1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Introduction The Indian Scenario regarding merger Reasons for merger & amalgamation Motivation of horizontal merger Adverse features - Coordinated effects - Unilateral effects 6. Some key expressions - Relevant market definition - Product market definition - Geographic market definition - Appreciable adverse effect - Concentration & market share - Calculation of market share 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Criteria to be within the purview of the Act Procedure of Investigation Inquiry introduction combination by the Commission Pre notification Conclusion 8 9 9 10 10 12 13 14 15 22 22 2 3 4 6 6 6 7


Introduction Competition in the market is the most crucial aspect in terms of growth of productivity and optimum allocation of resources. Competition also creates expansion of employment opportunities, higher GDP growth, better standard of living and a dramatic rise in the availability and choice of goods and services for the consumer. But some enterprises resort to anticompetitive practices for personal gain that result in unfair competition. Unfair competition means adoption of practices such as collusive price fixing, deliberate reduction in output in order to increase prices, creation of barriers to entry, tie-up sale, predatory pricing and discriminatory pricing. Such practices if not arrested make the market inefficient and affect social welfare. Merger and amalgamation sometimes create market power which may be abused. Merger is considered to be safe if the merger entity was not the market leader and the market was not conducive to collusion. A merger may have anti-competitive effects in two ways: either the

competitors of the merged firm have no capacity to react to a possible reduction in output arising from the merger or competitors do have the capacity to do so, but do not use it because a collusive behaviour is sustainable. To address these issues there is a requirement for a competition law. The competition law is an increasingly common element of public economic policy. In India, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act was enacted in 1969; it underwent a number of amendments most notably in 1984 and 1991. It was felt that MRTP Act had become obsolete in certain respects in terms of international economic development and there was a need to shift the focus ‘from curbing monopolies to promoting competition’. A high level committee was set up by the Government to study the issue. After considering the report a Competition Bill was introduced in the Parliament in 2002. The Competition Act became a law in January 2003. The highlighted main provisions related to the four components of Competition Act, 2002 are anti-competitive agreement, abuse of dominance, combination regulation and competition advocacy. The companies always use merger, a type of 1

the Companies Act. This happens when merger raises a possibility of abuse of market power. Unlike cartel merger is not presumed to be illegal according to the Act. which can also eventually lead to elimination of some TOMCO product and limiting choice of consumers. It helps weak firms to sustain in market. 2 . A committee of Former Chief Justice of Delhi High Court and company * Since 1991. On account of the 1991 amendment to the MRTP pre-merger approval requirement was removed. When merger gains some market power it can raise price above the anti-competitive level or can reduce the size of production. in terms of which a merger can be effected. the statute does not regulate mergers * . In spite of the 1991 amendments to the MRTP Act there continues to be a concern that merger can have a adverse effect on public interest. But sometimes merger may pose a threat to the competition in the market. After the 1991 amendments. These would certainly make consumer worse off. In this guideline we will concentrate on the merger. But even now. which regulate mergers. dictation of prices by the large merged firms. Such situation can lead to higher prices of available product. it increases efficiencies and help being internationally competent. discouragement of new entrants. The regulatory provisions in the MRTP Act were removed through 1991 amendments. In the Companies Act. Sanction of the High Court is an essential prerequisite for the effectiveness of mergers. However. such as reduction in the number of players. The Indian scene In India. with a view to giving effect to the new industrial policy of liberalization and deregulation.combination. The other statute-regulating merger was the MRTP Act. as a business strategy to grow and consolidate and to eliminate competition. the number of mergers has accelerated. The HLL employees’ union in the HLL-TOMCO merger case used this reasoning. market concentration. So there should be some regulatory authority to monitor the merger. 1969 (before the 1991 amendments) are the statutes. 1956 and the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act. Merger of TOMCO with HLL results in major market share for HLL. a procedure has been laid down. most of mergers are friendly fusions. MRTP still had power under provisions relating to restrictive trade practices (RTP) and monopolistic trade practices (MTP) to take action against merger that were anti competitive. 1969.

