


Cerium, 58Ce
Pronunciation/ˈsɪəriəm/ (SEER-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery white
Standard atomic weight Ar, std(Ce)140.116(1)[1]
Cerium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon


Atomic number (Z)58
Groupgroup n/a
Periodperiod 6
Element category  Lanthanide
Electron configuration[Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2[2]
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 19, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1068 K ​(795 °C, ​1463 °F)
Boiling point3716 K ​(3443 °C, ​6229 °F)
Density (near r.t.)6.770 g/cm3
when liquid (at m.p.)6.55 g/cm3
Heat of fusion5.46 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization398 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity26.94 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
at T (K) 1992 2194 2442 2754 3159 3705
Atomic properties
Oxidation states+1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildly basic oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.12
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 534.4 kJ/mol
  • 2nd: 1050 kJ/mol
  • 3rd: 1949 kJ/mol
  • (more)
Atomic radiusempirical: 181.8 pm
Covalent radius204±9 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of cerium
Other properties
Natural occurrenceprimordial
Crystal structuredouble hexagonal close-packed (dhcp)
Double hexagonal close packed crystal structure for cerium

Crystal structureface-centered cubic (fcc)
Face-centered cubic crystal structure for cerium

Speed of sound thin rod2100 m/s (at 20 °C)
Thermal expansionγ, poly: 6.3 µm/(m·K) (at r.t.)
Thermal conductivity11.3 W/(m·K)
Electrical resistivityβ, poly: 828 nΩ·m (at r.t.)
Magnetic orderingparamagnetic[3]
Magnetic susceptibility(β) +2450.0·10−6 cm3/mol (293 K)[4]
Young's modulusγ form: 33.6 GPa
Shear modulusγ form: 13.5 GPa
Bulk modulusγ form: 21.5 GPa
Poisson ratioγ form: 0.24
Mohs hardness2.5
Vickers hardness210–470 MPa
Brinell hardness186–412 MPa
CAS Number7440-45-1
Namingafter dwarf planet Ceres, itself named after Roman deity of agriculture Ceres
DiscoveryMartin Heinrich Klaproth, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, Wilhelm Hisinger (1803)
First isolationCarl Gustaf Mosander (1838)
Main isotopes of cerium
134Ce syn 3.16 d ε 134La
136Ce 0.186% stable
138Ce 0.251% stable
139Ce syn 137.640 d ε 139La
140Ce 88.449% stable
141Ce syn 32.501 d β 141Pr
142Ce 11.114% stable
143Ce syn 33.039 h β 143Pr
144Ce syn 284.893 d β 144Pr
Category Category: Cerium
| references

Cerium is a chemical element with the symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium is a soft, ductile and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is soft enough to be cut with a knife. Cerium is the second element in the lanthanide series, and while it often shows the +3 oxidation state characteristic of the series, it also has a stable +4 state that does not oxidize water. It is also considered one of the rare-earth elements. Cerium has no biological role in humans and is not very toxic.

Despite always occurring in combination with the other rare-earth elements in minerals such as those of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidized to the +4 state. It is the most common of the lanthanides, followed by neodymium, lanthanum, and praseodymium. It is the 26th-most abundant element, making up 66 ppm of the Earth's crust, half as much as chlorine and five times as much as lead.

Cerium was the first of the lanthanides to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden, by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany in the same year. In 1839 Carl Gustaf Mosander became the first to isolate the metal. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses: for example, cerium(IV) oxide is used to polish glass and is an important part of catalytic converters. Cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. Cerium-doped YAG phosphor is used in conjunction with blue light-emitting diodes to produce white light in most commercial white LED light sources.



