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Arrest of a suffragette organization member in London, 1914. Suffragette organizations campaigned for women's right to vote.


Etymology and definitions



Sexism is discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping on the basis of gender. Sexism is most often expressed toward girls and women.[1] It has been characterized as the "hatred of women" and "entrenched prejudice against women."[8]


Ancient world


The status of women in Ancient Egypt depended on their fathers or husbands, but they had property rights and were allowed to attend court, including as plaintiffs.[9] Women of the Anglo-Saxon era were also commonly afforded equal status.[10] Evidence, however, is lacking to support the idea that many pre-agricultural societies afforded women a higher status than women today.[11][12] After the adoption of agriculture and sedentary cultures, the concept that one gender was inferior to the other was established; most often this was imposed upon women and girls.[13] Examples of sexism in the ancient world include written laws preventing women from participating in the political process. Women in ancient Rome could not vote or hold political office.[14]

Witch hunts and trials

Main article: Witch hunt
Title page of the seventh Cologne edition of the Malleus Maleficarum, 1520 (from the University of Sydney Library). The Latin title is "MALLEUS MALEFICARUM, Maleficas, & earum hæresim, ut phramea potentissima conterens". (Generally translated into English as The Hammer of Witches which destroyeth Witches and their heresy as with a two-edged sword).[15]





When women are targeted for accusations of witchcraft and subsequent violence, it is often the case that several forms of discrimination interact - for example discrimination based on gender with discrimination based on caste, as is the case in India and Nepal, where such crimes are relatively common.[22][23][24]

Coverture and other marriage regulations


Until the 20th century, U.S. and English law observed the system of coverture, where "by marriage, the husband and wife are one person in law; that is the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage".[26] U.S. women were not legally defined as "persons" until 1875 (Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162).[27] A similar legal doctrine, named marital power, existed under Roman Dutch law (and is still partially in force in present-day Swaziland).

In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated that: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women."[28] Restrictions on married women's rights were common in Western countries until a few decades ago: for instance, French married women obtained the right to work without their husband's permission in 1965,[29][30][31] and in West Germany women obtained this right in 1977.[32][33] During the Franco era, in Spain, a married woman required her husband's consent (called permiso marital) for employment, ownership of property and traveling away from home; the permiso marital was abolished in 1975.[34] In Australia, until 1983, the passport application of a married woman had to be authorized by her husband.[35]

Women in parts of the world continue to lose legal rights at marriage. For example, Yemeni marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[36] In Iraq, the law allows husbands to legally "punish" their wives.[37] In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorization to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.[38]

Abuses and discriminatory practices against women in marriage are often rooted in financial payments such as dowry, bride price, and dower.[39] These transactions often serve as legitimizing coercive control of the wife by her husband and in giving him authority over her; for instance Article 13 of the Code of Personal Status (Tunisia) states that "The husband shall not, in default of payment of the dower, force the woman to consummate the marriage",[40][41] implying that, if the dower is paid, marital rape is permitted (in this regard, critics have questioned the alleged gains of women in Tunisia, and its image as a progressive country in the region, arguing that discrimination against women remains very strong in that country).[42][43][44]

The OMCT has recognized the "independence and ability to leave an abusive husband" as crucial in stopping mistreatment of women.[45] However, in some parts of the world, once married, women have very little chance of leaving a violent husband: obtaining a divorce is very difficult in many jurisdictions because of the need to prove fault in court; while attempting a de facto separation (moving away from the marital home) is also not possible due to laws preventing this. For instance, in Afghanistan, a wife who leaves her marital home risks being imprisoned for "running away".[46][47] In addition, many former British colonies, including India, maintain the concept of restitution of conjugal rights,[48] under which a wife may be ordered by court to return to her husband; if she fails to do so she may be held in contempt of court.[49][50] Other problems have to do with the payment of the bride price: if the wife wants to leave, her husband may demand back the bride price that he had paid to the woman's family; and the woman's family often cannot or does not want to pay it back.[51][52][53]



Suffrage and politics

Gender has been used, at times, as a tool of discrimination against women in the political sphere. Women's suffrage was not achieved until 1893, when New Zealand was the first country to grant women the right to vote. Saudi Arabia was the most recent country, as of August 2015, to extend the right to vote to women in 2011.[55] Some Western countries allowed women the right to vote only relatively recently: Swiss women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971,[56] and Appenzell Innerrhoden became the last canton to grant women the right to vote on local issues (in 1991, when it was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland).[57] French women were granted the right to vote in 1944.[58][59] In Greece, women obtained the right to vote in 1952.[60] In Liechtenstein, women obtained the right to vote in 1984, through the women's suffrage referendum of 1984.[61][62]



Gender stereotypes

Series of photographs lampooning women drivers
1952 portrayal of stereotypes about women drivers.




