1 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S.

Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Genomics and Its Impact on Science and Society
The Human Genome Project and Beyond
U.S. Department of Energy Genome Research Programs: genomics.energy.gov
Although genes get a lot of attention, the proteins
perform most life functions and even comprise the
majority of cellular structures. Proteins are large, complex
molecules made up of chains of small chemical com-
pounds called amino acids. Chemical properties that
distinguish the 20 diferent amino acids cause the
protein chains to fold up into specifc three-dimensional
structures that defne their particular functions in the cell.
The constellation of all proteins in a cell is called
its proteome. Unlike the relatively unchanging
genome, the dynamic proteome changes from minute
to minute in response to tens of thousands of intra-
and extracellular environmental signals. A protein’s
chemistry and behavior are determined by the gene
sequence and by the number and identities of other
proteins made in the same cell at the same time and
with which it associates and reacts. Studies to explore
protein structure and activities, known as proteomics,
will be the focus of much research for decades to come
and will help elucidate the molecular basis of health
and disease.
A Primer
ells are the fundamental working units
of every living system. All the instructions
needed to direct their activities are contained
within the chemical DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
DNA from all organisms is made up of the
same chemical and physical components. The
DNA sequence is the particular side-by-side
arrangement of bases along the DNA strand (e.g.,
ATTCCGGA). This order spells out the exact instruc-
tions required to create a particular organism with
its own unique traits.
The genome is an organism’s complete set
of DNA. Genomes vary widely in size: The smallest
known genome for a free-living organism (a bac-
terium) contains about 600,000 DNA base pairs,
while human and mouse genomes have some
3 billion (see p. 3). Except for mature red blood
cells, all human cells contain a complete genome.
DNA in each human cell is packaged into 46 chro-
mosomes arranged into 23 pairs. Each chromosome is
a physically separate molecule of DNA that ranges in
length from about 50 million to 250 million base pairs.
A few types of major chromosomal abnormalities,
including missing or extra copies or gross breaks and
rejoinings (translocations), can be detected by micro-
scopic examination. Most changes in DNA, however,
are more subtle and require a closer analysis of the
DNA molecule to fnd perhaps single-base diferences.
Each chromosome contains many genes, the
basic physical and functional units of heredity. Genes
are specifc sequences of bases that encode instruc-
tions on how to make proteins. Genes comprise only
about 2% of the human genome; the remainder
consists of noncoding regions, whose functions may
include providing chromosomal structural integrity
and regulating where, when, and in what quantity
proteins are made. The human genome is estimated to
contain some 25,000 genes.
PowerPoint Files

