10.59987/ads/2020.1-4.10-15
The aim of the present narrative review was to summarize the main indications of antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry. A search was performed via the search engines Pubmed, Scopus and Web of Science. All types of articles were included in the study except for those found in the various search engines and publications not related to the topic addressed, which were excluded. With the limitations of this study, antibiotic prophylaxis could play a decisive role in avoiding post-operative infections, especially in more invasive surgeries and in compromised patients. Further clinical studies could be useful to further investigate the role of antibiotic prophylaxis according to individual systemic diseases.
text/html
1971-1441
20
1-4
en
M. Nagni
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Annali di stomatologia
dental implants
Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry
Text.Serial.Journal
https://www.annalidistomatologia.eu/ads
11
Original Article
2022-08-08
2022-08-08
2020-12-01
2023-12-04
10-15
Ann Stomatol (Roma)
M. Nagni
2020
10.59987/ads/2020.1-4.10-15
10
Dental School, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy and Department of Dentistry, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
1971-1441
1-4
dental implants
en
15
Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry
https://www.annalidistomatologia.eu/ads/article/view/20/234
11
                                                                                                      Original article


Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry



B. D’Orto*1                                                   growth of a pathogen (Bacillus anthracis) responsible
Lara Ceresoli*                                                for an infectious disease (KI., 2016). The action of the
Serena Ferri*                                                 antibiotic on the bacterium can be of two types: bacte-
Costanza Ferraro*                                             riostatic or bactericidal; in the first case, the drug allows
M. Nagni*2                                                    bacterial replication to be stopped, while, in the second
                                                              case, it causes its death (Kohanski, (2007)).
* Dental School, Vita-Salute San Raffaele University,         The most commonly prescribed antibiotics in dentistry
  Milan, Italy and Department of Dentistry, IRCCS San         are Amoxicillin 250 mg three times a day, Ampicillin 500-
  Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy;                            1000 mg four times a day, Penicillin 500 mg four times
1
  D’Orto Bianca, DDS, fellow MSc, Dental School, Vita-        a day, Cephalexin 250-1500 mg four times a day, Ce-
  Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy and De-        phradine 250-1000 mg four times a day, Metronidazole
  partment of Dentistry, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital,         200-250 mg three times a day, Clarithromycin 250-500
  Milan, Italy; Corresponding author: b.dorto@libero.it       mg twice a day, and finally Doxycycline 200 mg initially,
2
  Nagni Matteo; DDS, MSc, Dental School, Vita-Salute          then 100 mg daily. (Ramu C. et al., 2012).
  San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy and Department        According to the World Health Organization, antibiotics
  of Dentistry, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy.    are abused drugs. This inappropriate use has led to the
                                                              problem of resistance which is becoming a serious glob-
                                                              al threat. It is estimated that antibiotic resistance causes
                                                              25,000 deaths per year. (Morehead MS et al., 2018).
Abstract                                                      Prescribing antibiotics for prophylactic purposes are a
                                                              very common practice among dentists, although the use
The aim of the present narrative review was to sum-
                                                              of antibiotic prophylaxis in implantology and oral surgery
marize the main indications of antibiotic prophylaxis
                                                              is controversial. (Schwartz AB et al., 2007).
in dentistry.
                                                              Prophylactic treatment is prescribed to avoid an infection
A search was performed via the search engines
                                                              that could occur if staphylococci and streptococci con-
Pubmed, Scopus and Web of Science. All types of
                                                              taminate the surgical wound. Broad-spectrum antibiotics
articles were included in the study except for those
                                                              such as Amoxicillin are usually prescribed. (Dar-Odeh
found in the various search engines and publica-
                                                              NS et al., 2010).
tions not related to the topic addressed, which were
                                                              The antibiotic prophylaxis protocol involves the admin-
excluded.
                                                              istration of 2 g of amoxicillin 30 to 60 minutes before
With the limitations of this study, antibiotic prophy-
                                                              surgery, according to guidelines published in 2018 by
laxis could play a decisive role in avoiding post-op-
                                                              the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
erative infections, especially in more invasive sur-
                                                              (NICE). In case of possible allergy to amoxicillin, the an-
geries and in compromised patients. Further clinical
                                                              tibiotic most frequently administered turns out to be clar-
studies could be useful to further investigate the
                                                              ithromycin (500g) or clindamycin (600 mg). (National In-
role of antibiotic prophylaxis according to individual
                                                              stitute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE), 2008).
systemic diseases.
                                                              Antibiotic prophylaxis appears to be extremely safe ex-
                                                              cept for small cases of hypersensitivity and allergic re-
Kewords: antibiotic prophylaxis, systemic diseases,           actions. Beta-lactams are the class of antibiotics that
oral surgery, dental implants.                                cause a higher percentage of adverse reactions, about
                                                              20%; followed then by sulfonamides with 2-10%, fluoro-
                                                              quinolones, macrolides, tetracyclines and glycopeptides.