In language

Sexism in language exists when language devalues members of a certain gender.[74] Sexist language in many instances promotes male superiority.[75] Sexism in language affects consciousness, perceptions of reality, encoding and transmitting cultural meanings and socialization.[74] Researchers have pointed to the semantic rule in operation in language of the male-as-norm.[76] This results in sexism as the male becomes the standard and those who are not male are relegated to the inferior.[76] Sexism in language is considered a form of indirect sexism, in that it is not always overt.[77]

Examples include:

  • The ordering of words in phrases like "man and wife"

Sexist and gender-neutral language

Various feminist movements in the 20th century, from liberal feminism and radical feminism to standpoint feminism, postmodern feminism and queer theory have all considered language in their theorizing.[79] Most of these theories have maintained a critical stance on language that calls for a change in the way speakers use their language.

One of the most common calls is for gender-neutral language. Many have called attention, however, to the fact that the English language isn't inherently sexist in its linguistic system, but rather the way it is used becomes sexist and gender-neutral language could thus be employed.[80] At the same time, other opposed critiques of sexism in language with explanations that language is a descriptive, rather than prescriptive, and attempts to control it can be fruitless.[81]

Sexism in languages other than English

Romanic languages such as French[82] and Spanish[83] may be seen as reinforcing sexism, in that the masculine form is the default form. The word 'mademoiselle', meaning miss was declared banished from French administrative forms in 2012 by Prime Minister François Fillon.[82] Current pressure calls for the use of the masculine plural pronoun as the default in a mixed-sex group to change.[84] As to Spanish, Mexico's Ministry of the Interior published a guide on how to reduce the use of sexist language.[83]

German speakers have also raised questions about how sexism intersects with grammar.[85] The German language is heavily inflected for gender, number, and case; nearly all nouns denoting the occupations or statuses of human beings are gender-differentiated. For more gender-neutral constructions, gerund nouns are sometimes used instead, as this completely eliminates the grammatical gender distinction in the plural, and significantly reduces it in the singular. For example, instead of die Studenten ("the men students") or die Studentinnen ("the women students"), one writes die Studierende ("the [people who are] studying").[86] However, this approach introduces an element of ambiguity, because gerund nouns more precisely denote one currently engaged in the activity, rather than one who routinely engages in it as their primary occupation.[87]


Gender-specific pejorative terms


Occupational sexism

"Calling nurses by their first names"





It also found that despite the fact that almost all OECD countries, including the U.S.,[95] have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce.[93]

Women who enter predominantly male work groups can experience the negative consequences of tokenism: performance pressures, social isolation, and role encapsulation.[96] Tokenism could be used to camouflage sexism, to preserve male worker's advantage in the workplace.[96] No link exists between the proportion of women working in an organization/company and the improvement of their working conditions. Ignoring sexist issues may exacerbate women’s occupational problems.[97]

Gap in hiring

One 2014 study by Wendy M. Williams and Stephen J. Ceci found that female applicants are preferred 2:1 over identically qualified male applicants in academic hiring; however, its results have been met with skepticism from other researchers, since it contradicts most other studies on the issues. Joan C. Williams, a distinguished professor at the University of California's Hastings College of Law, raised issues with its methodology, pointing out that the fictional female candidates it used were unusually well-qualified. Studies using more moderately-qualified graduate students have found that male students are much more likely to be hired, offered better salaries, and offered mentorship.[98][99]

In Europe, studies based on field experiments in the labour market, provide evidence for no severe levels of discrimination based on female gender. However, unequal treatment is still measured in particular situations, for instance when candidates apply for positions at a higher functional level in Belgium, [100][not in citation given] when they apply at their fertiles ages in France,[101][not in citation given] and when they apply for male-dominated occupations in Austria.[102]

