Scientific Facts Of Pot


The Studies

Marijuana Fights:

Heart Disease
Liver Disease
Skin Allergies
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
Anxiety and Depression

and is also Neuroprotective and Causes Neurogenesis (brain cell growth)

Why is this scientific evidence any better than hearsay? Aren't these scientists always disagreeing anyway? It's all just fashion...
It is unfortunate that many laymen still have this horrific misunderstanding of science after graduating from grade school. Science is the pursuit of truth that lies outside of human interference, opinion and bias. Everything about science is designed to eliminate the adulteration of human perception. Is it perfect and without mistake? No, but it is tens of thousands of times more reliable than anything else. Humanity has not yet learned everything in the universe but with the help of science we are slowly making our way there. Wihtout the strict processes, examination and re-examination of data that is required for real science, we would be forever stuck in the dark ages ruled over by tyranny or anarchy. We would still be blundering in the dark and dying by the age of thirty. When I hear words like the question above uttered, I nearly want to weep for what it portends. Science as a community does it's best to find the truth and is sometimes wrong anyway. It's rare and usually quite a small thing but when we discover we are wrong we immediately change. Every single person in the scientific comunity would love to find where accepted science is wrong because of the pride and recognition that comes with such a discovery. Millions of people all diligently looking for any little corner where we might be wrong with great reward to be had if they find it. Consider the opposite: millions of people all trying to defend a concept's rightness with death being the punishment for mentioning a possible flaw.

What do each of these "studies" represent?
When a research department at some university wishes to conduct a study they must put together a very comprehensive plan for how it will be accomplished; what it will prove and how that information will be valuable. This proposal is then given to number of institutions with a vested interest in the advancement of knowledge and they will not just hand over a gigantic sum of money to a bunch of unprepared or unprofessional amatuers.
Each study below represents tens of thousands of dollars and untold man hours. Each study is a huge investment of passion and a reflection upon each of the researchers, but the pressure to perform has only just started once the grant has come through. If the results of the study are not published in a reputable peer-reviewed journal, all of the time and money is utterly wasted and thrown in the trash because without publication, the scientific community will reject any findings of the study. This kind of gigantic waste can lay waste to a research department and the careers of all the researchers involved. Needless to say, it is critical for the study to pass the peer-review process.

The peer-review process requirement of publication in a journal is put in place as a way for other professionals in the same area of science to review the processes undertaken by the study. These reviewers assure not only that there is not blatent twisting of facts but also that experimenter bias is accounted for and that pre-concieved notions can have not even an accidental effect on the outcome of the study. They also assure that the conclusions drawn from the data do not include anything presumtuous.

When only one study points to a particular new understanding it is a very significant consideration for being truth. When multiple studies point to the same thing, it is as close to absolute, factual, unbiased, immutable, truth as humanity is or will ever be capable of grasping.

Helpful notes for laymen to understand the below studies:
The brain has many different chemicals messages it passes between cells. When a chemical is sent, it is received by receptors. This is referred to as agonism. Some other chemicals can block the receptors so that the chemical signals cannot be received for a time. This is called antagonism.

When a specific receptor type is agonised repeatedly, the body reduces the number of receptors for that chemical so that the same amount of chemical has less effect. It is a sort of "I got it already!" mechanism and it is called down-regulation. When the body needs a cell to receive more of a certain signal it expresses more of that receptor on the cell so that the same amount of chemical message being sent has more of an effect and this is called up-regulation.

The down-regulation mechanism is familiar to most everyone as having "tolerance". For instance, if you have a large alcohol tolerance it is because the exposure to it has caused your body to down-regulate the chemical message receivers for the chemicals alcohol stimulates in the brain. Once the chemical stimulator (alcohol) is gone and chemical transmission levels drop to normal levels, the chemical signal that is being sent at the same strength as before is no longer received as strongly. Down-regulation is one component of addiction but is certainly not always negative and not always indicative of addiction.

For instance: Liver fibroids, which are the beginning stage of cirrhosis, are abnormal cells which express a larger than normal number of CB2 receptors. When these receptors are agonised (signalled) to some particular level, the cell enters a self-destruct state and dies. This is the mechanism by which cannabis cures the liver. CB1 agonism of nearby healthy cells is necessary however to cause cells to divide and replace the lost cells. Because CB1 causes cell growth, it also tells abnormal cells to grow and without CB2 there simultaneously to tell them to die, it could cause a worsening of the condition. Natural cannabis contains both CB1 and CB2 agonists but some studies may use synthetic chemicals which only ignorantly push one button without pushing the other.

All chemical systems within the body exibit cyclical balancing systems and tight inter-chemical relationships which are unfortunately ignored in some studies or unknown to the researchers at the time. This is an unfortunate side-effect of hyper-specialization of researchers. Recent inter-disciplinary efforts and examination of studies have begun to reveal the mechanisms behind what previously seemed conflicting information. For instance, in the case of the liver fibroids, the neurogenesis effect of CB1 could analagously show the purpose of CB1 in liver disease and its dependance upon CB2.

Further research notes for laymen and professionals:
In the search for medicines that are sponsored by pharmaceutical companies, it is an unfortunate fact that it is more beneficial for them to find a patch than a cure. One or more pills a day for the rest of your life is more profitable than a once a week treatment that ends in a month. To this end let me point out an obvious mechanism that is not purposeful: Short-sightedness and short-term fixes.

In the process of dealing with disease, the body must go through a process of increasing and decreasing chemicals. This means that there are some chemicals that increase others and there are some that decrease others. Without a balancing system the body would fly into an enless loop of trying to deal with an issue and never stop. Every system has a homeostasis which is meant to temporarily shift in one direction or another.
For instance: Chem1 increases release of chem2 and chem2 decreases the release of chem1. This is oversimplified because there are things such as thresholds which play a role in timing etc. The point I wish to exibit is that if a cell expresses additional receptors it may be a sign of disease that can be mistaken to be a cause of disease. This type of misunderstanding is seen throughout research and is a major cause of conflicting study results.

For instance: Expression of the 5ht2a receptor in the brain is a mild predictive factor in mental illness. Agonism of this receptor causes the patient to exibit more schizophrenic behaviors. Upon first examination it would seem that antagonism of this receptor would be the best course of action in a schizophrenic patient and this is typically the course suggested by researchers. However, agonism of this receptor also causes other natural corrective systems, such as oxytocin to begin working and eventually causes a chemical signal that causes a decrease in the release of natural 5ht2a agonists by the brain. Acute or chronic agonism of the receptor can also cause it to down-regulate.

Antagonism and down-regulation are functionally the same in the short term. If the receptors are blocked you receive less signal, if there are less receptors, you recieve less signal. Unfortunately, short-sightedness and quick-fix mentality can lead to un-intended side-effects. In the above example along with the temporary undesirable effects, there are a number of corrective systems that are kicked off by agonism of receptor. While it may be obvious to an inter-disciplinary researcher such as myself that stimulating the body to fix itself is better than ignorantly trying to directly meddle in the unknown, most hyper-specialized researchers are utterly ignorant of this principle.

Another example of this phenomenon is antacid dependance: We all are aware of the condition where people begin eating antacids by the handful and they continue to get worse but few are aware of why this happens. Excessive acid in the stomach is often caused by the body attempting to return to homeostasis. When the PH of the rest of the body is too alkaline, the stomach can create additional acid which can be absorbed and distributed into the rest of the body thereby lowering the PH to a normal level. Some antacids are pure alkaline. Upon taking this alkaline substance, the acid in the stomach is neutralized but, typically, there is more alkaline than the acid in the stomach so the antacid user imediately feels relief but compounds the process as they absorb extra alkalinity and cause the initial problem to become worse. So the cycle begins again. If they had instead toughed it out or even eaten more acidic foods, homeostasis would have returned and less acid would be produced by their stomach.

If you do your own research please keep these things in mind during the process


Heart Disease

General paper endocannabinoids have been proposed as novel possible hypotensive agents, and involved in acute myocardial infarction and cirrhosis. In addition, a protective role described in ischemia.
Cannabinoid system as a potential target for drug development in the treatment of cardiovascular disease.

Cardioprotective role of CB2
Involvement of cannabinoids in the cardioprotection induced by lipopolysaccharide.

cardioprotection against myocardial ischaemia by CB2
Endocannabinoids are implicated in the infarct size-reducing effect conferred by heat stress preconditioning in isolated rat hearts.


General paper mentioning posiive efects such as vasodilation, blood pressure, cardiac protectection, inhibition of endothelial inflammation
Cannabinoids and cardiovascular disease: the outlook for clinical treatments.Ashton JC, Smith PF.
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. john.ashton@stonebow.otago.ac.nz

Cannabinoid drugs exert their effects primarily through activation of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. Both CB1 and CB2 receptors have been implicated in a number of cardiovascular processes, including vasodilation, cardiac protection, modulation of the baroreceptor reflex in the control of systolic blood pressure, and inhibition of endothelial inflammation and the progress of atherosclerosis in a murine model. These effects are mainly mediated through central and peripheral nervous system CB1 receptors, vascular CB1 receptors and immune cell CB2 receptors. Relevant cellular effects include: the inhibition of neurotransmitter release in the nucleus tractus solitarius and in peripheral adrenergic neurons; regulation of NOS activity in vascular beds; inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell excitability; regulation of endothelial cell migration and proliferation; and effects on immune cell proliferation, activation, and inflammatory functions. We review the pre-clinical evidence for beneficial effects of cannabinoid drugs in a range of vascular and cardiovascular pathologies. We also discuss the clinically relevant potential of cannabinoids.

endocannabinoid 2-AG which elicits protective effects against myocardial infarction via CB1 cannabinoid http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16775503?
2-Arachidonylglycerol acting on CB1 cannabinoid receptors mediates delayed cardioprotection induced by nitric oxide in rat isolated hearts.Wagner JA, Abesser M, Harvey-White J, Ertl G.
Department of Internal Medicine 1, Center of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany. wagner_j@klinik.uni-wuerzburg.de



Heart Protection from oxygen shortage death
Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol protects cardiac cells from hypoxia via CB2 receptor activation and nitric oxide production.Shmist YA, Goncharov I, Eichler M, Shneyvays V, Isaac A, Vogel Z, Shainberg A.