Cerium is the second element of the lanthanide series. In the periodic table, it appears between the lanthanides lanthanum to its left and praseodymium to its right, and above the actinide thorium. It is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of silver.[5] Its 58 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Xe]4f15d16s2, of which the four outer electrons are valence electrons. Immediately after lanthanum, the 4f orbitals suddenly contract and are lowered in energy to the point that they participate readily in chemical reactions; however, this effect is not yet strong enough at cerium and thus the 5d subshell is still occupied.[6] Most lanthanides can use only three electrons as valence electrons, as afterwards the remaining 4f electrons are too strongly bound: cerium is an exception because of the stability of the empty f-shell in Ce4+ and the fact that it comes very early in the lanthanide series, where the nuclear charge is still low enough until neodymium to allow the removal of the fourth valence electron by chemical means.[7]

Phase diagram of cerium


  • The high-temperature form, δ-cerium, has a bcc (body-centred cubic) crystal structure and exists above 726 °C.
  • The stable form below 726 °C to approximately room temperature is γ-cerium, with an fcc (face-centred cubic) crystal structure.
  • The dhcp (double hexagonal close-packed) form β-cerium is the equilibrium structure approximately from room temperature to −150 °C.
  • The fcc form α-cerium is stable below about −150 °C; it has a density of 8.16 g/cm3.
  • Other solid phases occurring only at high pressures are shown on the phase diagram.
  • Both γ and β forms are quite stable at room temperature, although the equilibrium transformation temperature is estimated at around 75 °C.[8]

Cerium has a variable electronic structure. The energy of the 4f electron is nearly the same as that of the outer 5d and 6s electrons that are delocalized in the metallic state, and only a small amount of energy is required to change the relative occupancy of these electronic levels. This gives rise to dual valence states. For example, a volume change of about 10% occurs when cerium is subjected to high pressures or low temperatures. It appears that the valence changes from about 3 to 4 when it is cooled or compressed.[9]

At lower temperatures the behavior of cerium is complicated by the slow rates of transformation. Transformation temperatures are subject to substantial hysteresis and values quoted here are approximate. Upon cooling below −15 °C, γ-cerium starts to change to β-cerium, but the transformation involves a volume increase and, as more β forms, the internal stresses build up and suppress further transformation.[8] Cooling below approximately −160 °C will start formation of α-cerium but this is only from remaining γ-cerium. β-cerium does not significantly transform to α-cerium except in the presence of stress or deformation.[8] At atmospheric pressure, liquid cerium is more dense than its solid form at the melting point.[5][10][11]



136Ce: >3.8×1016 y
138Ce: >5.7×1016 y
142Ce: >5.0×1016 y

All other cerium isotopes are synthetic and radioactive. The most stable of them are 144Ce with a half-life of 284.9 days, 139Ce with a half-life of 137.6 days, and 141Ce with a half-life of 32.5 days. All other radioactive cerium isotopes have half-lives under four days, and most of them have half-lives under ten minutes.[12] The isotopes between 140Ce and 144Ce inclusive occur as fission products of uranium.[12] The primary decay mode of the isotopes lighter than 140Ce is inverse beta decay or electron capture to isotopes of lanthanum, while that of the heavier isotopes is beta decay to isotopes of praseodymium.[12]



Cerium tarnishes in air, forming a spalling oxide layer like iron rust; a centimeter-sized sample of cerium metal corrodes completely in about a year.[14] It burns readily at 150 °C to form the pale-yellow cerium(IV) oxide, also known as ceria:[15]

Ce + O2 → CeO2

This may be reduced to cerium(III) oxide with hydrogen gas.[16] Cerium metal is highly pyrophoric, meaning that when it is ground or scratched, the resulting shavings catch fire.[17] This reactivity conforms to periodic trends, since cerium is one of the first and hence one of the largest lanthanides.[18] Cerium(IV) oxide has the fluorite structure, similarly to the dioxides of praseodymium and terbium. Many nonstoichiometric chalcogenides are also known, along with the trivalent Ce2Z3 (Z = S, Se, Te). The monochalcogenides CeZ conduct electricity and would better be formulated as Ce3+Z2−e. While CeZ2 are known, they are polychalcogenides with cerium(III): cerium(IV) chalcogenides remain unknown.[16]

Cerium(IV) oxide



Cerium metal reacts with all the halogens to give trihalides:[15]


Reaction with excess fluorine produces the stable white tetrafluoride CeF4; the other tetrahalides are not known. Of the dihalides, only the bronze diiodide CeI2 is known; like the diiodides of lanthanum, praseodymium, and gadolinium, this is a cerium(III) electride compound.[19] True cerium(II) compounds are restricted to a few unusual organocerium complexes.[20][21]

