﻿ Constitution : définition de Constitution et synonymes de Constitution (anglais)

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définition - Constitution

constitution (n.)

1.the act of forming or establishing something"the constitution of a PTA group last year" "it was the establishment of his reputation" "he still remembers the organization of the club"

2.the way in which someone or something is composed

3.law determining the fundamental political principles of a government

Constitution (n.)



3.(MeSH)The fundamental principles and laws adopted by an organization for the regulation and governing of its affairs.

Merriam Webster

ConstitutionCon`sti*tu"tion (kŏn`stĭ*tū"shŭn), n. [F. constitution, L. constitutio.]


The physical constitution of the sun. Sir J. Herschel.

3. The aggregate of all one's inherited physical qualities; the aggregate of the vital powers of an individual, with reference to ability to endure hardship, resist disease, etc.; as, a robust constitution.

Our constitutions have never been enfeebled by the vices or luxuries of the old world. Story.

4. The aggregate of mental qualities; temperament.

He defended himself with . . . less passion than was expected from his constitution. Clarendon.


Our constitution had begun to exist in times when statesmen were not much accustomed to frame exact definitions. Macaulay.

☞ In England the constitution is unwritten, and may be modified from time to time by act of Parliament. In the United States a constitution cannot ordinarily be modified, exept through such processes as the constitution itself ordains.

6. An authoritative ordinance, regulation or enactment; especially, one made by a Roman emperor, or one affecting ecclesiastical doctrine or discipline; as, the constitutions of Justinian.

The positive constitutions of our own churches. Hooker.

A constitution of Valentinian addressed to Olybrius, then prefect of Rome, for the regulation of the conduct of advocates. George Long.

Apostolic constitutions. See under Apostolic.

définition (complément)