Introduction to antibiotics used in dentistry
                                                              (Macy E. et al., 2012)
Waksman SA., defined an antibiotic as ‘’a chemical sub-       The literature shows that among the female and male
stance, produced by microorganisms, which can inhibit         population those who most frequently develop allergy to
the growth and even destroy bacteria and other micro-         antibiotics turn out to be the female population. (Sousa-
organisms’’. (Waksman SA, 1956). Nowadays, the term           Pinto B et al.,2017)
antibiotic refers to a chemical substance of natural or       The literature review by K de Leeuw et al, 2019, suggests
synthetic origin that inhibits or kills pathogenic bacteria   prescribing antibiotic prophylaxis for dental procedures
(KI., 2016). The first antibiotic was described by Bartolo-   in high-risk immunocompromised patients who may de-
meo Gosio, an Italian physician, microbiologist and bio-      velop systemic infections when undergoing procedures
chemist, who succeeded in isolating a substance (Peni-        such as extractions or implant placement. These are
cillium brevi) from a mould, capable of preventing the        patients with severe neutropenia, primary immunodefi-

Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15                                                                                  10
     Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry

     ciency or patients taking high doses of immunosuppres-         obstruction, is quite high. In these patients, the current
     sants. (de Leeuw K et al., 2019).                              recommendation is to undertake implant surgery with-
     Oral surgery, periodontal and endodontic treatments and        out modification of anticoagulation therapy provided that
     implant placement are dental procedures that may pro-          the INR is less than 3 or 3.5 and the surgery does not
     mote the occurrence of infective endocarditis (IE). (Ci-       include the opening of an extended flap and insertion of
     urus M, 2021).                                                 a graft. In general, consultation with the treating physi-
     Infective endocarditis is a rare infection that affects 5-10   cian is recommended, especially in congenital bleeding
     people per 100,000 per year. Morbidity is high, requires       disorders. (Diz P. et al., 2013).
     prolonged courses of antibiotics and patients often un-        The placement of dental implants over the years has be-
     dergo surgery to replace the valve. Mortality is high. It      come, after ascertaining their success over time, a rou-
     is therefore necessary to prevent this disease with ap-        tine procedure (Ng P. et al., 2011) with a 2% failure rate
     propriate antibiotic prophylaxis before the patient under-     in case of fibrointegration (Troiano et al., 2018) often as-
     goes invasive dental procedures. (Hoen B et al., 2013).        sociated with both bacterial contamination of the implant
     Amoxicillin reduces the frequency of bacteremia but is         and the trauma of the surgery itself, in addition to the
     not 100% effective. (Limeres P. et al., 2016).                 primary stability of the implant and variants related to the
                                                                    post-operative phase (Sakka S. et al., 2012).
     There are several protocols involving antibiotics              The first bacterial species to colonise the implant surface
     before and after dental procedures, most of these              and therefore associated with implant failure are strepto-
     describe the use of Amoxicillin and Amoxicillin cla-           cocci, both gram-positive and gram-negative (anaerobic)
     vulanate.                                                      (Mombelli A. et al., 1987).
     In particular the Stein et al. protocol (Stein, et al.,        A recent systematic review evaluates the use of preop-
     2018, ), which stands Amoxicillin posology;                    erative Amoxicillin and argues that systemic antibiotic
     amoxicillin should be taken 1 h before surgical pro-           administration for a single implant placement surgery
     cedures (2 g) and than, 500 mg every 8 h after sur-            does not particularly affect its success (Romandini M.
     gery for 7 days.                                               et al., 2019).
     Amoxicillin clavulanate has two methods of som-                Nevertheless, an effective standard prophylaxis protocol
     ministration;                                                  that reduces the degree of implant failure to 2% has been
     500 + 125 mg 2 days before surgery and 500 + 125               proposed several times and by several studies (Lund B.
     mg every 12 h for another 4 days (paediatric use) or           et al., 2015), this consists of a single dose of Amoxicillin
     875 + 125 mg 2 days before surgery and 875 + 125               one hour before surgery (Rodrìguez S., 2018) (Roman-
     mg every 12 h for another 4 days.                              dini et al., 2019).
                                                                    Indeed, in terms of implantation failure, both prophylaxis,
                                                                    pre- and post-operative, proved to be as effective as the
     Indications for antibiotic prophylaxis                         single-dose prophylaxis. In agreement with this, a pro-
     in implantology                                                phylaxis involving the administration of multiple doses of
                                                                    antibiotic seems to be an overprescription (Romandini et
     Systemic antibiotic prophylaxis is frequently prescribed
                                                                    al., 2019) (Esposito M. G., 2013).
     by dentists before implant surgery to avoid both implant
                                                                    Moreover, the incorrect use of antibiotics can cause vari-
     failure and the risk of post-operative infection. Indeed,
                                                                    ous adverse reactions as well as lead to antibiotic resis-
     bacterial contamination during oral implant surgery is
                                                                    tance, from diarrhoea to allergic reactions, and this risk
     thought to be responsible for early implant loss. Infected
                                                                    should always be considered when going to administer
     dental implants cannot always be recovered. (Esposito
                                                                    antibiotic prophylaxis (Surapaneni H. et al., 2016).
