Horse racing, Two Thousand Guineas, 2012 [Credit: Press Association/AP]Two Thousand Guineas, 2012Press Association/APsport of running horses at speed, mainly Thoroughbreds with a rider astride or Standardbreds with the horse pulling a conveyance with a driver. These two kinds of racing are called racing on the flat and harness racing, respectively. Some races on the flat—such as steeplechase, point-to-point, and hurdle races—involve jumping. This article is confined to Thoroughbred horse racing on the flat without jumps. Racing on the flat with horses other than Thoroughbreds is described in the article quarter-horse racing.

National Museum of Racing [Credit: Great Museums Television (A Britannica Publishing Partner)]National Museum of RacingGreat Museums Television (A Britannica Publishing Partner)Horse racing is one of the oldest of all sports, and its basic concept has undergone virtually no change over the centuries. It developed from a primitive contest of speed or stamina between two horses into a spectacle involving large fields of runners, sophisticated electronic monitoring equipment, and immense sums of money, but its essential feature has always been the same: the horse that finishes first is the winner. In the modern era, horse racing developed from a diversion of the leisure class into a huge public-entertainment business. By the first decades of the 21st century, however, the sport’s popularity had shrunk considerably.

Early history

Knowledge of the first horse race is lost in prehistory. Both four-hitch chariot and mounted (bareback) races were held in the Olympic Games of Greece over the period 700–40 bce. Horse racing, both of chariots and of mounted riders, was a well-organized public entertainment in the Roman Empire. The history of organized racing in other ancient civilizations is not very firmly established. Presumably, organized racing began in such countries as China, Persia, Arabia, and other countries of the Middle East and in North Africa, where horsemanship early became highly developed. Thence came too the Arabian, Barb, and Turk horses that contributed to the earliest European racing. Such horses became familiar to Europeans during the Crusades (11th–13th century ce), from which they brought those horses back.

Racing in medieval England began when horses for sale were ridden in competition by professional riders to display the horses’ speed to buyers. During the reign of Richard the Lion-Heart (1189–99), the first known racing purse was offered, £40, for a race run over a 3-mile (4.8-km) course with knights as riders. In the 16th century Henry VIII imported horses from Italy and Spain (presumably Barbs) and established studs at several locations. In the 17th century James I sponsored meetings in England. His successor, Charles I, had a stud of 139 horses when he died in 1649.

Organized racing

Charles II (reigned 1660–85) became known as “the father of the English turf” and inaugurated the King’s Plates, races for which prizes were awarded to the winners. His articles for these races were the earliest national racing rules. The horses raced were six years old and carried 168 pounds (76 kg), and the winner was the first to win two 4-mile (6.4-km) heats. The patronage of Charles II established Newmarket as the headquarters of English racing.

In France the first documented horse race was held in 1651 as the result of a wager between two noblemen. During the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), racing based on gambling was prevalent. Louis XVI (reigned 1774–93) organized a jockey club and established rules of racing by royal decree that included requiring certificates of origin for horses and imposing extra weight on foreign horses.

Organized racing in North America began with the British occupation of New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1664. Col. Richard Nicolls, commander of the British troops, established organized racing in the colonies by laying out a 2-mile (3.2-km) course on the plains of Long Island (called Newmarket after the British racecourse) and offering a silver cup to the best horses in the spring and fall seasons. From the beginning, and continuing until the Civil War, the hallmark of excellence for the American Thoroughbred was stamina, rather than speed. After the Civil War, speed became the goal and the British system the model.

Match races

The earliest races were match races between two or at most three horses, the owners providing the purse, a simple wager. An owner who withdrew commonly forfeited half the purse, later the whole purse, and bets also came under the same “play or pay” rule. Agreements were recorded by disinterested third parties, who came to be called keepers of the match book. One such keeper at Newmarket in England, John Cheny, began publishing An Historical List of All Horse-Matches Run (1729), a consolidation of match books at various racing centres, and this work was continued annually with varying titles, until in 1773 James Weatherby established it as the Racing Calendar, which was continued thereafter by his family.

Open field racing

By the mid-18th century the demand for more public racing had produced open events with larger fields of runners. Eligibility rules were developed based on the age, sex, birthplace, and previous performance of horses and the qualifications of riders. Races were created in which owners were the riders (gentlemen riders), in which the field was restricted geographically to a township or county, and in which only horses that had not won more than a certain amount were entered. An act of the British Parliament of 1740 provided that horses entered had to be the bona fide property of the owners, thus preventing “ringers,” a superior horse entered fraudulently against inferior horses; horses had to be certified as to age; and there were penalties for rough riding.

