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Lessons In Electric Circuits -- Volume I

Chapter 2


"One microampere flowing in one ohm causes a one microvolt potential drop."

Georg Simon Ohm

How voltage, current, and resistance relate







The mathematical symbol for each quantity is meaningful as well. The "R" for resistance and the "V" for voltage are both self-explanatory, whereas "I" for current seems a bit weird. The "I" is thought to have been meant to represent "Intensity" (of electron flow), and the other symbol for voltage, "E," stands for "Electromotive force." From what research I've been able to do, there seems to be some dispute over the meaning of "I." The symbols "E" and "V" are interchangeable for the most part, although some texts reserve "E" to represent voltage across a source (such as a battery or generator) and "V" to represent voltage across anything else.

All of these symbols are expressed using capital letters, except in cases where a quantity (especially voltage or current) is described in terms of a brief period of time (called an "instantaneous" value). For example, the voltage of a battery, which is stable over a long period of time, will be symbolized with a capital letter "E," while the voltage peak of a lightning strike at the very instant it hits a power line would most likely be symbolized with a lower-case letter "e" (or lower-case "v") to designate that value as being at a single moment in time. This same lower-case convention holds true for current as well, the lower-case letter "i" representing current at some instant in time. Most direct-current (DC) measurements, however, being stable over time, will be symbolized with capital letters.












What is the amount of voltage provided by the battery?






An analogy for Ohm's Law





Power in electric circuits

In addition to voltage and current, there is another measure of free electron activity in a circuit: power. First, we need to understand just what power is before we analyze it in any circuits.

Power is a measure of how much work can be performed in a given amount of time. Work is generally defined in terms of the lifting of a weight against the pull of gravity. The heavier the weight and/or the higher it is lifted, the more work has been done. Power is a measure of how rapidly a standard amount of work is done.

For American automobiles, engine power is rated in a unit called "horsepower," invented initially as a way for steam engine manufacturers to quantify the working ability of their machines in terms of the most common power source of their day: horses. One horsepower is defined in British units as 550 ft-lbs of work per second of time. The power of a car's engine won't indicate how tall of a hill it can climb or how much weight it can tow, but it will indicate how fast it can climb a specific hill or tow a specific weight.

The power of a mechanical engine is a function of both the engine's speed and its torque provided at the output shaft. Speed of an engine's output shaft is measured in revolutions per minute, or RPM. Torque is the amount of twisting force produced by the engine, and it is usually measured in pound-feet, or lb-ft (not to be confused with foot-pounds or ft-lbs, which is the unit for work). Neither speed nor torque alone is a measure of an engine's power.

A 100 horsepower diesel tractor engine will turn relatively slowly, but provide great amounts of torque. A 100 horsepower motorcycle engine will turn very fast, but provide relatively little torque. Both will produce 100 horsepower, but at different speeds and different torques. The equation for shaft horsepower is simple:

Notice how there are only two variable terms on the right-hand side of the equation, S and T. All the other terms on that side are constant: 2, pi, and 33,000 are all constants (they do not change in value). The horsepower varies only with changes in speed and torque, nothing else. We can re-write the equation to show this relationship:

Because the unit of the "horsepower" doesn't coincide exactly with speed in revolutions per minute multiplied by torque in pound-feet, we can't say that horsepower equals ST. However, they are proportional to one another. As the mathematical product of ST changes, the value for horsepower will change by the same proportion.

In electric circuits, power is a function of both voltage and current. Not surprisingly, this relationship bears striking resemblance to the "proportional" horsepower formula above:

In this case, however, power (P) is exactly equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage (E), rather than merely being proportional to IE. When using this formula, the unit of measurement for power is the watt, abbreviated with the letter "W."

It must be understood that neither voltage nor current by themselves constitute power. Rather, power is the combination of both voltage and current in a circuit. Remember that voltage is the specific work (or potential energy) per unit charge, while current is the rate at which electric charges move through a conductor. Voltage (specific work) is analogous to the work done in lifting a weight against the pull of gravity. Current (rate) is analogous to the speed at which that weight is lifted. Together as a product (multiplication), voltage (work) and current (rate) constitute power.

Just as in the case of the diesel tractor engine and the motorcycle engine, a circuit with high voltage and low current may be dissipating the same amount of power as a circuit with low voltage and high current. Neither the amount of voltage alone nor the amount of current alone indicates the amount of power in an electric circuit.