     M. et al., 2008)
                                                                    Although at this point it seems essential to outline a cor-
     The scientific literature suggests that as far as the
                                                                    rect method of prophylaxis, the literature on this subject
     healthy patient is concerned, a single dose of antibiotic
                                                                    is conflicting on the preoperative or postoperative use of
     prior to surgery is sufficient. (Barnabeu-Mira et al., 2021)
                                                                    antibiotic prophylaxis in the clinically healthy patient, and
     On the other hand, in the case of patients with systemic
                                                                    its subsequent correlation with implant failure and suc-
     diseases there are cases in which implant treatment is
                                                                    cess rates. (Surapaneni H. et al., 2016).
     contraindicated (patients undergoing chemotherapy or
     being treated with intravenous bisphosphonates), while
     in some cases patients can be treated by following cer-
                                                                    Indications for antibiotic prophylaxis in oral
     tain precautions. (Hwang D et al., 2006).
                                                                    surgery
     To avoid septicaemia in an immunocompromised patient
     it is necessary, in agreement with the general practitio-      Dental infections affect both the soft and hard tissues
     ner, to prescribe antibiotic prophylaxis prior to implant      of the oral cavity and can occur because of dental car-
     procedures. (Scully C. et al., 2007)                           ies, pulpal necrosis, dental trauma, and periodontal dis-
     This indication is also valid for uncontrolled diabetic        ease. There is swelling and pain at the affected site. If
     patients, as the literature reports a high risk of implant     not treated quickly, serious complications such as os-
     failure compared to patients with controlled diabetes, as      teomyelitis, brain abscess, airway obstruction, carotid
     well as for patients treated with corticosteroids. (Wang F.    infections, sinusitis, septicemia, meningitis, cavernous
     et al., 2010) (Bencharit S. et al., 2010)Patients with co-     sinus thrombosis, orbital abscess and loss of vision can
     agulation disorders have no contraindications to implant       develop (Igoumenakis D. et. al. 2014).
     treatment, but the possibility of intra-operative compli-      If the infection occurs systemically, the possibility of
     cations such as haemorrhage, with subsequent airway            administering intravenous antibiotics emerges from the

11                                                                                     Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15
B. D’Orto et al.

literature. According to current guidelines, antibiotic         abscesses with systemic compromise (localised fluctuat-
therapy should be administered only once the infectious         ing swelling, fever above 38°C, general malaise, lymph
agent has been removed and should be continued for              node swelling and muscle lockjaw); infections with a rapid
approximately 2-3 days after surgery (Koyuncuoglu CZ.           and progressive onset within 24 hours, cellulitis and os-
et. al. 2017).                                                  teomyelitis; re-implantation of the tooth element, where
Dental procedures in which antibiotic therapy is con-           topical antibiotics are sometimes recommended (Hinck-
sidered necessary, regardless of the patient’s medical          fuss SE. et. al 2009) (Andersson L. et al., 2012) and soft
health, are risk of infection after extraction of a tooth el-   tissue trauma from surgery (Diangelis AJ. et al., 2012).
ement (included or not included), after periodontal sur-
gery, after implant placement, after tooth reimplantation,
after endodontic procedures with periapical lesions or          Indications for the use of antibiotic therapy
endodontic surgery (Salmerón-Escobar JI. et. al. 2006).         in periodontology
On the other hand, in the case of a patient with systemic       Antibiotic administration in periodontal surgery is indicat-
disease, the literature suggests that antibiotic prophy-        ed in periodontal, regenerative and Guided Bone Regen-
laxis is a necessary option to prevent possible complica-       eration (GBR) bone surgery. The literature shows that,
tions (Ahmadi H. et al., 2021).                                 in periodontal bone surgery, the prescription may be
Specifically, if oral surgery is to be carried out, both in     postoperative (Powell CA. et al., 2005) Mohan RR. et al.,
the case of transplanted patients and patients on hae-          2014) on the contrary some studies report that the pre-
modialysis, antibiotics are necessary to protect them           scription is only necessary in the presence of an already
from possible bacteraemia (Bayraktar G. et al., 2009)           ongoing infectious process (Tseng CC. et al., 1993).
(Pereira-Lopes O. et al., 2019).                                In regenerative surgery, the most commonly used anti-
In case of necrotising ulcerative gingivitis, acute periapi-    biotics are the penicillin family (69.5%) or doxycycline
cal abscess, cellulitis, pericoronitis, peri-implantitis, in-   (24.2%), while only 2.3% use other types of antibiotics.
fections of the deep fascial layers of the head and neck,       The same recommendations also apply to GBR (Linde-
and in case of fever, antibiotic prescription is recom-         boom JA. et al., 2003) (Powell CA. et al., 2005).
mended. Antibiotic prophylaxis is crucial for the control
of dental infections following surgery involving incisions,
drainage, and pulpal organ involvement (Gutiérrez JL.
                                                                Use of antibiotics in pediatric dentistry
et. al. 2006).
                                                                Dentists prescribe different types of drugs in order to
Indications for antibiotic prophylaxis                          manage specific oral diseases and conditions (Goel D.
in extractive surgery                                           et al., 2020). Poor knowledge of the appropriate clinical
                                                                indications for prescribing antibiotics contributes to the
Dental extractions are performed for various reasons:           formation of antibiotic-resistant strains; in fact, children
destructive caries, included elements, orthodontic treat-       as young as four years old have been found to have
ment, periodontal treatment, or trauma (McCaul LK et            multi-resistant bacteria in their oral cavities (Ready D.
al., 2001).                                                     et al., 2003).