which gives ex-ante power to the Competition Commission to block certain combinations if found to adversely affect competition but the combination should cross the threshold limit stipulated by the Act to be regulated by the Commission. Reasons for Merger & Amalgamation: There are multitudes of reasons why Mergers take place: 1. This vacuum has been plugged by the Competition Act. Synergy in operating economics: Combined efforts produce better results than two separate undertakings because of saving in operating costs. vertical and conglomerate. Thus. In merger the assets and liabilities of the companies get vested in another company.representative was supervising the effects of merger on free availability of competing products to consumers. Supreme Court ruled that the1991-amendments to MRTPA did not empower the Central government to pre-emptively stop a merger. whereby the identity of one or more is lost and the result is a single enterprise. Horizontal mergers normally involve the joining together of two or more companies. 2. However. In this Guideline we are only concentrating on horizontal merger. sugar and artificial sweeteners). Merger can be categorized under three types----. which are producing essentially the similar products or rendering the similar services which compete directly with each other (for example. Taxation advantage: A profitable company can buy a loss maker to target’s tax write-offs 3. Merger is a fusion between two or more enterprises. Committee examines complaints of consumers about nonavailability of brands. the company that is merged losing its identity and its shareholders becoming shareholders of the other company. Definition: According to the Oxford Dictionary “merger” means “combining of two companies into one”. Other advantages: 3 . 1991-amendments removed ex-ante power of MRTPA to block merger deals. 2002.horizontal. because it is likely to affect competition.

this coordinated effect more likely to emerge in homogeneous market. Here the decisive factors of the intensity of this effect are degree of substitutability between the products of merging parties and those supplied by the other producers. This structural change raises two potential competitive issues. This combined entity then may have command over price and price may rise too significantly relative to pre-merger level or they can also limit the output.Growth. A merger that has this characteristic is said to give rise to a situation of single firm dominance. Once merger takes place competition in the market is largely eliminated. The firms that have been coordinating even before merger gain some collective market power after merger takes place. They reduce the number of firms competing in the relevant market and eventually result in market concentration. Therefore the conducive factors for the unilateral effect are high market share. This market power can involve increasing prices. limiting output or dividing up the market. by eliminating effectiveness of competition merger can also change the shape and nature of competition. Horizontal mergers produce two consequences that do not arise in either vertical or conglomerate mergers. they weaken the strength of overall competition constraints currently exist in the relevant market. procurement of supplies. In contrast to the unilateral effects. If two potential competitors of the relevant market merge then there may rise a situation of abuse of dominance. operating efficiencies. This competitive effect is also known as the unilateral effect of merger. If customers find the product of a merging party very close substitute to the product of another merging one then merger can easily increase price. Unilateral effects are therefore likely to occur primarily in differentiated product market. 4 . high level of competition between merging parties and lack of alternatives for customers. Secondly. A merger which has these characteristics is said to give rise to collective dominance or alternatively to give rise to coordinated effects. financial assets because of larger size of merger A merger is said to be Horizontal if the parties involved undertake directly competing activities. Firstly. It is more favourable for sustainable tacit collusion. Merger may lead to coordination friendly environment. diversification.

These adverse features may or may not be outweighed by the positive features such as economies of scale.Motivation of Horizontal Merger The major factors that motivate mergers are: To achieve optimum size of business. improve the profitability. and nurse a sick unit and tax advantages by acquiring a running concern. In other markets. A merger may also make coordination easier. coordination may aim at limiting production or the amount of new capacity brought to the market. Adverse Features: Merger of two companies in the same field may involve reduction in the number of competing firms in an industry and tend to dilute competition in the market. serve the customer better. nursing a sick unit. That is why competition law seeks to enforce strict regulation. Firms 5 . It may result in lesser substitutes in the market. They generally contribute directly to the concentration of economic power and are likely to lead the merger entities to a dominant position of market power. grow without any gestation period. Coordination may take various forms. more stable or more effective for firms that were already coordinating before the merger either by making the coordination more robust or by permitting firms to coordinate on even higher prices. Yet another adverse feature may surface. to remove certain key factors and other bottlenecks of input supplies. Coordinated interaction is comprised action by a group of firms that are profitable for each of them only as a result of the accommodating reactions of others. acquire assets at lower market price. achieve economies of scale and size. bring separate enterprise under single control. which would affect consumers’ welfare. if a large undertaking after merger because of resulting dominance becomes complacent and suffers from deterioration over the years in its performance. • Coordinated Effects of Merger: A merger may diminish competition by enabling the firms selling in the relevant market to engage in coordinated interaction that harms consumers. This behaviour includes tacit or explicit collusions. utilization of idle funds. the most likely coordination may involve keeping prices above the competition level. In some markets.