Wage gap

Main article: Gender pay gap
File:EU 27 Gender Pay Gap.001.png
Gender pay gap in average gross hourly earnings according to Eurostat 2008.[103]


Eurostat found a persistent, average gender pay gap of 17.5% in the 27 EU member states in 2008.[103] Similarly, the OECD found that female full-time employees earned 17% less than their male counterparts in OECD countries in 2009.[93][94]

In the United States, the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0.77 in 2009; female full-time, year-round (FTYR) workers earned 77% as much as male FTYR workers. Women's earnings relative to men's fell from 1960 to 1980 (60.7–60.2%), rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (60.2–71.6%), leveled off from 1990 to 2000 (71.6–73.7%) and rose from 2000 to 2009 (73.7–77.0%).[104][105] When the first Equal Pay Act was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 58.9% as much as male full-time workers.[104]


The gender gap can also vary across-occupation and within occupation. In Taiwan, for example, studies show how the bulk of gender wage discrepancies occur within-occupation.[107] In Russia, research shows that the gender wage gap is distributed unevenly across income levels, and that it mainly occurs at the lower end of income distribution.[108] The research also found that "wage arrears and payment in-kind attenuated wage discrimination, particularly amongst the lowest paid workers, suggesting that Russian enterprise managers assigned lowest importance to equity considerations when allocating these forms of payment".[108]

The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between men and women (such as education, hours worked and occupation), innate behavioral and biological differences between men and women and discrimination in the labor market (such as gender stereotypes and customer and employer bias). Women currently take significantly more time off to raise children than men.[109] In certain countries such as South Korea, it has also been a long-established practice to lay-off female employees upon marriage.[110] A study by professor Linda Babcock in her book Women Don't Ask shows that men are eight times more likely to ask for a pay raise, suggesting that pay inequality may be partly a result of behavioral differences between the sexes.[111] However, studies generally find that a portion of the gender pay gap remains unexplained after accounting for factors assumed to influence earnings; the unexplained portion of the wage gap is attributed to gender discrimination.[112]

Estimates of the discriminatory component of the gender pay gap vary. The OECD estimated that approximately 30% of the gender pay gap across OECD countries is due to discrimination.[93] Australian research shows that discrimination accounts for approximately 60% of the wage differential between men and women.[113][114] Studies examining the gender pay gap in the United States show that a large portion of the wage differential remains unexplained, after controlling for factors affecting pay. One study of college graduates found that the portion of the pay gap unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is 5% one year after graduating and 12% a decade after graduation.[115][116][117][118] A study by the American Association of University Women found that women graduates in the United States are paid less than men doing the same work and majoring in the same field.[119]



Research at Cornell University and elsewhere indicates that mothers in the United States are less likely to be hired than equally-qualified fathers and, if hired, receive a lower salary than male applicants with children.[122][123][124][125][126][127] The OECD found that "a significant impact of children on women’s pay is generally found in the United Kingdom and the United States".[128] Fathers earn $7,500 more, on average, than men without children do.[129]

Possible causes for wage discrimination



Glass ceiling effect

Main article: Glass ceiling


In the United States, women account for 47% of the overall labor force, and yet they make up only 6% of corporate CEOs and top executives.[133] Some researchers see the root cause of this situation in the tacit discrimination based on gender, conducted by current top executives and corporate directors (primarily male), as well as "the historic absence of women in top positions", which "may lead to hysteresis, preventing women from accessing powerful, male-dominated professional networks, or same-sex mentors".[133] The glass ceiling effect is noted as being especially persistent for women of color (according to a report, "women of colour perceive a 'concrete ceiling' and not simply a glass ceiling").[133]



Potential remedies

Research by David Matsa and Amalia Miller suggests that a possible remedy to the glass ceiling could be increasing the number of women on corporate boards, which could subsequently lead to increases in the number of women working in top management positions.[133] The same research suggests that this could also result in a "feedback cycle in which the presence of more female managers increases the qualified pool of potential female board members (for the companies they manage, as well as other companies), leading to greater female board membership and then further increases in female executives".[136]

