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(Redirected from GARMENTS.)
—In Biblical Times:


The earliest garment was the apron around the hips or loins ("ḥagorah" or "ezor"), made, in primitive times, of the skins of animals. This apron developed in course of time into the undergarment ("ketonet" or "kuttonet" = χιτώυ, "tunica"), which was worn next to the skin (Gen. ix. 21; II Sam. vi. 20), and taken off at night (Cant. v. 3). (See Coat.) It seems to have been distinct from the "sedinim" = σιυδόυες (Judges xiv. 12 et seq.; Isa. iii. 23; Prov. xxxi. 24), usually designating undergarments of fine linen worn under the ketonet (compare the Assyrian "sudinnu").


In ancient times undergarments of this kind were held together by a girdle, made of linen (Jer. xiii. 1), leather (II Kings i. 8), or gold (Dan. x. 5), and called "ḥagor" or "ezor " in the case of the priests (Ex. xxviii. 4 et seq.), or "abneṭ" (Isa. xxii. 21) in the case of officials. The original dress of the Israelites changed somewhat under Syrian and Babylonian influence. On Egyptian monuments the Syrians are clad in long, tight-fitting upper garments, striped in blue and dark red, richly embroidered, and in yellow undergarments with tight-fitting sleeves, and tight trousers (compare Josh. vii. 21). Trousers, which are now worn in the East, especially by women (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." iv. 62), are not mentioned among the appointments of an ordinary wardrobe, but the priests in later times (compare Ex. xx. 26) wore a garment resembling modern trousers ("miknasim" or "miknasayim"; Ex. xxviii. 42 et seq., xxxix. 28; Ezek. xliv. 18).


A cloak ("me'il") was generally worn over the undergarment (I Sam. ii. 19, xv. 27). This, like the me'il of the high priest, may have reached only to the knees, but it is commonly supposed to have been a long-sleeved garment made of a light fabric, probably imported from Syria. Every respectable man wore generally the upper garment ("simlah") over the ketonet; for any one dressed only in the ketonet was considered naked ("'arom"; I Sam. xix. 24; Amos ii. 16; Isa. xx. 2; Job xxii. 6, xxiv. 7, 10). The fellaheen of modern Palestine wear the "'aba-yah," a cloak usually black, or in black and brown stripes, which corresponds to the (outer) coat of the ancient Israelites.

Upper Garments.

The 'abayah consists of a rectangular piece of woolen cloth, sewed together so that the front and the two openings on the sides for the arms are unstitched. Like the fellah of to-day, so the poor Israelite of ancient times wrapped himself in this garment at night to keep warm (Ex. xxii. 26; Deut. xxiv. 13). Deuteronomy and the ordinances for the priests command that tassels ("gedilim," and "ẓiẓit") be attached to the corners of the coat (Deut. xxii. 12; Num. xv. 38 et seq.); and, according to the later interpretation, not given in Deuteronomy, these tassels were to serve the Israelites as a perpetual reminder to keep the commands of Yhwa At the breast the upper garment was arranged in a wide fold ("ḥeḳ; Ex. iv. 6), into which idlers put their hands (Ps. lxxiv. 11), and which was frequently used as a pocket (II Kings iv. 39; Hag. ii. 12). Since the upper garment was in the way when worn at work, it was either left at home or removed by the workman. It was made of the same materials as the lower one, in early times generally of wool, in Palestine of flax also; but later on purple stuff was imported from Phenicia, byssus from Egypt, and artistic weavings and embroideries from Babylonia (Josh. vii. 21; Zeph. i. 8). The nobles often dressed in white (Eccl. ix. 8; compare the garments of the priests), but it is probable that gorgeously colored garments, like those found on the Syrian figures in Egyptian monuments, were also much used. According to Deut. xxii. 11; Lev. xix. 19, garments woven of both wool and linen were forbidden, probably for superstitious reasons (compare Stade's "Zeitschrift," xx. 36 et seq.; See Sha'aṬnez).

