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Simeon the Great
Симеон І Велики
Skylitzes - Simeón el Grande.jpg
Simeon I, from the Madrid Skylitzes
Emperor of the Bulgarians and Romans
Reign 893 – 27 May 927
Predecessor Vladimir
Successor Peter I
Born 864/865
Died 27 May 927
Preslav, Bulgaria
Spouse First: unknown name
Second: George Sursuvul' sister
Issue Michael
Peter, Emperor of Bulgaria
Dynasty Krum dynasty
Father Boris I
Mother Maria

During Simeon's rule, Bulgaria spread over a territory between the Aegean, the Adriatic and the Black Sea,[7][8] and the new Bulgarian capital Preslav was said to rival Constantinople.[8][9] The newly independent Bulgarian Orthodox Church became the first new patriarchate besides the Pentarchy, and Bulgarian Glagolitic and Cyrillic translations of Christian texts spread all over the Slavic world of the time.[10] It was at the Preslav Literary School in the 890s that the Cyrillic alphabet was developed.[11][12][13] Halfway through his reign, Simeon assumed the title of Emperor (Tsar),[14] having prior to that been styled Prince (Knyaz).[15]


Background and early lifeEdit

Simeon was born in 864 or 865, as the third son of Knyaz Boris I[15] of Krum's dynasty.[16] As Boris was the ruler who Christianized Bulgaria in 865, Simeon was a Christian all his life.[15][17] Because his eldest brother Vladimir was designated heir to the Bulgarian throne, Boris intended Simeon to become a high-ranking cleric,[18] possibly Bulgarian archbishop, and sent him to the leading University of Constantinople to receive theological education when he was thirteen or fourteen.[17] He took the name Simeon[19] as a novice in a monastery in Constantinople.[17] During the decade (ca. 878–888) he spent in the Byzantine capital, he received excellent education and studied the rhetoric of Demosthenes and Aristotle.[20] He also learned fluent Greek, to the extent that he was referred to as "the half-Greek" in Byzantine chronicles.[21] He is speculated to have been tutored by Patriarch Photios I of Constantinople,[22] but this is not supported by any source.[17]

Around 888, Simeon returned to Bulgaria and settled at the newly established royal monastery of Preslav "at the mouth of the Tiča",[23] where, under the guidance of Naum of Preslav, he engaged in active translation of important religious works from Greek to Old Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian), aided by other students from Constantinople.[17] Meanwhile, Vladimir had succeeded Boris, who had retreated to a monastery, as ruler of Bulgaria. Vladimir attempted to reintroduce paganism in the empire and possibly signed an anti-Byzantine pact with Arnulf of Carinthia,[24] forcing Boris to re-enter political life. Boris had Vladimir imprisoned and blinded, and then appointed Simeon as the new ruler.[25] This was done at an assembly in Preslav which also proclaimed Bulgarian as the only language of state and church[26] and moved the Bulgarian capital from Pliska to Preslav, to better cement the recent conversion.[27] It is not known why Boris did not place his second son, Gavril, on the throne, but instead preferred Simeon.[15]


Trade War with Byzantium and Magyar invasionsEdit

With Simeon on the throne, the long-lasting peace with the Byzantine Empire established by his father was about to end. A conflict arose when Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise, allegedly acting under pressure from his mistress Zoe Zaoutzaina and her father Stylianos Zaoutzes, moved the marketplace for Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessaloniki,[18] where the Bulgarian merchants were heavily taxed. The Bulgarians sought protection by Simeon, who in turn complained to Leo. However, the Byzantine emperor ignored his embassy.[28][29]

Map of Bulgaria's greatest territorial extent during the reign of Simeon I

Forced to take action, in the autumn of 894 Simeon invaded the Byzantine Empire from the north, meeting with little opposition[30] due to the concentration of most Byzantine forces in eastern Anatolia to counter Arab invasions.[31] Informed of the Bulgarian offensive, the surprised Leo sent an army consisting of guardsmen and other military units from the capital to halt Simeon, but his troops were routed[18][32] somewhere in the theme of Macedonia.[8] The Bulgarians took most of the Khazar mercenary guardsmen prisoners and killed many archons, including the army's commander. However, instead of continuing his advance to the Byzantine capital, Simeon quickly withdrew his troops to face a Magyar invasion from the north.[33] These events were later called "the first trade war in medieval Europe" by Bulgarian historians.[32]