Sticky floor effect

In addition, women are found to experience a "sticky floor". While a glass ceiling implies that women are less like to reach the top of the job ladder, a sticky floor is defined as the pattern that women are, compared to men, less likely to start to climb the job ladder. A sticky floor is related to gender differences at the bottom of the wage distribution. It might be explained by both employer discrimination and gender differences in career aspirations.[137][not in citation given]

Weight based sexism

A 2009 study found that being overweight harms women's career advancement, but presents no barrier for men. Overweight women were significantly underrepresented among company bosses, making up between 5% and 22% of female CEOs. However, the proportion of overweight male CEOs was between 45% and 61%, over-representing overweight men. On the other hand, approximately 5% of CEOs were obese among both genders. The author of the study stated that the results suggest that "the 'glass ceiling effect' on women's advancement may reflect not only general negative stereotypes about the competencies of women, but also weight bias that results in the application of stricter appearance standards to women." [138][139]

Transgender discrimination

Transgender people also experience significant workplace discrimination and harassment.[140] Unlike sex-based discrimination, refusing to hire (or firing) a worker for their gender identity or expression is not explicitly illegal in most U.S. states.[141]


Example of sexual objectification of women on a wine menu.

In social philosophy, objectification is the act of treating a person as an object or thing. Objectification plays a central role in feminist theory, especially sexual objectification.[142] Feminist writer and gender equality activist Joy Goh-Mah argues that by being objectified, a person is denied agency.[143] According to the philosopher Martha Nussbaum, a person might be objectified if one or more of the following properties are applied to them:[144]

  1. Instrumentality – treating the object as a tool for another's purposes: "The objectifier treats the object as a tool of his or her purposes."
  2. Denial of Autonomy – treating the object as lacking in autonomy or self-determination: "The objectifier treats the object as lacking in autonomy and self-determination."
  3. Inertness – treating the object as lacking in agency or activity: "The objectifier treats the object as lacking in agency, and perhaps also in activity."

Rae Helen Langton, in Sexual Solipsism: Philosophical Essays on Pornography and Objectification, proposed three more properties to be added to Nussbaum's list:[145][142]

  1. Reduction to Body – the treatment of a person as identified with their body, or body parts;
  2. Reduction to Appearance – the treatment of a person primarily in terms of how they look, or how they appear to the senses;
  3. Silencing – the treatment of a person as if they are silent, lacking the capacity to speak.


In advertising

While advertising used to portray women in obviously stereotypical roles (e.g., as a housewife), women in modern advertisements are no longer solely confined to the home. However, advertising today nonetheless still stereotypes women, albeit in more subtle ways, including by sexually objectifying them.[147][148] This is problematic because there appears to be a relationship between the manner in which women are portrayed in advertising and people’s ideas about the role of women in society.[147] Research has shown that gender role stereotyping in advertising is linked to negative attitudes towards women, as well as more acceptance of sexual aggression against women and rape myth acceptance.[147] Furthermore, gender role stereotyping in advertisements may be injurious to women, as it is linked to negative body image and the development of eating disorders.[149]




Anti-pornography feminist Catharine MacKinnon argues that pornography contributes to sexism by objectifying women and portraying them in submissive roles.[152] MacKinnon, along with Andrea Dworkin, argues that pornography reduces women to mere tools, and is a form of sex discrimination.[153] The scholars highlight the link between objectification and pornography by stating:



Some people opposed to pornography, including MacKinnon, charge that the production of pornography entails physical, psychological, and economic coercion of the women who perform and model in it.[157][158][159] Opponents of pornography charge that it presents a distorted image of sexual relations and reinforces sexual myths; it shows women as continually available and willing to engage in sex at any time, with any person, on their terms, responding positively to any requests. MacKinnon writes:


Defenders of pornography and anti-censorship activists (including sex-positive feminists) argue that pornography does not seriously impact a mentally healthy individual, since the viewer can distinguish between fantasy and reality.[161] They contend that both sexes are objectified in pornography (particularly sadistic or masochistic pornography, in which men are objectified and sexually used by women).[162]


Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment.[163][164] Sex workers are often objectified and are seen as existing only to serve clients, thus calling their sense of agency into question. There is a prevailing notion that because they sell sex professionally, prostitutes automatically consent to all sexual contact.[165] As a result, sex workers face higher rates of violence and sexual assault. This is often dismissed, ignored and not taken seriously by authorities.[165]

In many countries, prostitution is dominated by brothels or pimps, who often claim ownership over sex workers. This sense of ownership furthers the concept that sex workers are void of agency.[166] This is literally the case in instances of sexual slavery.