In an open circuit, where voltage is present between the terminals of the source and there is zero current, there is zero power dissipated, no matter how great that voltage may be. Since P=IE and I=0 and anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in any open circuit must be zero. Likewise, if we were to have a short circuit constructed of a loop of superconducting wire (absolutely zero resistance), we could have a condition of current in the loop with zero voltage, and likewise no power would be dissipated. Since P=IE and E=0 and anything multiplied by zero is zero, the power dissipated in a superconducting loop must be zero. (We'll be exploring the topic of superconductivity in a later chapter).

Whether we measure power in the unit of "horsepower" or the unit of "watt," we're still talking about the same thing: how much work can be done in a given amount of time. The two units are not numerically equal, but they express the same kind of thing. In fact, European automobile manufacturers typically advertise their engine power in terms of kilowatts (kW), or thousands of watts, instead of horsepower! These two units of power are related to each other by a simple conversion formula:

So, our 100 horsepower diesel and motorcycle engines could also be rated as "74570 watt" engines, or more properly, as "74.57 kilowatt" engines. In European engineering specifications, this rating would be the norm rather than the exception.

Calculating electric power

We've seen the formula for determining the power in an electric circuit: by multiplying the voltage in "volts" by the current in "amps" we arrive at an answer in "watts." Let's apply this to a circuit example:

In the above circuit, we know we have a battery voltage of 18 volts and a lamp resistance of 3 Ω. Using Ohm's Law to determine current, we get:

Now that we know the current, we can take that value and multiply it by the voltage to determine power:

Answer: the lamp is dissipating (releasing) 108 watts of power, most likely in the form of both light and heat.

Let's try taking that same circuit and increasing the battery voltage to see what happens. Intuition should tell us that the circuit current will increase as the voltage increases and the lamp resistance stays the same. Likewise, the power will increase as well:

Now, the battery voltage is 36 volts instead of 18 volts. The lamp is still providing 3 Ω of electrical resistance to the flow of electrons. The current is now:

This stands to reason: if I = E/R, and we double E while R stays the same, the current should double. Indeed, it has: we now have 12 amps of current instead of 6. Now, what about power?

Notice that the power has increased just as we might have suspected, but it increased quite a bit more than the current. Why is this? Because power is a function of voltage multiplied by current, and both voltage and current doubled from their previous values, the power will increase by a factor of 2 x 2, or 4. You can check this by dividing 432 watts by 108 watts and seeing that the ratio between them is indeed 4.

Using algebra again to manipulate the formulae, we can take our original power formula and modify it for applications where we don't know both voltage and current:

If we only know voltage (E) and resistance (R):

If we only know current (I) and resistance (R):

A historical note: it was James Prescott Joule, not Georg Simon Ohm, who first discovered the mathematical relationship between power dissipation and current through a resistance. This discovery, published in 1841, followed the form of the last equation (P = I2R), and is properly known as Joule's Law. However, these power equations are so commonly associated with the Ohm's Law equations relating voltage, current, and resistance (E=IR ; I=E/R ; and R=E/I) that they are frequently credited to Ohm.


Because the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in any circuit is so regular, we can reliably control any variable in a circuit simply by controlling the other two. Perhaps the easiest variable in any circuit to control is its resistance. This can be done by changing the material, size, and shape of its conductive components (remember how the thin metal filament of a lamp created more electrical resistance than a thick wire?).

Special components called resistors are made for the express purpose of creating a precise quantity of resistance for insertion into a circuit. They are typically constructed of metal wire or carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of environmental conditions. Unlike lamps, they do not produce light, but they do produce heat as electric power is dissipated by them in a working circuit. Typically, though, the purpose of a resistor is not to produce usable heat, but simply to provide a precise quantity of electrical resistance.

The most common schematic symbol for a resistor is a zig-zag line:

Resistor values in ohms are usually shown as an adjacent number, and if several resistors are present in a circuit, they will be labeled with a unique identifier number such as R1, R2, R3, etc. As you can see, resistor symbols can be shown either horizontally or vertically:

Real resistors look nothing like the zig-zag symbol. Instead, they look like small tubes or cylinders with two wires protruding for connection to a circuit. Here is a sampling of different kinds and sizes of resistors:

In keeping more with their physical appearance, an alternative schematic symbol for a resistor looks like a small, rectangular box:

Resistors can also be shown to have varying rather than fixed resistances. This might be for the purpose of describing an actual physical device designed for the purpose of providing an adjustable resistance, or it could be to show some component that just happens to have an unstable resistance:

In fact, any time you see a component symbol drawn with a diagonal arrow through it, that component has a variable rather than a fixed value. This symbol "modifier" (the diagonal arrow) is standard electronic symbol convention.