see p. 12
From Genes to Proteins
protein complex
2 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
The Human Genome Project, 1990–2003
A Brief Overview
hough surprising to many, the Human Genome
Project (HGP) traces its roots to an initiative in
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Since 1947,
DOE and its predecessor agencies have been charged
by Congress with developing new energy resources
and technologies and pursuing a deeper understand-
ing of potential health and environmental risks posed
by their production and use. Such studies, for example,
have provided the scientifc basis for individual risk
assessments of nuclear medicine technologies.
In 1986, DOE took a bold step in announcing the
Human Genome Initiative, convinced that its missions
would be well served by a reference human genome
sequence. Shortly thereafter, DOE joined with the
National Institutes of Health to develop a plan for a
joint HGP that ofcially began in 1990. During the early
years of the HGP, the Wellcome Trust, a private charita-
ble institution in the United Kingdom, joined the efort
as a major partner. Important contributions also came
from other collaborators around the world, including
Japan, France, Germany, and China.
Ambitious Goals
The HGP’s ultimate goal was to generate a
high-quality reference DNA sequence for the human
genome’s 3 billion base pairs and to identify all human
genes. Other important goals included sequencing the
genomes of model organisms to interpret human DNA,
enhancing computational resources to support future
research and commercial applications, exploring gene
function through mouse-human comparisons, study-
ing human variation, and training future scientists in
The powerful analytical technology and data aris-
ing from the HGP present complex ethical and policy
issues for individuals and society. These challenges
include privacy, fairness in use and access of genomic
information, reproductive and clinical issues, and com-
mercialization (see p. 8). Programs that identify and
address these implications have been an integral part
of the HGP and have become a model for bioethics
programs worldwide.
A Lasting Legacy
In June 2000, to much excitement and fanfare,
scientists announced the completion of the frst work-
ing draft of the entire human genome. First analyses of
the details appeared in the February 2001 issues of the
journals Nature and Science. The high-quality reference
sequence was completed in April 2003, marking the end
of the Human Genome Project—2 years ahead of the
original schedule. Coincidentally, it also was the 50th
anniversary of Watson and Crick’s publication of DNA
structure that launched the era of molecular biology.
Available to researchers worldwide, the human
genome reference sequence provides a magnifcent
and unprecedented biological resource that will serve
throughout the century as a basis for research and
discovery and, ultimately, myriad practical applica-
tions. The sequence already is having an impact on
fnding genes associated with human disease (see p. 3).
Hundreds of other genome sequence projects—on
microbes, plants, and animals—have been completed
since the inception of the HGP, and these data now
enable detailed comparisons among organisms,
including humans.
Many more sequencing projects are under way
or planned because of the research value of DNA
sequence, the tremendous sequencing capacity now
available, and continued improvements in technolo-
gies. Sequencing projects on the genomes of many
microbes, as well as the chimpanzee, pig, sheep, and
domestic cat, are in progress.
Beyond sequencing, growing areas of research
focus on identifying important elements in the DNA
sequence responsible for regulating cellular functions
and providing the basis of human variation. Perhaps
the most daunting challenge is to begin to understand
how all the “parts” of cells—genes, proteins, and many
other molecules—work together to create complex liv-
ing organisms. Future analyses of this treasury of data
will provide a deeper and more comprehensive under-
standing of the molecular processes underlying life and
will have an enduring and profound impact on how we
view our own place in it.
3 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Insights from the Human DNA Sequence
Genome Size
(Base Pairs)
Human (Homo sapiens) 3.2 billion 25,000
Laboratory mouse (M. musculus) 2.6 billion 25,000
Mustard weed (A. thaliana) 100 million 25,000
Roundworm (C. elegans) 97 million 19,000
Fruit fy (D. melanogaster) 137 million 13,000
Yeast (S. cerevisiae) 12.1 million 6,000
Bacterium (E. coli) 4.6 million 3,200
Human immunodefciency virus (HIV) 9,700 9
The estimated number of human genes is only one-third as great as previously
thought, although the numbers may be revised as more computational and
experimental analyses are performed.
Scientists suggest that the genetic key to human complexity lies not in gene
number but in how gene parts are used to build diferent products in a process
called alternative splicing. Other underlying reasons for greater complexity are
the thousands of chemical modifcations made to proteins and the repertoire
of regulatory mechanisms controlling these processes.
How Does the Human Genome Stack Up?
he frst panoramic views of the human genetic
landscape have revealed a wealth of informa-
tion and some early surprises. Much remains to
be deciphered in this vast trove of information; as the
consortium of HGP scientists concluded in their seminal
paper, “. . . the more we learn about the human genome,
the more there is to explore.” A few highlights follow
from the frst publications analyzing the sequence.
The human genome contains 3.2 billion chemical
nucleotide base pairs (A, C, T, and G).
The average gene consists of 3,000 base pairs, but
sizes vary greatly, with the largest known human
gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million base pairs.
Functions are unknown for more than 50% of discov-
ered genes.
The human genome sequence is
almost exactly the same (99.9%)
in all people.
About 2% of the genome encodes
instructions for the synthesis of
Repeat sequences that do not
code for proteins make up at least
50% of the human genome.
Repeat sequences are thought
to have no direct functions, but
they shed light on chromosome
structure and dynamics. Over
time, these repeats reshape
the genome by rearranging it,
thereby creating entirely new
genes or modifying and reshuf-
fing existing genes.
The human genome has a much
greater portion (50%) of repeat
sequences than the mustard
the fy (3%).
Over 40% of predicted human
proteins share similarity with
fruit-fy or worm proteins.