Various authors have argued that female prostitution is based on male sexism that condones the idea that unwanted sex with a woman is acceptable, that men's desires must be satisfied, and that women are coerced into and exist to serve men sexually.[167][168][169][170] The European Women's Lobby condemned prostitution as "an intolerable form of male violence".[171]

Carole Pateman writes that:[172]


Media portrayals

Some scholars believe that media portrayals of demographic groups can both maintain and disrupt attitudes and behaviors toward those groups.[173][page needed][174][175][page needed] According to Susan Douglas: "Since the early 1990s, much of the media have come to overrepresent women as having made it-completely-in the professions, as having gained sexual equality with men, and having achieved a level of financial success and comfort enjoyed primarily by Tiffany's-encrusted doyennes of Laguna Beach."[176] These images may be harmful, particularly to women and racial and ethnic minority groups. For example, a study of African American women found they feel that media portrayals of African American women often reinforce stereotypes of this group as overly sexual and idealize images of lighter-skinned, thinner African American women (images African American women describe as objectifying).[177] In a recent analysis of images of Haitian women in the Associated Press photo archive from 1994 to 2009, several themes emerged emphasizing the "otherness" of Haitian women and characterizing them as victims in need of rescue.[178]


Sexist jokes

Frederick Attenborough argues that sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduce the butt of the joke to an object. They not only objectify women or men, but can also condone violence or prejudice against men or women.[181] "Sexist humor—the denigration of women through humor—for instance, trivializes sex discrimination under the veil of benign amusement, thus precluding challenges or opposition that nonhumorous sexist communication would likely incur."[182] A study of 73 male undergraduate students by Ford found that "sexist humor can promote the behavioral expression of prejudice against women amongst sexist men".[182] According to the study, when sexism is presented in a humorous manner it is viewed as tolerable and socially acceptable: "Disparagement of women through humor 'freed' sexist participants from having to conform to the more general and more restrictive norms regarding discrimination against women."[182]

Gender discrimination

Gender discrimination is discrimination on the basis of actual or perceived gender identity.[183] Gender identity is "the gender-related identity, appearance, or mannerisms or other gender-related characteristics of an individual, with or without regard to the individual's designated sex at birth".[184] Gender discrimination is theoretically different from sexism.[185] Whereas sexism is prejudice based on biological sex, gender discrimination specifically addresses discrimination towards identity based orientations, including third gender, genderqueer, and other non-binary identified people.[186] Banning discrimination on the basis of gender identity and expression has emerged as a subject of contention in the American legal system.[187]


Oppositional sexism

Oppositional sexism is a term coined by transfeminist author, Julia Serano. In her book,Whipping Girl, Serano defined oppositional sexism as "the belief that male and female are rigid, mutually exclusive categories."[189] Oppositional sexism plays a vital role in a number of social norms Viz. cissexism, heteronormativity, and traditional sexism.


The idea of having two, totally opposite genders is tied to sexuality through what gender theorist Judith Butler calls a "compulsory practice of heterosexuality."[190] Because oppositional sexism is tied to heteronormativity in this way, non-heterosexuals are seen as breaking gender norms.[190]

The concept of opposite genders sets a "dangerous precedent", according to Serano, where "if men are big then women must be small; and if men are strong then women must be weak."[189] The gender binary and oppositional norms work together to support "traditional sexism," the belief that femininity is inferior to and serves masculinity.[190]

Serano states that oppositional sexism works in tandem with "traditional sexism." This ensures that "those who are masculine have power over those who are feminine, and that only those that are born male will be seen as authentically masculine."[189]

Transgender discrimination

See also: Transphobia

Transgender discrimination is discrimination towards peoples whose gender identity differs from the social expectations of the biological sex they were born with.[191] Forms of discrimination include but are not limited to identity documents not reflecting one's gender, sex-segregated public restrooms and other facilities, dress codes according to binary gender codes, and lack of access to and existence of appropriate health care services.[192] In a recent adjudication, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) concluded that discrimination against a transgendered individual is sex discrimination.[192]




Domestic violence

Main article: Domestic violence
Further information: Honor killing, Acid throwing and Dowry death
Acid attack victim in Cambodia.