the more the buyers of one product consider the other product to be their next choice.may also coordinate by dividing the market. A merger between firms in a market for differentiated products may diminish competition by enabling the merged firm to profit by unilaterally raising the price of one or both products above the pre-merger level. Unilateral competitive effects can arise in a variety of different settings.e. because merging firms may find it profitable to alter their behaviour unilaterally following the acquisition by elevating price and suppressing output.. Unilateral Effects of Merger: A merger may diminish competition even if it does not lead to likelihood of successful coordinated interaction. for instance geographic area or other customer characteristics. Moreover. A relatively stable market. No countervailing power present in the market in terms of powerful buyers. Some of the sales loss due to the price rise merely will be diverted to the product of the merger partner and. so that products sold by different participants in the market are not perfect substitutes for one another. The price rise will be greater the closer substitutes are the products of the merging firms. Availability of key information about rivals. Coordination is more likely to emerge in markets where it is relatively simple to reach a common understanding on the terms of condition. Evidence of past coordination is important if the relevant market characteristics have not changed appreciably or are not likely to do so in the near future. i. So factors conducive to coordination are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) • Similar structure of enterprises. No ‘mavericks’ The presence of barriers to entry. capturing such sales loss through merger may make the price increase profitable even though it would not have been profitable pre.merger. depending on relative margins. or by allocating contracts in bidding markets. The Commission should examine if it would be possible to reach terms of coordination and if it is likely to be sustainable. In some markets the products are differentiated. different products in the market may vary in the degree of their substitutability for one another. 6 .

As before. This is the case when other substitute products are not creating sufficient constraints to the product of our interest and so it can profitably raise price. If this condition is satisfied for a product in a market then it is considered to be a relevant market for the aforesaid product.e. But if it is not. Accordingly the Commission seeks to define a market for the product or service of each merging firm. then we have to include the substitute product with the focal product (i. If merger causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within the relevant market in India and such a combination shall be void. This test is known variously as the “Hypothetical monopolist test”. If so. In recognition of this the underlying approach to define a relevant market is now common across most competition jurisdictions.Some Key Expressions: Mergers may result in anti-competitive practices in the relevant market. The relevant market is 7 . the test is complete. which provide significant competitive constraints on the products and region of interest.g. The test originated in the US Horizontal merger Guidelines issued jointly by the Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission. The relevant market contains all substitute products and regions. SSNIP (Small but Significant and Nontransitory Increase in Price) test” or the “5-10% test”. because a sufficiently large number of customers would switch to some other substitute products. “Hypothetical monopolist test” finds whether a hypothetical monopolist of concerned product would be able to increase price profitably (e. The main purpose of market definition is to identify in a systematic way the immediate competitive constraints facing the merged entity. The economics in these terms should be understood to get right sense of the competition issue. product under investigation) and repeat the same test. Now we will analyze some of the terms frequently used in Competition Act. we will ask if it would be profitable to sustain 5-10% above competitive levels.5 to 10 per cent). Relevant Market Definitions: This part ensures that the Commission evaluates the likely anti competitive effect of a merger within the market that could be subject to the exercise of economic power.

At least one needs to identify the number. by reason of characteristics of the products or services. there is not a single methodology for determining the relevant geographic market definition. The relevant geographic market is defined with reference to the competitive constraints that firms located in one region pose for those firms located in the same region as the firm or firms under investigation. The product market considers which products provide effective competitive constraints on those products produced by the parties under investigation. A market definition should normally contain two dimensions: a product and geographic area. A relevant market cannot just have a product dimension or just have a geographic dimension: it must be a collection of products in a given area. size. Defining the relevant market in this way it can be ensured that all products that pose significant competitive constraints are taken into consideration. “relevant product market” means “a market comprising all those products or services which are regarded as interchangeable or substitutable by the consumer. if another product constrains Thus a relevant market might be the market for steel in India. and 8 . their prices and intended use. In general. Geographic Market Definitions: The Act defines relevant geographic market as “a market comprising the area in which the conditions of competition for supply of goods or provision of services or demand of goods or services are distinctly homogenous and can be distinguished from the conditions prevailing in the neighbouring areas”. then the relevant product will include both Pepsi and Coca cola.the focal product and its closest substitute. According to the Act relevant market means “the market which may be determined by the Commission with reference to the relevant product market or the relevant geographic market or with reference to both the markets”. Product Market Definitions: In Act. if the pricing of Pepsi provides effective competitive constraints on the pricing of Coca-cola. The product market in this case is “steel” while the geographic market is India. For example. Thus. It is often practical to define the relevant product market first and only then to define the relevant geographic market.