Contemporary accounts identified riders (in England called jockeys—if professional—from the second half of the 17th century and later in French racing), but their names were not at first officially recorded. Only the names of winning trainers and riders were at first recorded in the Racing Calendar, but by the late 1850s all were named. This neglect of the riders is partly explained in that when races consisted of 4-mile heats, with the winning of two heats needed for victory, the individual rider’s judgment and skill were not so vital. As dash racing (one heat) became the rule, a few yards in a race gained importance, and, consequently, so did the rider’s skill and judgment in coaxing that advantage from his mount.

Bloodlines and studbooks

All horse racing on the flat except quarter-horse racing involves Thoroughbred horses. Thoroughbreds evolved from a mixture of Arab, Turk, and Barb horses with native English stock. Private studbooks had existed from the early 17th century, but they were not invariably reliable. In 1791 Weatherby published An Introduction to a General Stud Book, the pedigrees being based on earlier Racing Calendars and sales papers. After a few years of revision, it was updated annually. All Thoroughbreds are said to descend from three “Oriental” stallions (the Darley Arabian, the Godolphin Barb, and the Byerly Turk, all brought to Great Britain, 1690–1730) and from 43 “royal” mares (those imported by Charles II). The preeminence of English racing and hence of the General Stud Book from 1791 provided a standard for judging a horse’s breeding (and thereby, at least to some degree, its racing qualities). In France the Stud Book Française (beginning in 1838) originally included two classifications: Orientale (Arab, Turk, and Barb) and Anglais (mixtures according to the English pattern), but these were later reduced to one class, chevaux de pur sang Anglais (“horses of pure English blood”). The American Stud Book dates from 1897 and includes foals from Canada, Puerto Rico, and parts of Mexico, as well as from the United States.

The long-standing reciprocity among studbooks of various countries was broken in 1913 by the Jersey Act passed by the English Jockey Club, which disqualified many Thoroughbred horses bred outside England or Ireland. The purpose of the act was ostensibly to protect the British Thoroughbred from infusions of North American (mainly U.S.) sprinting blood. After a rash of victories in prestigious English races by French horses with “tainted” American ancestry in the 1940s, the Jersey Act was rescinded in 1949.

Evolution of races

The original King’s Plates were standardized races—all were for six-year-old horses carrying 168 pounds at 4-mile heats, a horse having to win two heats to be adjudged the winner. Beginning in 1751, five-year-olds carrying 140 pounds (63.5 kg) and four-year-olds carrying 126 pounds (57 kg) were admitted to the King’s Plates, and heats were reduced to 2 miles (3.2 km). Other racing for four-year-olds was well established by then, and a race for three-year-olds carrying 112 pounds (51 kg) in one 3-mile (4.8-km) heat was run in 1731. Heat racing for four-year-olds continued in the United States until the 1860s. By that time, heat racing had long since been overshadowed in Europe by dash racing, a “dash” being any race decided by only one heat, regardless of its distance.

The modern age of racing

Two Thousand Guineas, 1989 [Credit: Sporting Pictures (UK) Ltd.]Two Thousand Guineas, 1989Sporting Pictures (UK) Ltd.The beginning of the modern era of racing is generally considered to have been the inauguration of the English classic races: the St. Leger in 1776, the Oaks in 1779, and the Derby in 1780. All were dashes for three-year-olds. To these races were later added the Two Thousand Guineas in 1809 and the One Thousand Guineas in 1814. (The St. Leger, Derby, and Two Thousand Guineas have come to constitute the British Triple Crown of horse racing.) During the 19th century, races of the English classic pattern—dashes for three-year-olds carrying level weights—spread all over the world. The French classics are the Prix du Jockey Club (1836), the Grand Prix du Paris (1863), and the Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe (1920).

The American classics are the Belmont Stakes (1867), the Preakness Stakes (1873), and the Kentucky Derby (1875), which make up the American Triple Crown. Since the establishment of the British and American Triple Crown series, scores of countries have instituted their own (less prestigious) Triple Crowns of elite races.

Jockey clubs and racing authorities


France Galop is the organization governing French horse racing. The organization was created in 1995 from the merger of three horse racing authorities: the Société d’Encouragement et des Steeple-Chases de France, the Société de Sport de France, and the Société Sportive d’Encouragement.