Although the exact rates are widely disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence significantly more often than men.[195][196][197] In addition, there is broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner.[196][197] The United Nations recognizes domestic violence as a form of gender-based violence, which it describes as a human rights violation, and the result of sexism.[198]


Honor killings are another form of domestic violence practiced in several parts of the world, and their victims are predominantly women.[201] Honor killings can occur because of refusal to enter into an arranged marriage, maintaining a relationship relatives disapprove of, extramarital sex, becoming the victim of rape, dress seen as inappropriate, or homosexuality.[202][203][204] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime states that, "[h]onour crimes, including killing, are one of history’s oldest forms of gender-based violence".[205]




Dowry deaths are the result of the killing women who are unable to pay the high dowry price for their marriage. According to Amnesty International, "the ongoing reality of dowry-related violence is an example of what can happen when women are treated as property".[210]

Gendercide and forced sterilization

Female infanticide remains a major problem in India.

Female infanticide is the killing of newborn female children or the termination of a female fetus through selective abortion. It is a form of gendercide, and is an extreme form of gender-based violence.[211][212][213] Female infanticide is more common than male infanticide, and is especially prevalent in Southeast Asia, such as parts of India and China.[212][214][215] Recent studies suggest that over 90 million girls and women are missing in China and India as a result of infanticide.[216][217]

Sex-selective abortion involves terminating a pregnancy based upon the predicted sex of the baby. The abortion of female fetuses is most common in areas where the culture values male children over females,[218] such as parts of the China, India, Pakistan, Korea, Taiwan, and the Caucasus.[218][219] One reason for this preference is that males are seen as generating more income than females. The trend has grown steadily over the previous decade, and may result in a future shortage of women.[220]

Forced sterilization and forced abortion are also forms of gender-based violence.[211] Forced sterilization was practiced during the first half of the 20th century by many Western countries and there are reports of this practice being currently employed in some countries, such as Uzbekistan and China.[221][222][223][224]

Female genital mutilation

Campaign against female genital mutilation in Uganda.


According to a 2013 UNICEF report, 125 million women and girls in Africa and the Middle East have experienced FGM.[227] The highest prevalence in Africa is documented in Somalia (98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), Ethiopia (74%), Mauritania (69%), Liberia (66%), and Guinea-Bissau (50%).[227]


In Denmark, nearly 3 in 4 individuals support a ban of all forms of non-medical circumcision.[229]

Sexual assault and treatment of victims

People in Bangalore, India, demanding justice for a student who was gang-raped in Delhi in December 2012.

Research by Lisak and Roth into factors motivating perpetrators of sexual assault, including rape, against women revealed a pattern of hatred towards women and pleasure in inflicting psychological and physical trauma, rather than sexual interest.[230] Mary Odem and Peggy Reeves Sanday posit that rape is the result not of pathology but of systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs.[231]

Mary Odem, Jody Clay-Warner, and Susan Brownmiller argue that sexist attitudes are propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists.[232] :130–140 [233] They state that in contrast to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim[232] and acquaintance rape (not assault by a stranger) is the most common form of rape.[232]:xiv[234] Odem also asserts that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men, by perpetuating the belief that men cannot control their sexuality.[232]


Sexism can promote the stigmatization of women and girls who have been raped and inhibit recovery.[236] In many parts of the world, women who have been raped are ostracized, rejected by their families, subjected to violence, and—in extreme cases—may become victims of honor killings because they are deemed to have brought shame upon their families.[236][237]

