survey of plant pigments: molecular and environmental determinants


survey of plant pigments: molecular and environmental determinants

ACTA BIOLOGICA CRACOVIENSIA Series Botanica 51/1: 7–16, 2009




Plants owe their appearance in part to colorful substances

consisting of biochromes, which either

absorb or reflect light of varying wavelengths. The

absorbed light is dissipated in the pigment, and the

reflected light is visible as color. The colors are also

the result of a mix of residual wavelengths that are

reflected. The human eye is capable of seeing light

within the range of 400–700 nm (Fig. 1), which corresponds

to the colors of the rainbow identified by

Newton: violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange

and red (Heldt, 2005).

The secrets of plant pigmentation are among the

oldest interests of botanists. The first publications

on the subject of carotenoids came in the beginning

of the nineteenth century, and the term "chlorophyll"

was first used in 1818 (Davies, 2004). The variety of

colors and easy identification of mutations resulted

in flowers becoming one of the most popular genetic

research subjects, starting with Mendel's pioneering

experiments on pigment inheritance in pea and

leading to the identification of mobile colored elements

called transposons in corn, for which

Barbara McClintock received the 1983 Nobel Prize

* e-mail:ewamloda@biol.uni.wroc.pl


Department of Plant Physiology, Wroclaw University,

ul. Kanonia 6/8, 50-328 Wrocław, Poland

Received January 7, 2009; revision accepted February 20, 2009

It is difficult to estimate the importance of plant pigments in plant biology. Chlorophylls are the most important

pigments, as they are required for photosynthesis. Carotenoids are also necessary for their functions in photosynthesis.

Other plant pigments such as flavonoids play a crucial role in the interaction between plants and animals

as visual signals for pollination and seed scattering. Studies related to plant pigmentation are one of the oldest areas

of work in plant science. The first publication about carotenoids appeared in the early nineteenth century, and the

term "chlorophyll" was first used in 1818 (Davies, 2004). Since then, the biochemical structure of plant pigments

has been revealed, as have the biosynthetic pathways for the major pigments that provide a useful variety of colors

to blossoms and other plant organs. There is widespread interest in the application of molecular methods to

improve our knowledge of gene regulation mechanisms and changes in plant pigment content. Genetic modification

has been used to alter pigment production in transgenic plants. This review focuses on flower pigmentation, its biochemistry

and biology. It presents a general overview of the major plant pigment groups as well as rarer plant dyes

and their diversity and function in generating the range of colors observed in plants.

Key words: Flower and fruit colors, co-pigmentation, plant dyes, pigment groups.

for Physiology and Medicine (McClintock, 1983).

Research into pigments has led to many breakthrough

discoveries in the field of molecular biology;

for example, the first transcription factor was identified

when anthocyanins were studied, and the first

isolation of cDNA in plants came from anthocyanin

research (Holton et al., 1993).

Pigments responsible for the appearance of colors

in higher plants are classified in several groups:

chlorophylls, carotenoids (carotenes, xanthophylls),

flavonoids (chalcones, anthocyanins, flavones,

flavonols) and betalains (betaxanthin, betacyanin)

(Tab. 1).

In prokaryotic (Cyanobacteria) and eukaryotic

cells (cyanelles, red algae) there are water-soluble

photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins, which

are found in the cytoplasm or in the stroma of the

chloroplast (Marsac, 2003). There are two classes of

phycobilins – phycocyanin and phycoerythrin (Tab. 1).

The bluish pigment phycocyanin is found in

cyanobacteria and gives them the common name

"blue-green algae", and the reddish phycoerythrin is

found only in red algae, Rhodophyta (Beale, 2003).

These pigments are covalently bound to the proteins

forming phycobiliproteins and are organized into

PL ISSN 0001-5296 © Polish Academy of Sciences and Jagiellonian University, Cracow 2009


Fig. 1. Visible spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

a supramolecular complex called the phycobilisome

(Beale, 2003). Two major phycobilins are phycocyanobilin

and phycoerythrobilin, which absorb light

at 620 nm and 560 nm, respectively (Mimuro, 2002).