Variable resistors must have some physical means of adjustment, either a rotating shaft or lever that can be moved to vary the amount of electrical resistance. Here is a photograph showing some devices called potentiometers, which can be used as variable resistors:

Because resistors dissipate heat energy as the electric currents through them overcome the "friction" of their resistance, resistors are also rated in terms of how much heat energy they can dissipate without overheating and sustaining damage. Naturally, this power rating is specified in the physical unit of "watts." Most resistors found in small electronic devices such as portable radios are rated at 1/4 (0.25) watt or less. The power rating of any resistor is roughly proportional to its physical size. Note in the first resistor photograph how the power ratings relate with size: the bigger the resistor, the higher its power dissipation rating. Also note how resistances (in ohms) have nothing to do with size!

Although it may seem pointless now to have a device doing nothing but resisting electric current, resistors are extremely useful devices in circuits. Because they are simple and so commonly used throughout the world of electricity and electronics, we'll spend a considerable amount of time analyzing circuits composed of nothing but resistors and batteries.

For a practical illustration of resistors' usefulness, examine the photograph below. It is a picture of a printed circuit board, or PCB: an assembly made of sandwiched layers of insulating phenolic fiber-board and conductive copper strips, into which components may be inserted and secured by a low-temperature welding process called "soldering." The various components on this circuit board are identified by printed labels. Resistors are denoted by any label beginning with the letter "R".

This particular circuit board is a computer accessory called a "modem," which allows digital information transfer over telephone lines. There are at least a dozen resistors (all rated at 1/4 watt power dissipation) that can be seen on this modem's board. Every one of the black rectangles (called "integrated circuits" or "chips") contain their own array of resistors for their internal functions, as well.

Another circuit board example shows resistors packaged in even smaller units, called "surface mount devices." This particular circuit board is the underside of a personal computer hard disk drive, and once again the resistors soldered onto it are designated with labels beginning with the letter "R":

There are over one hundred surface-mount resistors on this circuit board, and this count of course does not include the number of resistors internal to the black "chips." These two photographs should convince anyone that resistors -- devices that "merely" oppose the flow of electrons -- are very important components in the realm of electronics!

In schematic diagrams, resistor symbols are sometimes used to illustrate any general type of device in a circuit doing something useful with electrical energy. Any non-specific electrical device is generally called a load, so if you see a schematic diagram showing a resistor symbol labeled "load," especially in a tutorial circuit diagram explaining some concept unrelated to the actual use of electrical power, that symbol may just be a kind of shorthand representation of something else more practical than a resistor.

To summarize what we've learned in this lesson, let's analyze the following circuit, determining all that we can from the information given:

All we've been given here to start with is the battery voltage (10 volts) and the circuit current (2 amps). We don't know the resistor's resistance in ohms or the power dissipated by it in watts. Surveying our array of Ohm's Law equations, we find two equations that give us answers from known quantities of voltage and current:

Inserting the known quantities of voltage (E) and current (I) into these two equations, we can determine circuit resistance (R) and power dissipation (P):

For the circuit conditions of 10 volts and 2 amps, the resistor's resistance must be 5 Ω. If we were designing a circuit to operate at these values, we would have to specify a resistor with a minimum power rating of 20 watts, or else it would overheat and fail.

Nonlinear conduction


Bernhard Haisch, Astrophysicist




















Circuit wiring







Between points 1 and 4 = 10 volts                             
Between points 2 and 4 = 10 volts                               
Between points 1 and 5 = 10 volts                              
Between points 2 and 5 = 10 volts                              
Between points 3 and 5 = 10 volts                               
Between points 2 and 6 = 10 volts                             
Between points 3 and 6 = 10 volts                      


Between points 2 and 3 = 0 volts     electrically common    
Between points 1 and 3 = 0 volts                          
Between points 5 and 6 = 0 volts     electrically common   
Between points 4 and 6 = 0 volts                         







Polarity of voltage drops

We can trace the direction that electrons will flow in the same circuit by starting at the negative (-) terminal and following through to the positive (+) terminal of the battery, the only source of voltage in the circuit. From this we can see that the electrons are moving counter-clockwise, from point 6 to 5 to 4 to 3 to 2 to 1 and back to 6 again.