Genes appear to be concentrated in random areas
along the genome, with vast expanses of noncoding
DNA between.
Chromosome 1 (the largest human chromosome)
has the most genes (3,168), and Y chromosome has
the fewest (344).
Particular gene sequences have been associated with
numerous diseases and disorders, including breast
cancer, muscle disease, deafness, and blindness.
Scientists have identifed millions of locations
where single-base DNA diferences (see p. 9) occur
in humans. This information promises to revolution-
ize the processes of fnding DNA sequences associ-
ated with such common diseases as cardiovascular
disease, diabetes, arthritis, and cancers.

4 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Managing and Using the Data
Bioinformatics Boom
assive quantities of genomic data and high-
throughput technologies are now enabling
studies on a vastly larger scale than ever
before. Examples include simultaneously monitoring
and comparing the activity of tens of thousands of
genes in cancerous and noncancerous tissue. Advanced
computational tools and interdisciplinary experts are
needed to capture, represent, store, integrate, distrib-
ute, and analyze the data.
Gene Gateway was created as a companion to the
Human Genome Landmarks wall poster (see back page).
Bioinformatics is the term coined for the new feld that
merges biology, computer science, and information
technology to manage and analyze the data, with the
ultimate goal of understanding and modeling living
systems. Computing and information demands will
continue to rise with the explosive torrent of data
from large-scale studies at the molecular, cellular, and
whole-organism levels.
Gene Gateway: A User-Friendly Guide
to Genome, Gene, and Protein Databases
ll Human Genome Project data and much related infor-
mation are freely available on the web, but how do you
fnd and use these rich resources? The Gene Gateway
website provides introductory guides and step-by-step tutori-
als that show how to access and explore genome, gene, and
protein databases used by scientists. Gene Gateway demon-
strates how to gather information from diferent databases to
gain a better understanding of the molecular biology behind
life processes. The site ofers a free workbook downloadable
in PDF format.
Identify genes associated with various genetic conditions
and biological processes
Learn about mutations that cause genetic disorders
Browse a genome and fnd a gene’s location on a
chromosome map
View the DNA sequence of a gene or amino acid sequence
of a gene’s protein product
Visualize and modify three-dimensional representations of
protein structures