Numerous data on known pigments have shown

the richness and variety of plant colors. So far

approximately 600 carotenoids, 7,000 flavonoids

and more than 500 anthocyanins have been identified

(Davies, 2004).

The main pigment groups are located at various

sites in plant organs. Flavonoids appear in almost all

tissues; carotenoids, for example, are present in

leaves, roots, seeds, fruits and flowers. Some pigments

such as anthocyanins or chlorophylls have a

specific cellular or subcellular location. Anthocyanins

are usually found in epidermal cells of flower petals,

whereas chlorophylls and carotenoids are in plastids

in subepidermal photosynthetic cells of leaves. Like

anthocyanins, betalains are water-soluble and appear

in vacuoles (Davies, 2004).

Anthropocentrism leads us to believe that flowers

were created for our pleasure, to delight our eyes

with colorful tones, and for artists as an inspiration

for creation in the different arts. However, neither

the brilliant colors of plants nor their intoxicating

aromas were designed for people. All the characteristics

that form the beauty of plants are actually

information addressed to animals, insects, birds

and bats, which visit plants in search of food. In

these almost discourteous visits, they bring grains of

TABLE 1. Major pigments of plants and other organisms


dust effecting the pollination and thus the continuation

of the species. For this reason, plants must be

visible from a distance for airborne pollinators, and

must stand out from their surroundings. Plants

therefore developed, through evolution, a set of features

(pigmentation, fragrance) that can be compared

to aggressive advertising campaigns effectively

targeting pollinators. The first plants, which

appeared in the Mesozoic era, were probably creamcolored

and only with time developed sharper colors,

increasing the concentration of various pigments

(Raven, 2005).


The most eye-catching and widespread plant pigment

is chlorophyll, which appears in leaves and

other green parts of plants exposed to light.

Chlorophyll is located, together with carotenoids, in

chloroplasts, and there its physiological function is

to absorb light energy and use it in photosynthesis.

There are two kinds of chlorophyll in higher plants:

green-blue chlorophyll a, and green-yellow chlorophyll

b. Their amounts depend on the species of

plant, light conditions, and the availability of minerals

such as magnesium (Mg). Normal chlorophyll a

content is 2–4 times that of chlorophyll b although

spectrometry of acetone extracts of fresh mint,

melissa and nettle leaves showed chlorophyll a/b

ratios varying from 3:1 in melissa and nettles to 1:1

in mint (Dżugan, 2006). Plants growing in shade

contain less chlorophyll a and more chlorophyll b.

Replacing Mg with Fe ions gives a grey-brown

chlorophyll product, and the presence of Zn and Cu

ions increases the stability of the natural green color

(Dżugan, 2006).

The chlorophyll molecule is a porphyrin derivative

whose main skeleton is an arrangement of four

pyrrole rings containing an Mg ion in the center. The

presence of Mg in the center of a chlorophyll molecule

plays an important role in absorption of light

energy, and the pyrrole ring creates a structure with

single and double bonds, which facilitates the

absorption of light photons. A phytol tail consisting of

20 carbon atoms is attached to this tetrapyrrole part

of chlorophyll. The differences in structure between

chlorophyll a and b are minimal and involve the various

groups attached to the third carbon atom in the

II pyrrole ring. Chlorophyll a attaches the CH 3 group,

whereas chlorophyll b binds with CHO (Fig. 2a)

(Heldt, 2005). Reverse conversion from chlorophyll a

to chlorophyll b may occur in chloroplasts as a result

of the activity of CAO oxygenases encoded by a class

of genes identified in Arabidopsis thaliana and

Oryza sativa (Espineda et al., 1999).

Removal of Mg from the chlorophyll molecule

results in its conversion to pheophytin, grey-brown

in color. Pheophytin accumulates in leaves during

senescence of plants or as a result of damage caused

by environmental pollution, such as acid rain

(Dżugan, 2006).