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the major active component of marijuana, has a beneficial effect on the cardiovascular system during stress conditions, but the defence mechanism is still unclear. The present study was designed to investigate the central (CB1) and the peripheral (CB2) cannabinoid receptor expression in neonatal cardiomyoctes and possible function in the cardioprotection of THC from hypoxia. Pre-treatment of cardiomyocytes that were grown in vitro with 0.1 - 10 microM THC for 24 h prevented hypoxia-induced lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage and preserved the morphological distribution of alpha-sarcomeric actin. The antagonist for the CB2 (10 microM), but not CB1 receptor antagonist (10 microM) abolished the protective effect of THC. In agreement with these results using RT-PCR, it was shown that neonatal cardiac cells express CB2, but not CB1 receptors. Involvement of NO in the signal transduction pathway activated by THC through CB2 was examined. It was found that THC induces nitric oxide (NO) production by induction of NO synthase (iNOS) via CB2 receptors. L-NAME (NOS inhibitor, 100 microM) prevented the cardioprotection provided by THC. Taken together, our findings suggest that THC protects cardiac cells against hypoxia via CB2 receptor activation by induction of NO production. An NO mechanism occurs also in the classical pre-conditioning process; therefore, THC probably pre-trains the cardiomyocytes to hypoxic conditions.


Endocannabinoids acting at cannabinoid-1 receptors regulate cardiovascular function in hypertension.Bátkai S, Pacher P, Osei-Hyiaman D, Radaeva S, Liu J, Harvey-White J, Offertáler L, Mackie K, Rudd MA, Bukoski RD, Kunos G.
Laboratory of Physiologic Studies, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse & Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md 20892-8115, USA.

BACKGROUND: Endocannabinoids are novel lipid mediators with hypotensive and cardiodepressor activity. Here, we examined the possible role of the endocannabinergic system in cardiovascular regulation in hypertension. METHODS AND RESULTS: In spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), cannabinoid-1 receptor (CB1) antagonists increase blood pressure and left ventricular contractile performance. Conversely, preventing the degradation of the endocannabinoid anandamide by an inhibitor of fatty acid amidohydrolase reduces blood pressure, cardiac contractility, and vascular resistance to levels in normotensive rats, and these effects are prevented by CB1 antagonists. Similar changes are observed in 2 additional models of hypertension, whereas in normotensive control rats, the same parameters remain unaffected by any of these treatments. CB1 agonists lower blood pressure much more in SHR than in normotensive Wistar-Kyoto rats, and the expression of CB1 is increased in heart and aortic endothelium of SHR compared with Wistar-Kyoto rats. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that endocannabinoids tonically suppress cardiac contractility in hypertension and that enhancing the CB1-mediated cardiodepressor and vasodilator effects of endogenous anandamide by blocking its hydrolysis can normalize blood pressure. Targeting the endocannabinoid system offers novel therapeutic strategies in the treatment of hypertension.


[Increase of the heart arrhythmogenic resistance and decrease of the myocardial necrosis zone during activation of cannabinoid receptors][Article in Russian]

Krylatov AV, Bernatskaia NA, Maslov LN, Pertwee RG, Mechoulam R, Stefano GB, Sharaevskii MA, Sal'nikova OM.
Tomsk Institute of Cardiology, 111 Kievskaya St., 634050 Tomsk, Russia.

We have found that intravenous administration of cannabinoid receptor (CB) agonist HU-210 (0.05 mg/kg), increases cardiac resistance against arrhythmogenic effect of epinephrine, aconitine, coronary artery occlusion and reperfusion in rats. Pretreatment with CB2-receptor antagonist, SR144528 (1 mg/kg), completely abolished the antiarrhythmic effect of HU-210. However this effect of HU-210 was not attenuated by pretreatment with CB1-receptor antagonist, SR141716A (3 mg/kg). We also found that HU-210 (0.05 mg/kg) decreased the relationship between infarction size and area of ischemia. It is concluded that CB2 receptor stimulation promotes an increase in the cardiac resistance against arrhythmogenic influences and probably increases myocardial tolerance of both ischemic and reperfusion damages in rats.



Cannabinoids and cancer. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 2005


Cannabinoid receptor agonists are mitochondrial inhibitors: a unified hypothesis of how cannabinoids modulate mitochondrial function and induce cell death.Athanasiou A, Clarke AB, Turner AE, Kumaran NM, Vakilpour S, Smith PA, Bagiokou D, Bradshaw TD, Westwell AD, Fang L, Lobo DN, Constantinescu CS, Calabrese V, Loesch A, Alexander SP, Clothier RH, Kendall DA, Bates TE.
School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Nottingham, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham NG7 2UH, UK.

Time-lapse microscopy of human lung cancer (H460) cells showed that the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide (AEA), the phyto-cannabinoid Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and a synthetic cannabinoid HU 210 all caused morphological changes characteristic of apoptosis. Janus green assays of H460 cell viability showed that AEA and THC caused significant increases in OD 595 nm at lower concentrations (10-50 microM) and significant decreases at 100 microM, whilst HU 210 caused significant decreases at all concentrations. In rat heart mitochondria, all three ligands caused significant decreases in oxygen consumption and mitochondrial membrane potential. THC and HU 210 caused significant increases in mitochondrial hydrogen peroxide production, whereas AEA was without significant effect. All three ligands induced biphasic changes in either mitochondrial complex I activity and/or mitochondrial complex II-III activity. These data demonstrate that AEA, THC, and HU 210 are all able to cause changes in integrated mitochondrial function, directly, in the absence of cannabinoid receptors.




California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute, 475 Brannan St., Suite 220, San Francisco, CA 94107, USA. mcallis@sutterhealth.org

Normal tissue toxicity limits the efficacy of current treatment modalities for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). We evaluated the influence of cannabinoids on cell proliferation, death, and morphology of human GBM cell lines and in primary human glial cultures, the normal cells from which GBM tumors arise. The influence of a plant derived cannabinoid agonist, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol Delta(9)-THC), and a potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist, WIN 55,212-2, were compared using time lapse microscopy. We discovered that Delta(9)-THC decreases cell proliferation and increases cell death of human GBM cells more rapidly than WIN 55,212-2. Delta(9)-THC was also more potent at inhibiting the proliferation of GBM cells compared to WIN 55,212-2. The effects of Delta(9)-THC and WIN 55,212-2 on the GBM cells were partially the result of cannabinoid receptor activation. The same concentration of Delta(9)-THC that significantly inhibits proliferation and increases death of human GBM cells has no significant impact on human primary glial cultures. Evidence of selective efficacy with WIN 55,212-2 was also observed but the selectivity was less profound, and the synthetic agonist produced a greater disruption of normal cell morphology compared to Delta(9)-THC.


Cannabinoids and Cancer
Natalya M. Kogan

Marijuana has been used in medicine for millennia, but it was not until 1964 that ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol (?9-THC), its major psychoactive component, was isolated in pure form and its structure was elucidated. Shortly thereafter it was synthesized and became readily available. However, it took another decade until the first report on its antineoplastic activity appeared. In 1975, Munson discovered that cannabinoids suppress Lewis lung carcinoma cell growth. The mechanism of this action was shown to be inhibition of DNA synthesis. Antiproliferative action on some other cancer cells was also found. In spite of the promising results from these early studies, further investigations in this area were not reported until a few years ago, when almost simultaneously two groups initiated research on the antiproliferative effects of cannabinoids on cancer cells: Di Marzo's group found that cannabinoids inhibit breast cancer cell proliferation, and Guzman's group found that cannabinoids inhibit the growth of C6 glioma cell. Other groups also started work in this field, and today, a wide array of cancer cell lines that are affected is known, and some mechanisms involved have been elucidated.

Paola Massi, Angelo Vaccani, Stefania Ceruti, Arianna Colombo, Maria P. Abbracchio, and Daniela Parolaro
Department of Pharmacology, Chemotherapy and Toxicology (P.M., A.C.), and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmacy, and Center of Excellence for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Milan, Milan, Italy (S.C., M.P.A.); and Department of Structural and Functional Biology, Pharmacology Unit and Center of Neuroscience, University of Insubria, Busto Arsizio (Varese), Italy (A.V., D.P.)


The endocannabinoid system in cancer-Potential therapeutic target? Flygare J, Sander B.
Department of Laboratory Medicine, Divison of Pathology, F46, Karolinska Institutet and Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, SE 141 86 Stockholm, Sweden.

Endogenous arachidonic acid metabolites with properties similar to compounds of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus, the so-called endocannabinoids, have effects on various types of cancer. Although endocannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids may have pro-proliferative effects, predominantly inhibitory effects on tumor growth, angiogenesis, migration and metastasis have been described. Remarkably, these effects may be selective for the cancer cells, while normal cells and tissues are spared. Such apparent tumor cell selectivity makes the endocannabinoid system an attractive potential target for cancer therapy. In this review we discuss various means by which the endocannabinoid system may be targeted in cancer and the current knowledge considering the regulation of the endocannabinoid system in malignancy.

Cannabinoids for cancer treatment: progress and promise. Sarfaraz S, Adhami VM, Syed DN, Afaq F, Mukhtar H.
Chemoprevention Program, Paul P. Carbone Comprehensive Cancer Center and Department of Dermatology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA.



Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1.Ramer R, Hinz B.
Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology, University of Rostock, Schillingallee 70, Rostock D-18057, Germany.