Cerium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless Ce3+ ions, which exist as [Ce(H

(aq) + 3 H2 (g)

The solubility of cerium is much higher in methanesulfonic acid.[22] Cerium(III) and terbium(III) have ultraviolet absorption bands of relatively high intensity compared with the other lanthanides, as their configurations (one electron more than an empty or half-filled f-subshell respectively) make it easier for the extra f electron to undergo f→d transitions instead of the forbidden f→f transitions of the other lanthanides.[23] Cerium(III) sulfate is one of the few salts whose solubility in water decreases with rising temperature.[24]

Ceric ammonium nitrate

Cerium(IV) aqueous solutions may be prepared by reacting cerium(III) solutions with the strong oxidising agents peroxodisulfate or bismuthate. The value of E(Ce4+/Ce3+) varies widely depending on conditions due to the relative ease of complexation and hydrolysis with various anions, though +1.72 V is a usually representative value; that for E(Ce3+/Ce) is −2.34 V. Cerium is the only lanthanide which has important aqueous and coordination chemistry in the +4 oxidation state.[25][26] Due to ligand-to-metal charge transfer, aqueous cerium(IV) ions are orange-yellow.[27] Aqueous cerium(IV) is metastable in water[28][26] and is a strong oxidising agent that oxidizes hydrochloric acid to give chlorine gas.[25] For example, ceric ammonium nitrate is a common oxidising agent in organic chemistry, releasing organic ligands from metal carbonyls.[29] In the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, cerium oscillates between the +4 and +3 oxidation states to catalyse the reaction.[30] Cerium(IV) salts, especially cerium(IV) sulfate, are often used as standard reagents for volumetric analysis in cerimetric titrations.[31]

The nitrate complex [Ce(NO
have 12-coordinate icosahedral molecular geometry, while [Ce(NO
, CeF2−
, and the orange CeCl2−
are also known.[25] Organocerium chemistry is similar to that of the other lanthanides, being primarily that of the cyclopentadienyl and cyclooctatetraenyl compounds. The cerium(III) cyclooctatetraenyl compound has the uranocene structure.[32]


, is poised ambiguously between being localized and delocalized and this compound is also considered intermediate-valent.[34]


The dwarf planet Ceres, after which cerium is named

Cerium was discovered in Bastnäs in Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and independently in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth, both in 1803.[36] Cerium was named by Berzelius after the dwarf planet Ceres, discovered two years earlier.[36][37] The dwarf planet itself is named after the Roman goddess of agriculture, grain crops, fertility and motherly relationships, Ceres.[36]


Occurrence and production

Cerium is the most abundant of all the lanthanides, making up 66 ppm of the Earth's crust; this value is just behind that of copper (68 ppm), and cerium is even more abundant than common metals such as lead (13 ppm) and tin (2.1 ppm). Thus, despite its position as one of the so-called rare-earth metals, cerium is actually not rare at all.[42] Cerium content in the soil varies between 2 and 150 ppm, with an average of 50 ppm; seawater contains 1.5 parts per trillion of cerium.[37] Cerium occurs in various minerals, but the most important commercial sources are the minerals of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, where it makes up about half of the lanthanide content. Monazite-(Ce) is the most common representative of the monazites, with "-Ce" being the Levinson suffix informing on the dominance of the particular REE element representative.[43][44][45] Also the cerium-dominant bastnäsite-(Ce) is the most important of the bastnäsites.[46][43] Cerium is the easiest lanthanide to extract from its minerals because it is the only one that can reach a stable +4 oxidation state in aqueous solution.[47] Because of the decreased solubility of cerium in the +4 oxidation state, cerium is sometimes depleted from rocks relative to the other rare-earth elements and is incorporated into zircon, since Ce4+ and Zr4+ have the same charge and similar ionic radii.[48] In extreme cases, cerium(IV) can form its own minerals separated from the other rare-earth elements, such as cerianite (correctly named cerianite-(Ce)[49][45][43]), (Ce,Th)O