At a later period the nobles wore over the upper garment, or in place of it, a wide, many-folded mantle of state ("adderet" or "ma'aṭafah") made of rich material (Isa. iii. 22), imported from Babylon (Josh. vii. 21). As costly garments were worn only on special occasions and removed immediately afterward, they were called "maḥalaẓot" (Isa. iii. 22; Zech. iii. 4) or "ḥalifot" (Gen. xlv. 22; Judges xiv. 12 et seq.). This was especially the case with garments worn during the service in the Temple, which, having come close to the divinity, had become, figuratively speaking, saturated with the divine effluvium and could easily imperil the wearer. Persons of higher rank, especially the princes, had a great number of these festive garments (II Kings x. 22), which were taken care of by a special keeper of the wardrobe (compare II Kings xxii. 14). They were not merely for personal wear (Job xxvii. 16), but, as in the East to-day, they were frequently offered as presents (Gen. xlv. 22; I Sam. xviii. 4; II Kings v. 5).

Women's Dress.

The dress of women corresponded in the main to that of the men. They also wore the ketonet and simlah. According to Deut. xxii. 5, however, there must have been some difference. The garments of the women were probably longer (compare Nahum iii. 5; Jer. xiii. 22, 26; Isa. xlvii. 2), provided with sleeves (II Sam. xiii. 19), and wider than those of the men, and therefore better adapted to conceal the figure (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." iv. 60). The dress of noblewomen was distinguished for its luxury and ornaments (compare Isa. iii. 16 et seq.; Ezek. xvi. 10 et seq.), and was even scented with perfumes (Ps. xlv. 8; Cant. iv. 11; compare especially the catalogue in Isa. iii. 16et seq.). The luxury in dress displayed by women in the East at the present day suggests the probability of similarly luxurious habits on the part of their sisters of former times. Niebuhr saw women appear in eight or ten different dresses during one evening. Sandals ("na'alayim") of leather, fastened with a strap ("serok"; Gen. xiv. 23), were generally worn to protect the feet in summer against the burning sand, and in winter against the damp ground; but they were worn neither in the house nor in the sanctuary (Ex. iii. 5; Josh. v. 15). Otherwise, however, to walk about without sandals was a sign of great poverty (Deut. xxv. 19) or of deep mourning (II Sam. xv. 30; Ezek. xxiv. 17, 23).


Neither the monuments nor the written documents of Biblical times give any information of value concerning head-gear. On the marble relief of Sennacherib the Israelites appear uncovered; and while on the Shalmaneser stele Jehu's ambassadors have head-coverings, these are evidently patterned after the Assyrian fashion. Only one passage of the older literature (I Kings xx. 31) makes mention of "ḥabalim" that are wound around the head; these recall the Syrians on Egyptian monuments, who appear with a rope coiled around their long, flowing hair, as is still the custom here and there in Arabia. This custom, probably a very ancient one, did not long obtain, since it afforded no protection against the sun. It may be assumed, therefore, that even the ancient Hebrews had a style of head-covering still used by the Bedouins. This consists of a square woolen cloth ("kaffiyyah"), folded triangularly, and laid upon the head, over which one corner depends to protect the nape of the neck, while the two side corners are crossed under the chin and also hang down the back. A heavy woolen cord ("'aḳal") holds the cloth firmly on the head. In later times both men and women wore a covering more closely resembling the turban of the modern fellaheen of Palestine.

The cap (ṭaḳiyyah), often the only head-covering worn by boys, is generally made of two or three thicknesses of cotton cloth, intended to protect the rest of the head-covering against perspiration; over this are placed one, and often two, felt caps ("lubbadah"), and then the Turkish national head-covering ("ṭarbush"); finally a fringed cloth of unbleached cotton, a colored figured mandil, a yellow and red striped kaffiyyah, a black cashmere shawl, a piece of white muslin, or a green cloth is wound around this. This style of head-covering not only protects against the sun, but is also an admirable pillow, and serves as a repository for valuable documents (compare "Zeit. Deutsch. Paläst. Ver." iv. 57 et seq.). The use of a similar head-covering among the Hebrews seems to be indicated by the noun "ẓanif" (from the verb "ẓanaf"; Job xxix. 14; Isa. iii. 23), as well as by the verb "ḥabash," applied to the act of arranging the "ẓanif"; for the verb "ḥabash" means literally "to wind around," and the verb "ẓanaf" similarly signifies "to wind into a ball." It is possible that the various classes gradually came to use different forms of the turban.