the particular arrangement may in reality have net economic benefits and hence will not be found anticompetitive. the nature and structure of the market or industry etc. If the agreement exceeds that margin then it is considered to have appreciable adverse effect. Concentration and Market Shares Market concentration is a function of the number of firms in a market and their respective market shares. LIFO measures the importance of imports and LOFI.locations of firms that compete with the merging parties. so there should not be any rigid definition of the term. More experienced jurisdictions have developed an economic tool to measure the concentration and to indicate which mergers may have possible anti9 . There may be an appreciable adverse effect even when share of the market is below that stipulated one and vice versa. price correlations. A variety of approaches have been proved to be useful. Elzinga-Hogarty tests relies on two simple threshold tests of concentration of imports and exports for a given product definition. However. The availability of particular data for these tasks varies greatly from deal to deal. as do the institutional details of the market. and other factors that impede entry or expansion of output. the relevant market share of the business. it must be emphasized that this market share threshold is indicative. Granger Casuality and Cointegration is some approaches to geographic market definition. Elzinga-Hogarty tests. In some cases. Appreciable Adverse Effect: In assessing if an activity has an appreciable anti-competitive effect. legal barriers to trade. language differences. The Commission would investigate the nature of action. It is recognized that there are difference between industries and the nature of competition. The determination in a particular case will depend on its facts and circumstances. The first test is called LIFO (‘Little In From Outside’) and the second is called LOFI (‘Little Out From Inside’). the Commission will consider the facts and circumstances for each individual cases. including different national regulations. although an arrangement may seem to be anti-competitive as it involves collaboration of powerful companies. measures export. on the other hand. The Commission can announce a threshold aggregate market share of the merger parties (like 25% or so) in the relevant markets.

competitive effects. the HHI reflects both the distribution of the market shares of the top four firms and the composition of the market outside the top four firms. However. and highly concentrated (HHI above 1800). lack of information about small firms is not critical because such firms do not affect HHI significantly. The HHI is calculated by summing the squares of the individual market shares of all the participants. 20 and 20 percent will have HHI of 2600 (302 + 302 + 202 + 202 = 2600). The test initially adopted was the four-firm concentration ratio test. Such markets normally do not require extensive analysis. Like many countries’ competition commission we can also calculate ranges of HHI. For example. In European Union (EU) the Commission is unlikely to identify horizontal competition concerns in a market with a post-merger HHI below 1000. also known as 4CR. It also gives proportionately greater weight to the market shares of the larger firms. post merger HHI below 1000 is not considered to have adverse competitive effects resulting from merger. But it does not provide any information on the relative size of the firms and number of the firms. moderately concentrated (HHI between 1000 and 1800). Market concentration is a useful indicator of the likely potential competitive effect of a merger. which would indicate the level of concentration and likely adverse effects. The HHI ranges from 10. Although it is desirable to include all firms in the calculation. Unlike the four-firm concentration ratio. 10 .000 (in case of a pure monopoly) to a number approaching zero (in the case of atomistic market). over the years the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index ("HHI") has been seen to be a more accurate tool for measuring market concentration. The Federal Trade Commission of US divides the spectrum of market concentration as measured by the HHI into three regions that can be broadly characterized as unconcentrated (HHI below 1000). 4CR is the sum of the shares of the four largest firms in the relevant market. • For example in US. a market with four firms with market shares of 30. 30. in accord with their relative importance in competitive interactions. Australia and Canada for example calculate a 4CR for their merger reviews.