BACKGROUND: Cannabinoids, in addition to having palliative benefits in cancer therapy, have been associated with anticarcinogenic effects. Although the antiproliferative activities of cannabinoids have been intensively investigated, little is known about their effects on tumor invasion. METHODS: Matrigel-coated and uncoated Boyden chambers were used to quantify invasiveness and migration, respectively, of human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells that had been treated with cannabinoids (the stable anandamide analog R(+)-methanandamide [MA] and the phytocannabinoid delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]) in the presence or absence of antagonists of the CB1 or CB2 cannabinoid receptors or of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) or inhibitors of p38 or p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunoblotting were used to assess the influence of cannabinoids on the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and endogenous tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs). The role of TIMP-1 in the anti-invasive action of cannabinoids was analyzed by transfecting HeLa, human cervical carcinoma (C33A), or human lung carcinoma cells (A549) cells with siRNA targeting TIMP-1. All statistical tests were two-sided. RESULTS: Without modifying migration, MA and THC caused a time- and concentration-dependent suppression of HeLa cell invasion through Matrigel that was accompanied by increased expression of TIMP-1. At the lowest concentrations tested, MA (0.1 microM) and THC (0.01 microM) led to a decrease in invasion (normalized to that observed with vehicle-treated cells) of 61.5% (95% CI = 38.7% to 84.3%, P < .001) and 68.1% (95% CI = 31.5% to 104.8%, P = .0039), respectively. The stimulation of TIMP-1 expression and suppression of cell invasion were reversed by pretreatment of cells with antagonists to CB1 or CB2 receptors, with inhibitors of MAPKs, or, in the case of MA, with an antagonist to TRPV1. Knockdown of cannabinoid-induced TIMP-1 expression by siRNA led to a reversal of the cannabinoid-elicited decrease in tumor cell invasiveness in HeLa, A549, and C33A cells. CONCLUSION: Increased expression of TIMP-1 mediates an anti-invasive effect of cannabinoids. Cannabinoids may therefore offer a therapeutic option in the treatment of highly invasive cancers.

Cannabinoids in pancreatic cancer: correlation with survival and pain. Michalski CW, Oti FE, Erkan M, Sauliunaite D, Bergmann F, Pacher P, Batkai S, Müller MW, Giese NA, Friess H, Kleeff J.
Department of General Surgery, Technische Universität Munich, Munich, Germany. christoph.michalski@gmx.de

Cannabinoids exert antiproliferative properties in a variety of malignant tumors, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). In our study, we quantitatively evaluated the immunoreactivity for cannabinoid-1 (CB1) and cannabinoid-2 (CB2) receptors as well as for the endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacyl glycerol lipase (MGLL). Furthermore, quantitative real-time RT-PCR for CB1, CB2, FAAH and MGLL in normal pancreas and pancreatic cancer tissues was performed. Levels of endocannabinoids were determined by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Immunoreactivity scores and QRT-PCR expression levels were correlated with the clinico-pathological (TNM, survival, pain) status of the patients. Evaluation of endocannabinoid levels revealed that these remained unchanged in PDAC compared to the normal pancreas. Patients with high CB1 receptor levels in enlarged nerves in PDAC had a lower combined pain score (intensity, frequency, duration; p = 0.012). There was a significant relationship between low CB1 receptor immunoreactivity or mRNA expression levels (p = 0.0011 and p = 0.026, respectively), or high FAAH and MGLL cancer cell immunoreactivity (p = 0.036 and p = 0.017, respectively) and longer survival of PDAC patients. These results are underlined by a significant correlation of high pain scores and increased survival (p = 0.0343). CB2 receptor immunoreactivity, CB2 receptor, FAAH and MGLL mRNA expression levels did not correlate with survival. Therefore, changes in the levels of endocannabinoid metabolizing enzymes and cannabinoid receptors on pancreatic cancer cells may affect prognosis and pain status of PDAC patients. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.


Estrogenic induction of cannabinoid CB1 receptor in human colon cancer cell lines. Notarnicola M, Messa C, Orlando A, Bifulco M, Laezza C, Gazzerro P, Caruso MG.
Laboratory of Biochemistry, National Institute for Digestive Diseases "S. de Bellis", Castellana Grotte (Bari), Italy.

Objective. Cannabinoids are a class of compounds that have the ability to activate two specific receptor subtypes, the cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. CB1 receptor is a G-protein-coupled receptor that is linked to the signal transduction pathways. The cumulative effects of this receptor have important implications in the control of cell survival and cell death having the potential to regulate tumor cell growth. In this connection, interest has been focused on factors such as sex steroid hormones, which regulate CB1 receptor expression. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of 17beta-estradiol exposure on the CB1 receptor gene and its protein expression in human primary tumor colon cancer cell lines, such as DLD-1, HT-29 and one lymph node metastatic cell line, SW620. Material and methods. CB1 gene expression was determined using quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in DLD-1, HT-29 and SW620 cells treated at different times and doses of 17beta-estradiol exposure. CB1 protein expression was detected by Western immunoblot. Results. 17beta-estradiol induced CB1 gene expression in all the human colon cancer cells studied. The early induction of CB1 receptor mRNA in DLD-1 and SW620 cells was mediated by the estrogen receptor because the pure estrogen antagonist, ICI 182,780, was able to counteract this effect. Estrogenic induction of the CB1 receptor was also detectable at protein level in all cell types tested. Conclusions. The CB1 receptor can be considered an estrogen-responsive gene in DLD-1, HT-29 and SW620 cells. Up-regulation of CB1 expression by 17beta-estradiol is a further mechanism of estrogens to control colon cancer proliferation.


A pilot clinical study of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme.Guzmán M, Duarte MJ, Blázquez C, Ravina J, Rosa MC, Galve-Roperh I, Sánchez C, Velasco G, González-Feria L.
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, School of Biology, Complutense University, Madrid 28040, Spain. mgp@bbm1.ucm.es



Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells.McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY.
California Pacific Medical Center, Research Institute, 475 Brannan Street, San Francisco, CA 94107, USA. mcallis@cpmcri.org


Anti-tumoral action of cannabinoids: involvement of sustained ceramide accumulation and extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation.Galve-Roperh I, Sánchez C, Cortés ML, del Pulgar TG, Izquierdo M, Guzmán M.



Cannabinoids induce apoptosis of pancreatic tumor cells via endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes.Carracedo A, Gironella M, Lorente M, Garcia S, Guzmán M, Velasco G, Iovanna JL.



Inhibition of glioma growth in vivo by selective activation of the CB(2) cannabinoid receptor.Sánchez C, de Ceballos ML, del Pulgar TG, Rueda D, Corbacho C, Velasco G, Galve-Roperh I, Huffman JW, Ramón y Cajal S, Guzmán M.

The development of new therapeutic strategies is essential for the management of gliomas, one of the most malignant forms of cancer. We have shown previously that the growth of the rat glioma C6 cell line is inhibited by psychoactive cannabinoids (I. Galve-Roperh et al., Nat. Med., 6: 313-319, 2000). These compounds act on the brain and some other organs through the widely expressed CB(1) receptor. By contrast, the other cannabinoid receptor subtype, the CB(2) receptor, shows a much more restricted distribution and is absent from normal brain. Here we show that local administration of the selective CB(2) agonist JWH-133 at 50 microg/day to Rag-2(-/-) mice induced a considerable regression of malignant tumors generated by inoculation of C6 glioma cells. The selective involvement of the CB(2) receptor in this action was evidenced by: (a) the prevention by the CB(2) antagonist SR144528 but not the CB(1) antagonist SR141716; (b) the down-regulation of the CB(2) receptor but not the CB(1) receptor in the tumors; and (c) the absence of typical CB(1)-mediated psychotropic side effects. Cannabinoid receptor expression was subsequently examined in biopsies from human astrocytomas. A full 70% (26 of 37) of the human astrocytomas analyzed expressed significant levels of cannabinoid receptors. Of interest, the extent of CB(2) receptor expression was directly related with tumor malignancy. In addition, the growth of grade IV human astrocytoma cells in Rag-2(-/-) mice was completely blocked by JWH-133 administration at 50 microg/day. Experiments carried out with C6 glioma cells in culture evidenced the internalization of the CB(2) but not the CB(1) receptor upon JWH-133 challenge and showed that selective activation of the CB(2) receptor signaled apoptosis via enhanced ceramide synthesis de novo. These results support a therapeutic approach for the treatment of malignant gliomas devoid of psychotropic side effects.

Special note: Most studies of cannabinoids in regard to diabetes are on the positive effects of CB1 antagonism and specifically on the positive effect of rimbonant, one particulare CB1 antagonist. Below ae the studies that show the positive efects of agonism instead. This is where interdisciplinary view is necessary to overcome the money-driven research impetus. Numerous studies show the tonic effect of cannabinoid agonism on the cells of the pancreas, the organ responsible for insulin production. Additionally, THC is fat soluable and is stored in fat. CB1 receptors are upregulated in the fat of obese subjects. Chronic administration of an agonist causes downregulation which acts as an analog of antagonism.

Cannabidiol lowers incidence of diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice.Weiss L, Zeira M, Reich S, Har-Noy M, Mechoulam R, Slavin S, Gallily R.
Hadassah University Hospital, Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation & Cancer Immunotherapy, POB 12000, Jerusalem, 91120, Israel.



Role of the endocannabinoid system in energy balance regulation and obesity.Cota D.
Department of Psychiatry, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.

The endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) is a neuromodulatory system recently recognized to have a role in the regulation of various aspects of eating behavior and energy balance through central and peripheral mechanisms. In the central nervous system, cannabinoid type 1 receptors and their endogenous ligands, the endocannabinoids, are involved in modulating food intake and motivation to consume palatable food. Moreover, the ECS is present in peripheral organs, such as liver, white adipose tissue, muscle, and pancreas, where it seems to be involved in the regulation of lipid and glucose homeostasis. Dysregulation of the ECS has been associated with the development of obesity and its sequelae, such as dyslipidemia and diabetes. Conversely, recent clinical trials have shown that cannabinoid type 1 receptor blockade may ameliorate these metabolic abnormalities. Although further investigation is needed to better define the actual mechanisms of action, pharmacologic approaches targeting the ECS may provide a novel, effective option for the management of obesity, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.