The green pigment of plant leaves is due to the

ability of chlorophyll to absorb light in the visible

Plant pigments 9

Fig. 2. The chemical structure of plant pigments. (a) Structure of the chlorophyll molecule. All plants, algae and

cyanobacteria that photosynthesize contain chlorophyll a. A second kind of chlorophyll is chlorophyll b, which occurs

only in green algae and in plants (Taiz and Zeiger 2006, modified), (b) Chemical structure of carotenoids, (c) Structure

of the basic flavonoid skeleton with 15 carbons in two aromatic rings (A and B) connected by a three-carbon bridge,

(d) Betalains: betacyanin and betaxanthin with nitrogen atom in the chromophore.

wavelength, primarily in the blue (420–460 nm) and

red (650–700 nm) range, and reflection of green

light (~550 nm). However, the physiological cause of

plants' greenness is still not completely known. It is

thought that green leaves adapted exceptionally well

to varying light conditions, which prevail in many

habitats. The success of green pigment results not

only from chlorophyll's ability to absorb light under

changing irradiance and maximal utilization of light

energy in photosynthetic electron transport, but also

from its ability to protect chloroplasts from light

excess by dissipating it in the form of heat or fluorescence

radiation (Nishio, 2000). Thus the greenness

of plants is a result of complex reactions of

chlorophyll biosynthesis. The final light-dependent

reaction is catalyzed by NADPH-protochlorophyllide

oxidoreductase (POR). In Arabidopsis thaliana,

three POR isoforms occur: POR A, POR B and POR C

(Beale, 2005). Angiosperms growing in darkness

accumulate only small amounts of protochlorophyl-


lide, which is associated with NADPH and POR in a

ternary complex, so these plants are not capable of

chlorophyll synthesis. In these etiolated seedlings a

large amount of oxidoreductase POR A proteins and

protochlorophyllide, as well as POR A mRNA, are

accumulated. Following exposure to light, the level of

POR A falls rapidly as a result of proteolytic degradation.

Rapid proteolysis of this isoform is the reason

that plants growing in darkness do not contain

chlorophyll. Yellow pigmentation is produced by

carotenoids, which mask the green color of protochlorophyllide.

The POR B isoform, responsible for

chlorophyll synthesis, has been found in barley and

Arabidopsis thaliana growing in light. The enzyme

has been shown to be active only in light, probably as

a result of its insensitivity to proteolytic hydrolysis

(Lebedev et al., 1995; Tanaka and Tanaka, 2006).

In A. thaliana, 30 genes encoding enzymes

involved in chlorophyll synthesis have been identified.

Mutations in those genes are usually lethal to plants

(Beale, 2005). Chlorophyll synthesis mutants are

often pale green, sensitive to light, and characterized

by overproduction of protochlorophyllide (von

Wettstein, 2000). These mutants are particularly

helpful in understanding the regulation of chlorophyll

synthesis and its integration with plant growth and

development. Of particular interest is a corn mutant

with mutations in the gene encoding uroporphyrinogen

III decarboxylase. This mutation has characteristic

necrotic patches on the leaves due to the accumulation

of phototoxic intermediates. This is the only

case of natural porphyria in plants (Hu et al., 1998).


Carotenoids are a large family of terpenoid pigments

(more than 600 compounds) found in photosynthetic

bacteria, algae, fungi, and cells of higher plants

and animals. These pigments can be divided into

two groups: orange-red carotenes, which are unsaturated

hydrocarbons; and yellow-orange xanthophylls,

which contain additional oxygen within their

molecules (Fig. 2b).

In higher plants they are involved in light harvesting

in photosynthesis and protection against

excessive light, participating in energy and electron

transfer. In light-harvesting reactions, carotenoids

act as accessory pigments and transfer the excitation

energy to chlorophyll b. However, the important

function of these pigments is photoprotection of the

reaction center (RC) of photo system II from photooxidative

damage by either quenching triplet chlorophyll

or quenching singlet oxygen (Young et al.,

1997). The role of these pigments in photoprotection

is based on fluorescence-quenching mechanisms.