In the United States the governance of racing resides in state commissions; track operation is private. The (North American) Jockey Club, founded in 1894 in New York, at one time exercised wide but not complete control of American racing. It maintains The American Stud Book.

English racing spread to Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and India in the 19th century, and many of their governing bodies emulated the British. Thousands of jockey clubs, both local and national, are today present around the world. Most of the national jockey clubs are members of the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities, whose annual conference in Paris reviews racing developments and discusses issues related to breeding, racing, and betting. The conference is hosted by the Jockey Club de Paris.

Handicap racing

One major type of Thoroughbred horse race is the handicap race, in which the weights horses must carry during a race are adjusted in relation to their age (the more immature the horse, the less weight it carries). In this system, a two-year-old, the youngest racer, competes with less weight to carry than a horse that is three years or older. In general, a horse is reckoned as being fully aged at five years and is handicapped accordingly. There are also sex allowances for fillies, so that they carry slightly lower weights than males. Weight penalties or allowances are also provided on the basis of individual horses’ past performance. Such handicaps may be set centrally where racing is so controlled or by individual tracks, the goal being to render all horses as nearly equal as possible by establishing what is called racing form. The handicap race thus represents an outright repudiation of the classic concept that the best horse should win. Instead, handicaps are assigned with the specific objective of giving all the horses in a race an equal chance of winning.

Some handicap races are major sporting events. For instance, the Melbourne Cup, a handicap inaugurated in 1861, is the most important race of the Southern Hemisphere. In the United States the Metropolitan, Brooklyn, and Suburban handicaps—all dating to the 19th century—were once the most valuable American events and remain reasonably comparable to the classics. The Santa Anita Handicap, first run in 1935, pioneered among such races with $100,000 or more purse value.

Purse money and stake fees



The same historical progression was followed for wagers, with the bets in early (two-horse) races being simply to win and modern bets being placed on the first three horses (win, place, and show). From private bets, wagering was extended in the 19th century to bookmaking (a bookmaker is a professional bet accepter who tries to set his odds so that a percentage is working in his favour). Later in that century, betting was taken over worldwide by the racetrack managements in the form of the pari-mutuel. This is a common betting pool in which those who bet horses finishing in the first three places share the total amount bet minus a percentage for the management. The pari-mutuel was perfected with the introduction in the 20th century of the totalizator, a machine that mechanically records bets and can provide an almost instant reflection of betting in all pools. It displays the approximate odds to win on each horse and the total amount of wagering on each horse in each of various betting pools. The customary pools are win, place, and show, and there are such specialty wagers as the daily double (winners of the first two races), perfecta (win and place winners in order in one race), quiniela (as in the perfecta but not in order), and trifecta (win, place, and show winners in order in one race). Other specialty wagers, sometimes offering extremely high payouts, require the bettor to select multiple trifectas, the winners of several races, or the first four horses in one race.

As racing became big business, governments entered wagering with offtrack betting, which was very beneficial to racing in Australia, New Zealand, and France and less so in England and New York City. In the United States, illegal bookmaking offtrack became the province of organized crime. Legal offtrack betting parlours proliferated during the late 20th century but were less prevalent in the 21st because of the growth of online gambling and the general decline in horse racing’s popularity.

Racing ages

A racehorse achieves peak ability at age five, but the classic age of three years and the escalating size of purses, breeding fees, and sale prices have led to fewer races held with horses beyond age four. There are notable exceptions to this, however. Famous races that admit horses older than three include the Prix de l’Arc de Triomphe, the Gran Premio Internacional Carlos Pellegrini in Argentina, the Caulfield and Sydney cups in Australia, the Grande Prêmio São Paulo Internacional in Brazil, the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes in England, the Gran Premio del Jockey Club and Gran Premio di Milano in Italy, the Emperor’s Cup and Arima Memorial in Japan, the Wellington Cup in New Zealand, the Durban July in South Africa, and the Gran Premio Clásico Simón Bolívar in Venezuela.

Breeding theory and practice

To be registered as a Thoroughbred, a foal must be the product of a “live cover,” meaning a witnessed natural mating of a stallion and a mare. Though artificial insemination and embryo transfer are possible and common in other horse breeds, it is banned with Thoroughbreds. The population of the breed is thereby controlled, assuring a high monetary value for the horses in the process. Because each foal is assigned an official birth date of January 1, to facilitate the age groups that define Thoroughbred races, it is important that mares foal as early as possible in the calendar year. This assures maximum development time for the foal before training and racing.