Remember that down-regulation via chronic administration is functionally the same but longer lasting than antagonism
Role of the endocannabinoid system in management of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular risk factors.Davis SN, Perkins JM.
Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, USA.

OBJECTIVE: To review the role of the endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) in the peripheral and central regulation of food intake, appetite, and energy storage and discuss the potential for the ECS to be an important target for lowering cardiovascular risk. METHODS: Materials used for this article were identified through a MEDLINE search of the pertinent literature (1975 to present), including English-language randomized controlled, prospective, cohort, review, and observational studies. We summarize the available experimental and clinical data. RESULTS: The ECS is composed of two 7-transmembrane G protein-coupled cannabinoid receptor subtypes, CB1 and CB2, endogenous cannabinoid ligands (anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol), and the enzymes that synthesize and break down the ligands. Understanding the role of the ECS in central and peripheral metabolic processes related to the regulation of food intake and energy balance as well as the endocrine role of excess adipose tissue, particularly visceral adipose tissue, and its promotion of global cardiometabolic risk has led to the development of pharmacologic agents with potential for blockade of CB1 receptors. In several studies, rimonabant (20 mg daily) demonstrated a favorable effect on various risk factors for cardiovascular disease, including dyslipidemia, abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, blood pressure, and measures of inflammation. CONCLUSION: The ECS has been shown to have a key role in the regulation of energy balance, and modulation of this system may affect multiple cardiometabolic risk factors. Clinical studies involving pharmacologic blockade of CB1 receptors in overweight patients with and without type 2 diabetes have demonstrated effective weight loss and improvements in several risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

After hyper-insulinization, in response lean individuals produce more cannabinoid preservatives (Higher FAAH results in more cannabinoids in tissue) but Obese people only do this when there is lots of insulin available during hyper-insulinization.
Insulin differentially modulates the peripheral endocannabinoid system in human subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue from lean and obese individuals.Murdolo G, Kempf K, Hammarstedt A, Herder C, Smith U, Jansson PA.
The Lundberg Laboratory for Diabetes Research, Center of Excellence for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research, Department of Molecular and Clinical Medicine/Diabetes, The Sahlgrenska Academy at Göteborg University, Göteborg, Sweden. gmurdolo@tiscalinet.it

Human obesity has been associated with a dysregulation of the peripheral and adipose tissue (AT) endocannabinoid system (ES). The aim of this study was to elucidate the acute in vivo effects of insulin on gene expression of the cannabinoid type 1 (CB-1) and type 2 (CB-2) receptors, as well as of the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) in the sc abdominal adipose tissue (SCAAT). Nine lean (L) and 9 obese (OB), but otherwise healthy males were studied in the fasting state and during a euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp (40 mU/m2 * min(-1)). SCAAT biopsies were obtained at baseline and after 270 min of i.v. maintained hyperinsulinemia. The basal SCAAT gene expression pattern revealed an upregulation of the FAAH in the OB (p=0.03 vs L), whereas similar CB-1 and CB-2 mRNA levels were seen. Following hyperinsulinemia, the FAAH mRNA levels significantly increased approximately 2-fold in the L (p=0.01 vs baseline) but not in the OB. In contrast, insulin failed to significantly change both the adipose CB-1 and CB-2 gene expression. Finally, the FAAH gene expression positively correlated with the fasting serum insulin concentration (r 0.66; p=0.01), whereas an inverse association with the whole-body glucose disposal (r -0.58; p<0.05) was seen. Taken together, these first time observations demonstrate that the ES-related genes in the SCAAT differentially respond to hyperinsulinemia in lean/insulin-sensitive and in obese/insulin-resistant individuals. We suggest that insulin may play a key role in the obesity-linked dysregulation of the adipose ES at the gene level.

Cannabinoids fix diabetic erectile dysfunction
Anandamide improves the impaired nitric oxide-mediated neurogenic relaxation of the corpus cavernosum in diabetic rats: involvement of cannabinoid CB1 and vanilloid VR1 receptors.Ghasemi M, Sadeghipour H, Dehpour AR.
Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences/University of Tehran, PO Box 13145-784, Tehran, Iran.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the ability of acute administration of the endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, in vitro to alter the nonadrenegic noncholinergic (NANC)-mediated relaxation of corpus cavernosum (CC) in diabetic rats and the possible role of nitric oxide (NO), as it is well known that erectile dysfunction (ED) affects 35-75% of men with diabetes mellitus and several studies have been conducted to find appropriate strategies for treating diabetes-induced ED. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Diabetes was induced in rats by streptozotocin administration and was maintained for 8 weeks. The CC were removed and isolated in organ baths for pharmacological studies. Agonist-evoked or electrical-field stimulation (EFS)-evoked smooth muscle tensions in CC strips from control and diabetic rats were measured. RESULTS: The neurogenic relaxation of phenylephrine (7.5 microm)-precontracted isolated CC strips was impaired in diabetic rats. Anandamide (0.3, 1 and 3 microm) enhanced the relaxant responses to EFS in diabetic CC strips in a dose-dependent manner. This effect was antagonized by the selective cannabinoid CB(1) receptor antagonist AM251 (1 microm) and the selective vanilloid receptor antagonist capsazepine (3 microm). Concurrent administration of partially effective doses of l-arginine (10 microm) and anandamide (0.3 microm) exerted a synergistic improvement in EFS-induced relaxation of diabetic CC strips (P < 0.001). The relaxant responses to the NO donor, sodium nitroprusside, were similar between diabetic and control groups. CONCLUSION; For the first time, we show that acute administration of anandamide, an endogenous cannabinoid, alone or combined with l-arginine can improve nitrergic nerve-mediated relaxation of the CC in diabetic rats. This effect was mediated by cannabinoid CB(1) and vanilloid VR(1) receptors within the CC.

CB1 agonism enhanced insulin and glucogon secretion, CB2 lowered glucose dependant insulin release.
Presence of functional cannabinoid receptors in human endocrine pancreas.Bermúdez-Silva FJ, Suárez J, Baixeras E, Cobo N, Bautista D, Cuesta-Muñoz AL, Fuentes E, Juan-Pico P, Castro MJ, Milman G, Mechoulam R, Nadal A, Rodr?­guez de Fonseca F.
Fundación IMABIS, Hospital Carlos Haya, Avenida Carlos Haya 82, 7a Planta, Pabellón A, 29010, Málaga, Spain, franciscoj.bermudez@fundacionimabis.org.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We examined the presence of functional cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1, CB2) in isolated human islets, phenotyped the cells producing cannabinoid receptors and analysed the actions of selective cannabinoid receptor agonists on insulin, glucagon and somatostatin secretion in vitro. We also described the localisation on islet cells of: (1) the endocannabinoid-producing enzymes N-acyl-phosphatidyl ethanolamine-hydrolysing phospholipase D and diacylglycerol lipase; and (2) the endocannabinoid-degrading enzymes fatty acid amidohydrolase and monoacyl glycerol lipase. METHODS: Real-time PCR, western blotting and immunocytochemistry were used to analyse the presence of endocannabinoid-related proteins and genes. Static secretion experiments were used to examine the effects of activating CB1 or CB2 on insulin, glucagon and somatostatin secretion and to measure changes in 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels within islets. Analyses were performed in isolated human islets and in paraffin-embedded sections of human pancreas. RESULTS: Human islets of Langerhans expressed CB1 and CB2 (also known as CNR1 and CNR2) mRNA and CB1 and CB2 proteins, and also the machinery involved in synthesis and degradation of 2-AG (the most abundant endocannabinoid, levels of which were modulated by glucose). Immunofluorescence revealed that CB1 was densely located in glucagon-secreting alpha cells and less so in insulin-secreting beta cells. CB2 was densely present in somatostatin-secreting delta cells, but absent in alpha and beta cells. In vitro experiments revealed that CB1 stimulation enhanced insulin and glucagon secretion, while CB2 agonism lowered glucose-dependent insulin secretion, showing these cannabinoid receptors to be functional. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Together, these results suggest a role for endogenous endocannabinoid signalling in regulation of endocrine secretion in the human pancreas.

Stops the immune system from attacking the pancreas
Examination of the immunosuppressive effect of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in streptozotocin-induced autoimmune diabetes.Li X, Kaminski NE, Fischer LJ.
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824, USA.

delta9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (delta9-THC) is capable of modulating a variety of immune responses, but has not been evaluated in models of immune-based diabetes. The objectives of the present study were: (a) to investigate the effect of delta9-THC in an established model of multiple low dose streptozotocin (MLDSTZ)-induced autoimmune diabetes; and (b) to determine the contribution of the immune response in the MLDSTZ model. CD-1 mice were treated with 40 mg/kg STZ for 5 days in the presence or absence of delta9-THC treatment. delta9-THC administered orally in corn oil at 150 mg/kg for 11 days attenuated, in a transient manner, the MLDSTZ-induced elevation in serum glucose and loss of pancreatic insulin. MLDSTZ-induced insulitis and increases in IFN-gamma, TNFalpha and IL-12 mRNA expression were all reduced on Day 11 by co-administration of delta9-THC. In separate studies, six doses of delta9-THC, given after completion of STZ treatment, was found equally effective in attenuating mice from MLDSTZ-induced diabetes. Studies performed using B6C3F1 mice showed moderate hyperglycemia and a significant reduction in pancreatic insulin by MLDSTZ in the absence of insulitis. In addition, MLDSTZ produced a less pronounced hyperglycemia compared to CD-1 mice that was not attenuated by delta9-THC. These results suggest that MLDSTZ can initiate direct beta-cell damage, thereby augmenting the destruction of beta-cells by the immune system. Moreover, these results indicate that delta9-THC is capable of attenuating the severity of the autoimmune response in this experimental model of autoimmune diabetes.