The prescription of antibiotics to prevent alveolitis and       Some complications that can be found when inappropri-
surgical site infections during third molar extraction is a     ate prescriptions are made in the pediatric population are:
widespread practice among dentists (Cervino G. et al.,          the risk of developing diabetes from sugar-containing
2019), although the literature is ambiguous, as the use         antibiotics, the risk of developing allergies and asthma
of antibiotics for prophylactic purposes does not signifi-      (Droste JH. et al., 2000). In addition, early exposure to
cantly reduce the presence of infections at the surgical        antibiotics is also thought to change the gut microbiota,
site (Lee JY et al., 2013).                                     with long-term adverse effects such as obesity and Can-
In the randomised controlled trial by Dios et al., 2006,        dida Albicans infections (Al-Shayyab MH. et al., 2015).
microbiological analysis of postoperative bacteremia            Enamel development defects on the first permanent mo-
was performed to determine the effectiveness of anti-           lars and maxillary central incisors may be correlated with
biotic prophylaxis in dental extraction. Amoxicillin and        Amoxicillin intake during early childhood (Hong L. et al.,
moxifloxacin prophylaxis showed high efficacy, whereas          2005).
clindamycin prophylaxis did not. Thus, the results of the       There are several clinical situations that should be appro-
study suggest that amoxicillin and moxifloxacin are two         priately considered when prescribing antibiotics in pediat-
antibiotics that can reduce postoperative infections fol-       ric patients. Facial lacerations and puncture wounds may
lowing dental extraction (Diz Dios P. et. al 2006).             simply require topical antibiotic agents, but when these
Given the low risk of infection, there is no evidence to        appear to be contaminated and the risk of infection is high
support antibiotic prophylaxis for healthy people under-        enough, then systemic antibiotics can be administered
going third molar extraction surgery (Martín-Ares M. et         (American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry).
al. 2017).                                                      In cases of irreversible pulpitis, necrotic pulp, and local-
                                                                ized acute apical abscesses, but without systemic signs
                                                                and symptoms, antibiotics are not indicated (Segura-
Indications for antibiotic prophylaxis in en-
                                                                Egea JJ. et al., 2017). In addition, on pain associated
dodontics
                                                                with dento-alveolar infection, antibiotics have no effect;
The administration of antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated in    in these cases it is sufficient to prescribe analgesic/anti-
the following cases (Segura-Egea JJ. et. al 2017): acute        inflammatory drugs (Palmer NO., 2006).
apical abscesses in unhealthy patients; acute periapical        Antibiotic prescription should be made when acute odon-
Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15                                                                                   12
     Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry

     togenic abscess is associated with pyrexia in the last 24                health in peritoneal and hemodialysis patients. Int J Dent.
     h (Palmer NO., 2006). Antibiotic prescription is also re-                2009;2009:159767. doi: 10.1155/2009/159767. Epub 2009
     quired in cases of facial cellulitis, associated with sys-               Mar 10. PMID: 20309409; PMCID: PMC2837468.
                                                                        7.    Bencharit S, Reside GJ, Howard-Williams EL. Complex
     temic signs and symptoms (Dar-Oden N. et al., 2018).                     prosthodontic treatment with dental implants for a patient
     In these cases, the antibiotic of choice is amoxicillin (2-3             with polymyalgia rheumatica: a clinical report. Int J Oral
     days, max 5 days) or phenoxymethyl penicillin (2-3 days,                 Maxillofac Implants. 2010 Nov-Dec;25(6):1241-5. PMID:
     max 5 days (American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry).                    21197503.
     Whereas the antibiotic regimen to be administered, when            8.    Bernabeu-Mira, J., Peñarrocha-Diago, M., & Peñarrocha-
     patients are allergic to penicillin, involves metronidazole              Oltra, D. (2021). Prescription of Antibiotic Prophylaxis for
                                                                              Dental Implant Surgery in Healthy Patients: A System-
     (3 days), or clarithromycin (7 days) (American Academy                   atic Review of Survey-Based Studies. Front Pharmacol.,
     of Pediatric Dentistry).                                                 10;11:588333. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.588333. PMID:
     If drainage is effective, antibiotics are not necessary, and             33643035; PMCID: PMC7902906.
     their use should be reserved for immunocompromised                 9.    Cervino G, Cicciù M, Biondi A, Bocchieri S, Herford AS,
     patients. The drug of choice is tetracycline (2 times a                  Laino L, Fiorillo L. Antibiotic Prophylaxis on Third Molar
     day for 7 days). but the child’s age should be considered                Extraction: Systematic Review of Recent Data. Antibiot-
                                                                              ics (Basel). 2019 May 2;8(2):53. doi: 10.3390/antibiot-
     in the systemic use of tetracycline because of the risk                  ics8020053. PMID: 31052566; PMCID: PMC6627726.
     of discoloration in the developing permanent dentition             10.   Ciurus M. Profilaktyka infekcyjnego zapalenia wsierdzia
     (American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry).                               w stomatologii [Prevention of endocarditis in dentistry].