Unable to effectively respond to the Bulgarian campaign due to the engagement of their forces against the Arabs, the Byzantines convinced the Magyars to attack Bulgaria,[18] promising to transport them across the Danube using the Byzantine navy.[32][34] Leo VI may have also concluded an agreement with Arnulf to make sure that the Franks did not support Simeon against the Magyars.[35] In addition, the talented commander Nikephoros Phokas was called back from southern Italy to lead a separate army against Bulgaria in 895 with the mere intention to overawe the Bulgarians.[36] Simeon, unaware of the threat from the north, rushed to meet Phokas' forces, but the two armies did not engage in a fight.[37] Instead, the Byzantines offered peace, informing him of both the Byzantine foot and maritime campaign, but intentionally did not notify him of the planned Magyar attack. Simeon did not trust the envoy and, after sending him to prison, ordered the Byzantine navy's route into the Danube closed off with ropes and chains, intending to hold it until he had dealt with Phokas.[38]

Despite the problems they encountered because of the fencing, the Byzantines ultimately managed to ferry the Magyar forces led by Árpád's son Liüntika across the Danube,[39] possibly near modern Galaţi,[40] and assisted them in pillaging the nearby Bulgarian lands. Once notified of the surprise invasion, Simeon headed north to stop the Magyars, leaving some of his troops at the southern border to prevent a possible attack by Phokas.[41] Simeon's two encounters with the enemy in Northern Dobruja resulted in Magyar victories,[18] forcing him to retreat to Drǎstǎr.[41][42] After pillaging much of Bulgaria and reaching Preslav, the Magyars returned to their lands,[43] but not before Simeon had concluded an armistice with Byzantium towards the summer of 895.[36] A complete peace was delayed, as Leo VI required the release of the Byzantine captives from the Trade War.[44]

Anti-Magyar campaign and further wars with ByzantiumEdit



Using a Magyar invasion in the lands of the neighbouring Slavs in 896 as a casus belli, Simeon headed against the Magyars together with his Pecheneg allies, defeating them completely[47] in the Battle of Southern Buh and making them leave Etelköz forever and settle in Pannonia.[8][18] Following the defeat of the Magyars, Simeon finally released the Byzantine prisoners in exchange for Bulgarians captured in 895.[18]


Claiming that not all prisoners had been released,[47] Simeon once again invaded Byzantium in the summer of 896, heading directly to Constantinople.[48] He was met in Thrace by a hastily assembled Byzantine army, but annihilated the Byzantine forces in the Battle of Bulgarophygon (at modern Babaeski, Turkey).[18][49] Arming Arab captives and sending them to fight with the Bulgarians as a desperate measure, Leo VI managed to repel the Bulgarians from Constantinople, which they had besieged.[18][50] The war ended with a peace treaty which formally lasted until around Leo VI's death in 912[8] and under which Byzantium was obliged to pay Bulgaria an annual tribute.[51] Under the treaty, the Byzantines also ceded an area between the Black Sea and Strandža to the Bulgarian Empire.[52] Meanwhile, Simeon had also imposed his authority over Serbia in return for recognizing Petar Gojniković as their ruler.[53]

Simeon often violated the peace treaty with Byzantium, attacking and conquering Byzantine territory on several occasions,[54] such as in 904, when the Bulgarian raids were used by Arabs led by the Byzantine renegade Leo of Tripoli to undertake a maritime campaign and seize Thessaloniki.[55] After the Arabs plundered the city, it was an easy target for Bulgaria and the nearby Slavic tribes. In order to dissuade Simeon from capturing the city and populating it with Slavs,[18][56] Leo VI was forced to make further territorial concessions to the Bulgarians in the modern region of Macedonia. With the treaty of 904, all Slavic-inhabited lands in modern southern Macedonia and southern Albania were ceded to the Bulgarian Empire,[8][57] with the border line running some 20 kilometres north of Thessaloniki.[58]