it will be presumed that mergers producing an increase in the HHI of more than 100 points are likely to create or enhance market power or facilitate its exercise. Commission should investigate the nature and structure of market. Mergers producing an increase in the HHI of less than 50 points. However this HHI measure is only indicative.e. Mergers producing an increase in the HHI of more than 100 points in moderately concentrated markets post merger potentially raise significant competition concerns. post-merger HHI between 1000 and 1800 in a market is regarded to be moderately concentrated. Where the post-merger HHI crosses 1800. a merger with post-merger HHI above 2000 and post merger increase in HHI of more than 150 is considered to identify horizontal competition concerns. a total market size and market shares for each supplier can be calculated on the basis of their sales of the relevant products on the relevant area. are unlikely to have adverse competitive effects and ordinarily require no further analysis. Mergers producing an increase in the HHI of less than 100 points in moderately concentrated markets post merger are unlikely to have adverse competitive consequences and ordinarily require no further analysis. In EU this post-merger HHI range is 1000-2000 and threshold of price rise post-merger is 250. • Post-merger HHI above 1800 is regarded to be highly concentrated in US. On that basis.• In US. In EU. companies’ estimates. characteristics of players to get deeper understanding of market concentration. the total market size and market shares are often available from market sources. studies commissioned to industry consultants and/ or trade 11 . Mergers producing an increase in the HHI of more than 50 points in highly concentrated markets post-merger potentially raise significant competitive concerns. Calculation of Market Shares The definition of the relevant market in both its product and geographic dimensions allow identifying the suppliers and the customers/ consumers active on that market. i. In practice. even in highly concentrated market post-merger.

the assets of the value of more than five hundred million US dollars or turnover more than fifteen hundred million US dollars. the number of players in bidding markets. As a rule of thumb. If sales are usually the reference to calculate market shares. both volume sales and value sales provide useful information. have ----(A) Either in India. 2002 combinations. in aggregate. sales in value and their associated market share will usually be considered to better reflect the relative position and strength of each supplier. or (B) in India or outside India . are regulated. Criteria to be within the purview of the Act: The Commission will take care of the competition issue caused by the merger only if the size of merger falls within the purview of the Act. or also when available estimates are not reliable. In cases of differentiated products. or 12 . When this is not the case.associations. the assets of the value of more than rupees one thousand crores or turnover more than rupees. capacity. there are other indications that can offer useful information such as. in particular. the Commission will usually ask each supplier in the relevant market to provide its own sales in order to calculate total market size and market shares. after 1991 amendment no combination regulation was there. shall be void. Section 5(C) of the Act outlaws any merger or amalgamation of enterprise. In MRTP ACT. as the case may be. three thousand crores. which causes or is likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within the relevant market in India and such combination. According to Act “any merger or amalgamation in which -----(i) The enterprise remaining after merger or the enterprise created as a result of the amalgamation. Now in Competition Act. which fall beyond stipulated threshold limit.

But this notification is not mandatory but voluntary unlike in many other jurisdictions. as the case may be. The information shall be 13 . if the Commission invites. The response from combination should include the reasons why the investigation of the Commission about the effect of merger should not be conducted. can file his written objections. an appreciable adverse effect on competition then. (A) Either in India. the assets of the value of more than rupees four thousand crores or turnover more than rupees twelve thousand crores. within seven days of approval of proposal or execution of any agreement or the document for acquisition relating to merger by the board of directors of the merger entities. the assets of the value of more than two billion US dollars or turnover more than six billion US dollars. But Commission can only direct the combination about the public declaration within seven working days from the date of receipt of the earlier mentioned response from the combination. or is likely to have. to inform the public and persons affected or likely to be affected by the said combination. before the Commission within fifteen working days from the date on which the details are published.(ii) The group. within fifteen working days demands for other additional information from the parties to the combination. or has caused an appreciable adverse effect on competition in the relevant market in India it will issue a notice to the combination asking their response in favour of combination within thirty days of the receipt of notice. would belong after the merger or the amalgamation. to which the enterprise remaining after the merger or the enterprise created as a result of the amalgamation. affected or likely to be affected by the said combination. Now if Commission doubts that this proposed merger is likely to cause. who or which proposes to enter into a merger to give a notice to the Commission addressing the all details of the merger. Once the specified period is over the Commission may. have or would have. If the Commission presumes that the combination has. When combination publishes the details any person or member of the public. or (B) In India or outside India.” Procedure for Investigation of Merger In the Competition Act there is a provision for any person or enterprise. it can order the combination to publish the details of their combination within ten working days from this direction.