THC increased insulin production
Pancreatic islet arachidonic acid turnover and metabolism and insulin release in response to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol.Laychock SG, Hoffman JM, Meisel E, Bilgin S.
Isolated pancreatic islets from the rat secrete insulin in response to glucose or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). THC stimulated the basal release of insulin and also potentiated the secretory response to glucose. The exposure of control or glucose-stimulated islets to THC inhibited the incorporation of [14C]arachidonic acid (AA) into phospholipids. However, in islets prelabeled with [14C]AA, THC enhanced the glucose-induced loss of AA from phospholipids. The enhanced AA release from islet phospholipids in response to glucose and THC was accompanied by increased synthesis of 12-L-[5,6,8,9,11,12,14,15-3H(N)]-hydroxy-5,8,10,14-eicosatetraenoic acid (12-HETE) and prostaglandin E2. The lipoxygenase inhibitor 3-amino-1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)-2-pyrazoline hydrochloride (BW755C) inhibited 12-HETE synthesis and insulin release in glucose and THC-challenged islets; nordihydroguaiaretic acid also inhibited insulin release in THC-treated islets. In contrast, the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, indomethacin, stimulated insulin release. In homogenized islet preparations, THC inhibited acyl-CoA acyltransferase, while it stimulated phospholipase A2 activity. The stimulatory effects of THC on islet cell AA hydrolysis from phospholipids, lipoxygenase product formation, and secretion suggests that these biochemical sequelae in cell activation are important modulators of insulin release.

Role of cannabinoid CB2 receptors in glucose homeostasis in rats.Bermudez-Silva FJ, Sanchez-Vera I, Suárez J, Serrano A, Fuentes E, Juan-Pico P, Nadal A, Rodr?­guez de Fonseca F.
Fundación IMABIS, Hospital Carlos Haya, Málaga 29010, and Instituto de Bioingenier?­a, Universidad Miguel Hernández de Elche, Alicante, Spain. franciscoj.bermudez.exts@juntadeandalucia.es

Here we show that the activation of cannabinoid CB2 receptors improved glucose tolerance after a glucose load. Blockade of cannabinoid CB2 receptors counteracted this effect, leading to glucose intolerance. Since blockade of cannabinoid CB1 receptors mimics the actions of cannabinoid CB2 receptor agonists, we propose that the endocannabinoid system modulates glucose homeostasis through the coordinated actions of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors. We also describe the presence of both cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor immunoreactivity in rat pancreatic beta- and non-beta-cells, adding the endocrine pancreas to adipose tissue and the liver as potential sites for endocannabinoid regulation of glucose homeostasis.

to the keen eye, this study elucidates some of the reasons why there is confusion whether to agonize or antagonize
Regulation, function, and dysregulation of endocannabinoids in models of adipose and beta-pancreatic cells and in obesity and hyperglycemia.Matias I, Gonthier MP, Orlando P, Martiadis V, De Petrocellis L, Cervino C, Petrosino S, Hoareau L, Festy F, Pasquali R, Roche R, Maj M, Pagotto U, Monteleone P, Di Marzo V.
Endocannabinoid Research Group, Institute of Biomolecular Chemistry of the National Research Council, via Campi Flegrei 34, 80078 Pozzuoli (Naples), Italy.

CONTEXT: Cannabinoid CB(1) receptor blockade decreases weight and hyperinsulinemia in obese animals and humans in a way greatly independent from food intake. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to investigate the regulation and function of the endocannabinoid system in adipocytes and pancreatic beta-cells. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS: Mouse 3T3-F442A adipocytes and rat insulinoma RIN-m5F beta-cells, pancreas and fat from mice with diet-induced obesity, visceral and sc fat from patients with body mass index equal to or greater than 30 kg/m(2), and serum from normoglycemic and type 2 diabetes patients were studied. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Endocannabinoid enzyme and adipocyte protein expression, and endocannabinoid and insulin levels were measured. RESULTS: Endocannabinoids are present in adipocytes with levels peaking before differentiation, and in RIN-m5F beta-cells, where they are under the negative control of insulin. Chronic treatment of adipocytes with insulin is accompanied by permanently elevated endocannabinoid signaling, whereas culturing of RIN-m5F beta-cells in high glucose transforms insulin down-regulation of endocannabinoid levels into up-regulation. Epididymal fat and pancreas from mice with diet-induced obesity contain higher endocannabinoid levels than lean mice. Patients with obesity or hyperglycemia caused by type 2 diabetes exhibit higher concentrations of endocannabinoids in visceral fat or serum, respectively, than the corresponding controls. CB(1) receptor stimulation increases lipid droplets and decreases adiponectin expression in adipocytes, and it increases intracellular calcium and insulin release in RIN-m5F beta-cells kept in high glucose. CONCLUSIONS: Peripheral endocannabinoid overactivity might explain why CB(1) blockers cause weight-loss independent reduction of lipogenesis, of hypoadiponectinemia, and of hyperinsulinemia in obese animals and humans.


CB1/2  agonism treats pancreatic inflamation and cancer
Cannabinoids reduce markers of inflammation and fibrosis in pancreatic stellate cells.Michalski CW, Maier M, Erkan M, Sauliunaite D, Bergmann F, Pacher P, Batkai S, Giese NA, Giese T, Friess H, Kleeff J.
Department of Surgery, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany.

BACKGROUND: While cannabinoids have been shown to ameliorate liver fibrosis, their effects in chronic pancreatitis and on pancreatic stellate cells (PSC) are unknown. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The activity of the endocannabinoid system was evaluated in human chronic pancreatitis (CP) tissues. In vitro, effects of blockade and activation of cannabinoid receptors on pancreatic stellate cells were characterized. In CP, cannabinoid receptors were detected predominantly in areas with inflammatory changes, stellate cells and nerves. Levels of endocannabinoids were decreased compared with normal pancreas. Cannabinoid-receptor-1 antagonism effectuated a small PSC phenotype and a trend toward increased invasiveness. Activation of cannabinoid receptors, however, induced de-activation of PSC and dose-dependently inhibited growth and decreased IL-6 and MCP-1 secretion as well as fibronectin, collagen1 and alphaSMA levels. De-activation of PSC was partially reversible using a combination of cannabinoid-receptor-1 and -2 antagonists. Concomitantly, cannabinoid receptor activation specifically decreased invasiveness of PSC, MMP-2 secretion and led to changes in PSC phenotype accompanied by a reduction of intracellular stress fibres. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Augmentation of the endocannabinoid system via exogenously administered cannabinoid receptor agonists specifically induces a functionally and metabolically quiescent pancreatic stellate cell phenotype and may thus constitute an option to treat inflammation and fibrosis in chronic pancreatitis.


Cannabinoids kill pancreeatic tumors



Cannabinoids treat pancreatitis
Cannabinoids ameliorate pain and reduce disease pathology in cerulein-induced acute pancreatitis.Michalski CW, Laukert T, Sauliunaite D, Pacher P, Bergmann F, Agarwal N, Su Y, Giese T, Giese NA, Bátkai S, Friess H, Kuner R.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: The functional involvement of the endocannabinoid system in modulation of pancreatic inflammation, such as acute pancreatitis, has not been studied to date. Moreover, the therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in pancreatitis has not been addressed. METHODS: We quantified endocannabinoid levels and expression of cannabinoid receptors 1 and 2 (CB1 and CB2) in pancreas biopsies from patients and mice with acute pancreatitis. Functional studies were performed in mice using pharmacological interventions. Histological examination, serological, and molecular analyses (lipase, myeloperoxidase, cytokines, and chemokines) were performed to assess disease pathology and inflammation. Pain resulting from pancreatitis was studied as abdominal hypersensitivity to punctate von Frey stimuli. Behavioral analyses in the open-field, light-dark, and catalepsy tests were performed to judge cannabinoid-induced central side effects. RESULTS: Patients with acute pancreatitis showed an up-regulation of cannabinoid receptors and elevated levels of endocannabinoids in the pancreas. HU210, a synthetic agonist at CB1 and CB2, abolished abdominal pain associated with pancreatitis and also reduced inflammation and decreased tissue pathology in mice without producing central, adverse effects. Antagonists at CB1- and CB2-receptors were effective in reversing HU210-induced antinociception, whereas a combination of CB1- and CB2-antagonists was required to block the anti-inflammatory effects of HU210 in pancreatitis. CONCLUSIONS: In humans, acute pancreatitis is associated with up-regulation of ligands as well as receptors of the endocannabinoid system in the pancreas. Furthermore, our results suggest a therapeutic potential for cannabinoids in abolishing pain associated with acute pancreatitis and in partially reducing inflammation and disease pathology in the absence of adverse side effects.

Peripheral cannabinoid receptor, CB2, regulates bone mass.Ofek O, Karsak M, Leclerc N, Fogel M, Frenkel B, Wright K, Tam J, Attar-Namdar M, Kram V, Shohami E, Mechoulam R, Zimmer A, Bab I.
Bone Laboratory, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.


Ajulemic acid, a nonpsychoactive cannabinoid acid, suppresses osteoclastogenesis in mononuclear precursor cells and induces apoptosis in mature osteoclast-like cells.George KL, Saltman LH, Stein GS, Lian JB, Zurier RB.
Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester Massachusetts 01655, USA.


Cannabinoid receptor type 2 gene is associated with human osteoporosis.Karsak M, Cohen-Solal M, Freudenberg J, Ostertag A, Morieux C, Kornak U, Essig J, Erxlebe E, Bab I, Kubisch C, de Vernejoul MC, Zimmer A.
Department of Psychiatry, Life and Brain Center, University of Bonn, Germany.