     When dislocation occurs in deciduous dentition, antibiot-                Pol Merkur Lekarski. 2021 Feb 24;49(289):88-89. Polish.
     ics are not indicated (Diangelis AJ. et al., 2012). Gingivitis           PMID: 33713102.
     induced by dental plaque should be managed with profes-            11.   Dar-Odeh N, Fadel HT, Abu-Hammad S, Abdeljawad R,
                                                                              Abu-Hammad OA. Antibiotic Prescribing for Oro-Facial
     sional and home oral hygiene and no antibiotics should be                Infections in the Paediatric Outpatient: A Review. Antibi-
     prescribed (Al-Ghutaimel H., et al., 2014), whereas, when                otics (Basel). 2018 Apr 25;7(2):38. doi: 10.3390/antibiot-
     patients are affected by periodontitis, antibiotic therapy               ics7020038. PMID: 29693642; PMCID: PMC6022866.
     involving Amoxicillin or Metronidaziol may be necessary;           12.   Dar-Odeh NS, Abu-Hammad OA, Al-Omiri MK, Khraisat
     when the patient is allergic to penicillin, Azithromycin may             AS, Shehabi AA. Antibiotic prescribing practices by den-
     be prescribed (Muppa R., et al., 2016).                                  tists: a review. Ther Clin Risk Manag. 2010 Jul 21;6:301-
                                                                              6. doi: 10.2147/tcrm.s9736. PMID: 20668712; PMCID:
     In the presence of infections of viral origin, antibiotics               PMC2909496.
     should not be prescribed, while in cases of bacterial in-          13.   de Leeuw K, Bootsma H, Middel A, Vissink A. AB-profylaxe
     fections of the salivary glands, antibiotics can be pre-                 en immuungecompromitteerde patiënten [Antibiotic pro-
     scribed when the patient does not show signs of clear                    phylaxis and immune-compromised patients]. Ned Tijd-
     improvement within 24-48 hours. Amoxicillin/clavulanate                  schr Tandheelkd. 2019 Oct;126(10):521-525. Dutch. doi:
     is used as the drug of first choice, and in patients allergic            10.5177/ntvt.2019.10.19065. PMID: 31613281.
                                                                        14.   Diangelis AJ, Andreasen JO, Ebeleseder KA, Kenny DJ,
     to penicillin, clindamycin can be given (American Acad-                  Trope M, Sigurdsson A, Andersson L, Bourguignon C,
     emy of Pediatric Dentistry).                                             Flores MT, Hicks ML, Lenzi AR, Malmgren B, Moule AJ,
                                                                              Pohl Y, Tsukiboshi M; International Association of Dental
                                                                              Traumatology. International Association of Dental Trauma-
                                                                              tology guidelines for the management of traumatic dental
     BIBLIOGRAFIA                                                             injuries: 1. Fractures and luxations of permanent teeth.
                                                                              Dent Traumatol. 2012 Feb;28(1):2-12. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-
     1.   Ahmadi H, Ebrahimi A, Ahmadi F. Antibiotic Therapy                  9657.2011.01103.x. Erratum in: Dent Traumatol. 2012
          in Dentistry. Int J Dent. 2021 Jan 28;2021:6667624.                 Dec;28(6):499. PMID: 22230724.
          doi: 10.1155/2021/6667624. PMID: 33574843; PMCID:             15.   Diangelis AJ, Andreasen JO, Ebeleseder KA, Kenny DJ,
          PMC7861949.                                                         Trope M, Sigurdsson A, Andersson L, Bourguignon C,
     2.   Al-Ghutaimel H, Riba H, Al-Kahtani S, Al-Duhaimi S. Com-            Flores MT, Hicks ML, Lenzi AR, Malmgren B, Moule AJ,
          mon periodontal diseases of children and adolescents. Int J         Pohl Y, Tsukiboshi M; International Association of Dental
          Dent. 2014;2014:850674. doi: 10.1155/2014/850674. Epub              Traumatology. International Association of Dental Trauma-
          2014 Jun 26. PMID: 25053946; PMCID: PMC4098882.                     tology guidelines for the management of traumatic dental
     3.   Al-Shayyab MH, Abu-Hammad OA, Al-Omiri MK, Dar-                     injuries: 1. Fractures and luxations of permanent teeth.
          Odeh NS. Antifungal prescribing pattern and attitude to-            Dent Traumatol. 2012 Feb;28(1):2-12. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-
          wards the treatment of oral candidiasis among dentists in           9657.2011.01103.x. Erratum in: Dent Traumatol. 2012
          Jordan. Int Dent J. 2015 Aug;65(4):216-26. doi: 10.1111/            Dec;28(6):499. PMID: 22230724.
          idj.12173. Epub 2015 Jul 7. PMID: 26148537.                   16.   Diz Dios P, Tomás Carmona I, Limeres Posse J, Medina
     4.   American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. Useful Medica-             Henríquez J, Fernández Feijoo J, Alvarez Fernández
          tions for Oral Conditions. Chicago, Ill: American Academy           M. Comparative efficacies of amoxicillin, clindamycin,
          of Pediatric Dentistry; 2019                                        and moxifloxacin in prevention of bacteremia following
     5.   Andersson L, Andreasen JO, Day P, Heithersay G, Trope               dental extractions. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006
          M, Diangelis AJ, Kenny DJ, Sigurdsson A, Bourguignon C,             Sep;50(9):2996-3002. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01550-05. PMID:
          Flores MT, Hicks ML, Lenzi AR, Malmgren B, Moule AJ,                16940094; PMCID: PMC1563553.