The excess energy is dissipated as heat; it is

a feature of the interconversion between two

carotenoids, zeaxanthin and violaxanthin, in the


xanthophyll cycle. Under excess light, the violaxanthin

is biochemically transformed (de-epoxidated)

into zeaxanthin via intermediate antheraxanthin. In

darkness or under low photon flux density, the

process is reversed and violaxanthin content

increases in plant leaves. The quenching mechanism

is complex and not entirely understood in molecular

detail (Horton and Ruban, 2005). Carotenoids are

also present in chromoplasts, giving them a characteristic

yellow-red-orange color. This pigmentation

determines the color of some plants (roses and

marigolds), fruits (tomatoes), roots (carrot) and

seeds (red peppers). The unusual blue color of some

carotenoids is the result of interaction between certain

carotenoids with apoproteins such as astaxanthin

with crustacyanin, which give the blue pigmentation

of lobsters (Grotewold, 2006). β-carotene and

lycopene are among the most common carotenoids

in the plant kingdom, giving the characteristic colors

to carrots and tomatoes; the most frequently represented

xanthophylls are zeaxanthin, violaxanthin

and lutein. Besides antenna functions, some xanthophylls

(violaxanthin, lutein) are responsible for the

yellow color of autumn leaves (xanthos = yellow,

phyll = leaf) (Davies, 2004).

Carotenoids absorb light of 400–500 nm wavelength,

which accounts for their orange coloring. In

addition to their role in energy transfer to chlorophylls,

carotenoids also have a key function in chloroplast

protection under excess light conditions. By dissipating

the excess energy they prevent reactive oxygen

species production, photo-oxidation and damage

to the photosynthetic system (Britton, 1995; Niyogi,


An important application of biotechnology is

improvement of the dietary value of crops to supplement

the local diet with nutrients that do not occur

naturally in it. Carotenoids are an important part of

the diet, comprising a source of vitamin A and antioxidants.

One of the earliest genetic modifications was

the introduction of β-carotene, a vitamin A precursor,

into rice, which does not contain vitamin A or any of

its biochemical precursors. Rice lines genetically

modified with genes encoding phytoene synthase and

lycopene β-cyclase originating from Narcissus

pseudonarcissus and Erwinia uredovora were produced.

The transformed lines produced β-carotene

manifested phenotypically as orange pigmentation of

rice grains, giving rise to the name "Golden Rice"

(Giuliano et al., 2000; Al-Babili and Beyer, 2005).

Carotenoids present in leaves, together with

anthocyanins, are responsible for the beautiful colors

of autumn. One hypothesis (Hamilton and

Brown, 2001) suggests that the colors of leaves have

the same significance as colored lines painted on the

face of a native American: strength and readiness to

fight. Trees that quickly change their foliage color to

yellow, purple and gold are demonstrating their

vitality and strong metabolic processes. This is a signal

for insects that the tree is strong and that in case

of attack it may attack the parasite with a harmful

substance produced as a result of the metabolic

process (Lee and Gould, 2002). Another suggestion,

the resorption protection hypothesis, is that anthocyanins

produced during senescence help to photoprotect

plants from excess light and can affect a

plant's ability to resorb important foliar nutrients

such as nitrogen and phosphorus. In this case,

anthocyanins serve as a barrier cream in leaves by

shielding the photosynthetic apparatus from potentially

harmful light levels (Hoch et al., 2003).




Flavonoids are chemical substances of the polyphenol

group whose primary skeleton comprises 15

carbon atoms arranged in two phenyl rings, A and

B, joined by a three-carbon bridge (Fig. 2c).

So far more than 7,000 derivatives containing

this structure have been found. In higher plants

these compounds are divided into several classes

differing in the number and location of hydroxyl

groups on rings A and B, the degree of oxidation of

ring C, and the presence of dimeric structures, that

is, repetition of the C6-C3-C6 structure. The

flavonoids include anthocyanins, chalcones,

aurones, flavones and flavonols. They all are water

soluble, located in vacuoles often as glycoconjugates,

and absorb visible light in the 280–315 nm range.

Flavonoids are biochemically active substances with

varied functions: they are responsible for the color

of flower petals and fruits, they create a UV protective

filter, they serve as antioxidants, and they have

antibacterial and antiviral activity. They also control

gene transcription for proteins involved in auxin

transport and give important visual signals to insect

and animal pollinators (Davies, 2004; Winkel-

Shirley, 2002). The names of many known anthocyanins

reflect their history and originate from the

names of the families in which they were first discovered

(e.g., Centaurea, Delphinium, Pelargonium).