http:// genomics.energy.gov/genegateway/
5 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Medicine and the New Genetics
Gene Testing, Pharmacogenomics, and Gene Therapy
these gene tests is that they could provide information
to help physicians and patients manage the disease or
condition more efectively. Regular colonoscopies for
those having mutations associated with colon
cancer, for instance, could prevent thousands
of deaths each year.
Some scientifc limitations are
that the tests may not detect every
mutation associated with a par-
ticular condition (many are as
yet undiscovered), and the ones
they do detect may present diferent
risks to various people and populations.
Another important consideration in gene
testing is the lack of efective treatments
or preventive measures for many diseases
and conditions now being diagnosed or
Knowledge about the risk of poten-
tial future disease can produce signifcant
emotional and psychological impacts.
Because genetic tests reveal information
about individuals and their families, test
results can afect family dynamics. Results
also can pose risks for population groups if
they lead to group stigmatization.
Other issues related to gene tests
include their efective introduction into
clinical practice, the regulation of labo-
ratory quality assurance, the availability of
testing for rare diseases, and the education of
healthcare providers and patients about correct inter-
pretation and attendant risks.
Families and individuals who have genetic disor-
ders or are at risk for them often seek help from medi-
cal geneticists (an M.D. specialty) and genetic coun-
selors (graduate-degree training). These professionals
can diagnose and explain disorders, review available
options for testing and treatment, and provide emo-
tional support. (For more information, see the URL for
Medicine and the New Genetics, p. 12.)
NA underlies almost every aspect of human
health, both in function and dysfunction.
Obtaining a detailed picture of how genes and
other DNA sequences work together and inter-
act with environmental factors ultimately will
lead to the discovery of pathways involved
in normal processes and in disease
pathogenesis. Such knowledge will
have a profound impact on the
way disorders are diagnosed,
treated, and prevented and will
bring about revolutionary changes
in clinical and public health practice.
Some of these transformative develop-
ments are described below.
Gene Testing
DNA-based tests are among the frst
commercial medical applications of the
new genetic discoveries. Gene tests can
be used to diagnose and confrm disease,
even in asymptomatic individuals; provide
prognostic information about the course
of disease; and, with varying degrees of
accuracy, predict the risk of future disease
in healthy individuals or their progeny.
Currently, several hundred genetic
tests are in clinical use, with many more
under development, and their numbers
and varieties are expected to increase
rapidly over the next decade. Most current
tests detect mutations associated with rare
genetic disorders that follow Mendelian inheritance
patterns. These include myotonic and Duchenne
muscular dystrophies, cystic fbrosis, neurofbromato-
sis type 1, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease.
Recently, tests have been developed to detect
mutations for a handful of more complex conditions
such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. Although
they have limitations, these tests sometimes are used to
make risk estimates in presymptomatic individuals with
a family history of the disorder. One potential beneft to
6 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Pharmacogenomics: Moving
Away from “One-Size-Fits-All”
Within the next decade, researchers will begin
to correlate DNA variants with individual responses
to medical treatments, identify particular subgroups
of patients, and develop drugs customized for those
populations. The disci-
pline that blends phar-
macology with genomic
capabilities is called
More than 100,000
people die each year
from adverse responses
to medications that may
be benefcial to others.
Another 2.2 million
experience serious
reactions, while others
fail to respond at all. DNA variants in genes involved
in drug metabolism, particularly the
cytochrome P450 multigene family, are the
focus of much current research in this area.
Enzymes encoded by these genes are
responsible for metabolizing most drugs
used today, including many for treating
psychiatric, neurological, and cardiovas-
cular diseases. Enzyme function afects
patient responses to both the drug
and the dose. Future advances will
enable rapid testing to determine the
patient’s genotype and guide treat-
ment with the most efective drugs,
in addition to drastically reducing
adverse reactions.
Genomic data and technologies
also are expected to make drug devel-
opment faster, cheaper, and more
efective. Most drugs today are based
on about 500 molecular targets,
but genomic knowledge of genes
involved in diseases, disease path-
ways, and drug-response sites will
lead to the discovery of thousands of
*Source: Journal of Gene Medicine web-
site (www.wiley.co.uk/genetherapy/
clinical/), August 2006.
additional targets. New drugs, aimed at specifc sites in
the body and at particular biochemical events leading
to disease, probably will cause fewer side efects than
many current medicines. Ideally, genomic drugs could
be given earlier in the disease process. As knowledge
becomes available to select patients most likely to
beneft from a potential drug, pharmacogenomics will
speed the design of clinical trials to market the drugs
Gene Therapy, Enhancement
The potential for using genes themselves to treat
disease or enhance particular traits has captured the
imagination of the public and the biomedical com-
munity. This largely experimental feld—gene transfer
or gene therapy—holds potential for treating or even
curing such genetic and acquired diseases as cancers
and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or
replace defective genes or to bolster a normal func-
tion such as immunity.
Almost 1,200 clinical gene-therapy trials were
identifed worldwide in 2006.* The majority (67%)
take place in the United States, followed
by Europe (29%). Although most trials
focus on various types of cancer, studies
also involve other multigenic and mono-
genic, infectious, and vascular diseases.
Most current protocols are aimed at
establishing the safety of gene-delivery
procedures rather than efectiveness.
Gene transfer still faces many
scientifc obstacles before it can
become a practical approach for
treating disease. According to the
American Society of Human Genetics’
Statement on Gene Therapy, efec-
tive progress will be achieved only
through continued rigorous research
on the most fundamental mecha-
nisms underlying gene delivery and
gene expression in animals.
7 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
*Source: Biotechnology Industry Organization website
(www.bio.org), June 2008.
apid progress in genome science and a glimpse
into its potential applications have spurred
observers to predict that biology will be the
foremost science of the 21st Century. Technology and
resources generated by the Human Genome Project
and other genomic research already are having major
impacts across the life sciences. The biotechnology
industry employed more than 250,000 people in 2006,
and revenues for 2005 totaled more than $50.7 billion.*
Future revenues are expected to reach trillions of dollars.
A list of some current and potential applications
of genome research follows. More studies and public dis-
cussion are required for eventual validation and imple-
mentation of some of these uses (see p. 8).
Bioarchaeology, Anthropology,
Evolution, and Human Migration
Study evolution through germline mutations
in lineages
Study migration of diferent population
groups based on maternal genetic inheritance
Study mutations on the Y chromosome to trace
lineage and migration of males
Compare breakpoints in the evolution of
mutations with population ages and
historical events
DNA Identifcation
Identify potential suspects whose DNA may match
evidence left at crime scenes
Exonerate people wrongly accused of crimes
Identify crime, catastrophe, and other victims
Establish paternity and other family relationships
Identify endangered and protected species as
an aid to wildlife ofcials (e.g., to prosecute poachers)
Detect bacteria and other organisms that could
pollute air, water, soil, and food
Match organ donors with recipients in
transplant programs
Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds
Authenticate consumables such as caviar and wine
Agriculture, Livestock Breeding,
and Bioprocessing
Grow disease-, insect-, and drought-resistant crops
Optimize crops for bioenergy production
Breed healthier, more productive, disease-resistant
farm animals
Grow more nutritious produce
Develop biopesticides
Incorporate edible vaccines into food products
Develop new environmental cleanup uses for plants
such as tobacco