          Tsukiboshi M; International Association of Dental Trauma-     17.   Diz P, Scully C, Sanz M. Dental implants in the medi-
          tology. International Association of Dental Traumatology            cally compromised patient. J Dent. 2013 Mar;41(3):195-
          guidelines for the management of traumatic dental inju-             206. doi: 10.1016/j.jdent.2012.12.008. Epub 2013 Jan 11.
          ries: 2. Avulsion of permanent teeth. Dent Traumatol. 2012          PMID: 23313715.
          Apr;28(2):88-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-9657.2012.01125.x.       18.   Droste JH, Wieringa MH, Weyler JJ, Nelen VJ, Vermeire
          PMID: 22409417.                                                     PA, Van Bever HP. Does the use of antibiotics in early
     6.   Bayraktar G, Kurtulus I, Kazancioglu R, Bayramgurler I,             childhood increase the risk of asthma and allergic dis-
          Cintan S, Bural C, Besler M, Trablus S, Issever H, Aysuna           ease? Clin Exp Allergy. 2000 Nov;30(11):1547-53. doi:
          N, Ozkan O, Yildiz A. Effect of educational level on oral           10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00939.x. PMID: 11069562.


13                                                                                           Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15
B. D’Orto et al.

19. Esposito M, Coulthard P, Oliver R, Thomsen P, Worthing-                   alence, clinical characteristics, and management.Ann Al-
    ton HV. Antibiotics to prevent complications follow-                      lergy Asthma Immunol 2012; 108: 88–93
    ing dental implant treatment. Cochrane Database Syst                34.   Martín-Ares M, Barona-Dorado C, Martínez-Rodríguez
    Rev. 2003;(3):CD004152. doi: 10.1002/14651858.                            N, Cortés-Bretón-Brinkmann J, Sanz-Alonso J, Martínez-
    CD004152. Update in: Cochrane Database Syst Rev.                          González JM. Does the postoperative administration of
    2008;(3):CD004152. PMID: 12918006.                                        antibiotics reduce the symptoms of lower third molar re-
20. Esposito M, Grusovin MG, Worthington HV. Interven-                        moval? A randomized double blind clinical study. J Clin
    tions for replacing missing teeth: antibiotics at dental                  Exp Dent. 2017 Aug 1;9(8):e1015-e1022. doi: 10.4317/
    implant placement to prevent complications. Cochrane                      jced.54024. PMID: 28936293; PMCID: PMC5601102.
    Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 31;2013(7):CD004152. doi:               35.   McCaul LK, Jenkins WM, Kay EJ. The reasons for ex-
    10.1002/14651858.CD004152.pub4. PMID: 23904048;                           traction of permanent teeth in Scotland: a 15-year follow-
    PMCID: PMC6786879.                                                        up study. Br Dent J. 2001 Jun 23;190(12):658-62. doi:
21. Goel D, Goel GK, Chaudhary S, Jain D. Antibiotic prescrip-                10.1038/sj.bdj.4801068. PMID: 11453155.
    tions in pediatric dentistry: A review. J Family Med Prim           36.   Mombelli A, van Oosten MA, Schurch E Jr, Land NP.
    Care. 2020 Feb 28;9(2):473-480. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.                       The microbiota associated with successful or failing os-
    jfmpc_1097_19. PMID: 32318367; PMCID: PMC7114004.                         seointegrated titanium implants. Oral Microbiol Immunol.
22. Gutiérrez JL, Bagán JV, Bascones A, Llamas R, Llena J,                    1987 Dec;2(4):145-51. doi: 10.1111/j.1399-302x.1987.
    Morales A, Noguerol B, Planells P, Prieto J, Salmerón JI.                 tb00298.x. PMID: 3507627.
    Consensus document on the use of antibiotic prophylaxis             37.   Morehead MS, Scarbrough C. Emergence of Global Antibi-
    in dental surgery and procedures. Med Oral Patol Oral                     otic Resistance. Prim Care. 2018 Sep;45(3):467-484. doi:
    Cir Bucal. 2006 Mar 1;11(2):E188-205. English, Spanish.                   10.1016/j.pop.2018.05.006. PMID: 30115335.
    PMID: 16505802.                                                     38.   Muppa R, Nallanchakrava S, Chinta M, Manthena RT.
23. Hinckfuss SE, Messer LB. An evidence-based assessment                     Nonsyndromic localized aggressive periodontitis of prima-
    of the clinical guidelines for replanted avulsed teeth. Part II:          ry dentition: A rare case report. Contemp Clin Dent. 2016
    prescription of systemic antibiotics. Dent Traumatol. 2009                Apr-Jun;7(2):262-4. doi: 10.4103/0976-237X.183062.