voir la définition de Wikipedia

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synonymes - Constitution

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voir aussi


-1857 Constitution of Mexico • 1917 Constitution of Mexico • 1923 Constitution of Egypt • 1973 Constitution • 1973 Constitution of Bahrain • 1994 amendment of the Argentine Constitution • 1999 Constitution of Venezuela • 1999 Venezuela Constitution • 1999 Venezuelan Constitution • 2002 Constitution • 2002 Constitution of Bahrain • 26th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution • Amendment XXI to the Constitution • Amendments to the Constitution of Canada • American Constitution • American Constitution Society • An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States • Argentine Constitution • Argentine constitution • Arkansas Constitution • Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia • Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution • Article Five of the United States Constitution • Article Four of the United States Constitution • Article I of the U.S. Constitution • Article One of the United States Constitution • Article Six of the United States Constitution • Article Three of the United States Constitution • Article Two of the United States Constitution • Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland • Belarus Constitution • British referendum on the European Constitution • CONSTITUTION OF NEW YORK, 1777 • California Constitution • Canadian Constitution • China Constitution • Confederate States Constitution • Connecticut Constitution • Constitution Act • Constitution Act 1986 • Constitution Act, 1982 • Constitution Amendment, 1993 (New Brunswick) • Constitution Day (United States) • Constitution Day of the United States • Constitution Memorial Day • Constitution Party (United States) • Constitution Party National Convention • Constitution of 1782 • Constitution of 1793 • Constitution of 1795 • Constitution of Algeria • Constitution of Andorra • Constitution of Argentina • Constitution of Bahrain • Constitution of Bangladesh • Constitution of Belarus • Constitution of Canada • Constitution of Chile • Constitution of China • Constitution of Denmark • Constitution of East Germany • Constitution of Egypt • Constitution of Equatorial Guinea • Constitution of Florida • Constitution of Georgia • Constitution of Haiti • Constitution of Iceland • Constitution of Iraq • Constitution of Ireland • Constitution of Japan • Constitution of Lebanon • Constitution of New Jersey • Constitution of New Zealand • Constitution of Norway • Constitution of Singapore • Constitution of Sweden • Constitution of Turkey • Constitution of Vermont • Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo • Constitution of the Irish Free State • Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia • Constitution of the Maldives • Constitution of the Netherlands • Constitution of the People's Republic of China • Constitution of the Republic of Korea • Constitution of the State of Florida • Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution • Corsican Constitution • Croatia Constitution • DAR Constitution Hall • Delaware Constitution of 1776 • Delaware Constitution of 1792 • Delaware Constitution of 1831 • Delaware Constitution of 1897 • Dáil Constitution • Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution • European Constitution • Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution • First Amendment to the United States Constitution • Florida Constitution • Florida State Constitution • Florida's Constitution • Florida's State Constitution • Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland • Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Georgia (U.S. state) Constitution • Georgia Constitution • History of the Constitution of the United Kingdom • History of the Egyptian Constitution • Illinois Constitution • Irish Constitution • Kosmopoulos v. Constitution Insurance Co. of Canada • Leavenworth Constitution • List of political leaders who suspended the constitution • List of unsuccessful attempts to amend the U.S. Constitution • Living Constitution • Louisiana Constitution • Major League Baseball Constitution • Malaysian Federal Constitution • Massachusetts Constitution • Michigan Constitution • Minnesota Constitution • Minnesota State Constitution • Mississippi Constitution • Moral Constitution • NL Constitution • New Hampshire Constitution • New Jersey Constitution 1776 • New Jersey Constitution 1844 • New Jersey State Constitution • New Jersey State Constitution 1776 • New Jersey State Constitution 1844 • New York Constitution • Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Niue Constitution Act • North Carolina Constitution • Ohio Constitution • Preamble of the US Constitution • Preamble of the United States Constitution • Preamble of the United States constitution • Preamble to the U.S. Constitution • Provisional Constitution (John Brown) • Provisioning of the USS Constitution • R6V Constitution • Section 109 of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(i) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(xx) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(xxix) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(xxvi) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(xxxi) of the Australian Constitution • Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution • Section 52 of the Constitution Act, 1982 • Section Fifty-two of the Constitution Act, 1982 • Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982 • Seventeen-article constitution • Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution • Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution • Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Solonian Constitution • South Carolina Constitution • South Korean constitution • Spanish Constitution of 1978 • State Constitution of Florida • Swedish constitution of 1809 • Swiss Federal Constitution • THE ARGENTINIAN CONSTITUTION • Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • The Constitution is not a suicide pact • The Constitution of Man • The Constitution of the Republic of Turkey • The English Constitution • The Living Constitution • Third Amendment to the United States Constitution • Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland • Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe • Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-sixth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution • Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution • Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution • Ulster Constitution Defence Committee • Ulster Constitution Party • United Arab Republic 1958 Constitution • United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on the Constitution • Venezuelan constitution • World Constitution and Parliament Association

dictionnaire analogique

Constitution (n.)

constitution (n.)


action de faire exister, produire (fr)[Classe...]

create; bring into being; call into being[ClasseHyper.]

order; fix; put in order; put right[ClasseHyper.]

ranger (fr)[Classe]

construct; set up; knock up; build[ClasseParExt.]

(creation), (create; bring into being; call into being)[Thème]

(union; connexion; junction), (association), (adherent)[termes liés]

(territory), (colonization; colonisation; settlement)[termes liés]

(paper; journal; newspaper), (review)[termes liés]








change of state - arrange, draw up, set up, sort - initiate, pioneer - create from raw material, create from raw stuff - open, open up - administer, administrate, care, control, deal, govern, handle, manage, preside, regulate, run, steer - accede to, associate o.s. with, fall in, get together, go in with, join - create, make[Hyper.]

begin, commence, get, get/set to work, get down, set about, set out, start, start out, take to - begin, commence, lead off, start - start - initiate, originate, start - commence, embark on, proceed, set about, start, start up - start, take up - begin, start - begin, start - begin, start - constitution, creation, establishment, formation, foundation, founding, institution, organisation, organization, setting up - arrangement, handling, ordering, organisation, organization - organisation, organization - organiser, organizer, PDA, personal digital assistant, personal organiser, personal organizer - organisation, organization, system - arrangement, organisation, organization, system - administration, brass, establishment, governance, governing body, organisation, organization - coordinator - arranger, organiser, organizer - creation, foundation, founding, initiation, innovation, instauration, institution, introduction, origination - beginner, father, founder, founding father, incorporator, institutor - devising, fabrication, fashioning, making, modelling, shaping - intrigue, machination - organisation, organization - contriver, deviser, planner - preparative, preparatory, propaedeutic - formation, shaping - form - formation - cast, form, shape - maker, shaper - cast, mold, mould, stamp - foundation - unionisation, unionization - brotherhood, labor union, trades union, trade union, union - labor organizer, organiser, organizer - formation[Dérivé]

process, work, work on[Domaine]

finish, finishing - abolish, abrogate, do away with, get rid of, nullify, suppress, undo - disorganise, disorganize[Ant.]