Other Anticipated Benefts of Genetic Research
Expanding Impacts of New Technologies, Resources
Molecular Medicine
Improve diagnosis of disease
Detect genetic predispositions to disease
Create drugs based on molecular information
Use gene therapy and control systems as drugs
Design “custom drugs” based on individual genetic
Microbial Genomics
Rapidly detect and treat pathogens (disease-causing
microbes) in clinical practice
Develop new energy sources (biofuels)
Monitor environments to detect pollutants
Protect citizenry from biological and chemical
Clean up toxic waste safely and efciently
Risk Assessment
Evaluate the health risks faced by individuals who
may be exposed to radiation (including low levels
in industrial areas) and to cancer-causing chemicals
and toxins

8 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Societal Concerns Arising from the New Genetics
Critical Policy and Ethical Issues
Uncertainties associated with gene tests for sus-
ceptibilities and complex conditions (e.g., heart
disease, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease). Should
testing be performed when no treatment is available
or when interpretation is unsure? Should children be
tested for susceptibility to adult-onset diseases?
Conceptual and philosophical implications regard-
ing human responsibility, free will vs genetic
determinism, and understanding of health and
disease. Do our genes infuence our behavior, and
can we control it? What is considered acceptable
diversity? Where is the line drawn between medical
treatment and enhancement?
Health and environmental issues concern-
ing genetically modifed (GM) foods and
microbes. Are GM foods and other prod-
ucts safe for humans and the environ-
ment? How will these technologies
afect developing nations’ depen-
dence on industrialized nations?
Commercialization of prod-
ucts including property rights
(patents, copyrights, and trade
secrets) and accessibility of
data and materials. Will patent-
ing DNA sequences limit their
accessibility and development
into useful products?

*For more information, see the Ethical,
Legal, and Social Issues URL, p. 12.

rom its inception, the Human Genome Project
dedicated funds to identify and address the ethi-
cal, legal, and social issues surrounding the avail-
ability of new genetic data and capabilities. Examples
of such issues follow.*
Privacy and confdentiality of genetic informa-
tion. Who owns and controls genetic information? Is
genetic privacy diferent from medical privacy?
Fairness in the use of genetic information by
insurers, employers, courts, schools, adoption
agencies, and the military, among others. Who
should have access to personal genetic informa-
tion, and how will it be used?
Psychological impact, stigmatization, and discrimi-
nation due to an individual’s genetic makeup. How
does personal genetic information afect self-iden-
tity and society’s perceptions?
Reproductive issues including adequate and
informed consent and the use of genetic informa-
tion in reproductive decision making. Do health-
care personnel properly counsel parents about risks
and limitations? What larger societal issues are raised
by new reproductive technologies?
Clinical issues including the education of doctors
and other health-service providers,
people identifed with genetic
conditions, and the general
public; and implementation of
standards and quality-control
measures. How should health
professionals be prepared for the
new genetics? How can the pub-
lic be educated to make informed
choices? How will genetic tests be
evaluated and regulated for accuracy,
reliability, and usefulness? (Currently,
there is little regulation.) How does soci-
ety balance current scientifc limitations
and social risk with long-term benefts?
Fairness in access to advanced genomic
technologies. Who will beneft? Will there
be major worldwide inequities?

