[80] regulated by the Polish parliament acts[81] and the government orders, in particular by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Poland. Commonly, students with a master's degree or equivalent are accepted to a doctoral entrance exam. The title of PhD is awarded to a scientist who 1) completed a minimum of 3 years of PhD studies (Pol. studia doktoranckie), 2) finished his/her theoretical and/or laboratory's scientific work, 3) passed all PhD examinations, 4) submitted his/her dissertation- a document presenting the author's research and findings,[82] 5) successfully defended his/her doctoral thesis. Typically, upon completion, the candidate undergoes an oral examination, always public, by his/her supervisory committee with expertise in the given discipline.



Scandinavian countries were among the early adopters of a degree known as a doctorate of philosophy, based upon the German model. Denmark and Norway both introduced the Dr.Phil(os). degree in 1824, replacing the Magister's degree as the highest degree, while Uppsala University of Sweden renamed its Magister's degree Filosofie Doktor (Fil.Dr.) in 1863. These degrees, however, became comparable to the German Habilitation rather than the doctorate, as Scandinavian countries did not have a separate Habilitation.[83] The degrees were uncommon and not a prerequisite for employment as a professor; rather, they were seen as distinctions similar to the British (higher) doctorates (D.Litt., D.Sc.). Denmark introduced an American-style PhD in 1989; it formally replaced the Licentiate's degree, and is considered a lower degree than the dr. phil. degree; officially, the PhD is not considered a doctorate, but unofficially, it is referred to as "the smaller doctorate", as opposed to the dr. phil., "the grand doctorate". Holders of a PhD degree are not entitled to style themselves as "Dr."[84] Currently Denmark distinctions between the dr. phil. as the proper doctorate and a higher degree than the PhD, whereas in Norway, the historically analogous dr. philos. degree is officially regarded as equivalent to the new PhD.

In Sweden, the doctorate of philosophy was introduced at Uppsala University's Faculty of Philosophy in 1863. In Sweden, the Latin term is officially translated into Swedish filosofie doktor and commonly abbreviated Fil.Dr. or FD. The degree represents the traditional Faculty of Philosophy and encompasses subjects from biology, physics and chemistry, to languages, history and social sciences, being the highest degree in these disciplines. Sweden currently has two research-level degrees, the Licentiate's degree, which is comparable to the Danish degree formerly known as the Licentiate's degree and now as the PhD, and the higher doctorate of philosophy, Filosofie Doktor. Some universities in Sweden also use the term teknologie doktor for doctorates awarded by institutes of technology (for doctorates in engineering or natural science related subjects such as materials science, molecular biology, computer science etc.). The Swedish term Fil.Dr. is often also used as a translation of corresponding degrees from e.g. Denmark and Norway.


Doctoral degrees are regulated by Real Decreto (Royal Decree in Spanish) R.D. 1393/2007,[85] and will be regulated R.D. 99/2011,[86] starting with the 2014/2015 academic year. They are granted by a university on behalf of the King, and its diploma has the force of a public document. The Ministry of Science keeps a National Registry of Theses called TESEO.[87]


  1. A 3-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for maximum 5 years. The student must write his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to science. If approved by her or his "thesis director (or directors)", the study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any doctor attending the public presentations is allowed to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he will receive the doctorate. Four marks can be granted: Unsatisfactory, Pass, Satisfactory, and Excellent. "Cum laude" (with all honours, in Latin) denomination can be added to the Excellent ones if all five members of the tribunal agree.[88]


The social standing of doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only PhD holders, Grandees and Dukes can take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.[89] All Doctor Degree holders are reciprocally recognized as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of November 14, 1994").[90]

United Kingdom[edit]



In the case of the University of Oxford, for example, "The one essential condition of being accepted ... is evidence of previous academic excellence, and of future potential."[91] The University of Oxford also abbreviates their Doctor of Philosophy degree as DPhil but in other respects is equivalent to a PhD. Commonly, students are first accepted on to an MPhil programme and may transfer to PhD regulations upon satisfactory progress and is referred to as APG (Advanced Postgraduate) status. This is typically done after one or two years, and the research work done may count towards the PhD degree. If a student fails to make satisfactory progress, he or she may be offered the opportunity to write up and submit for an MPhil degree as is the case at the The University of Manchester. In contrast, in other universities such as the University of Cambridge and University College London the MPhil is offered as a taught or stand-alone research degree.