bring into being, call into being, create[Nominalisation]

constitution (n.)




A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed.[1] These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is. When these principles are written down into a single collection or set of legal documents, those documents may be said to comprise a written constitution.

Constitutions concern different levels of organizations, from sovereign states to companies and unincorporated associations. A treaty which establishes an international organization is also its constitution, in that it would define how that organization is constituted. Within states, whether sovereign or federated, a constitution defines the principles upon which the state is based, the procedure in which laws are made and by whom. Some constitutions, especially written constitutions, also act as limiters of state power, by establishing lines which a state's rulers cannot cross, such as fundamental rights.

The Constitution of India is the longest written constitution of any sovereign country in the world,[2] containing 444 articles,[3] 12 schedules and 94 amendments, with 117,369 words in its English language version,[4] while the United States Constitution is the shortest written constitution, at 7 articles and 27 amendments.[5]



The term constitution comes through French from the Latin word constitutio, used for regulations and orders, such as the imperial enactments (constitutiones principis: edicta, mandata, decreta, rescripta).[6] Later, the term was widely used in canon law for an important determination, especially a decree issued by the Pope, now referred to as an apostolic constitution.

  General features

Generally, every modern written constitution confers specific powers to an organization or institutional entity, established upon the primary condition that it abides by the said constitution's limitations. According to Scott Gordon, a political organization is constitutional to the extent that it "contain[s] institutionalized mechanisms of power control for the protection of the interests and liberties of the citizenry, including those that may be in the minority."[7]



  History and development

  Early constitutions


  Detail from Hammurabi's stele shows him receiving the laws of Babylon from the seated sun deity.


  Later constitutions

  Diagram illustrating the classification of constitutions by Aristotle.







The Edicts of Ashoka established constitutional principles for the 3rd century BC Maurya king's rule in Ancient India.














Historians including Donald Grinde,[13] Bruce Johansen[14] and others[15] believe that the Iroquois constitution provided inspiration for the United States Constitution and in 1988 was recognised by a resolution in Congress.[16] The thesis is not considered credible.[12][17] Stanford University historian Jack N. Rakove stated that "The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois" and stated that there are ample European precedents to the democratic institutions of the United States.[18] Francis Jennings noted that the statement made by Benjamin Franklin frequently quoted by proponents of the thesis does not support for this idea as it is advocating for a union against these "ignorant savages" and called the idea "absurd".[19] Anthropologist Dean Snow stated that though Franklin's Albany Plan may have drawn some inspiration from the Iroquois League, there is little evidence that either the Plan or the Constitution drew substantially from this source and argues that "...such claims muddle and denigrate the subtle and remarkable features of Iroquois government. The two forms of government are distinctive and individually remarkable in conception."[20]






The Nomocanon of Saint Sava (Serbian: Zakonopravilo)[21][22][23] was the first Serbian constitution from 1219. This legal act was well developed. St. Sava's Nomocanon was the compilation of Civil law, based on Roman Law and Canon law, based on Ecumenical Councils and its basic purpose was to organize functioning of the young Serbian kingdom and the Serbian church. Saint Sava began the work on the Serbian Nomocanon in 1208 while being at Mount Athos, using The Nomocanon in Fourteen Titles, Synopsis of Stefan the Efesian, Nomocanon of John Scholasticus, Ecumenical Councils' documents, which he modified with the canonical commentaries of Aristinos and John Zonaras, local church meetings, rules of the Holy Fathers, the law of Moses, translation of Prohiron and the Byzantine emperors' Novellae (most were taken from Justinian's Novellae). The Nomocanon was completely new compilation of civil and canonical regulations, taken from the Byzantine sources, but completed and reformed by St. Sava to function properly in Serbia. Beside decrees that organized the life of church, there are various norms regarding civil life, most of them were taken from Prohiron. Legal transplants of Roman-Byzantine law became the basis of the Serbian medieval law. The essence of Zakonopravilo was based on Corpus Iuris Civilis.