or is likely to have appreciable adverse effect then it shall direct the combination not to take place. If the parties do not follow the modification then the combination shall be deemed to have an appreciable adverse effect and the Commission will deal it according to the provisions of this Act. If there is potential import market or tariff policy is favourable for imports of that product (which is produced by merger firms) then imports are playing 14 . it may propose appropriate modification to the combination. or is not likely to have an appreciable adverse effect on competition then it would approve the merger. If the parties to the combination do not accept the proposed modification they may come up with their amended version of proposed modification. Where the Commission is of the opinion that the adverse effect caused or likely to be caused by the combination can be eliminated by the suitable modification. But if the Commission concludes that the combination has. If the Commission is satisfied with the amendment then it would approve the combination. Inquiry into Combination by the Commission: To determine whether a combination has or likely to have appreciable adverse effect on competition in the relevant market the Commission should analyse all or any of the following factors. If the Commission does not issue any direction or pass an order within the ninety working days from the date of publication of details of combination. If the parties accept the modification then it has to perform the modification within the stipulated period. If the Commission is of opinion that any combination does not.furnished by the combination within fifteen days from the expiry of the above-mentioned period. namely:(a)Actual and potential level of competition through imports in the market: There is a probability that there is no such significant competition in the relevant market for domestic production after merging of firms. the combination shall be deemed to have been approved by the Commission. Otherwise Commission would allow the parties further period of thirty working days within which they have to accept the modification proposed by the Commission. Then we have to take import market into consideration.

The incumbent firms also enjoy technical advantages. the importance of advertising or other advantages relating to reputation will be taken into account. 15 . Moreover entry is more likely to be profitable in a market that is going to be experience high growth in the future than in a market that is mature or expected to decline. the closeness of relationships between suppliers and consumers. The Commission should consider the present situation about the combination in the market and the proposals regarding the combination. it must be shown to be likely. Factors such as consumer loyalty to a particular brand. The Commission should examine whether entry is sufficiently swift and sustained to deter the exercise of market power. When entry barriers are high. transport cost and customs restriction and details of price of imports vis-à-vis domestic price in the relevant market should be considered as crucial factors to conclude about import market. But for any entrant it is difficult to acquire these and compete successfully. For entry to be considered to be sufficient competitive constraints on the merging parties. natural resources. timely and sufficient to deter any potential anti-competitive effect of merger. innovation and R& D or intellectual property rights. experience which new firms lack. for example. They also cover tariff and non-tariff trade barriers. (b)Extent of barriers to entry into the market: When entering a market is sufficiently easy a merger is unlikely to pose any significant anti-competitive risk. Barriers to entry can take various forms. Entry should be of sufficient magnitude to defeat anti competitive effects of the mergers. (c) Level of combination in the market. In that case merger may not be reducing effective competition.important role as competitive constraints. including access to distribution facilities. Sometimes regulatory barriers limit the number of market participants by. So details of any barriers to entry to importing. reputation. price increases by merging firms would not be significantly constrained by entry. The incumbent firms also take advantage of established position. restricting the number of licenses.

if the latter posses countervailing buyer power. (e) Likelihood that the combination would result in the parties to the combination being able to significantly and sustainable increase prices or profit margins. The competitive pressure on a supplier is not only exercised by producers but can also come from its customers. Even firms with very high market shares may not be in a position. For example. brand loyalty of the consumers and past history of consumers’ behaviour in the relevant markets are also the determining factors of this analysis. A merger may significantly impede effective competition in a market since important competitive constraints can be removed between two sellers who merge. sufficient and expansion of capacity is not that costly then it is less likely for the merged firms to raise price. to significantly impede effective competition. It is more likely that large and sophisticated customers will possess this countervailing buyer power than smaller one. Countervailing buyer power should be understood as the bargaining strength that the buyer has vis-à-vis a seller in commercial negotiations due to its size.(d) Degree of countervailing power in the market. One source of countervailing buyer power would be if a customer promptly could change to alternative sources of supply if the merger increases its price or quality of the product deteriorates. post-merger. The merger removes this 16 . So the target group of the product should also be considered. (f) Extent of effective competition likely to sustain in a market. If there is no entry barrier and entry is timely. Price elasticity of that product in the relevant market. ‘Significantly and sustainable increase prices’ can be measured by SSNIP or Hypothetical monopolist test. in particular by acting independently of their customers. Commission also has to consider how potential the closest substitutes of the product exist in the market. it would have lost some of its market to the other merging firm. its commercial significance to the seller and its ability to switch to alternative suppliers. if prior to the merger one of the merging firms had raised its price. The Commission should consider to what extent customers will be in position to counter the increasing market power that a merger would otherwise be likely to create.