Osteoporosis is one of the most common degenerative diseases. It is characterized by reduced bone mineral density (BMD) with an increased risk for bone fractures. There is a substantial genetic contribution to BMD, although the genetic factors involved in the pathogenesis of human osteoporosis are largely unknown. Mice with a targeted deletion of either the cannabinoid receptor type 1 (Cnr1) or type 2 (Cnr2) gene show an alteration of bone mass, and pharmacological modification of both receptors can regulate osteoclast activity and BMD. We therefore analyzed both genes in a systematic genetic association study in a human sample of postmenopausal osteoporosis patients and matched female controls. We found a significant association of single polymorphisms (P = 0.0014) and haplotypes (P = 0.0001) encompassing the CNR2 gene on human chromosome 1p36, whereas we found no convincing association for CNR1. These results demonstrate a role for the peripherally expressed CB2 receptor in the etiology of osteoporosis and provide an interesting novel therapeutical target for this severe and common disease.


A molecular link between the active component of marijuana and Alzheimer's disease pathology.Eubanks LM, Rogers CJ, Beuscher AE 4th, Koob GF, Olson AJ, Dickerson TJ, Janda KD.
Department of Chemistry and Immunology, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.


Cannabinoid CB2 receptors and fatty acid amide hydrolase are selectively overexpressed in neuritic plaque-associated glia in Alzheimer's disease brains.Benito C, Núñez E, Tolón RM, Carrier EJ, Rábano A, Hillard CJ, Romero J.
Laboratorio de Apoyo a la Investigación, Fundación Hospital Alcorcón, 28922 Alcorcón, Madrid, Spain.

The endocannabinoid system is still poorly understood. Recently, the basic elements that constitute it, i.e., membrane receptors, endogenous ligands, and mechanisms for termination of the signaling process, have been partially characterized. There is a considerable lack of information, however, concerning the distribution, concentration, and function of those components in the human body, particularly during pathological events. We have studied the status of some of the components of the endocannabinoid system, fatty acid amide hydrolase and cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, in postmortem brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease. Using specific polyclonal antibodies, we have performed immunohistochemical analysis in hippocampus and entorhinal cortex sections from brains of Alzheimer's disease patients. Our results show that both fatty acid amide hydrolase and cannabinoid CB2 receptors are abundantly and selectively expressed in neuritic plaque-associated astrocytes and microglia, respectively, whereas the expression of CB1 receptors remains unchanged. In addition, the hydrolase activity seems to be elevated in the plaques and surrounding areas. Thus, some elements of the endocannabinoid system may be postulated as possible modulators of the inflammatory response associated with this neurodegenerative process and as possible targets for new therapeutic approaches.

Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation.Ram?­rez BG, Blázquez C, Gómez del Pulgar T, Guzmán M, de Ceballos ML.
Neurodegeneration Group, Cajal Institute, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient?­ficas, 28002 Madrid, Spain.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by enhanced beta-amyloid peptide (betaA) deposition along with glial activation in senile plaques, selective neuronal loss, and cognitive deficits. Cannabinoids are neuroprotective agents against excitotoxicity in vitro and acute brain damage in vivo. This background prompted us to study the localization, expression, and function of cannabinoid receptors in AD and the possible protective role of cannabinoids after betaA treatment, both in vivo and in vitro. Here, we show that senile plaques in AD patients express cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, together with markers of microglial activation, and that CB1-positive neurons, present in high numbers in control cases, are greatly reduced in areas of microglial activation. In pharmacological experiments, we found that G-protein coupling and CB1 receptor protein expression are markedly decreased in AD brains. Additionally, in AD brains, protein nitration is increased, and, more specifically, CB1 and CB2 proteins show enhanced nitration. Intracerebroventricular administration of the synthetic cannabinoid WIN55,212-2 to rats prevent betaA-induced microglial activation, cognitive impairment, and loss of neuronal markers. Cannabinoids (HU-210, WIN55,212-2, and JWH-133) block betaA-induced activation of cultured microglial cells, as judged by mitochondrial activity, cell morphology, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha release; these effects are independent of the antioxidant action of cannabinoid compounds and are also exerted by a CB2-selective agonist. Moreover, cannabinoids abrogate microglia-mediated neurotoxicity after betaA addition to rat cortical cocultures. Our results indicate that cannabinoid receptors are important in the pathology of AD and that cannabinoids succeed in preventing the neurodegenerative process occurring in the disease.

Alzheimer's disease; taking the edge off with cannabinoids?Campbell VA, Gowran A.
Department of Physiology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland. vacmpbll@tcd.ie



Liver Disease
Fights liver disease via numerous actions
Endocannabinoids and liver disease--review.

Cures cirrhosis by combatting fibrosis, the cause of cirrhosis
Antifibrogenic role of the cannabinoid receptor CB2 in the liver.

Endocannabinoids and their implications for epilepsy.

Therapeutic potential of cannabinoids in CNS disease.

[See Neuroprotective for related studies]

Skin Allergies
Reduces inflamation and thereby treats skin allergies
Attenuation of allergic contact dermatitis through the endocannabinoid system.Karsak M, Gaffal E, Date R, Wang-Eckhardt L, Rehnelt J, Petrosino S, Starowicz K, Steuder R, Schlicker E, Cravatt B, Mechoulam R, Buettner R, Werner S, Di Marzo V, Tüting T, Zimmer A.
Department of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Germany.


A Cannabis allergy article

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
helps deal with bad memories

The endogenous cannabinoid system controls extinction of aversive memories.
Marsicano G, Wotjak CT, Azad SC, Bisogno T, Rammes G, Cascio MG, Hermann H, Tang J, Hofmann C, Zieglgänsberger W, Di Marzo V, Lutz B.
Molecular Genetics of Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Kraepelinstrasse 2-10, 80804 Munich, Germany.

Acquisition and storage of aversive memories is one of the basic principles of central nervous systems throughout the animal kingdom. In the absence of reinforcement, the resulting behavioural response will gradually diminish to be finally extinct. Despite the importance of extinction, its cellular mechanisms are largely unknown. The cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1) and endocannabinoids are present in memory-related brain areas and modulate memory. Here we show that the endogenous cannabinoid system has a central function in extinction of aversive memories. CB1-deficient mice showed strongly impaired short-term and long-term extinction in auditory fear-conditioning tests, with unaffected memory acquisition and consolidation. Treatment of wild-type mice with the CB1 antagonist SR141716A mimicked the phenotype of CB1-deficient mice, revealing that CB1 is required at the moment of memory extinction. Consistently, tone presentation during extinction trials resulted in elevated levels of endocannabinoids in the basolateral amygdala complex, a region known to control extinction of aversive memories. In the basolateral amygdala, endocannabinoids and CB1 were crucially involved in long-term depression of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)-mediated inhibitory currents. We propose that endocannabinoids facilitate extinction of aversive memories through their selective inhibitory effects on local inhibitory networks in the amygdala.

but doesn't affect good memories

Cannabinoid CB1 receptor is dispensable for memory extinction in an appetitively-motivated learning task.Hölter SM, Kallnik M, Wurst W, Marsicano G, Lutz B, Wotjak CT.
Max-Planck-Institut für Psychiatrie, AG Neuronale Plastizität/Mausverhalten, Kraepelinstr. 2, D-80804 München, Germany.

The interaction of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor with its endogenous ligands plays an essential role in extinction of aversive memories (Marsicano, G., Wotjak, C.T., Azad, S.C., Bisogno, T., Rammes, G., Cascio, M.G., Hermann, H., Tang, J., Hofmann, C., Zieglgansberger, W., Di, M., V, Lutz, B., 2002. The endogenous cannabinoid system controls extinction of aversive memories. Nature 418, 530-534). The present study tested the generality of this observation in respect to positively-reinforced memories. To this end, male cannabinoid CB1 receptor deficient mice (CB1R-/-) and their wild-type littermate controls (CB1R+/+) were trained in an appetitively-motivated operant conditioning task, in which food-deprived animals received a food reward on nose-poking into an illuminated hole. During training, CB1R-/- turned out to be less motivated to participate in the task. After further restriction of daily food consumption, however, CB1R-/- reached the same level of performance as CB1R+/+ as far as number of correct responses and errors of omission are concerned. The accuracy of performance served as a measure for the memory of the light-reward association and was stable at similarly high levels over a retention period of 9 days without additional training (97.6+/-0.5% vs. 97.0+/-0.9% correct responses). During subsequent extinction training, the positive reinforcement was omitted. As a consequence, both CB1R-/- and CB1R+/+ showed a similar decline in accuracy of performance and total number of correct responses, accompanied by an increase in errors of omission. These data demonstrate that the cannabinoid CB1 receptor is not essential for extinction of the stimulus-response association in an appetitively-motivated learning task.

Dysfunction of cannabinoid receptor gene implicated in ADHD and PTSD
Association of the cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1) with ADHD and post-traumatic stress disorder.Lu AT, Ogdie MN, Järvelin MR, Moilanen IK, Loo SK, McCracken JT, McGough JJ, Yang MH, Peltonen L, Nelson SF, Cantor RM, Smalley SL.
Department of Human Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, California.


Modulates stress response inflammation which is responsible for many forms of mental illness
Endocannabinoids in neuroimmunology and stress.Carrier EJ, Patel S, Hillard CJ.
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226, USA.