As the current encounters the 5 Ω resistance, voltage is dropped across the resistor's ends. The polarity of this voltage drop is negative (-) at point 4 with respect to positive (+) at point 3. We can mark the polarity of the resistor's voltage drop with these negative and positive symbols, in accordance with the direction of current (whichever end of the resistor the current is entering is negative with respect to the end of the resistor it is exiting:

We could make our table of voltages a little more complete by marking the polarity of the voltage for each pair of points in this circuit:

Between points 1 (+) and 4 (-) = 10 volts                     
Between points 2 (+) and 4 (-) = 10 volts  
Between points 3 (+) and 4 (-) = 10 volts 
Between points 1 (+) and 5 (-) = 10 volts                        
Between points 2 (+) and 5 (-) = 10 volts                       
Between points 3 (+) and 5 (-) = 10 volts  
Between points 1 (+) and 6 (-) = 10 volts 
Between points 2 (+) and 6 (-) = 10 volts                         
Between points 3 (+) and 6 (-) = 10 volts                          

While it might seem a little silly to document polarity of voltage drop in this circuit, it is an important concept to master. It will be critically important in the analysis of more complex circuits involving multiple resistors and/or batteries.

It should be understood that polarity has nothing to do with Ohm's Law: there will never be negative voltages, currents, or resistance entered into any Ohm's Law equations! There are other mathematical principles of electricity that do take polarity into account through the use of signs (+ or -), but not Ohm's Law.

Computer simulation of electric circuits



















spice < circuit1.cir









my first circuit                                                                
v 1 0 dc 10     
r 1 0 5 

 node   voltage
(  1)   10.0000

voltage source currents
name       current
v        -2.000E+00

total power dissipation   2.00E+01  watts 





second example circuit 
v 1 0 dc 30     
r 1 0 5 

node    voltage
(  1)   30.0000

voltage source currents
name       current
v        -6.000E+00
total power dissipation   1.80E+02  watts



third example circuit  
v 1 0   
r 1 0 5 
*voltage from 0 to 100 volts in 5 volt steps.   
.dc v 0 100 5   
.print dc v(1) i(v)  


v             i(v)            
0.000E+00     0.000E+00
5.000E+00    -1.000E+00
1.000E+01    -2.000E+00
1.500E+01    -3.000E+00
2.000E+01    -4.000E+00
2.500E+01    -5.000E+00
3.000E+01    -6.000E+00
3.500E+01    -7.000E+00
4.000E+01    -8.000E+00
4.500E+01    -9.000E+00
5.000E+01    -1.000E+01
5.500E+01    -1.100E+01
6.000E+01    -1.200E+01
6.500E+01    -1.300E+01
7.000E+01    -1.400E+01
7.500E+01    -1.500E+01
8.000E+01    -1.600E+01
8.500E+01    -1.700E+01
9.000E+01    -1.800E+01
9.500E+01    -1.900E+01
1.000E+02    -2.000E+01


Legend:  + = v#branch         
0.000e+00  0.000e+00 .                        .                        + 
5.000e+00 -1.000e+00 .                        .                     +  . 
1.000e+01 -2.000e+00 .                        .                   +    . 
1.500e+01 -3.000e+00 .                        .                +       . 
2.000e+01 -4.000e+00 .                        .              +         . 
2.500e+01 -5.000e+00 .                        .           +            . 
3.000e+01 -6.000e+00 .                        .         +              . 
3.500e+01 -7.000e+00 .                        .      +                 . 
4.000e+01 -8.000e+00 .                        .    +                   . 
4.500e+01 -9.000e+00 .                        . +                      . 
5.000e+01 -1.000e+01 .                        +                        . 
5.500e+01 -1.100e+01 .                     +  .                        . 
6.000e+01 -1.200e+01 .                   +    .                        . 
6.500e+01 -1.300e+01 .                +       .                        . 
7.000e+01 -1.400e+01 .              +         .                        . 
7.500e+01 -1.500e+01 .           +            .                        . 
8.000e+01 -1.600e+01 .         +              .                        . 
8.500e+01 -1.700e+01 .      +                 .                        . 
9.000e+01 -1.800e+01 .    +                   .                        . 
9.500e+01 -1.900e+01 . +                      .                        . 
1.000e+02 -2.000e+01 +                        .                        . 







Larry Cramblett (September 20, 2004): identified serious typographical error in "Nonlinear conduction" section.

James Boorn (January 18, 2001): identified sentence structure error and offered correction. Also, identified discrepancy in netlist syntax requirements between SPICE version 2g6 and version 3f5.

Ben Crowell, Ph.D. (January 13, 2001): suggestions on improving the technical accuracy of voltage and charge definitions.



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