Stefan Dušan, Emperor of Serbs and Greeks, enacted Dušan's Code (Serbian: Dušanov Zakonik)[24] in Serbia, in two state congresses: in 1349 in Skopje and in 1354 in Serres. It regulated all social spheres, so it was the second Serbian constitution, after St. Sava's Nomocanon (Zakonopravilo). The Code was based on Roman-Byzantine law. The legal transplanting is notable with the articles 171 and 172 of Dušan's Code, which regulated the juridical independence. They were taken from the Byzantine code Basilika (book VII, 1, 16-17).





  Mali Empire

In 1236, Sundiata Keita presented an oral constitution federating the Mali Empire, called the Kouroukan Fouga.


Meanwhile, around 1240, the Coptic Egyptian Christian writer, 'Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal, wrote the Fetha Negest in Arabic. 'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and Mosaic law, and partly from the former Byzantine codes. There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into Ge'ez and entered Ethiopia around 1450 in the reign of Zara Yaqob. Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with Sarsa Dengel beginning in 1563. The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor Haile Selassie I.





  Modern constitutions

  The Bendery Constitution by Hetman Pylyp Orlyk.


In 1639, the Colony of Connecticut adopted the Fundamental Orders, which is considered the first North American constitution, and is the basis for every new Connecticut constitution since, and is also the reason for Connecticut's nickname, "the Constitution State". England had two short-lived written Constitutions during Cromwellian rule, known as the Instrument of Government (1653), and Humble Petition and Advice (1657).

Agreements and Constitutions of Laws and Freedoms of the Zaporizian Host can be acknowledged as the first European constitution in a modern sense.[25] It was written in 1710 by Pylyp Orlyk, hetman of the Zaporozhian Host. This "Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk" (as it is widely known) was written to establish a free Zaporozhian-Ukrainian Republic, with the support of Charles XII of Sweden. It is notable in that it established a democratic standard for the separation of powers in government between the legislative, executive, and judiciary branches, well before the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws. This Constitution also limited the executive authority of the hetman, and established a democratically elected Cossack parliament called the General Council. However, Orlyk's project for an independent Ukrainian State never materialized, and his constitution, written in exile, never went into effect.

Other examples of early European constitutions were the Corsican Constitution of 1755 and the Swedish Constitution of 1772.


  Enlightenment constitutions



  May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). Polish King Stanisław August (left, in regal ermine-trimmed cloak), enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm deputies will swear to uphold the new Constitution; in background, Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the Constitution has just been adopted.

Next were the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Constitution of May 3, 1791,[27][28][29] and the French Constitution of September 3, 1791.

The Spanish Constitution of 1812 served as a model for other liberal constitutions of several South-European and Latin American nations like Portuguese Constitution of 1822, constitutions of various Italian states during Carbonari revolts (i.e. in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), or Mexican Constitution of 1824.[30] As a result of the Napoleonic Wars, the absolute monarchy of Denmark lost its personal possession of Norway to another absolute monarchy, Sweden. However the Norwegians managed to infuse a radically democratic and liberal constitution in 1814, adopting many facets from the American constitution and the revolutionary French ones; but maintaining a hereditary monarch limited by the constitution, like the Spanish one. The Serbian revolution initially led to a proclamation of a proto-constitution in 1811; the full-fledged Constitution of Serbia followed few decades later, in 1835.

  Principles of constitutional design


The Renaissance brought a series of political philosophers who wrote implied criticisms of the practices of monarchs and sought to identify principles of constitutional design that would be likely to yield more effective and just governance from their viewpoints. This began with revival of the Roman law of nations concept[32] and its application to the relations among nations, and they sought to establish customary "laws of war and peace"[33] to ameliorate wars and make them less likely. This led to considerations of what authority monarchs or other officials have and don't have, from where that authority derives, and the remedies for the abuse of such authority.[34]






  Governmental constitutions


  Key features




  Codified constitution

Most states in the world have codified constitutions.