Since the ancient Hebrews evidently knew nothing of the strict separation of men and women customary among the Moslems, the women wore veils only on certain occasions, as on the wedding-day (Gen. xxiv. 65, xxix. 22 et seq.). Later on, veils and gauze garments, adopted from other nations, apparently came into more general use among the Israelites (compare Isa.iii. 16 et seq.). The most common term for "veil" is "ẓa'if" (Gen. xxiv. 65), while "re'alot" (Isa. iii. 19) probably designates a veil consisting of two parts, one of which, adjusted above the eyes, was thrown backward over the head and neck, while the other, adjusted below the eyes, hung down over the breast. It does not follow from Ex. xxxiv. 33 et seq. that men also wore veils.

  • W. Nowack, Lehrbuch der Hebräischen Archäologie;
  • Benzinger, Arch. pp.97 et seq.;
  • Weiss, Kostümkunde; Brüll, Trachten der Juden;
  • Cheyne and Black, Encyc. Bibl.;
  • Biblical World, 1901.
E. G. H. W. N.Hellenic Influence. V04p294001.jpgCostume of German Jews of the Thirteenth Century.(From Herrad von Landsperg, "Luftgarten.")—In Post-Biblical Times:

The dress indicated in the Talmud does not differ much from that described in the Bible. Rules were given for the order in which the different articles of dress were removed before a bath, and from this can be ascertained the costume of the ordinary Israelite of the time, which consisted, in order of removal, of shoes, head-covering, mantle, girdle, shirt, and finally a vest known by the Greek name "epikarsion" (Derek Ereẓ, Rabbah x.).Many, if not most, of the terms applied to articles of dress were derived from the Greek, and it is therefore probable that their form and style were Hellenic. Thus the sagum, or armless mantle of the laborer (Kel. xxix. 1); the dalmatic of the leisurely classes (Kil. ix. 7); the sudarium, or handkerchief (Shab. iii. 3; Sanh. vi. 1; compare Luke xix. 20); the pileum, or felt hat (Niddah viii. 1); and the stola (Yoma vii. 1) are all spoken of by their Greek names. A more complete enumeration of clothing in Talmudic times is given in Shab. 120a, in which the question is raised as to what clothes may be carried out of a burning house on Sabbath, Rabbi Jose limiting them to eighteen of the more necessary articles. The parallel passage in the Jerusalem Talmud gives different names, which fact points to a difference in costume between Palestine and Babylonia. Most of these names, as well as those in Yer. Kil. ix. 4 and in Massek. Ẓiẓit, p. 22, are of Greek origin, and indicate the extent of Hellenic influence on Jewish dress. The Jews even borrowed from the Romans the superstitious practise of drawing on the right shoe first (Derek Ereẓ R. x.; Shab. 61a), though previously the opposite custom had prevailed among them (Yer. Shab. vi. 2). The pænula, a round cape with hood, mentioned in Yer. Ḥag. i. 8, and generally used by day-laborers to protect their tunics from rain and snow, is contrasted with the ṭallit as a Japhetic or foreign garment (Gen. R. xxxvi.).

V04p295001.jpgGerman Jew of the Early Sixteenth Century.(After Hans Burgkmair.)

Generally speaking, it may be assumed that the Jewish dress of Palestine, at least in the cities, was adapted in a large measure from that of the Romans; yet at times conservatives like the masters of the Law kept to the old Palestinian costume: the "gollok," which they wore under the ṭallit (B. B. 57b), is specially declared to be like the so-called" coat of many colors" of Joseph (Gen. R. lxxxiv.). Owing to the flowing character of the robes there was very little difference in male and female dress, so that Rabbi Judah and his wife were able to manage with one street-robe between them. The stola, for instance, was used indiscriminately by men and women. It was a long mantle of finer material than the tunic or shirt, girdled under the breast and provided with a stripe of a different color and sometimes embroidered with gold. It was often very expensive, costing occasionally as much as 100 minas (Shab. 128a). The waistcoat, or epikarsion, used by both men and women, was brought round under one arm and then knotted over the shoulder of the other (Niddah 48b; compare Miḳ. x. 4). The trousers or drawers of the ordinary Israelite differed from those of the priests of earlier times only by being provided with openings (Niddah 13b). In regard to covering for head and feet see Hat; Shoe.

Color. V04p295002.jpgJews of the Upper Rhine, End of the Sixteenth Century.(From the Basel "Stammbuch," 1612.)