In addition, PhD students from countries outside the EU/EFTA area are required to comply with the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS), which involves undergoing a security clearance process with the Foreign Office for certain courses in medicine, mathematics, engineering and material sciences.[92][93] This requirement was introduced in 2007 due to concerns about terrorism and weapons proliferation.[93]







Other doctorates[edit]


Recent years have seen the introduction of professional doctorates (D.Prof or ProfD), which are the same level as PhDs but more specific in their field.[98] These tend not to be solely academic, but combine academic research, a taught component and a professional qualification. These are most notably in the fields of engineering (Eng.D.), education (Ed.D.), educational psychology (D.Ed.Psych), occupational psychology (D.Occ Psych.) clinical psychology (D.Clin.Psych.), social work (DSW), nursing (DNP), public administration (DPA), business administration (DBA), and music (DMA). These typically have a more formal taught component consisting of smaller research projects, as well as a 40,000–60,000 word thesis component, which together are officially considered equivalent to a PhD degree.

United States[edit]

Further information: Doctorate § United States

In the United States, the PhD degree is the highest academic degree awarded by universities in most fields of study. U.S. students typically undergo a series of three phases in the course of their work toward the PhD degree. The first phase consists of coursework in the student's field of study and requires one to three years to complete. This often is followed by a preliminary, a comprehensive examination, or a series of cumulative examinations where the emphasis is on breadth rather than depth of knowledge. The student is often later required to pass oral and written examinations in the field of specialization within the discipline, and here, depth is emphasized. Some PhD programs require the candidate to successfully complete requirements in pedagogy (taking courses on higher level teaching and teaching undergraduate courses) or applied science (e.g., clinical practice and predoctoral clinical internship in PhD programs in clinical, counseling, or school psychology).[citation needed]



Depending on the specific field of study, completion of a PhD program usually takes four to eight years of study after the Bachelor's Degree; those students who begin a PhD program with a master's degree may complete their PhD degree a year or two sooner.[103] As PhD programs typically lack the formal structure of undergraduate education, there are significant individual differences in the time taken to complete the degree. Overall, 57% of students who begin a PhD program in the US will complete their degree within ten years, approximately 30% will drop out or be dismissed, and the remaining 13% of students will continue on past ten years.[104]


Models of supervision[edit]

At some universities, there may be training for those wishing to supervise PhD studies. There is now a lot of literature published for academics who wish to do this, such as Delamont, Atkinson and Parry (1997). Indeed, Dinham and Scott (2001) have argued that the worldwide growth in research students has been matched by increase in a number of what they term "how-to" texts for both students and supervisors, citing examples such as Pugh and Phillips (1987). These authors report empirical data on the benefits that a PhD candidate may gain if he or she publishes work, and note that PhD students are more likely to do this with adequate encouragement from their supervisors.


International PhD equivalent degrees[edit]

See also[edit]

Related terminology:

PhD/DPhil in popular culture:

Notes and references[edit]