States that have codified constitutions normally give the constitution supremacy over ordinary statute law. That is, if there is any conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared ultra vires by a court, and struck down as unconstitutional. In addition, exceptional procedures are often required to amend a constitution. These procedures may include: convocation of a special constituent assembly or constitutional convention, requiring a supermajority of legislators' votes, the consent of regional legislatures, a referendum process, and other procedures that make amending a constitution more difficult than passing a simple law.



  Uncodified constitution

As of 2010 at least three states have uncodified constitutions: Israel, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Uncodified constitutions (also known as unwritten constitutions) are the product of an "evolution" of laws and conventions over centuries. By contrast to codified constitutions, in the Westminster tradition that originated in England, uncodified constitutions include written sources: e.g. constitutional statutes enacted by the Parliament (House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, Northern Ireland Act 1998, Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act 1998, European Communities Act 1972 and Human Rights Act 1998); and also unwritten sources: constitutional conventions, observation of precedents, royal prerogatives, custom and tradition, such as always holding the General Election on Thursdays; together these constitute the British constitutional law. In the days of the British Empire, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council acted as the constitutional court for many of the British colonies such as Canada and Australia which had federal constitutions.

Elements of constitutional law in states with uncodified constitutions can be entrenched; for example, sections of the Electoral Act 1993 of New Zealand relating to the maximum term of parliament and how elections are held require a three-quarter majority in the House of Representatives or a simple majority in a referendum to be amended or repealed.

  Written versus unwritten; codified versus uncodified

The term written constitution is used to describe a constitution that is entirely written, which by definition includes every codified constitution; but not all constitutions based entirely on written documents are codified.

Some constitutions are largely, but not wholly, codified. For example, in the Constitution of Australia, most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document. The Constitution of Canada, which evolved from the British North America Acts until severed from nominal British control by the Canada Act 1982 (analogous to the Australia Act 1986), is a similar example. Canada's constitution consists of almost 30 different statutes

The terms written constitution and codified constitution are often used interchangeably, as are unwritten constitution and uncodified constitution, although this usage is technically inaccurate. Strictly speaking, unwritten constitution is never an accurate synonym for uncodified constitution, because all modern democratic constitutions mainly comprise written sources, even if they have no different legal status than ordinary statutes. Another, correct, term used is formal (or formal written) constitution, for example in the following context: "The United Kingdom has no formal [written] constitution" (which does not preclude a constitution based on documents but not codified).








  Absolutely unmodifiable articles




  Distribution of sovereignty





To some extent a group of states which do not constitute a federation as such may by treaties and accords give up parts of their sovereignty to a supranational entity. For example the countries comprising the European Union have agreed to abide by some Union-wide measures which restrict their absolute sovereignty in some ways, e.g., the use of the metric system of measurement instead of national units previously used.

  Separation of powers


  Lines of accountability



  State of emergency


  Façade constitutions


The constitution of the United States, being the first document of its type, necessarily had many unforeseen shortcomings which had to be patched through amendments, but has generally been honored and a powerful structure, and no dictatorship has been able to take hold; the constitution of Argentina written many years later in 1853 building on many years of experience of the US constitution was arguably a better document, but did not prevent a succession of dictatorial governments from ignoring it—a state of emergency was declared 52 times to bypass constitutional guarantees.[40]

  Constitutional courts




  See also

Judicial philosophies of constitutional interpretation (note: generally specific to United States constitutional law)