Mourners as well as excommunicated persons (Yer. R. H. i. 3) wore black, as did those accused of adultery (Soṭah 7a); but shoes were not to be black, because the wearing of black shoes was a distinctively Gentile practise (Ta'an. 22a). White was used at weddings and other festivals, and for this reason was adopted for the festival of New-Year (Yer. R. H. i. 3); for special apparel as a sign of mourning see Mourning, and for the use of crowns on festive occasions see Crowns. Jewesses did not wear red, which was regarded as licentious (Ber. 20a). Jews were cautioned against adopting the many-colored or purple garments of the heathen, or their widepantaloons (Sifre, 81), and it became a general principle in later Jewish law that one should not follow in the ways of the heathen or use costumes peculiar to them (Shulḥan 'Aruk, Yoreh De'ah, 178, 1); and though this was interpreted as applying only to that kind of Gentile dress which was associated with some specifically religious practise, it was held that, if a religious principle were involved, it were better to face martyrdom than to change even the style of a shoelace (Sanh. 74b). The pious were particularly careful. Moses Sofer in his ethical will says: "Be careful of changing your name, language, or costume, which God forbid" ("Leb ha-'Ibri," i. 35). Only one exception was made to this general principle: those who were "near the government" were allowed and even recommended to wear the ordinary clothes of office (Yoreh De'ah, 178, 2). There is no definite proof that at distinctively Jewish dress was worn during the Middle Ages, either in Asia or in Europe. The gaon of Bagdad was clothed like a king ("Travels of R. Pethahiah," ed. Benisch, p. 43). Pethahiah himself noticed the difference between the costumes of Eastern and Western Jews (l.c. 11), the Persian Jews at that time wearing full and flowing outer robes. Considerable elegance was displayed by the wealthier classes. Gold embroidery is mentioned (Yer. Yoma vii. 3); and women were not above using false hair ('Er. 7b), and false teeth made of gold or silver (Sheb. 64b); the hair was also dyed (B. B. 60b).

V04p296001.jpgCostume of a Jew of Swabia, Early Seventeenth Century.(After Daniel Meisner, "Politica Politice," 1700.)Importance of Dress.

Great importance was attributed to dress: "The glory of God is man, the glory of man is dress" (Derek Ereẓ, Zuṭa x.); dress was considered of even more consequence than food and drink: "Dear upon you, cheap within you" (B. B. 52a); and the rule was to dress according to your means, but to eat below them (Ḥul. 84b; but see Gen. R. xx.). The scholar especially was required to dress neatly and respectably. It was regarded as bringing shame upon scholarship if a learned person went out with botched shoes or darned garments (Shab. 114a). A bride was given a year to prepare the trousseau (Ket. 57a), and a man was obliged to give his wife each year one hat, one belt, three pairs of shoes (for the three feasts), and other articles of dress, amounting in all to fifty zuzim (Ket. 64b). While there was a strong tendency to adopt foreign costume, as shown by the names of garments, there was an equally marked tendency to avoid this, probably as part of the general principle of placing a fence about the law.

Influence of the Badge.


V04p296002.jpgAn English Jew of the Stock Exchange.(From a caricature of the early eighteenth century.)

The only restriction on material is in the Biblical injunction against using garments "mingled of linenand woolen" (Lev. xix. 19; see Sha'aṬnez). The leather of forbidden animals would also be unsuitable for Jewish use. Generally speaking, the material used was of the richest kind for female dress, but was chosen more for use than for show in the case of the men.

Even from Talmudic times it was usual to reserve a better suit of clothes for the Sabbath. Every one should have two suits, one for week-days and one for Sabbath (Yer. Peah viii. 7), and where two suits are unattainable, the one should be differently arranged on Sabbath (Sanh. 113a). It is quite customary on modern Jewish holidays to carry out the Talmudic precept.


V04p297001.jpgTunis Jewess in Street Costume.(After a photograph.)

The pupils of Isserlein describe him as wearing a "geriffelte," a fur-lined mantle like that worn by women, with ruffles round the neck (Responsa, No. 297); but at the same time they state that only the older rabbis in Austria wore it. Sebastian Brant, in his "Narrenschiff," describes a particularly popular fringed mantle of his time as "Judisch syt" (Güdemann, "Erziehungswesen in Deutschland," Vienna, 1888, p. 274).

Medieval Costumes. V04p297002.jpgCostume of a Jew of Algiers.(From a photograph.)


V04p298001.jpgJewess of Brusa, Turkey.(After Racinet.)Sacred Vestments.