Recognition as EmperorEdit


Before Simeon could attack, Alexander died on 6 June 913, leaving the empire in the hands of a regency council headed by Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos.[60] Many residents of Constantinople did not recognize the young emperor and instead supported the pretender Constantine Doukas,[61] which, exacerbated by revolts in southern Italy and the planned Arab invasion in eastern Anatolia, was all to Simeon's advantage.[62] Nicholas Mystikos tried to discourage Simeon from invading Byzantium in a long series of pleading letters, but the Bulgarian ruler nevertheless attacked in full force in late July or August 913, reaching Constantinople without any serious resistance.[63]

The anarchy in Constantinople had ceased after the murder of the pretender Constantine Doukas, however, and a government had promptly been formed with Patriarch Nicholas at the helm.[64] This urged Simeon to raise his siege and enter peace negotiations, to the joy of the Byzantines.[64] The protracted negotiations resulted in the payment of the arrears of Byzantine tribute,[65] the promise that Constantine VII would marry one of Simeon's daughters,[18][63] and, most importantly, Simeon's official recognition as Emperor of the Bulgarians by Patriarch Nicholas in the Blachernae Palace.[66][67]


Victories at Acheloos and KatasyrtaiEdit

Map of the progress of the Battle of Acheloos or Anchialos[71]
The Bulgarian victory at Anchialos, Madrid Skylitzes.

By 917, Simeon was preparing for yet another war against Byzantium. He attempted to conclude an anti-Byzantine union with the Pechenegs, but his envoys could not match the financial resources of the Byzantines, who succeeded in outbidding them.[72] The Byzantines hatched a large-scale campaign against Bulgaria and also tried to persuade the Serbian Prince Petar Gojniković to attack the Bulgarians with Magyar support.[73]

In 917, a particularly strong Byzantine army led by Leo Phokas the Elder, son of Nikephoros Phokas, invaded Bulgaria accompanied by the Byzantine navy under the command of Romanos Lekapenos, which sailed to the Bulgarian Black Sea ports. En route to Mesembria (Nesebǎr), where they were supposed to be reinforced by troops transported by the navy, Phokas' forces stopped to rest near the river of Acheloos, not far from the port of Anchialos (Pomorie).[74][75] Once informed of the invasion, Simeon rushed to intercept the Byzantines, and attacked them from the nearby hills while they were resting disorganized. In the Battle of Acheloos of 20 August 917, one of the largest in medieval history,[76] the Bulgarians completely routed the Byzantines and killed many of their commanders, although Phokas managed to escape to Mesembria.[77] Decades later, Leo the Deacon would write that "piles of bones can still be seen today at the river Acheloos, where the fleeing army of the Byzantines was then infamously slain".[78]


Simeon's army quickly followed up the victory of Acheloos with another success.[63] The Bulgarians sent to pursuit the remnants of the Byzantine army approached Constantinople and encountered Byzantine forces under Leo Phokas, who had returned to the capital, at the village of Katasyrtai in the immediate proximity of Constantinople.[80] The Bulgarian regiments attacked and again defeated the Byzantines, destroying some of their last units before returning to Bulgaria.[81]

Suppression of Serbian unrest and late campaigns against ByzantiumEdit


Meanwhile, the Byzantine military failures forced another change of government in Constantinople: the admiral Romanos Lekapenos replaced Zoe as regent of the young Constantine VII in 919, forcing her back into a convent. Romanos betrothed his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine and advanced to the rank of co-emperor in December 920, effectively assuming the government of the empire,[83][84] which was largely what Simeon had planned to do.[85]

Simeon sending envoys to the Fatimids, Madrid Skylitzes.

No longer able to climb to the Byzantine throne by diplomatic means, the infuriated Simeon once again had to wage war to impose his will. Between 920 and 922, Bulgaria increased its pressure on Byzantium, campaigning in the west through Thessaly reaching the Isthmus of Corinth and in the east in Thrace, reaching and crossing the Dardanelles to lay siege on the town of Lampsacus.[18] Simeon's forces appeared before Constantinople in 921, when they demanded the deposition of Romanos and captured Adrianople, and 922, when they were victorious at Pigae, burned much of the Golden Horn and seized Bizye.[86][87] In the meantime, the Byzantines attempted to ignite Serbia against Simeon, but he substituted Pavle with Zaharije Pribisavljević, a former refugee at Constantinople that he had captured.[18][86]