The guiding principle for breeding winning racehorses has always been best expressed as “breed the best to the best and hope for the best.” The performance of a breeding horse’s progeny is the real test, but, for horses untried at stud, the qualifications are pedigree, racing ability, and physical conformation. What breeders learned early in the history of horse racing is that crossing bloodlines can potentially overcome flaws in horses. If, for example, one breed is known for stamina and another known for speed, interbreeding the two might result in a healthy mix of both qualities in their offspring.


horse racing: Galway Race Course, Ireland [Credit: Nutan/Tourism Ireland]horse racing: Galway Race Course, IrelandNutan/Tourism IrelandThe ownership of racetracks ranges from complete state control, in which case the national government may own the tracks and horses and employ trainers, jockeys, grooms, and other necessary personnel, to complete private enterprise, as in most of the United States, where tracks are privately owned and operated for profit, as are the horses, and trainers and jockeys are independent contractors. In-between conditions include government ownership of tracks and in some cases horses, which are leased, and nonprofit privately owned tracks, as in Australia and the New York Racing Association.

Racetrack stands range from the elegant (Longchamp in France, Ascot in England) to the modest and purely functional (Cologne, the Curragh in Ireland). The same variety is true of the saddling area, the paddock. Most European and other racing surfaces are grass; in North and South America the common surface is dirt, though grass became increasingly popular in the 20th century. Synthetic racing surfaces, which routinely drain better than natural surfaces and cause fewer fatal injuries, were increasingly installed at racetracks during the 21st century. Racing takes place mainly in the daytime.

Older racetracks, mainly European, conform to natural terrain, accommodations for spectators having been added later. The course at Newmarket, for example, can accommodate a race of 2.25 miles (3.6 km) with a gentle change of direction of less than 90 degrees, but spectators cannot see all the race. Newer tracks are elliptical 1-mile- (1.6-km-) long tracks.

Racing procedure

The eligibility of racers is checked the day before they are raced. Before the race, jockeys weigh out and report to the paddock for instructions by trainers and mount up, the identity of the horses having been checked. Horses and riders proceed to the track in a parade to the post for the stewards’ (race officials’) inspection and a brief warm-up gallop. Horses are almost universally started from electrically operated starting gates, the horses being walked or led into their stalls prior to the start of the race. The starter actuates the upward swing of the barrier from the stalls when all are in place. During the race, stewards and patrol judges are alert for racing violations, supplemented by a motion-picture patrol. The finish is photographed by a special camera, and, when the race is close, the picture is awaited before winners are announced. The race’s result does not become official until the jockeys have weighed in and the riders of horses that finished in the money are certified to have carried the proper weight. At weighing in, a jockey, owner, or trainer may claim foul against a horse that interfered with his mount. The judgment of the stewards may result in a horse being lowered in order of finish from first to last. The stewards declare the race official, and then payoffs are flashed on the totalizator. Postrace urine tests are made of winning horses and a sample of the field, and if results show the presence of forbidden substances, the results may be changed on payment of purses but not on bets.

Most time records are clustered in North America, where speed has long been a desideratum. Races in the United States are timed to 1/5 of a second, as opposed to 1/100 of a second elsewhere.

Racing silks

Colourful racing silks are a familiar element of horse racing, and their introduction dates to the formal organization of the sport in the 18th century. Though they primarily serve an aesthetic purpose in the modern sport, their original use in racing was to allow spectators to distinguish one horse from another during races in an age before television and public-address systems. To this day horse owners must register a unique pattern and set of colours (worn on the jockey’s jacket and helmet cover) with a regulatory board.

Racing strategy

The earliest American racecourses were typically straight quarter-mile sprints. For these short distances, American jockeys developed a style of riding involving a short stirrup and a crouching posture—this “American seat” eventually became standard worldwide for all distances. As longer, elliptical racetracks were built in New York and throughout the South, a greater onus was placed on jockeys to pace their horses. Because Thoroughbred horses are capable of running only about a quarter of a mile at top speed, determining what pace to set and when to unleash this burst of speed is crucial to winning. The American jockey Isaac Murphy was famous in the 1880s and ’90s for his “grandstand finishes.”