Non-merging firms in the same market can also benefit from the reduction of competitive pressure those results from merger. Incentive to raise prices is more likely to be constrained when rival firms produce closer substitutes to the products of the merging firms than when they offer less close substitutes. analyzing of purchasing patterns. Evidence of past customer switching patterns and reaction to price changes may provide important information in this respect. the degree of substitutability may be evaluated through customer preference surveys. (i) Likelihood that the combination would result in the removal of a vigorous and effective competitor or competitors in the market. When data are available. may find it profitable to increase prices. the more likely for a firm to possess market power. since the merging firms’ price increase may switch some demand to the rival firms. when there is a high degree of substitutability between the product of merging firms and those supplied by rival products. The larger the increase in the sales based on which to enjoy higher margins after a price increase. (h) Market share. This could lead to significant price rises in the relevant market. If no more substitutes are likely to be available merging firms will raise prices significantly. The larger its market share.particular constraint. individually and as a combination. Such expected reactions by competitors may be relevant factor influencing the merged entity’s incentives to increase prices. estimation of cross price elasticities of the products involved. the more likely it is that the merging firms will find such a rise in price profitable despite the accompanying reduction in output. of the persons or enterprise in a combination. which in turn. Closer substitutes impede merger firms to gain a market power on the same good. 17 . in the relevant market. (g) Extent to which substitutes are available or are likely to be available in the market. Therefore it is less likely that a merger would impede effective competition through creation of a dominant position.

If other firm will buy the assets after a firm has failed. It may concentrate the market power in both ways i. in the absence of merger the loss making firm would go out of the business.a manufacturer merging with a supplier of component products. Only if productive 18 . Therefore Commission has to check capacity constraints. If one or both parties of merger are found to be vertically integrated with some other undertakings then it may give rise to the competition concern. So the failing firm defense carries most weight when it can be shown that the merger enables productive assets to continue in productive use. This is called a "vertical foreclosure" or "bottleneck" problem. So if the firms merging together are also found to be vertically integrated then competition concern would be more. A vertical merger can harm competition by making it difficult for competitors to gain access to an important component product or to an important channel of distribution. But this can not be a sufficient condition to legitimize the merger.When market conditions are such that rival firms have enough capacity and find it profitable to expand output sufficiently. by horizontal as well as vertical integration. the Commission is unlikely to find that the merger will create or strength a dominant position or otherwise significantly impede effective competition. If the other firm would buy the asset after the firm has failed. When one party in the merger has been making loses then it is claimed that this merger is not effecting the competition. then productive assets of failing firm would surely exit the market causing anticompetitive effect. (k) Possibility of a failing business. the merger is likely to have pro-competitive effect.e. and the cost of expansion of capacity. then the failing firm defence of a merger is not valid. (j) Nature and extent of vertical integration in the market. Vertical mergers involve firms in a buyer-seller relationship -. In this situation. If there is no other alternative purchaser of failing firm. then the failing firm defence of a merger is not valid. or a manufacturer merging with a distributor of its products. The comparison between the likely nature of competition following the exit of the failing firm and likely nature of competition if merger is permitted is required. For.

it should lead to a rationalization of the R&D process [after the merger or acquisition]. Third. The European Commission considers the three criteria to analyze ‘failing firm defence’. (l) Nature and extent of innovation. a party must establish that it is unable to meet its financial obligation. by any combination having or likely to have appreciable adverse effect on competition. Alternatively. An enterprise that is otherwise very vulnerable to the open market may become insulate to the emerging international competition after merger. An infant industry always has incentive to merge 19 . those companies that operate in complementary areas of technology have a higher probability of achieving long-range synergies and economies in their R&D as a direct result of their merger. It can add some contribution to the society as well. A merger enables a merged entity to rationalize cost of production by operating at an increasing scale. Commission should also recognize that merger has some advantages also. in the absence of a merger. there is no other alternative and that the assets of the failing firm would sink but for the merger. a merger may increase the firms’ ability and incentive to bring new innovations to the market and so competitive pressure on rivals to innovate in that market. Impact of merger on R & D depends on the technological similarities that exist between the companies involved in a particular merger. and on the similarities between the markets they are active in. a merger between two important innovators may significantly impede effective competition. In market where innovation is an important competitive force. When two companies focus on the same technological areas. there is no less anti-competitive alternative purchase than the notified merger. the assets of the failing firm would inevitably exit the market. First.assets would otherwise leave the market does the failing firm argument provide a legitimate defence. by way of the contribution to the economic development. unable to successfully re-organize itself. the allegedly failing firm would in the near future be forced out of the market because of financial difficulties if not taken over by another undertaking. However. Second. In order to succeed on the failing firm defence. (m) Relative advantage.