The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act
(GINA) became law on May 21, 2008. GINA prohibits
U.S. health insurance companies and employers
from discrimination on the basis of information
derived from genetic tests. In addition, insurers and
employers are not allowed under the law to request
or demand a genetic test.
New Genetics Privacy Act Becomes Law
9 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Beyond the Human Genome Project—What’s Next?
Genome Sequences: Paving the Way for a More Comprehensive Understanding
sites in a genome where individuals difer in their DNA
sequence, often by a single base. For example, one
person might have the DNA base A where another
might have C, and so on. Scientists believe the human
genome has at least 10 million SNPs, and they are gen-
erating diferent types of maps of these sites, which
can occur in both genes and noncoding regions.
Sets of SNPs on the same chromosome are
inherited in blocks (haplotypes). In 2005 a consor-
tium of researchers from six countries completed the
frst phase of a map of SNP patterns that occur across
populations in Africa, Asia, and the United States.
Researchers hope that dramatically decreasing the
number of individual SNPs to be scanned will provide
a shortcut for tracking down the DNA regions associ-
ated with such common complex diseases as cancer,
heart disease, diabetes, and some forms of mental ill-
ness. The new map also may be useful in understand-
ing how genetic variation contributes to responses to
environmental factors.
Building a “Systems Level” View
of Life
NA sequences generated in hundreds of
genome projects now provide scientists with
the “parts lists” containing instructions for how
an organism builds, operates, maintains, and reproduces
itself while responding to various
environmental conditions. We
still have very little knowledge
of how cells use this informa-
tion to “come alive,” however,
and the functions of most
genes remain unknown. Nor do
we understand how genes and the
proteins they encode interact with each other and with
the environment. If we are to realize the potential of the
genome projects, with far-ranging applications to such
diverse felds as medicine, energy, and the environment,
we must obtain this new level of knowledge.
One of the greatest impacts of having whole-
genome sequences and powerful new genomic tech-
nologies may be an entirely new approach to conduct-
ing biological research. In the past, researchers studied
one or a few genes or proteins at a time. Because
biological processes are intertwined, these strategies
provided incomplete—and often inaccurate—views.
Researchers now can approach questions systemati-
cally and on a much grander scale. They can study all
the genes expressed in a particular environment or all
the gene products in a specifc tissue, organ, or tumor.
Other analyses will focus on how tens of thousands of
genes and proteins work together in interconnected
networks to orchestrate the chemistry of life. These
holistic studies are the focus of a new feld called “sys-
tems biology” (see DOE Genomics:GTL Program, p. 10).
How Do Genetic Variations (SNP
Patterns) Difer Across Populations?
Charting Human Variation
Slight variations in our DNA sequences can
have a major impact on whether or not we develop a
disease and on our responses to such environmental
factors as infectious microbes, toxins, and drugs. One
of the most common types of sequence variation is
the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). SNPs are
How does
a living cell
10 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
icrobes and plants have evolved unique bio-
chemistries, ofering a rich resource that can
be applied to diverse national needs. Some
recent projects funded by the DOE Genomics:GTL
program highlight the potential wealth of natural
capabilities available.
Plants for Biomass, Carbon Storage
Understanding the
genes and regula-
tory mechanisms
controlling growth
and other traits
in the recently
sequenced poplar
tree may lead to its
use for bioethanol
production and for
sequestration (stor-
age) of carbon.
Living in Termites:
A Potential Source of Enzymes
for Bioenergy Production
GTL researchers are investigating bacteria that live
in termite hindguts and churn out wood-digesting
enzymes. These proteins may be usable for breaking
down plant cellulose into sugars
needed for ethanol production.
Termites also produce hydrogen as a
by-product, a process that poten-
tially could be reproduced on a
larger scale.
Synthetic Nanostructures:
Harnessing Microbial
Enzyme Functions
Enzymes incorporated into synthetic membranes
can carry out some of the functions of living cells and
may be useful for generating energy, inactivating
contaminants, and sequestering atmospheric carbon.
DOE Genomics:GTL Program