    Apr;25(2):158-64. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-9657.2008.00736.x.                  PMID: 27307682; PMCID: PMC4906878.
    PMID: 19290893.
                                                                        39.   National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
24. Hoen B, Duval X. Clinical practice. Infective endocarditis.
                                                                              (NICE). NICE guidance on prophylaxis against infective
    N Engl J Med. 2013 Apr 11;368(15):1425-33. doi: 10.1056/
                                                                              endocarditis. Inpharma Weekly 2008.
    NEJMcp1206782. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun
                                                                        40.   Ng, P., Pow, E., Ching, S., Lo, E., & Chow, T. (2011). Dental
    27;368(26):2536. PMID: 23574121.
                                                                              implant practice among Hong Kong general dental practi-
25. Hong L, Levy SM, Warren JJ, Dawson DV, Bergus GR,
                                                                              tioners in 2004 and 2008. Implant Dent., 20(1):95-105. doi:
    Wefel JS. Association of amoxicillin use during early child-
                                                                              10.1097/ID.0b013e31820031fa. PMID: 21278532
    hood with developmental tooth enamel defects. Arch Pe-
                                                                        41.   Palmer NO. Pharmaceutical prescribing for children. Part
    diatr Adolesc Med. 2005 Oct;159(10):943-8. doi: 10.1001/
                                                                              3. Antibiotic prescribing for children with odontogenic
    archpedi.159.10.943. PMID: 16203939.
                                                                              infections. Prim Dent Care. 2006 Jan;13(1):31-5. doi:
26. Hwang D, Wang HL. Medical contraindications to im-
    plant therapy: part I: absolute contraindications. Im-                    10.1308/135576106775193941. PMID: 16393495.
    plant Dent. 2006 Dec;15(4):353-60. doi: 10.1097/01.                 42.   Pereira-Lopes O, Simões-Silva L, Araujo R, Correia-Sousa
    id.0000247855.75691.03. PMID: 17172952.                                   J, Braga AC, Soares-Silva I, Sampaio-Maia B. Influence
27. Igoumenakis D, Gkinis G, Kostakis G, Mezitis M, Rallis G.                 of dialysis therapies on oral health: a pilot study. Quintes-
    Severe odontogenic infections: causes of spread and their                 sence Int. 2019;50(3):216-223. doi: 10.3290/j.qi.a41920.
    management. Surg Infect (Larchmt). 2014 Feb;15(1):64-                     PMID: 30773574.
    8. doi: 10.1089/sur.2012.178. Epub 2013 Oct 11. PMID:               43.   Powell CA, Mealey BL, Deas DE, McDonnell HT, Moritz
    24116736.                                                                 AJ. Post-surgical infections: prevalence associated with
28. Koyuncuoglu CZ, Aydin M, Kirmizi NI, Aydin V, Aksoy M,                    various periodontal surgical procedures. J Periodontol.
    Isli F, Akici A. Rational use of medicine in dentistry: do den-           2005 Mar;76(3):329-33. doi: 10.1902/jop.2005.76.3.329.
    tists prescribe antibiotics in appropriate indications? Eur J             PMID: 15857064.
    Clin Pharmacol. 2017 Aug;73(8):1027-1032. doi: 10.1007/             44.   Ramu C, Padmanabhan TV. Indications of antibiotic prophy-
    s00228-017-2258-7. Epub 2017 May 1. PMID: 28462430.                       laxis in dental practice- review. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed.
29. Lee JY, Do HS, Lim JH, Jang HS, Rim JS, Kwon JJ, Lee                      2012 Sep;2(9):749-54. doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(12)60222-
    ES. Correlation of antibiotic prophylaxis and difficulty of               6. PMID: 23570007; PMCID: PMC3609373.
    extraction with postoperative inflammatory complications            45.   Ready D, Bedi R, Spratt DA, Mullany P, Wilson M.
    in the lower third molar surgery. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg.              Prevalence, proportions, and identities of antibiotic-
    2014 Jan;52(1):54-7. doi: 10.1016/j.bjoms.2013.08.010.                    resistant bacteria in the oral microflora of healthy chil-
    Epub 2013 Sep 9. PMID: 24029441.                                          dren. Microb Drug Resist. 2003 Winter;9(4):367-72. doi:
30. Limeres Posse J, Álvarez Fernández M, Fernández Feijoo                    10.1089/107662903322762806. PMID: 15000743.