The training of racehorses, simply expressed, is maintaining a horse in the best condition to run. Exercise and feeding programs and knowledge of the individual horse are factors involved. A good trainer selects a jockey who suits the horse and, perhaps more important, enters the horse in suitable races. A trainer of a horse for a classic race not only must develop the horse into peak condition but must time the development so that the horse reaches its peak on a certain day, which is the most difficult art of all.

The state of racing

Louisville: Kentucky Derby, May 2006 [Credit: Al Behrman/AP]Louisville: Kentucky Derby, May 2006Al Behrman/APIn America, interest in horse racing exploded after the Civil War. By 1890 there were 314 racetracks, operating in nearly every state. Incensed, antigambling coalitions pushed through legislation in most parts of the country, and by 1908 only 25 racetracks remained in operation. Finally, even New York racetracks were shut down in 1911 when state legislation outlawed quoting of odds, soliciting bets, and recording bets in a fixed place. In response, many owners, trainers, and jockeys shifted their operations to Europe. When New York racetracks reopened in 1913, most of the earlier African American jockeys never returned.

During the late 1920s and the ’30s racetracks became an important source of tax revenue, and by the second half of the 20th century horse racing had become big business. Fields regularly numbered a dozen or more. Once race meetings lasted a day or two, later a week or two, and today, particularly where climate allows, races may be scheduled for half the year or more. More racing dates require more horses, and horses are raced more intensively. Purses grew, particularly after World War II. In 1981 a new American race, the Arlington Million (run at Arlington Park in Arlington Heights, Illinois, outside of Chicago), was the first million-dollar race. Purses routinely topped this amount in the 21st century, growing to greater than $10 million for certain high-profile races.

Where there is gambling, there is cheating, and the history of racing repeats itself with recurrent race fixing and running of ringers. A new threat to the sport arose in the 1960s with the widespread use of anti-inflammatory and coagulant drugs on horses. Various racing bodies limited or forbade the use of such drugs; others did not. Over-racing, particularly in the United States, encouraged their use, and both legal and illegal drug use may explain the higher death rate among American racehorses. (The U.S. Jockey Club reported that about 600 horses died racing-related deaths on U.S. racetracks in 2006, a significantly larger number than those recorded in other countries.) The use of steroids on horses, like their use by star athletes in many sports, came under particular scrutiny in the late 20th century.


Horse of the Year winners

Winners of the Horse of the Year award are listed in the table.

Horse of the Year
year horse
1936 Granville
1937 War Admiral
1938 Seabiscuit
1939 Challedon
1940 Challedon
1941 Whirlaway
1942 Whirlaway
1943 Count Fleet
1944 Twilight Tear
1945 Busher
1946 Assault
1947 Armed
1948 Citation
1949 Capot*; Coaltown**
1950 Hill Prince
1951 Counterpoint
1952 One Count*; Native Dancer**
1953 Tom Fool
1954 Native Dancer
1955 Nashua
1956 Swaps
1957 Bold Ruler*; Dedicate**
1958 Round Table
1959 Sword Dancer
1960 Kelso
1961 Kelso
1962 Kelso
1963 Kelso
1964 Kelso
1965 Roman Brother*; Moccasin**
1966 Buckpasser
1967 Damascus
1968 Dr. Fager
1969 Arts and Letters
1970 Fort Marcy*; Personality**
1971 Ack Ack
1972 Secretariat
1973 Secretariat
1974 Forego
1975 Forego
1976 Forego
1977 Seattle Slew
1978 Affirmed
1979 Affirmed
1980 Spectacular Bid
1981 John Henry
1982 Conquistador Cielo
1983 All Along
1984 John Henry
1985 Spend a Buck
1986 Lady’s Secret
1987 Ferdinand
1988 Alysheba
1989 Sunday Silence
1990 Criminal Type
1991 Black Tie Affair
1992 A.P. Indy
1993 Kotashaan
1994 Holy Bull
1995 Cigar
1996 Cigar
1997 Favorite Trick
1998 Skip Away
1999 Charismatic
2000 Tiznow
2001 Point Given
2002 Azeri
2003 Mineshaft
2004 Ghostzapper
2005 Saint Liam
2006 Invasor
2007 Curlin
2008 Curlin
2009 Rachel Alexandra
2010 Zenyatta
2011 Havre de Grace
2012 Wise Dan
2013 Wise Dan
2014 California Chrome
2015 American Pharoah
*Daily Racing Form.
**Thoroughbred Racing Association.

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