  2. ^ Pylee, M.V. (1997). India's Constitution. S. Chand & Co.. pp. 3. ISBN 81-219-0403-X. 
  3. ^ Sarkar, Siuli. Public Administration In India. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. p. 363. ISBN 978-81-203-3979-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=smahlYxg-8YC&pg=PA363. 
  4. ^ "Constitution of India". Ministry of Law and Justice of India. July, 2008. http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html. Retrieved 2008-12-17. 
  5. ^ "National Constitution Center". Independence Hall Association. http://www.ushistory.org/tour/tour_ncc.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-22. 
  6. ^ The historical and institutional context of Roman law, George Mousourakis, 2003, p. 243
  7. ^ Gordon, Scott (1999). Controlling the State: Constitutionalism from Ancient Athens to Today. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-674-16987-5. 
  8. ^ See:
    • Reuven Firestone, Jihād: the origin of holy war in Islam‎ (1999) p. 118;
    • "Muhammad", Encyclopedia of Islam Online
  14. ^ Johansen, Bruce E.; Grinde, Donald A. (1991). Exemplar of liberty: native America and the evolution of democracy. [Los Angeles]: American Indian Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles. ISBN 0-935626-35-2. 
  16. ^ "H. Con. Res. 331, October 21, 1988". United States Senate. http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/hconres331.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-23. 
  18. ^ Rakove, J (2005-11-07). "Did the Founding Fathers Really Get Many of Their Ideas of Liberty from the Iroquois?". George Mason University. http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html. Retrieved 2011-01-05. 
  21. ^ http://books.google.se/books?id=QDFVUDmAIqIC&pg=PA118
  22. ^ http://www.search.com/reference/Nomocanon
  23. ^ http://www.alanwatson.org/sr/petarzoric.pdf
  24. ^ http://www.dusanov-zakonik.com/indexe.html
  25. ^ Pylyp Orlyk Constitution, European commission for democracy through law (Venice Commission) The Constitutional Heritage of Europe. Montpellier, 22–23 November 1996.
  26. ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/134169/constitution
  27. ^ Blaustein, Albert (January 1993). Constitutions of the World. Fred B. Rothman & Company. ISBN 978-0-8377-0362-6. http://books.google.com/?id=2xCMVAFyGi8C&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15&dq=May+second+constitution+1791. 
  28. ^ Isaac Kramnick, Introduction, Madison, James (November 1987). The Federalist Papers. Penguin Classics. ISBN 0-14-044495-5. http://books.google.com/?id=WSzKOORzyQ4C&pg=PA13&lpg=PA13&dq=May+second+oldest+constitution. 
  30. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1973). A History of Spain and Portugal: Eighteenth Century to Franco. 2. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 432–433. ISBN 978-0-299-06270-5. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/spainport2.htm. "The Spanish pattern of conspiracy and revolt by liberal army officers ... was emulated in both Portugal and Italy. In the wake of Riego's successful rebellion, the first and only pronunciamiento in Italian history was carried out by liberal officers in the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The Spanish-style military conspiracy also helped to inspire the beginning of the Russian revolutionary movement with the revolt of the Decembrist army officers in 1825. Italian liberalism in 1820-1821 relied on junior officers and the provincial middle classes, essentially the same social base as in Spain. It even used a Hispanized political vocabulary, for it was led by giunte (juntas), appointed local capi politici (jefes políticos), used the terms of liberali and servili (emulating the Spanish word serviles applied to supporters of absolutism), and in the end talked of resisting by means of a guerrilla. For both Portuguese and Italian liberals of these years, the Spanish constitution of 1812 remained the standard document of reference." 
  31. ^ Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez
  32. ^ Relectiones, Franciscus de Victoria (lect. 1532, first pub. 1557).
  33. ^ The Law of War and Peace, Hugo Grotius (1625)
  34. ^ Vindiciae Contra Tyrannos (Defense of Liberty Against Tyrants), "Junius Brutus" (Orig. Fr. 1581, Eng. tr. 1622, 1688)
  35. ^ The American Republic: its Constitution, Tendencies, and Destiny, O. A. Brownson (1866)
  36. ^ Principles of Constitutional Design, Donald S. Lutz (2006) ISBN 0-521-86168-3
  37. ^ The Paradox of Self-Amendment, byPeter Suber (1990) ISBN 0-8204-1212-0
  38. ^ UK principle: no Parliament is bound by the acts of its predecessors
  39. ^ Honduran Constitution "Republic of Honduras: Political Constitution of 1982 through 2005 reforms; Article 374" (in Spanish). Political Database of the Americas (Georgetown University). http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Honduras/hond05.html Honduran Constitution 
  40. ^ State of emergency in Argentina and other Spanish-speaking countries (in Spanish)

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