In 1913, Willstätter and Everest identified the first

anthocyanin in the blue cornflower, and since then

the structures of over 600 different anthocyanins

have been identified (Winkel-Shirley, 2006). As early

as 1664 the violet pigment in the pansy (Viola sp.),

belonging to the anthocyanins, was discovered, and

was used as the first natural pH indicator.

The rich variety of flavonoids and their role in

providing color to plants are one of the oldest botanical

research areas. Anthocyanins are the most common

pigments of the flavonoid group, which often

give a bright red, red, blue or violet color to plant

Plant pigments 11

TABLE 2. The most common anthocyanidins and their


petals, fruits and stems. The key to this variety of

color is the degree of oxidation of the central chromophore

group, anthocyanidin, as well as the number

and type of attachments to the main skeleton.

Anthocyanins are glycosides that have sugars

attached to the anthocyanidin. In the structure of

anthocyanins, 17 anthocyanidins have been distinguished,

the most common of which are cyanidin,

delphinidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, malvidin and

petunidin. Anthocyanin color is influenced by many

factors. One of them is the number of hydroxyl and

methoxyl groups. If many OH groups are present,

the color is blue. The presence of many OCH 3

groups shifts the color towards red (Tab. 2)

(Winkel-Shirley, 2002; Grotewold, 2006). A characteristic

property of these pigments is the change of

tone with environmental factors (Davies, 2004). In

this respect, anthocyanins are true chameleons in

the pigment world. In acidic pH, anthocyanins take

a red color, and in alkali pH, blue. Anthocyan color

also depends on the presence of metal ions such as

aluminum (Al), iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg); the

intense blue color of the dayflower (Commelina

communis) is brought about by the anthocyan complex

with two Mg atoms. The co-occurrence of anthocyanins

in association with other pigments such as

carotenoids and flavonoids also has a significant

effect on petal pigmentation (Griesbach, 2005;

Grotewold, 2006). Flavones usually have a yellowish

or cream color, and also absorb ultraviolet, so they

can provide protection against UV radiation. In such

complex structures, anthocyanins take on more

intense and stable colors.

The application of electron microscopy in

research on plant petals revealed the presence of

spherical bodies known as anthocyanic vacuolar

inclusions (AVIs) in some taxa, for example

Lisianthius, Dianthus caryophyllus, Salvia,

Antirrhinum, Eustoma and Delphinium. These

structures may be formed by anthocyanins attached

by H-bonding to the protein matrix, and their con-


centration intensifies petal color, especially in areas

rich in AVIs (Markham et al., 2000). Recent electron

microscopy studies of the AVIs of lisianthus

(Eustoma grandifolium) and carnation (Dianthus

carryophyllus) report that AVIs are compact, irregular

bodies formed from ER-derived vesicles in epidermal

cells in different regions of the petal, and are

not surrounded by membranes. Based on the subcellular

evidence, it is suggested that anthocyanins

may be first packed into prevacuolar compartments

(PVCs) localized in the vicinity of their biosynthesis

sites. Subsequently these PVCs develop and merge

with the central vacuole, where anthocyanins are

finally sequestered (Zhang et al., 2006).

Many genes associated with the biosynthesis of

various anthocyanins have been identified. The first

plants serving as color models in genetic experiments

were corn, snapdragon and petunia, and

work on these subjects led to the isolation of many

structural and regulatory genes coding key proteins

involved in the biosynthesis of anthocyanins and

their sub-cellular organisation. Recognition of the

complete Arabidopsis thaliana genome enriched

our knowledge of the mechanisms regulating the

expression of genes typically active in petal epidermal

cells and which may react to environmental factors

such as wavelength and quality of light (Winkel-

Shirley, 2001; Grotewold, 2006). Synthesis of

anthocyanins may also be induced by many other

stress factors such as cold, high temperatures,

salinity and deficiency of minerals, particularly

nitrogen and phosphorus, which is usually manifested

by purple pigmentation of stems and leaves.