Two topics are presented in this review. In the first section, we review data regarding the effects of the endocannabinoids (eCBs) and cannabinoid receptors on neuroimmune function. The function of eCBs in the interaction between the immune system and the central nervous system (CNS) is of particular interest, since the CNS itself is a rich source of eCBs while being exquisitely sensitive to inflammation. There are several sites at which cannabinoids can influence neuroinflammation. Microglial cells express both CB receptors and make eCBs. Activation of CB receptors on these cells seems to promote migration and proliferation but to reduce activation to macrophages. In several neurodegenerative diseases, up-regulation of microglial CB2 receptors have been observed. It is our hypothesis that microglial CB receptor activity is anti-inflammatory and could be exploited to manipulate neuroinflammatory processes with a minimum of unwanted effects. The second topic discussed suggests that the eCB/CB1 receptor pair is involved in the responses of animals to acute, repeated and variable stress. The roles of this pair are complex and dependent upon previous stress, among other things. Dysfunctional responding to stress is a component of several human neuropsychiatric disorders, including anxiety and panic disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, premenstrual dysphoria and quite possibly, drug abuse. While it is too early to say with certainty, it is very possible that either inhibition or potentiation of endocannabinoid signaling will be an efficacious novel therapeutic approach to more than one human psychiatric disease.


Fear builds up without CB1
Differential response to acute and repeated stress in cannabinoid CB1 receptor knockout newborn and adult mice.Fride E, Suris R, Weidenfeld J, Mechoulam R.
Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Judea and Samaria, Ariel, Israel. fride@yosh.ac.il

Previous studies have suggested that the endocannabinoid CB1 receptor (ECBR) system is involved in stress. However, the nature of this association is complex. Here, we investigated the role of CB1 receptors in the response to stress by comparing the effects of various stress modalities in CB1-/- receptor deficient and wild-type mice, at adulthood and during early development. Response to acute stress was assayed by plasma corticosterone (CS) and adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), USVs and motor inhibition. The response to repeated stress was assessed by USVs and motor inhibition. Since repeated bell stress seemed to cause a cumulative fear in CB1 receptor knockout mice, these behavioral responses were also compared to those observed after a single severe stress (forced swimming). In wild-type, but not in CB1 receptor knockout mice, bell stress-induced elevations of ACTH and CS were significant. The first exposure to bell stress had no significant effect on USVs or mobility. Upon repeated exposures, significant suppression of USVs, together with behavioral inhibition, were observed in CB1 knockout but not in wild-type mice. Swim stress inhibited USVs in the knockout animals, and the profound motor inhibition displayed by all animals was greater and more prolonged in the CB1-/- mice. Since the knockout mice lack the CB1 receptor throughout pre- and postnatal life, the stress response in pups was also assayed (by separation-induced USVs). Wild-type pups displayed the characteristic developmental peak in USV emissions; it was completely lacking in knockout pups. We conclude that acutely, the absence of CB1 receptors reduces the neuroendocrine response and does not affect the behavioral response to moderate stress. However, upon repeated stress or acute severe stress, CB1 receptor deficiency causes persistent behavioral inhibition. Finally, the CB1 receptor plays a role in modulating the stress response from an early age. These observations suggest that CB1 receptors participate in the mediation of the stress response and that the absence of these receptors results in a greater vulnerability to stress. We suggest that the stress-induced endocrine and behavioral suppression in CB1 receptor deficient mice may serve as a model for some forms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Further, the role of CB1 receptors in coping with stress is a lifelong function. Finally, although equivalent research has not been performed in human infants, the postnatal suppression of the stress response in CB1 receptor knockout pups may have implications when cannabinoid-based therapy is considered for children.

Preventing breakdown of endocannabinoid caused faster learning and faster purposeful unlearning of tasks. Poor controls on secondary tests of THC conflict with other studies..
Inhibition of fatty-acid amide hydrolase accelerates acquisition and extinction rates in a spatial memory task.Varvel SA, Wise LE, Niyuhire F, Cravatt BF, Lichtman AH.
Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298-0613, USA.

Recent reports have demonstrated that disruption of CB(1) receptor signaling impairs extinction of learned responses in conditioned fear and Morris water maze paradigms. Here, we test the hypothesis that elevating brain levels of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide through either genetic deletion or pharmacological inhibition of its primary catabolic enzyme fatty-acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) will potentiate extinction in a fixed platform water maze task. FAAH (-/-) mice and mice treated with the FAAH inhibitor OL-135, did not display any memory impairment or motor disruption, but did exhibit a significant increase in the rate of extinction. Unexpectedly, FAAH-compromised mice also exhibited a significant increase in acquisition rate. The CB(1) receptor antagonist SR141716 (rimonabant) when given alone had no effects on acquisition, but disrupted extinction. Additionally, SR141716 blocked the effects of OL-135 on both acquisition and extinction. Collectively, these results indicate that endogenous anandamide plays a facilitatory role in extinction through a CB(1) receptor mechanism of action. In contrast, the primary psychoactive constituent of marijuana, Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, failed to affect extinction rates, suggesting that FAAH is a more effective target than a direct acting CB(1) receptor agonist in facilitating extinction. More generally, these findings suggest that FAAH inhibition represents a promising pharmacological approach to treat psychopathologies hallmarked by an inability to extinguish maladaptive behaviors, such as post-traumatic stress syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

The endocannabinoid system and extinction learning.Lutz B.
Department of Physiological Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany. blutz@uni-mainz.de

The endocannabinoid system has emerged as a versatile neuromodulatory system, implicated in a plethora of physiological and pathophysiological processes. Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1 receptor) and endocannabinoids are widely distributed in the brain. Their roles in learning and memory have been well documented, using rodents in various memory tests. Depending on the test, the endocannabinoid system is required in the acquisition and/or extinction of memory. In particular, the activation of CB1 receptor-mediated signaling is centrally involved in the facilitation of behavioral adaptation after the acquisition of aversive memories. As several human psychiatric disorders, such as phobia, generalized anxiety disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) appear to involve aberrant memory processing and impaired adaptation to changed environmental conditions, the hope has been fuelled that the endocannabinoid system might be a valuable therapeutic target for the treatment of these disorders. This review summarizes the current data on the role of the endocannabinoid system in the modulation of extinction learning.

Anxiety and Depression
Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic and depressant-like effects..


Cannabinoids elicit antidepressant-like behavior and activate serotonergic neurons through the medial prefrontal cortex.Bambico FR, Katz N, Debonnel G, Gobbi G.
Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada H3A 1A1.

Preclinical and clinical studies show that cannabis modulates mood and possesses antidepressant-like properties, mediated by the agonistic activity of cannabinoids on central CB1 receptors (CB1Rs). The action of CB1R agonists on the serotonin (5-HT) system, the major transmitter system involved in mood control and implicated in the mechanism of action of antidepressants, remains however poorly understood. In this study, we demonstrated that, at low doses, the CB1R agonist WIN55,212-2 [R(+)-[2,3-dihydro-5-methyl-3-[(morpholinyl)]pyrrolo[1,2,3-de]-1,4-benzoxazinyl]-(1-naphthalenyl) methanone mesylate] exerts potent antidepressant-like properties in the rat forced-swim test (FST). This effect is CB1R dependent because it was blocked by the CB1R antagonist rimonabant and is 5-HT mediated because it was abolished by pretreatment with the 5-HT-depleting agent parachlorophenylalanine. Then, using in vivo electrophysiology, we showed that low doses of WIN55,212-2 dose dependently enhanced dorsal raphe nucleus 5-HT neuronal activity through a CB1R-dependent mechanism. Conversely, high doses of WIN55,212-2 were ineffective in the FST and decreased 5-HT neuronal activity through a CB1R-independent mechanism. The CB1R agonist-induced enhancement of 5-HT neuronal activity was abolished by total or medial prefrontocortical, but not by lateral prefrontocortical, transection. Furthermore, 5-HT neuronal activity was enhanced by the local microinjection of WIN55,212-2 into the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (mPFCv) but not by the local microinjection of WIN55,212-2 into the lateral prefrontal cortex. Similarly, the microinjection of WIN55,212-2 into the mPFCv produced a CB1R-dependent antidepressant-like effect in the FST. These results demonstrate that CB1R agonists possess antidepressant-like properties and modulate 5-HT neuronal activity via the mPFCv.

Enhancement of endocannabinoid signaling and the pharmacotherapy of depression.Mangieri RA, Piomelli D.
Department of Pharmacology and Center for Drug Discovery, The University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.

Cannabinoids are well known modulators of mood and emotional behavior. Current research supports a role for endocannabinoid signaling in the treatment of depression. Changes in levels of the cannabinoid CB(1) receptor or the endogenous CB(1) receptor ligands, anandamide and 2-AG, are observed both in humans suffering from depression and in animal models of depression, and experimental manipulation of CB(1) receptor signaling has also been shown to affect emotional reactivity in rodents. Importantly, inhibitors of anandamide inactivation have demonstrated efficacy in enhancing stress-coping and mood-related behavior. This article will review these areas of research, highlighting the potential of endocannabinoid metabolism modulators as therapeutics for the treatment of depression.

A possible role for the endocannabinoid system in the neurobiology of depression.Serra G, Fratta W.
Dipartimento di Neuroscienze " B B Brodie " Universit?  di Cagliari Cittadella Universitaria 09042 Monserrato (Cagliari), Italy. wfratta@unica.it.



Local enhancement of cannabinoid CB1 receptor signalling in the dorsal hippocampus elicits an antidepressant-like effect.McLaughlin RJ, Hill MN, Morrish AC, Gorzalka BB.

Systemic administration of direct cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonists and inhibitors of the hydrolytic enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase have been shown to elicit antidepressant effects. Moreover, the endocannabinoid system in the hippocampus is sensitive to both chronic stress and antidepressant administration, suggesting a potential role of this system in emotional changes associated with these regimens. The aim of this study was to determine if cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the hippocampus modulate emotionality in rats as assessed via the forced swim test. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were bilaterally implanted with cannulae directed at the dentate gyrus of the dorsal hippocampus and subsequently received three infusions of either the cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist HU-210 (1 and 2.5 microg), the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 (0.5 and 1 microg), the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 (1 and 2.5 microg), or vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide) and were assessed in the forced swim test. Infusion of both doses of HU-210 resulted in a dramatic reduction in immobility and increase in swimming behaviour, indicative of an antidepressant response, which was partially reversed by coadministration of AM251. No effect of URB597 administration or any effect following the administration of AM251 alone was, however, observed. These data indicate that activation of CB1 receptors in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus results in an antidepressant-like response. Collectively, these data highlight the potential importance of changes in the hippocampal endocannabinoid system following stress or antidepressant treatment with respect to the manifestation and/or treatment of depression.