V04p298002.jpgFrench Rabbi in Official Garb.(From a photograph.)

With regard to those modes of dressing the hair which go with certain costumes, see Beard; Hair; Pe'ot; Wig.

V04p298a01.jpgCOSTUMES OF JEWS.1. France (c. 12th Cent.). 2. Germany (13th Cent.). 3. Germany Money-changer (12th Cent.). 4. Italy (14th Cent.). 5. Italy Merchant (14th Cent.). 6. France (14th Cent.). 7. Germany (15th Cent.). 8. and 9. Constance (1417.). 10. Holland? (15th Cent.). 11. Italy (15th 16th Cent.). 12. Switzerland (15th 16th Cent.). 13. Germany (Worms, 16th Cent.). 14. Germany (Nuremberg, 17th 18th Cent.). 15. Germany (Frankfort on the Main. 17th 18th Cent.). 16. Holland; Rabbi (c.1700). 17. Germany: Jew in Praying Allire (Fürth, Early 18th Cent.). 18. Germany (Füurth, Early 18th Cent.). 19. Turkey (18 Cent.). 20. Cochin (Early 19th Cent.). 21. Algiers (Early 19th Cent.). 22. Tunis (Modern.). 23. Tunis Jewess in Street Allire (Modern.). 24. Salonica (Modern). 25. Constantinople (c.1850.). 26. Jerusalem (Modern.). 27. Poland (18th 19th Cent.). 28. Russia (Early 19th Cent.). 29. Lithuania (Modern.). 30. Russia Karaite (c.1850.).





"The Barbary Jews wear a blue frock, without a collar or sleeves, loose linen sleeves being substituted, with wide drawers of the same article, no stockings, excepting in winter, and black slippers, a small black skull-cap on their head, which is shaved, and around which a blue silk handkerchief is bound; they are permitted to wear no colors. The Italian Jews dress like Christian residents, with the addition of a haick, or bournouse, thrown over their heads. The Jewish women, like the Turkish, are considered as an inferior race—they are fat and awkward, their dress consisting of a petticoat of silk of two colors, principally yellow and purple, around which is thrown, in several folds, a thin gauze wrapper; the head is covered with a colored silk handkerchief; those who are single have their hair plaited in two or three rows, to the end of which they suspend colored ribands; they wear no stockings, but slippers, with silver cinctures around their ankles; and the soles of their feet, their hands, nails, and eyebrows, tinged and colored of a dark brown, from the juice of a herb called henna. When they walk they unloosen from their neck a piece of black crape, with which they cover their mouth and chin, leaving the upper part of their face bare."

Whatever the costume, in almost every case the outer garment is supported by a belt or girdle. This has Biblical authority, and besides enables the ultra pious to carry a handkerchief as a girdle on Sabbath; on other occasions the handkerchief is tucked inside the girdle, as is seen in a curious caricature of an English Jew of the Stock Exchange, as well-as in a figure after Hans Burgkmair showing a Jewish pedler of the sixteenth century wearing a relatively modern felt hat (see illustrations, pp. 295 and 296). In the eighteenth century the Jew generally wore the ordinary three - cornered hat of the time, and even had his hair powdered (Arye ben Ḥayyim, Responsa, No. 6).

V04p299001.jpgJews of Jerusalem.(From a photograph by the American Colony, Jerusalem.)Turkish.


V04p300001.jpgJews of Constantinople, Eighteenth Century, Celebrating the Feast of Tabernacles.(From an old print.)


M. Fr.



V04p300002.jpgRabbi of the Orient.(From a photograph.)

The Ḥasidim of Galicia tend to distinguish themselves in dress as well as in customs; besides the fur hat and the old-fashioned "paletot" reaching to theankles, the modern Ḥasid is invariably to be recognized by the pair of white socks into which the trousers are tucked.