This shows that flavonoid synthesis is one of the

general plant reactions to stresses (Winkel-Shirley,

2002). The most common environmental factors

influencing pigment color is soil pH. It can affect pH

within the cell compartments and in this way can

change the subcellular accumulation of flavonoids

or other cellular components that interact with

flavonoid pigments (Verweij et al., 2008). Mutations

in glucosyltransferase genes (GTs) changed the location

of flavonoids from vacuole to cytoplasm, resulting

in flower yellowing. Some of the genes regulating

vacuole pH also controlled anthocyan biosynthesis

in the petunia (Davies, 2004; Verweij et al., 2008).

Research on anthocyanins in dicotyledons provides

evidence that plant coloration involves two levels

of genetic regulation of flavonoid synthesis. The

first comprises genes encoding the enzymes involved

in early steps of flavonoid synthesis: chalcone synthase

(CHS) and chalcone isomerase (CHI). The second

involves regulation of the expression of genes

involved in the late stages of anthocyan production,

such as DFR (dihydroflavonol reductase) or

LDOX/ANS (leucoanthocyanidyn dioxygenase/anthocyanidins

synthase) (Winkel-Shirley, 2002; Davies,

2004). Mutation of CHS in both corn and petunia


produced white instead of yellow pollen in wild

plants (Winkel-Shirley, 2002). In the case of DFR,

for example, genetic modifications using antisense

gene structures for nucleotide sequencing of later

stages in flavonoid synthesis changed the flower pigmentation

from white to pink in petunia and from

red to pink in gerbera (Davies, 2004). Genetic engineering

has created the possibility to use these genes

to transform plant species and strains to attain the

required color.


Growers of decorative plants have been trying for

centuries to obtain a blue rose. In this genus blue

flower color is not found in nature, as its petal cells

do not accumulate delphinidins or any delphinidin

derivatives, due to the lack of a key enzyme involved

in their synthesis: flavonoid 3',5'- hydroxylase.

Roses do accumulate large amounts of pelargonidins,

cyanidins and carotenoids. Apart from this,

the pH in the vacuoles of rose petal epidermal cells

ranges between 3.69 and 5.78. At such a low pH,

anthocyanins have a red or pink tone. One strain of

rose, "Rhapsody in Blue," contains a small amount

of the blue pigment rosacyanin in AVIs. Color

changes in this rose from purple to blue progressing

with age are caused by increasing accumulation of

anthocyanins in vesicle-like AVI structures.

However, the molecular mechanism of this phenomenon

is not yet clear (Katsumoto et al., 2007).

Scientists from Florigene in Australia transformed

plants with the gene coding flavonoid

hydroxylase enzyme, vital for the synthesis of blue

derivative delphinidins, to grow blue roses and carnations.

The first transgenic rose with the flavonoid

hydroxylase gene originating from the pansy, the

petals of which contain delphinidin, was created in

1992 (http://www.florigene.com). The next achievement

of the scientists at Florigene was successful

transformation of selected rose strains with a construct

of two genes: the gene encoding F3'5' H from

the pansy and the DFR gene from the iris. This

transformation caused greater delphinidin accumulation

in genetically modified roses. The ability to

pass on the blue color became a fully inherent trait,

which became apparent in successive generations.

Overexpression of the F3'5'H gene alone was not

enough to create the blue pigmentation of carnations.

However, transformation of the white carnation

with both F3'5'H from the pansy and DRF from

the petunia resulted in the production of a blue pigment

named "Moondust" (Katsumoto et al., 2007;


The first anthocyan isolated from plants was

cyanidin, originating from the cornflower petal. The

same pigment was later identified in the rose; the

difference in pigmentation between the flowers of

those two species was explained by the difference in

their petal pH. The crystallographic structure of pigment

isolated from the cornflower shows it to be a

large complex composed of six cyanidin molecules

chelated with Fe 3+ and Mg 2+ and six flavones associated

with Ca 2+ . This new supermolecule, named

protocyanin, may be the challenge awaiting breeders

looking for a source of blue pigment for many decorative

plant strains (Shiono et al., 2005).