In the summer of 924, Simeon nevertheless arrived at Constantinople and demanded to see the patriarch and the emperor. He conversed with Romanos on the Golden Horn on 9 September 924 and arranged a truce, according to which Byzantium would pay Bulgaria an annual tax, but would be ceded back some cities on the Black Sea coast.[91] During the interview of the two monarchs, two eagles are said to have met in the skies above and then to have parted, one of them flying over Constantinople and the other heading to Thrace, as a sign of the irreconcilability of the two rulers.[92] In his description of this meeting, Theophanes Continuatus mentions that "the two emperors... conversed", which may indicate renewed Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial claims.[93]

War with Croatia and deathEdit


In 926, Simeon's troops under Alogobotur invaded Croatia, at the time a Byzantine ally, but were completely defeated by the army of King Tomislav in the Battle of the Bosnian Highlands.[8] Fearing a Bulgarian retribution, Tomislav accepted to abandon his union with Byzantium and make peace on the basis of the status quo, negotiated by the papal legate Madalbert.[96][97] In the last months of his life, Simeon prepared for another conflict with Constantinople despite Romanos' desperate pleas for peace.[98]


He was succeeded by his son Peter I, with George Sursubul, the new emperor's maternal uncle, initially acting as a regent.[101] As part of the peace treaty signed in October 927 and reinforced by Peter's marriage to Maria (Eirene), Romanos' granddaughter, the existing borders were confirmed, as were the Bulgarian ruler's imperial dignity and the head of the Bulgarian Church's patriarchal status.[102]

Culture and religionEdit

Ceramic icon of Theodore Stratelates dating to Simeon's reign

During Simeon's reign, Bulgaria reached its cultural apogee, becoming the literary and spiritual centre of Slavic Europe.[3][103] In this respect, Simeon continued his father Boris' policy of establishing and spreading Slavic culture and attracting noted scholars and writers within Bulgaria's borders. It was in the Preslav Literary School and Ohrid Literary School, founded under Boris, that the main literary work in Bulgaria was concentrated during the reign of Simeon[104] in the new Cyrillic alphabet which was developed there.[11][12][13]

The late 9th and early 10th century constitute the earliest and most productive period of medieval Bulgarian literature.[104] Having spent his early years in Constantinople, Simeon introduced Byzantine culture to the Bulgarian court, but eliminated its assimilative effect by means of military power and religious autonomy.[104] The disciples of Cyril and Methodius, among whom Clement of Ohrid, Naum and Constantine of Preslav, continued their educational work in Bulgaria, actively translating Christian texts, such as the Bible and the works of John Chrysostom, Basil of Caesarea, Cyril of Alexandria, Gregory of Nazianzus, Athanasius of Alexandria, as well as historic chronicles such as these of John Malalas and George Hamartolus, to Bulgarian.[104] The reign of Simeon also witnessed the production of a number of original theological and secular works, such as John Exarch's Six Days (Šestodnev), Constantine of Preslav's Alphabetical Prayer and Proclamation of the Holy Gospels, and Černorizec Hrabǎr's An Account of Letters.[104] Simeon's own contribution to this literary blossoming was praised by his contemporaries, for example in the Praise to Tsar Simeon preserved in the Zlatostruj collection and Simeon's Collection,[103] to which the tsar personally wrote an addendum.[105]

Simeon turned the new Bulgarian capital Preslav into a magnificent religious and cultural centre, intended more as a display of his realm's heyday and as a royal residence than as a military fortress.[103] With its more than twenty cross-domed churches and numerous monasteries, its impressive royal palace and the Golden (or Round) Church, Preslav was a true imperial capital.[103] The development of Bulgarian art in the period is demonstrated by a ceramic icon of Theodore Stratelates and the Preslav-style illustrated ceramics.[106]


Simeon was married twice. By his first wife, whose identity is unknown, Simeon had a son called Michael,[107] possibly because his mother was of inferior birth, he was excluded from the succession and sent to a monastery.[101]


Simeon also had several daughters, including one who was arranged to marry Constantine VII in 913.[65] The marriage was annulled by Constantine's mother Zoe once she had returned to the court.[110]