    J, Medina Henríquez J, Lockhart PB, Chu VH, Diz Dios                46.   Rodríguez Sánchez F, Rodríguez Andrés C, Arteagoi-
    P. Intravenous amoxicillin/clavulanate for the prevention                 tia I. Which antibiotic regimen prevents implant failure or
    of bacteraemia following dental procedures: a randomized                  infection after dental implant surgery? A systematic re-
    clinical trial. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2016 Jul;71(7):2022-              view and meta-analysis. J Craniomaxillofac Surg. 2018
    30. doi: 10.1093/jac/dkw081. Epub 2016 Mar 29. PMID:                      Apr;46(4):722-736. doi: 10.1016/j.jcms.2018.02.004. Epub
    27029851.                                                                 2018 Feb 26. PMID: 29550218
31. Lindeboom JA, van den Akker HP. A prospective placebo-              47.   Romandini M, De Tullio I, Congedi F, Kalemaj Z,
    controlled double-blind trial of antibiotic prophylaxis in intra-         D’Ambrosio M, Laforí A, Quaranta C, Buti J, Perfetti G. An-
    oral bone grafting procedures: a pilot study. Oral Surg Oral              tibiotic prophylaxis at dental implant placement: Which is
    Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003 Dec;96(6):669-                    the best protocol? A systematic review and network meta-
    72. doi: 10.1016/j.tripleo.2003.08.026. PMID: 14676756.                   analysis. J Clin Periodontol. 2019 Mar;46(3):382-395. doi:
32. Lund, B., Hultin, M., Tranaeus, S., Naimi-Akbar, A., &                    10.1111/jcpe.13080. PMID: 30729548.
    Klinge, B. (2015). Complex systematic review - Periop-              48.   Sakka S, Baroudi K, Nassani MZ. Factors associated
    erative antibiotics in conjunction with dental implant place-             with early and late failure of dental implants. J Investig
    ment. Clin Oral Implants Res., 26 Suppl 11:1-14. doi:                     Clin Dent. 2012 Nov;3(4):258-61. doi: 10.1111/j.2041-
    10.1111/clr.12637. Epub 2015 Jun 16. PMID: 2.                             1626.2012.00162.x. Epub 2012 Aug 27. PMID: 22927130.
33. Macy E, Ho NJ. Multiple drug intolerance syndrome: prev-            49.   Salmerón-Escobar JI, del Amo-Fernández de Velasco A.

Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15                                                                                                  14
     Antibiotic prophylaxis in dentistry

           Antibiotic prophylaxis in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.          analysis with meta-regression. Ann Allergy Asthma Immu-
           Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2006 May 1;11(3):E292-6.            nol 2017; 119: 362–73.e2
           PMID: 16648771.                                              55.   Surapaneni H, Yalamanchili PS, Basha MH, Potluri S,
     50.   Schwartz AB, Larson EL. Antibiotic prophylaxis and post-           Elisetti N, Kiran Kumar MV. Antibiotics in dental im-
           operative complications after tooth extraction and im-             plants: A review of literature. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2016
           plant placement: a review of the literature. J Dent. 2007          Oct;8(Suppl 1):S28-S31. doi: 10.4103/0975-7406.191961.
           Dec;35(12):881-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jdent.2007.08.003. Epub           PMID: 27829741; PMCID: PMC5074034.
           2007 Sep 29. PMID: 17904722.                                 56.   Troiano, G., Lo Russo, L., Canullo, L., Ciavarella, D., Lo
     51.   Scully C, Hobkirk J, Dios PD. Dental endosseous implants           Muzio, L., & Laino, L. (2018). Early and late implant fail-
           in the medically compromised patient. J Oral Rehabil. 2007         ure of submerged versus non-submerged implant healing:
           Aug;34(8):590-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2842.2007.01755.x.            A systematic review, meta-analysis and trial sequential
           PMID: 17650169.                                                    analysis. J Clin Periodontol., 45(5):613-623. doi: 10.1111/
     52.   Segura-Egea JJ, Gould K, Şen BH, Jonasson P, Cotti                 jcpe.12890. PMID: 29574852.
           E, Mazzoni A, Sunay H, Tjäderhane L, Dummer PMH.             57.   Tseng CC, Huang CC, Tseng WH. Incidence of clinical infec-
           Antibiotics in Endodontics: a review. Int Endod J. 2017            tion after periodontal surgery: a prospective study. J Formos
           Dec;50(12):1169-1184. doi: 10.1111/iej.12741. Epub 2017            Med Assoc. 1993 Feb;92(2):152-6. PMID: 8101744.
           Jan 16. PMID: 28005295.                                      58.   WAKSMAN SA. Definition of antibiotics. Antibiotic
     53.   Segura-Egea JJ, Gould K, Şen BH, Jonasson P, Cotti                 Med Clin Ther (New York). 1956 Feb;2(2):82-6. PMID:
           E, Mazzoni A, Sunay H, Tjäderhane L, Dummer PMH.                   1329288
           Antibiotics in Endodontics: a review. Int Endod J. 2017      59.   Wang F, Song YL, Li DH, Li CX, Wang Y, Zhang N, Wang
           Dec;50(12):1169-1184. doi: 10.1111/iej.12741. Epub 2017            BG. Type 2 diabetes mellitus impairs bone healing of den-
           Jan 16. PMID: 28005295.                                            tal implants in GK rats. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010
     54.   Sousa-Pinto B, Fonseca JA, Gomes ER. Frequency of                  Apr;88(1):e7-9. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2010.01.017. PMID:
           self-reported drug allergy: a systematic review and meta-          20138383.




15                                                                                            Annali di Stomatologia 2020; XI (1-4): 10-15