In a coordinated interaction context marginal cost reductions may make coordination less likely or effective by enhancing the incentive of a maverick to lower price or by creating a new maverick firm. or new products. Mergers have the potential to generate significant efficiencies by permitting a better utilization of existing assets. The greater the potential adverse competitive effect of a merger---. if merger is taking place in a new field which has not gained sufficient importance and does not have impressive investment then that case must have some edge over. thereby counteracting the adverse effects on competition. lower cost) competitor. likelihood. For example. improved quality. So the Commission has to conclude on the basis of sufficient evidence that the efficiencies generated by merger are likely to enhance the ability and incentive of merged entity to behave pro-competitively for the benefit of consumers. 20 . But surely sufficient efficiencies do not justify a merger to monopoly or near –monopoly. merger-generated efficiencies may enhance competition by permitting two ineffective ( indicated by the increase in post merger HHI. Efficiencies also may result in benefits in the form of new or improved products or services.g. (n) Whether the benefits of the combination outweigh the adverse impact of the combination. enabling the combined firm to achieve lower costs in producing a given quantity and quality than either firm could have achieved without the proposed transaction. which the merger might otherwise have. Moreover. Combination sometimes creates new employment opportunity due to its greater capital and extension of production areas. high cost) competitors to become one effective (e. enhanced service. sufficiency of entry---the greater must be efficiencies in order to clearing the merger.g.with big companies to ensure its existence. In a unilateral effects context marginal cost reductions may reduce the merged firm’s incentive to elevate price. which may result in lower prices. for instance gains in the sphere of R&D and innovation. timeliness. Efficiencies generated through merger can enhance the merged firm’s ability and incentive to compete. if any.

an appreciable adverse effect but within the stipulated time limit. This saves the opportunity cost of time. Relative to the size of major international companies. There are two possibilities: 1. The Commission has to pass an order within ninety working days from the date of publication of details of proposed merger. utilizing economies of scale but without adversely affecting the economy to an appreciable amounts. Both the US and the EU laws require prior approval for mergers above certain thresholds though UK law does not require this. unbridled scrutiny into mergers. Prior-notification is likely to lead to delays and unjustified bureaucratic interventions. Conclusion Global experience has shown that only a few mergers notified receive disapproval. It should encourage the companies to grow big. Approval or disapproval may be obtained before going ahead with the merger. It would surely encourage India’s corporate development. 2002 pre-notification is not necessary. 2. No notification of permission is required and that the threat of action in case of a violation should generally enforce legal behaviour. There is no need to create a stranglehold over such combinations. the Commission can call for inquiry if such merger has. capital. administrative delay. The Commission’s merger regulation is quite favourable for the firms to grow big in the time of globalization. India’s Competition Commission has taken more liberal steps in this respect and the stipulated threshold level is also relatively large. The act gives limited time period to the Commission to look into the matter. protect the interest of consumers and as well ensure freedom of trade. In the Competition Act. The Commission should always keep into the mind it is there to promote and sustain competition.Pre-notification: One important issue is the requirement for prior notification. to reach an international standard. This provision of limited time ensures that there should not be any kind of negligence. Indian firms are still small. and efficiency. or is likely to have. 21 . Further.

Horizontal Merger Guidelines† For Competition Commission of India (CCI) Prepared by Poulami Chatterjee Summer intern in CCI. New Delhi † Prepared in fulfillment of the requirement as part of the academic curriculum of Economics.A (Economics). M. 2006 M.U 22 .A in J. Jawaharlal Nehru University. from 15th May to 15th July.N.

DISCLAIMER This project report/dissertation has been prepared by the author as an intern under the Internship Programme of the Competition Commission of India for academic purposes only. 23 . The views expressed in the report are personal to the intern and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Commission or any of its staff or personnel and do not bind the Commission in any manner. without express permission of the Competition Commission of India in writing. This report is the intellectual property of the Competition Commission of India and the same or any part thereof may not be used in any manner whatsoever.

DISCLAIMER This project report/dissertation has been prepared by the author as an intern under the Internship Programme of the Competition Commission of India for academic purposes only. 24 . without express permission of the Competition Commission of India in writing. The views expressed in the report are personal to the intern and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Commission or any of its staff or personnel and do not bind the Commission in any manner. This report is the intellectual property of the Competition Commission of India and the same or any part thereof may not be used in any manner whatsoever.

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