Exploring Genomes for Energy and Environmental Applications
GTL Investigations of Microbial and Plant Genomes
Image: Mike Perkins/PNNL
he Genomics:GTL (formerly Genomes to Life)
program of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
is using the Human Genome Project’s tech-
nological achievements to help solve our growing
energy and environmental challenges.
Today, genomics is the starting point for a new
level of exploration across the life sciences. The GTL
research program uses genomic (DNA) sequences of
microbes and plants to launch large-scale investiga-
tions into their wide-ranging biochemical capabilities
having potential applications in bioenergy and the
environment (see sidebar below). Before these bio-
logical processes can be safely and economically
harnessed for such uses, however, they must be
understood in far greater detail and in the context of
their operations within a dynamic, living organism.
To obtain this whole-systems knowledge, GTL
investigates relevant plant and microbial properties
on multiple levels. Starting with the DNA sequence,
studies follow its expression (e.g., protein produc-
tion, interactions, and regulation) in individual cells
and populations of cells or organisms in ecosystems.
Integrating genomic and many other data types into
a computerized knowledgebase will stimulate new
research strategies and insights needed for special-
ized applications.
11 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
Genomes for Bioenergy
Cellulosic Biomass: An Abundant, Secure Energy Source to Reduce
U.S. Dependence on Gasoline
ioethanol made from cellulosic biomass—the
inedible, fbrous portions of plants—ofers a
renewable, sustainable, and expandable domestic
resource to meet the growing demand for transporta-
tion fuels and reduce our dependence on oil.
The United States now produces 7 billion gallons
of corn-grain ethanol per year, a fraction of the 142 bil-
lion gallons of transportation fuel used annually. Cellu-
losic ethanol has the potential to dramatically increase
the availability of ethanol and help meet the national
goal of displacing 30% of gasoline by 2030.
Cellulose is the most abundant biological mate-
rial on earth. The crops used to make cellulosic ethanol
(e.g., postharvest corn plants—not corn grain—and
switchgrass) can be grown in most states and often
on marginal lands. As with ethanol from corn grain,
cellulose-based ethanol can be used as a fuel addi-
tive to improve gasoline combustion in today’s
vehicles. Modest engine modifcations are required
to use higher blends (85% ethanol). Additionally, the
amount of carbon dioxide emitted to the atmosphere
from producing and burning ethanol is far less than
that released from gasoline.
To accelerate technological breakthroughs, the
DOE Genomics:GTL program will establish research
centers to target specifc DOE mission challenges.
Three DOE Bioenergy Research Centers are focused on
overcoming biological challenges to cellulosic ethanol
production. In addition to ethanol, these centers are
exploring ways to produce a new generation of
petroleum-like biofuels and other advanced energy
products from cellulosic biomass.
Download flyer at http://genomicsgtl.energy.gov/biofuels/placemat.shtml
12 www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/primer/ U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science
For More Information
This document was revised in June 2008 by the
Genome Management Information System (GMIS) at
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee,
for the Ofce of Biological and Environmental Research
within the U.S. Department of Energy Ofce of Science.
Free Copies and Presentation Materials
Individual print copies or class sets
Contact: genome@ornl.gov, 865/574-0597
Downloadable fles
A PDF version of this document and accompany-
ing PowerPoint fle are accessible via the web

Related Websites
Human Genome Project Information
Medicine and the New Genetics
Ethical, Legal, and Social Issues
Genetics Privacy and Legislation
Gene Gateway
Image Gallery (downloadable)
Resources for Teachers
Resources for Students
Careers in Genetics and the Biosciences
DOE Joint Genome Institute
NIH National Human Genome Research Institute
Genomes OnLine Database (GOLD)
National Center for Biotechnology Information

Genomics and Its Impact on Science and Society:
The Human Genome Project and Beyond
The poster also features sidebars explaining genetic
terms, with URLs for fnding more detailed informa-
tion (see web companion, Gene Gateway, p. 4).
Order free copies via the web:
Or see contact information below left.

DOE Genomics:GTL Program
Focus on Biofuels
National Geographic: The Genographic Project
International HapMap Project

Free Wall Poster of Human Chromosomes
and Genes
June 2008
Printed with soy ink on recycled paper

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