  7. ^ R. Steven Turner, "The growth of professorial research in Prussia, 1818 to 1848: Causes and context." Historical studies in the physical sciences (1971): 137-182. in JSTOR
  8. ^ Timothy Lenoir, "Revolution from above: the role of the state in creating the German research system, 1810-1910." American Economic Review (1998): 22-27. in JSTOR
  14. ^ Carl Diehl, Americans and German scholarship, 1770-1870 (1978).
  15. ^ Henry Geitz, Jürgen Heideking, and Jurgen Herbst, eds. German influences on education in the United States to 1917 (1995).
  16. ^ Rosenberg, Ralph P. (1961). "The First American Doctor of Philosophy Degree: A Centennial Salute to Yale, 1861-1961". Journal of Higher Education 32 (7): 387–394. doi:10.2307/1978076. 
  17. ^ Roger L. Geiger, "Research, graduate education, and the ecology of American universities: An interpretive history." in Lester F. Goodchild and Harold S. Weschler, eds., The History of Higher Education (2nd ed, 1997), pp 273-89
  18. ^ Laurence R. Veysey, The emergence of the American university (1970) is the standard history; see pp 121-79.
  19. ^ Christopher Jencks and David Riesman. The academic revolution (1968) ch 1.
  20. ^ Indeed there is a 'new route' to the PhD in some UK institutions where in an individual may complete a series of postgraduate level taught courses as a part of the doctoral programme. This is called the 'New Route PhD', an integrated PhD that resembles somewhat the American PhD program. For a list of programmes and institutions offering the 'new route' see
  25. ^ "The economic contribution of PhDs", Journal of Higher Education Management and Policy, Volume 31, Issue 3, 2009.
  27. ^ a b Faris Alikhan, "The Peril of Credential Creep in Foreign Policy", U.S. News, October 2, 2013.
  28. ^ Julie Hare, "More PhDs enter public service", The Australian, April 3, 2014.
  30. ^ Anon (2011). "Fix the PhD: No longer a guaranteed ticket to an academic career, the PhD system needs a serious rethink". Nature 472 (7343): 259–260. doi:10.1038/472259b. PMID 21512527.  edit
  33. ^ "Paragraph 262 International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011". 
  34. ^ "Scholarships in Argentina". Retrieved 2010-04-28. 
  40. ^ "Colciencias Call for Scholarships in Colombia". Retrieved 2015-03-04. 
  41. ^
  43. ^ "Higher Education in Germany: Hochschulen vs. Universities". Quacquarelli Symonds Limited. Retrieved 2015-02-10. 
  44. ^ Bestandene Prüfungen, Statistisches Bundesamt, retrieved 2014-09-24 
  46. ^ a b c UNESCO-IIEP. Varghese, N. V.; Püttmann, V. Trends in diversification of post-secondary education (IIEP research papers). Paris: UNESCO-IIEP, 2011, p. 11–12.
  47. ^ Kouptsov, O., ed. "The Doctorate in the Europe Region". CEPES Studies in Higher Education. Bucharest: UNESCO, CEPES, 1994, p. 199, ISBN 92-9069-133-6,
  48. ^ "Gemeinsame Erklärungzur gegenseitigen akademischen Anerkennungvon tudienzeiten und Abschlüssen im Hochschulbereichsowie von Urkunden über russische wissenschaftliche Gradeund deutsche akademische Qualifikationen zwischen HRK/ KMK und dem Ministerium für Allgemeine und Berufliche Bildungder Russischen Föderation 1999.h
  54. ^ a b "Study on the organisation of doctoral programmes in EU neighbouring countries", Technopolis Group, GHK. Ukraine. December 2010.
  57. ^ Hrubos I. Hungarian National Report Women and Science: Review of the Situation in Hungary. November 15, 2000. Helsinki Group on Women and Science.
  60. ^ Статистика Российского образования
  62. ^ Молодому специалисту на заметку: образование/аспирантура
  63. ^ Student Guidebook - Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa
  65. ^ "Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28". 
  66. ^ "Presidential Decree No. 382 of 11 July 1980". 
  67. ^ Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28
  68. ^ Decreto Presidente Repubblica 11 luglio 1980, n. 382
  69. ^ a b Ricerca Italiana - Scuole di Eccellenza
  70. ^ Paul Bompard, "Italy's big six form network for elite", Times Higher Education (THE), 18 February 2000.
  71. ^ Scuole di Eccellenza
  73. ^ Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR) Decree
  74. ^ Università in Italia, Ministry of Education, Universities and Research (MIUR)
  75. ^ Medical Centre of Postgraduate Education in Warsaw,
  76. ^ Over 600 years of Jagiellonian University in Cracow,
  77. ^ University of Warsaw ,
  78. ^ Cracow University of Technology ,
  79. ^ Warsaw University of Technology,
  80. ^ Polish Academy of Science ,
  81. ^ Sejm of the Republic of Poland,
  82. ^ Exemplary results of a laboratory studies – publication,
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  • Feibelman, Peter J. A PhD Is Not Enough!: A Guide to Survival in Science (2011) excerpt
  • Geiger, Roger L. To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900–1940. (Oxford University Press, 1986).
  • Geiger, Roger L. Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (2001).
  • Mewburn, Inger. How To Tame Your PhD (2012) excerpt
  • Petre, Marian. The Unwritten Rules Of Phd Research (2010) excerpt
  • Phillips, E. & Pugh, D.S. How to get a PhD : managing the peaks and troughs of research. Milton Keynes: Open University Press 1987. ISBN 0-335-15537-5
  • Wilkinson, D. (2005) The essential guide to postgraduate study London : SAGE ISBN 1-4129-0062-X (hbk.)
  • Wisker, G. (2005) The Good Supervisor: Supervising Postgraduate and Undergraduate Research for Doctoral Theses and Dissertations Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-0395-6.

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