There is also a strong connection between rape and forced marriage, through practices such as forcing of a woman or girl who has been raped to marry her rapist, in order to restore the honor of her family;[236][238] or marriage by abduction, a practice in which a man abducts the woman or girl whom he wishes to marry and rapes her, in order to force the marriage (common in Ethiopia).[239][240][241] The criminalization of marital rape is very recent, having occurred during the past few decades; and in many countries it is still legal. Several countries in Eastern Europe and Scandinavia made spousal rape illegal before 1970; other European countries and some of the English-speaking countries outside Europe outlawed it later, mostly in the 1980s and 1990s;[242] some countries outlawed it in the 2000s.[243] In some parts of the world the lack of criminalization of marital rape coupled with the practice of child marriage leads to serious forms of child sexual abuse being legitimized. The WHO wrote that: "Marriage is often used to legitimize a range of forms of sexual violence against women. The custom of marrying off young children, particularly girls, is found in many parts of the world. This practice—legal in many countries—is a form of sexual violence, since the children involved are unable to give or withhold their consent".[236]


War rape

Main article: War rape


Sexual violence and rape are also committed against men during war and are often under-reported. Sexism plays a significant part in the difficulty that the survivors face coping with their victimization, especially in patriarchal cultures, and in the lack of support provided to men who have been raped.[247]

Reproductive rights

The United Nations Population Fund writes that "Family planning is central to gender equality and women’s empowerment".[248] Women in many countries around the world are denied medical and informational services related to reproductive health, including access to pregnancy care, family planning, and contraception.[248][249] In countries with very strict abortion laws (particularly in Latin America) women who suffer miscarriages are often investigated by the police under suspicion of having deliberately provoked the miscarriage, and are sometimes jailed,[250] a practice which Amnesty International called a "ruthless campaign against women's rights".[251] Doctors may be reluctant to treat pregnant women who are very ill, because they are afraid the treatment may result in fetal loss.[252] According to Amnesty Intentional, "Discriminatory attitudes towards women and girls also means access to sex education and contraceptives are near impossible [in El Salvador]".[253] The organization has also criticized laws and policies which require the husband's consent for a woman to use reproductive health services as being discriminatory and dangerous to women's health and life: "[F]or the woman who needs her husband’s consent to get contraception, the consequences of discrimination can be serious – even fatal".[254]

Child marriage

Poster against child and forced marriage
Main article: Child marriage
Further information: Dowry and Bride price

A child marriage is a marriage where one or both spouses are under 18, a practice that disproportionately affects women.[255][255][256] Child marriages are most common in South Asia, the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa, but occur in other parts of the world, too. The practice of marrying young girls is rooted in patriarchal ideologies of control of female behavior, and is also sustained by traditional practices such as dowry and bride price.[257] Child marriage is strongly connected with the protection of female virginity.[258] UNICEF states that:[255]


Consequences of child marriage include restricted education and employment prospects, increased risk of domestic violence, child sexual abuse, pregnancy and birth complications, and social isolation.[256][258] Early and forced marriage are defined as forms of modern-day slavery by the International Labour Organisation.[259]


Legal justice and regulations




The traditional leniently towards crimes of passion in Latin American countries has been deemed to have its origin in the view that women are property.[267] In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, stated that, "[S]o-called crimes of passion have a similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable." [267] The OHCHR has called for "the elimination of discriminatory provisions in the legislation, including mitigating factors for 'crimes of passion'".[268]


There have been several reasons postulated for the gender criminal justice disparity in the United States. One of the most common is expectation that women are predominantly care-givers.[269][270][271] Other possible reasons include the "girlfriend theory" (whereby women are seen as tools of their boyfriends),[270] the theory that female defendants are more likely to cooperate with authorities,[270] and that women are often successful at turning their violent crime into victimhood by citing defenses such as postpartum depression or battered wife syndrome.[273] However, none of these theories account for the total disparity,[270] and sexism has also been suggested as an underlying cause.[274]




Women have traditionally had limited access to higher education.[277] In the past, when women were admitted to higher education, they were encouraged to major in less-scientific subjects; the study of English literature in American and British colleges and universities was instituted as a field considered suitable to women's "lesser intellects".[278]

Educational specialties in higher education produce and perpetuate inequality between men and women.[279] Disparity persists particularly in computer and information science, where in the US women received only 21% of the undergraduate degrees, and in engineering, where women obtained only 19% of the degrees in 2008.[280] Only one out of five of physics doctorates in the US are awarded to women, and only about half of those women are American.[281] Of all the physics professors in the country, only 14% are women.[281]