Bastnäsite, LnIIICO3F, is usually lacking in thorium and the heavy lanthanides beyond samarium and europium, and hence the extraction of cerium from it is quite direct. First, the bastnäsite is purified, using dilute hydrochloric acid to remove calcium carbonate impurities. The ore is then roasted in the air to oxidize it to the lanthanide oxides: while most of the lanthanides will be oxidized to the sesquioxides Ln2O3, cerium will be oxidized to the dioxide CeO2. This is insoluble in water and can be leached out with 0.5 M hydrochloric acid, leaving the other lanthanides behind.[47]

The procedure for monazite, (Ln,Th)PO
, which usually contains all the rare earths, as well as thorium, is more involved. Monazite, because of its magnetic properties, can be separated by repeated electromagnetic separation. After separation, it is treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water-soluble sulfates of rare earths. The acidic filtrates are partially neutralized with sodium hydroxide to pH 3–4. Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed. After that, the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths to their insoluble oxalates. The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing. The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid, but cerium oxide is insoluble in HNO3 and hence precipitates out.[11] Care must be taken when handling some of the residues as they contain 228Ra, the daughter of 232Th, which is a strong gamma emitter.[47]


Carl Auer von Welsbach, who discovered many applications of cerium

The first use of cerium was in gas mantles, invented by the Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach. In 1885, he had previously experimented with mixtures of magnesium, lanthanum, and yttrium oxides, but these gave green-tinted light and were unsuccessful.[53] Six years later, he discovered that pure thorium oxide produced a much better, though blue, light, and that mixing it with cerium dioxide resulted in a bright white light.[54] Additionally, cerium dioxide also acts as a catalyst for the combustion of thorium oxide. This resulted in great commercial success for von Welsbach and his invention, and created great demand for thorium; its production resulted in a large amount of lanthanides being simultaneously extracted as by-products.[55] Applications were soon found for them, especially in the pyrophoric alloy known as "mischmetal" composed of 50% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and the remainder being the other lanthanides, that is used widely for lighter flints.[55] Usually, iron is also added to form an alloy known as ferrocerium, also invented by von Welsbach.[56] Due to the chemical similarities of the lanthanides, chemical separation is not usually required for their applications, such as the mixing of mischmetal into steel to improve its strength and workability, or as catalysts for the cracking of petroleum.[47] This property of cerium saved the life of writer Primo Levi at the Auschwitz concentration camp, when he found a supply of ferrocerium alloy and bartered it for food.[57]

Ceria is the most widely used compound of cerium. The main application of ceria is as a polishing compound, for example in chemical-mechanical planarization (CMP). In this application, ceria has replaced other metal oxides for the production of high-quality optical surfaces.[56] Major automotive applications for the lower sesquioxide are as a catalytic converter for the oxidation of CO and NOx emissions in the exhaust gases from motor vehicles,[58][59] Ceria has also been used as a substitute for its radioactive congener thoria, for example in the manufacture of electrodes used in gas tungsten arc welding, where ceria as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off.[60] Cerium(IV) sulfate is used as an oxidising agent in quantitative analysis. Cerium(IV) in methanesulfonic acid solutions is applied in industrial scale electrosynthesis as a recyclable oxidant.[61] Ceric ammonium nitrate is used as an oxidant in organic chemistry and in etching electronic components, and as a primary standard for quantitative analysis.[5][62]


Cerium is used as alloying element in aluminum to create castable eutectic alloys, Al-Ce alloys with 6–16 wt.% Ce, to which Mg and/or Si can be further added; these alloys have excellent high temperature strength.[65]

Biological role and precautions

GHS pictograms GHS02: Flammable GHS07: Harmful
GHS Signal word Danger
H228, H302, H312, H332, H315, H319, H335
P210, P261, P280, P301, P312, P330, P305, P351, P338, P370, P378[66]
NFPA 704 (fire diamond)
Flammability code 0: Will not burn. E.g. waterHealth code 2: Intense or continued but not chronic exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury. E.g. chloroformReactivity code 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogenSpecial hazards (white): no codeNFPA 704 four-colored diamond


Cerium nitrate is an effective topical antimicrobial treatment for third-degree burns,[37][67] although large doses can lead to cerium poisoning and methemoglobinemia.[68] The early lanthanides act as essential cofactors for the methanol dehydrogenase of the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV, for which lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium alone are about equally effective.[69]



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