Betalains substitute anthocyanins in most species of

Caryophyllales. They have also been found in certain

fungi (Amanita, Hygrocybe) and cactii. Since betalains

derive from tyrosine, an amino acid common to

all organisms, the presence of nitrogen in their molecule

is characteristic. Betalains differ structurally in

the sidechain groups, which may be amino acids or

amines (Fig. 2d), and are divided into two groups:

betaxanthins (yellow; e.g., indicaxanthin in cactii) and

betacyanins (red to violet; e.g., amaranthin in

Amaranthus caudatus). Sometimes they form complexes

with tyrosine or glycine (e.g., portulacaxanthin

II and III identified in Portulaca grandifolia). The

most well known betalains, betanin and vulgaxanthin,

were isolated from beetroot. Betalains are present

also in fungi in the fruiting body (musca-aurin). The

toadstool contains, instead of betacyanin, betalamic

acid-derived compounds: musca-purpurin and

musca-flavin, which give its cap its characteristic red

color (Davies, 2004).

Spanish researchers made an interesting observation

in a very original flower known as Mirabilis

(Mirabilis jalapa), whose petals display fluorescence.

The petals of this plant open in the late

evening or overcast days in order to be more noticeable

to insects through their fluorescence. This

plant's petals contain two types of pigment: one of

them emits fluorescence and the other is an antifluorescent

pigment. Some petals, yellow in color, contain

betaxanthin and emit green fluorescent light,

and other parts of flowers contain both yellow betaxanthin

and violet betacyanin pigments. The violet

pigment absorbs green light emitted during fluorescence.

The combination of these two pigments can

create green patterns which have been suggested to

act as a guide for insects and bats sensitive to this

color (Gandía-Herrero et al., 2005).


Gardeners and breeders of decorative plants have

been trying for hundreds of years to breed and select

for black flowers. Over many generations they have

produced blossoms of dark purple, dark violet or

dark chocolate. A species of tulip, Tulipa julia, has

visible dark stains on the external side of its petals,

Plant pigments 13

Fig. 3. Lisianthius nigrescens, the blackest flower in the


which are caused by a very high concentration of

anthocyanins (co-pigmentation). Looking deeper

into various black petals, we can see the various

shades of purple, blue and red. "Queen of the Night,"

considered the blackest strain of tulip, owes its dark

violet color to a high concentration of delphinidin,

which in specific light conditions gives a distinctly

black color. In tulips with high delphinidin content

and other associated pigments (cyanidin and

pelargonidin), the color may in fact appear to be

black. The black pansy has a high concentration the

delphinidin derivative 5-O-glucoside-3-O [4-pcoumaroylrhamnosyl

(1,6)glucoside], commonly

known as violanin (Markham et al., 2004).

Black flowers are a true rarity and are considered

an extravagance among breeders, often unattainable.

Black-flowered species have been collected

in the wild, most recently by the American botanists

Rob Nicholson and Melvin Shemluck along with

their Mexican colleague Raul Rivera. They relocated

a population of Lisianthius nigrescens in Oaxaca,

Mexico, based on a locale given by a 1939 herbarium

specimen made by the legendary Richard

Schultes. Known as la flor de muerte (the flower of

death) in Oaxaca, this trio managed to collect plant

and floral specimens and then shared these with

pigment chemists and pollination biology specialists.

The results of the interdisciplinary team

showed that L. nigrescens contains two types of pigments

belonging to the anthocyanins, in unprecedented

quantities. These compounds accounted for

as much as 24% of the flower's dry mass (Nicholson,

1999). The petals of L. nigrescens absorb light

across the whole visible wavelength, and are also

capable of absorbing UV, so these plants truly are

the blackest flowers in the world (Fig. 3).

To compare, Eustoma grandiflorum, another

member of the Gentianaceae family, contains 1.4%

anthocyanins in its violet petals. Large vacuoles

within the flower cells of this species are filled with

anthocyanin inclusions, bodies in which concentrated

anthocyanins seem to be present almost as a

powder (Marhkam et al., 2004).

An example of another very dark pigment is the

dark-brown flower Gastrolobium melanopetalum,


which is being grown at the Botanic Garden of

Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts,

along with Lisianthius nigrescens. Research on

these Mexican and Australian plants is still in

progress, and is inspiring researchers to seek out

genes responsible for the production of large

amounts of anthocyanin pigments. If it were to

become possible to transform cultivated roses and

tulips with such pigments, the dreams of breeders

and gardeners might just come true.