Family tree of Simeon I[111]
Boris I
(d. 907, ruled 852—889)
(ruled 889–893)
unknown wife
Simeon I
(b. 864/865, d. 927,
ruled 893–927)
sister of
George Sursubul
   1  2  2  2  ?
(d. 931)
Peter I
(b. after 912, d. 970,
ruled 927–969)
Ivan Benjamin daughters

Legacy and popular cultureEdit


Tsar Simeon I has remained among the most highly valued Bulgarian historical figures, as indicated by popular vote in the Velikite Bǎlgari (a spin-off of 100 Greatest Britons) television programme, which in February 2007 placed him fourth among the greatest Bulgarians ever.[112] Simeon the Great has been regularly featured in fiction. Bulgarian national writer Ivan Vazov dedicated a children's patriotic poem to him, "Tsar Simeon", and it was later arranged as a song, "Kray Bosfora šum se vdiga" ("A Clamour Rises by the Bosphorus").[113] An eleven-episode drama series filmed in 1984, Zlatniyat vek (The Golden Age), retells the story of Simeon's reign. In the series, the tsar is played by Marius Donkin.[114] A historical drama play called Tsar Simeon Veliki — Zlatniyat vek produced by Stefan Staychev, director of the Silistra Theatre, premiered in December 2006. Ivan Samokovliev stars in the part of Simeon.[115]


The last Bulgarian monarch, Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, was named after Simeon I.[117] A brand of high-quality grape rakija, Car Simeon Veliki, also bears his name,[118] and an Antarctic peak on Livingston Island of the South Shetland Islands was named Simeon Peak in his honour by the Antarctic Place-names Commission.[119]


Timeline of Simeon I's life


  1. ^ For example in Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".
  12. ^ a b Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250, Cambridge Medieval Textbooks, Florin Curta, Cambridge University Press, 2006, ISBN 0521815398, pp. 221–222.
  13. ^ a b The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, Oxford History of the Christian Church, J. M. Hussey, Andrew Louth, Oxford University Press, 2010, ISBN 0191614882, p. 100.
  21. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 132.
    * Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
  22. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 281.
  25. ^ Todt 1996.
  28. ^ John Skylitzes. Skylitzes–Kedrenos, II, p. 254.4–16
  30. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 289.
  32. ^ a b c Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 198.
  33. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 289–291.
  34. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 145.
  35. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 294–295.
  37. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 295.
  38. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 296–297.
  39. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 297.
  42. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.
  43. ^ Bakalov, Istorija na Bǎlgarija, "Simeon I Veliki".
    * Delev, Bǎlgarskata dǎržava pri car Simeon.
    * Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 199.
  44. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 301–304.
  45. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 304.
  46. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 304–311.
  50. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 317.
  51. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 148.
  52. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 318–321.
  53. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 141.
  55. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 324.
  56. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 152.
  57. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 334–337.
  59. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 155.
    * Todt 1996.
    * Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.
  60. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 212.
    * Todt 1996.
  61. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 156.
  62. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 353.
  63. ^ a b c Bǎlgarite i Bǎlgarija, 1.2.
  64. ^ a b Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 359.
  66. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, pp. 144–148.
  69. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 367–368.
  72. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 159.
  73. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 375–376.
  75. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 376–377.
  76. ^ Dimitrov, Bulgaria: illustrated history.
  79. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 370.
  81. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 382.
  82. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 385–386.
  84. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 163.
  85. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 217.
  87. ^ Vita S. Mariae Junioris.
  89. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 446–447.
  90. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, p. 459.
  92. ^ Theophanes Continuatus, pp. 405–407.
  94. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 156.
  96. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 225.
  97. ^ Runciman, A history of the First Bulgarian Empire, p. 176.
  98. ^ Zlatarski, Istorija na Pǎrvoto bǎlgarsko carstvo, pp. 489–491.
  100. ^ Canev, Bǎlgarski hroniki, p. 226–227.
  102. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans.
  103. ^ a b c d Delev, Zlatnijat vek na bǎlgarskata kultura.
  107. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 160.
  109. ^ Antapodosis, p. 309.
  110. ^ Fine, The Early Medieval Balkans, p. 148.
  111. ^ Family tree of Simeon I:


In BulgarianEdit

External linksEdit

Preceded by
Tsar of Bulgaria
Succeeded by
Peter I