Neuroprotective and Neurogenesis

Cannabidiol prevents cerebral infarction. Stroke. 2005





The endocannabinoid system and neurogenesis in health and disease.Galve-Roperh I, Aguado T, Palazuelos J, Guzmán M.
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, School of Biology, José Antonio Novais sn, Complutense University, 28040 Madrid, Spain. igr@quim.ucm.es

The endocannabinoid system exerts an important neuromodulatory function in different brain areas and is also known to be involved in the regulation of neural cell fate. Thus, CB(1) cannabinoid receptors are neuroprotective in different models of brain injury, and their expression is altered in various neurodegenerative diseases. Recent findings have demonstrated the presence of a functional endocannabinoid system in neural progenitor cells that participates in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation. In this Research Update, the authors address the experimental evidence regarding the regulatory role of cannabinoids in neurogenesis and analyze them in the context of those pathological disorders in which cannabinoid function and altered neuronal or glial generation is most relevant, for example, stroke and multiple sclerosis.


(Knockout means it was genetically removed)
Defective adult neurogenesis in CB1 cannabinoid receptor knockout mice.Jin K, Xie L, Kim SH, Parmentier-Batteur S, Sun Y, Mao XO, Childs J, Greenberg DA.

Pharmacological studies suggest a role for CB1 cannabinoid receptors (CB1R) in regulating neurogenesis in the adult brain. To investigate this possibility, we measured neurogenesis by intraperitoneal injection of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), which labels newborn neurons, in wild-type and CB1R-knockout (CB1R-KO) mice. CB1R-KO mice showed reductions in the number of BrdU-labeled cells to approximately 50% of wild-type (WT) levels in dentate gyrus and subventricular zone (SVZ), suggesting that CB1R activation promotes neurogenesis. To test this further, WT mice were given the CB1R antagonist N-(piperidin-1-yl)-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboximide hydrochloride (SR141716A) before measuring neurogenesis with BrdU. SR141716A paradoxically increased the number of BrdU-labeled cells by approximately 50% in SVZ; another CB1R antagonist, 1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-5-(4-iodophenyl)-4-methyl-N-1-piperidinyl-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxamide (AM251), had a similar effect. To investigate this discrepancy, SR141716A was given to CB1R-KO mice, in which it still stimulated neurogenesis, indicating involvement of a non-CB1 receptor. Action at one such non-CB1, SR141716A-sensitive site, the VR1 vanilloid receptor, was tested by administering SR141716A to VR1-KO mice, in which the ability of SR141716A to enhance neurogenesis was abolished. Thus, CB1 and VR1 receptors both seem to have roles in regulating adult neurogenesis.


Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects.Jiang W, Zhang Y, Xiao L, Van Cleemput J, Ji SP, Bai G, Zhang X.
Neuropsychiatry Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.

The hippocampal dentate gyrus in the adult mammalian brain contains neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PCs) capable of generating new neurons, i.e., neurogenesis. Most drugs of abuse examined to date decrease adult hippocampal neurogenesis, but the effects of cannabis (marijuana or cannabinoids) on hippocampal neurogenesis remain unknown. This study aimed at investigating the potential regulatory capacity of the potent synthetic cannabinoid HU210 on hippocampal neurogenesis and its possible correlation with behavioral change. We show that both embryonic and adult rat hippocampal NS/PCs are immunoreactive for CB1 cannabinoid receptors, indicating that cannabinoids could act on CB1 receptors to regulate neurogenesis. This hypothesis is supported by further findings that HU210 promotes proliferation, but not differentiation, of cultured embryonic hippocampal NS/PCs likely via a sequential activation of CB1 receptors, G(i/o) proteins, and ERK signaling. Chronic, but not acute, HU210 treatment promoted neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus of adult rats and exerted anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects. X-irradiation of the hippocampus blocked both the neurogenic and behavioral effects of chronic HU210 treatment, suggesting that chronic HU210 treatment produces anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects likely via promotion of hippocampal neurogenesis.


The endocannabinoid system drives neural progenitor proliferation.Aguado T, Monory K, Palazuelos J, Stella N, Cravatt B, Lutz B, Marsicano G, Kokaia Z, Guzmán M, Galve-Roperh I.

The discovery of multipotent neural progenitor (NP) cells has provided strong support for the existence of neurogenesis in the adult brain. However, the signals controlling NP proliferation remain elusive. Endocannabinoids, the endogenous counterparts of marijuana-derived cannabinoids, act as neuromodulators via presynaptic CB1 receptors and also control neural cell death and survival. Here we show that progenitor cells express a functional endocannabinoid system that actively regulates cell proliferation both in vitro and in vivo. Specifically, NPs produce endocannabinoids and express the CB1 receptor and the endocannabinoid-inactivating enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH). CB1 receptor activation promotes cell proliferation and neurosphere generation, an action that is abrogated in CB1-deficient NPs. Accordingly, proliferation of hippocampal NPs is increased in FAAH-deficient mice. Our results demonstrate that endocannabinoids constitute a new group of signaling cues that regulate NP proliferation and thus open novel therapeutic avenues for manipulation of NP cell fate in the adult brain.


Cannabidiol Prevents Cerebral Infarction Via a Serotonergic 5-Hydroxytryptamine1A Receptor?€?Dependent Mechanism
Kenichi Mishima, PhD; Kazuhide Hayakawa; Kohji Abe, PhD; Tomoaki Ikeda, PhD, MD; Nobuaki Egashira, PhD; Katsunori Iwasaki, PhD Michihiro Fujiwara, PhD

From the Department of Neuropharmacology (K.M., K.H., N.E., K.I., M.F.), Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Advanced Materials Institute (K.I., M.F.), Fukuoka University, Japan; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology (T.I.), Miyazaki Medical College, University of Miyazaki, Japan; Department of Medical Physics (K.A.), School of Allied Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Osaka University, Japan; and Department of Drug Safety Evaluation (K.A.), Developmental Research Laboratories, Shionogi and Co, Ltd, Osaka, Japan.


Methods?€? Male MCA occluded mice were treated with cannabidiol, abnormal cannabidiol, anandamide, methanandamide, cannabidiol plus capsazepine, and cannabidiol plus WAY100135 before and 3 hours after MCA occlusion. The infarct size was determined after 24 hours (2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining). Cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured at, before and 1, 2, 3, and 4 hours after MCA occlusion.

Results?€? Cannabidiol significantly reduced the infarct volume induced by MCA occlusion in a bell-shaped curve. Similarly, abnormal cannabidiol but not anandamide or methanandamide reduced the infarct volume. Moreover, the neuroprotective effect of cannabidiol was inhibited by WAY100135, a serotonin 5-hydroxytriptamine1A (5-HT1A) receptor antagonist but not capsazepine a vanilloid receptor antagonist. Cannabidiol increased CBF to the cortex, and the CBF was partly inhibited by WAY100135 in mice subjected to MCA occlusion.

Conclusions?€? Cannabidiol and abnormal cannabidiol reduced the infarct volume. Furthermore, the neuroprotective effect of cannabidiol was inhibited by WAY100135 but not capsazepine, and the CBF increased by cannabidiol was partially reversed by WAY100135. These results suggested that the neuroprotective effect of cannabidiol may be related to the increase in CBF through the serotonergic 5-HT1A receptor.


Neuronal cytoskeleton and synaptic densities are altered after a chronic treatment with the cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212-2.Tagliaferro P, Javier Ramos A, Onaivi ES, Evrard SG, Lujilde J, Brusco A.
Instituto de Biolog?­a Celular y Neurociencias "Prof. E. De Robertis", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, 3(er) piso, (C1121ABG), Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Cannabinoid CB1 receptors are the most abundant G-protein-coupled receptors in the brain. Its presynaptic location suggests a role for cannabinoids in modulating the release of neurotransmitters from axon terminals by retrograde signaling. The neuroprotective effects of cannabinoid agonists in animal models of ischemia, seizures, hypoxia, Multiple Sclerosis, Huntington and Parkinson disease have been demonstrated in several reports. The proposed mechanism for the neuroprotection ranges from antioxidant effects, reduction of microglial activation and anti-inflammatory reaction to receptor-mediated reduction of glutamate release. In the present work, we analyzed the morphological changes induced by a chronic treatment with the synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist, WIN 55,212-2, in four brain regions where the CB1 cannabinoid receptor is present in high density: the CA1 hippocampal area, corpus striatum, cerebellum and frontal cortex. After a twice-daily treatment for 14 days with the cannabinoid receptor agonist (3 mg/kg sc, each dose) to male Wistar rats (150-170 g), the expression of neurofilaments (Nf-160 and Nf-200), microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP-2), synaptophysin (Syn) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was studied by immunohistochemistry and digital image analysis. Ultrastructural study of the synapses was done using electron microscopy. After the treatment, a significant increase in the expression of neuronal cytoskeletal proteins (Nf-160, Nf-200, MAP-2) was observed, but we did not find changes in the expression of GFAP, the main astroglial cytoskeletal protein. In cerebellum, there was an increase in Syn expression and in the number of synaptic vesicles, while, in the hippocampus, an increase in the Syn expression and in the thickness of the postsynaptic densities was observed. The results obtained from these studies provide evidences on the absence of astroglial reaction and a sprouting phenomena induced by the WIN treatment that might be a key contributor to the long-term neuroprotective effects observed after cannabinoid treatments in different models of central nervous system (CNS) injury reported in the literature.

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