  • Volume I.: Aaron, Son of the Devil, page 8; N. M. Adler, 198; Mauricio colonists, 243; Baron d'Aguilar, 274; Algerian Jewess, 384; Chinese Jews, 431; Amsterdam Jews, Jewesses, and children (Picard), 543.
  • Volume II.: Moses Arragel, page 139; Benj. Artom, 156; Ẓebi Ashkenazi, 202; Atonement, Day of, 283-285; badge, 425-426; Bagdad, 437; Jerusalem Jew. 614; beard, 614; Belais, 652.
  • Volume III.: Mordecai Benet, page 14; Beni-Israel, 18-19; Isaac Bernays, 90; betrothal, 126-128; Bokhara, 293-295; bridegroom of the Law, 383; Brussels, 407-408; burial, 432-437; Raphael Isaac Carregal, 592; Caucasus, 628-629; Ẓebi Chajes, 660.
  • Volume IV.: China, page 36; Cochin, 135-136; Cohn, Tobias, 161; Constance, 235; Cracow, 326-328; Death, 485; Delmedigo, Joseph, 508; disputation; divorce. For sources of the figures in the colored plate of costumes of Jews see List of Illustrations.
V04p301001.jpgJew of Kolomea, Austrian Galicia.(After a photograph.)
  • A. Brüll, Trachten der Juden, Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1873.
  • Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch. xv.-xvi.;
  • Hottenroth, Deutsche Volks-Trachten;
  • Popular Costumes of Turkey, 1873;
  • Picart, Coutumes Religieuscs;
  • Racinet, Le Costume Historique, Paris, 1876;
  • Rev. Et. Juives, passim.
A. J.—In Russia and Poland: V04p301002.jpgJews of the Caucasus in Native Costume.(After a Photograph by Orden.)V04p301003.jpgPolish Jewess and Jew of the Eighteenth Century.(After Le Prince, 1765.)


V04p302001.jpgWarsaw Jew and Jewess of the Early Nineteenth Century.(From Hollaenderski, "Les Israelites de Pologne.")Law of 1845.


But the strictly Orthodox not only had religious scruples against wearing the costume of the Gentiles, which is prohibited, though not clearly and decisively, by Maimonides, and the Shulḥan 'Aruk (Yoreh De'ah, 178), but considered the new law as another one of the many efforts of the emperor to Christianize them by force. It caused as much dismay as the worst decree of that harsh reign, and the number of Jews who preferred to suffer the penalty rather than comply with the law was so large that its enforcement was postponed for five years. But the suspension of the law, like most acts of the Russian government, was not complete, and some of the taxes were still collected which had been imposed upon those who desired exemption from that law. Among such taxes was that collected for wearing jarmulkas, which seems to have been collected in various places in an irregular manner, but was finally compounded, by a special decree of Feb. 11, 1848, for a tax of five rubles annually, the proceeds to go to the fund of the "korobka" (basket tax). The decree was reenacted May 1, 1850, to take effect Jan. 1, 1851, giving permission, however, to the governors-general of the various provinces to allow Jews over sixty years of age to continue the old garb.

Present Day. V04p302002.jpgḤassid and Wife of the Early Nineteenth Century.(From Hollaenderski, "Les Israelites de Pologne.")

Now that the costume laws are obsolete the Jews dress as they please. Old-fashioned Jews still cling to the long frock-coats and cloaks, length being the distinguishing feature of all kinds of Jewish costumes (see Carl Köhler, "Trachten der Völker in Bild und Schrift," p. 300, Dresden, 1871). The preference for silk, velvet, and expensive furs, against which the Jewish Council of the FourLands legislated from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century, still prevails in many parts of Russia, though it is waning. The ḥasidim, especially in the smaller towns of Poland, Podolia, and Volhynia, still use the old-time Jewish costume with some modifications. This includes the long coat; short white trousers, or rather knee-breeches, which also serve instead of underwear; long white stockings; and low, slipper-like shoes. The "arba' kanfot," or "little ṭallit," takes the place of a vest; the girdle, and—with the more pretentious—the "stramele" or "spodek" (round fur cap) over the jarmulka, complete the costume, which is not much unlike that described by Holländerski as worn before the government began to legislate on the subject. In larger and more progressive places, as well as in Russia proper, most of the Jews dress like their Christian neighbors, always with a tendency, among the older people, toward longer coats. The dress of Jewish women never differed much from that of other women, and any difference was more in the material used than in the form or style. Further descriptions of Jewish costumes in Russia will be found in the articles on the respective provinces and governments.

  • V. O. Levanda, Polny Khronlogicheski Sbornik Zakonov, etc., §§ 59, 77, 404, 446, 578, 620, 643, 789, St. Petersburg, 1874;
  • Jost, Neuere Geschichte der Israeliten, ii. 312-313;
  • L. Holländerski, Les Israélites de Pologne, pp. 224-225, Paris, 1846.
H. R. P. Wi.
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