Black olives contain phenyl elements, which

account not only for their bitter taste but also for

their dark color. The black color is given by cyanidin

3-rutinoside and cyanidin 3-glucoside, which

comprise 90% of all anthocyanins contained in

olives. Under the influence of fermentation during

processing, however, these pigments are lost and the

color is maintained by its substitution with another

more stable pigment, the nature of which remains

unknown (Piga et al., 2005).

The "Pino noir" strain of black grape, from

which pink champagne is made, owes its color to

several anthocyanins, 3-glucosides, 3-acetylglucosides

and 3-coumaroylglucosides of malvinidin, delphinidin

and cyanidin (Bridle and Garcia-Viguera,

1997). Also, genetic testing has revealed that in the

small leaves and fruit epidermis of Vitis vinfera

there is a high level of mRNA-encoding gene F3'5'H,

which correlates with the storage of large amounts of

anthocyanins based on delphinidin by these organs

(Yakushiji et al., 2006).

Black leaves may appear during the creation of

an abscission zone or where leaves are attacked by

a pathogen or parasite. Healthy black leaves do

occur, however, though extremely rarely. An example

of a plant with very dark leaves is Ophiopogon

planiscapus 'Nigrescens,' which contains an unusually

high amount of chlorophyll a and b, and anthocyanins

in surface layers of mesophyll (Hatier and

Gould, 2007).

White pigmentation is triggered by the same

effect we see in snowflakes – nothing more than

blisters of air filling large spaces between cells in

flower petals. When we submerge such a flower in

alcohol, the white pigment disappears as the liquid

fills the free space.

Cream and yellow pigments are brought about

by chalcones and flavones, commonly seen in

plants of the Asteraceae and Fabaceae families.

Another white pigment, appearing in thin-walled

cork cells of the birch tree, is betulin (Davies, 2004;

Grotewold, 2006).

It might seem that the flower world is rich in

white, but this is only as seen through our eyes.

Generally speaking, white flowers are strong UVabsorbers,

and they reflect with approximately

equal strength all other wavelengths, stimulating

our receptors of all types. White flowers in the eyes


of an insect are very rare. Insects have the ability to

detect UV, and to them the flowers are chromatic.

Thus, white dye has many colors for them (Kevan

et al., 1996).

An extreme white is observed in petunia into

which an introduced additional copy of the gene

encoding for chalcone synthase (CHS) has triggered

an effect known as gene silencing – instead of

becoming darker, the flowers become white or else

mosaic with white and colored petals (van Der Krol

et al., 1990).

Research on flower pigments sometimes yields

unexpected discoveries for different fields in biology.

Gene silencing and siRNA (small interfering RNA)

have become subjects of interest for many

researchers, opening new doors in molecular biology

for research into plant color properties.


Pigments that give color to angiosperm flowers are

generally common among vascular plants. The pigmentation

is generated by the electronic structure of

the dyes interacting with sunlight in plant tissue.

The primary pigments occurring in plants are

chlorophylls and carotenoids, accumulated in plastids,

and anthocyanins and betalains, which are dissolved

in vacuolar sap. Flavonoids and carotenoids

are ubiquitously distributed in plant pigments. Each

of these groups of compounds indicate their presence

by giving flowers, fruits and leaves different

shades of green, red, violet, yellow and orange.

Different pigments display an ability to absorb varied

wavelengths of visible light. Different types of pigment

are marked with their maximum absorption,

which is an important ecological feature for various

organisms living in environments of diverse light

availability. Flavonoids, together with anthocyanins,

confer a wide spectrum of color to flowers and

fruits, including yellow, scarlet, red, pink, violet and

blue. Carotenoids furnish flowers and fruits with

distinct colors from yellow to red, and are essential

components for photosynthesis.

Among the few strains of dark flowers, only a

few closely approach the color black. A naturally

occurring, almost black plant from the Gentianaceae

family is Lisianthius nigrescens.

The intensive colors of some flowers, fruits and

leaves are due to a combination of various pigments,

often in complex structures called co-pigments,

which give more stable colors.


Many thanks to Robert Nicholson for giving me

access to the manuscript of the paper "The Blackest

Flower in the World" and for providing flower specimens

of Lisianthius nigrescens and Gastrolobium



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