World literacy is lower for females than for males. Data from The World Factbook shows that 79.7% of women are literate, compared to 88.6% of men (aged 15 and over).[282] In some parts of the world, girls continue to be excluded from proper public or private education. In parts of Afghanistan, girls who go to school face serious violence from some local community members and religious groups.[283] According to 2010 UN estimates, only Afghanistan, Pakistan and Yemen had less than 90 girls per 100 boys at school.[284] Jayachandran and Lleras-Muney's study of Sri Lankan economic development has suggested that increases in the life expectancy for women encourages educational investment because a longer time horizon increases the value of investments that pay out over time.[285]

Educational opportunities and outcomes for women have greatly improved in the West. Since 1991, the proportion of women enrolled in college in the United States has exceeded the enrollment rate for men, and the gap has widened over time.[286] As of 2007, women made up the majority—54%—of the 10.8 million college students enrolled in the United States.[287] However, research by Diane Halpern has indicated that boys receive more attention, praise, blame and punishment in the grammar-school classroom,[288] and "this pattern of more active teacher attention directed at male students continues at the postsecondary level".[289] Over time, female students speak less in a classroom setting.[290]

Writer Gerry Garibaldi has argued that the educational system has become "feminized", allowing girls more of a chance at success with a more "girl-friendly" environment in the classroom;[291] this is seen to hinder boys by punishing "masculine" behavior and diagnosing boys with behavioral disorders.[292] A recent study by the OECD in over 60 countries found that teachers give boys lower grades for the same work. The researchers attribute this to stereotypical ideas about boys and recommend teachers to be aware of this gender bias.[293]


See also: Foot binding and Burqa
Louis XV in 1712, as a boy, wearing a pink dress.

Feminists argue that some fashion trends have been oppressive to women; they restrict women's movements, increase their vulnerability and endanger their health.[294] The fashion industry has experienced various criticism, as their association of thin models and beauty is seen as encouraging bulimia and anorexia nervosa within women, as well as locking female consumers into false feminine identities.[295]

The assignment of gender specific baby clothes from young ages can be seen as sexist as it can instill in children from young ages a belief in negative gender stereotypes.[296] An example of this is the assignment in some countries of the color pink to girls and blue to boys. This fashion, however, is a recent one; at the beginning of the 20th century the trend was the opposite: blue for girls and pink for boys.[297] In the early 1900s, The Women's Journal wrote "[t]hat pink being a more decided and stronger colour, is more suitable for the boy, while blue, which is more delicate and dainty, is prettier for the girl." DressMaker magazine also explained that "[t]he preferred colour to dress young boys in is pink. Blue is reserved for girls as it is considered paler, and the more dainty of the two colours, and pink is thought to be stronger (akin to red)".[298]

File:Rwandan school children.jpg
Children in school uniform in Rwanda, all with very short hair.

Today, in most countries, it is considered inappropriate for boys to wear dresses and skirts, but this is also a relatively modern worldview. From the mid-16th century[299] until the late 19th or early 20th century, young boys in the Western world were unbreeched and wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight.[300]

Laws that dictate how women must dress are seen by many international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, as a form of gender discrimination.[301] Amnesty International states that:[301]


In many places, women who do not dress in socially and legally proscribed ways are often subjected to violence—in particular, by the authorities (such as the religious police), by family members, or by the community.[302][303]


Israeli female soldiers.

Conscription, or compulsory military service, has been criticized as sexist.[304]:102[305] Prior to the late 20th century, only men were subjected to conscription,[304]:255[306][307][308][309] and most countries still require only men to serve in the military.


Currently, only nine countries conscript women into their armed forces: China, Eritrea, Israel, Libya, Malaysia, North Korea, Norway, Peru, and Taiwan.[311][312] Other countries—such as Finland, Turkey, and Singapore—still use a system of conscription which requires military service from only men, although women are permitted to serve voluntarily. In 2014, Norway became the first NATO country to introduce obligatory military service for women as an act of gender equality.[312][313] The gender selective draft has been challenged in Switzerland[311] and the United States.[314]

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External links