10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9235
Lo sviluppo sostenibile, uno sviluppo che soddisfa i bisogni del presente senza compromettere la capacità delle generazioni future di soddisfare i propri bisogni, oggi è sfuggito alla maggior parte delle nazioni in via di sviluppo nel mondo. I paesi del mondo comprendono nazioni sviluppate e in via di sviluppo. La maggior parte delle nazioni africane rientrano in quest’ultima categoria. Sono stati effettuati tentativi da parte di paesi africani, ma il ruolo del Sistema di conoscenza indigeno (IKS) nell’intero processo non è stato esplorato esaustivamente. Le popolazioni indigene hanno ris­posto alle sfide ecologiche e di sviluppo utilizzando le culture e i sistemi di conoscenza trasmessi attraverso le loro lingue indigene. Lo scopo di questo lavoro era di indagare su come i totem, come sistemi di credenze culturali, siano stati usati in Africa per promuovere la conservazione delle risorse naturali. I metodi qualitativi (basati sulla let­teratura) sono stati usati per esplorare i valori e le percezioni che sono alla base dei to­tem. Le informazioni sono state raccolte esaminando alcune pubblicazioni sulla cultura africana e sui totem del Kenya e del Sudafrica. La letteratura recensita si concentrava sul simbolismo culturale attribuito ai totem tra le diverse tribù che venivano selezionati a caso dai due paesi. I dati sono stati analizzati attraverso l’analisi del contenuto e presentati in modo tematico. Si è trovato che totem di animali, piante e insetti in Kenya e in Sud Africa hanno significati simbolici a loro associati. I significati simbolici sono solitamente accompagnati da tabù che si ritiene abbiano speciali associazioni spirituali e culturali. A causa di queste associazioni culturali e tabù, i totem sono protetti dalle rispettive tribù, conservando la diversità delle specie e degli ecosistemi. Lo studio ha lo scopo di spingere ad apprezzare i valori e le credenze culturali che aiutano nello svi­luppo sostenibile. I risultati dello studio potrebbero contribuire a incrementare il valore del Sistema di Conoscenza Indigena (IKS) relativa alla sua gestione e conservazione per lo sviluppo sostenibile.
application/pdf
1973-9494
9235
en
Georges-Ivo Ekosse
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
totem
African Totems: Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Environmental Conservation
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
18
Articles
2018-12-31
2019-03-18
2018-12-31
2019-11-05
201-218
CSCH
Georges-Ivo Ekosse
2018/12/31
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9235
201
University of Venda, Thohoyandou
1973-9494
totem
en
218
African Totems: Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Environmental Conservation
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/9235/9070
18
Here is a world that represents a heritage that nature and forests have nourished,
populated and preserved over the centuries: it refers to environments inhabited by
animals, birds, plants and insects. It is a heritage which contains the ancient and an-
cestral meanings of totems and symbologies in African tribes, attributable to their wis-
dom, dignity, perseverance, mystery, vigilance, patience, prosperity, seduction, magic,
prophecy, ferocity, security, courage, honor, and also includes healing functions and
properties for allergies, rashes or medicines, it symbolizes love, spirituality, protec-
tion, fortune, divination, fertility, wealth. Reading this work, we are fascinated and after
some initial hesitation regarding the novelty of the content that distinguishes it, it is
inevitable to ask the question: “Is it relevant to the intent and objectives and, therefore,
to the topics of the Journal?” Although not immediate, the answer was as follows:
“This world and its cultural and emblematic dimension must represent, and continue
through time, to be a heritage to be conserved and preserved from damaging anthropic
interventions and activities with purely utilitarian ends”. And, as such, to highlight that
environmental assets (understood also as cultural assets), as the expression of cul-
tural identity of each country is naturally comprised among the topics of the present
Journal “. The captivating and innovative subject, moreover, gives rise to the important
and topical issues regarding the content discussed in the paper, related not only to the
African world but also to the western world.

                                                                            Editor-in-Chief
A     FRICAN TOTEMS: CULTURAL HERITAGE FOR SUS-
      TAINABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION

    K.L. Lucy Mandillah*11
    Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya

    Georges-Ivo Ekosse
    University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa


    Keywords: conservation, environment, natural resources, symbolism, totem.


    1. Introduction

    Development professionals treasure indigenous knowledge because they find it ex-
tremely useful in solving problems relating to health, agriculture, education and the
environment, both in developed and developing countries [1]. According to the World
Bank, indigenous knowledge is relevant on three levels in a development process.
At the first level, it is important for the local community in which the bearers of such
knowledge live and produce. At the second level, development agents such as Com-
munity Based Organizations (CBOs), Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs), gov-
ernments, donors, local leaders and private sector initiatives need to recognize the
importance of indigenous knowledge and consequently, enhance its value and appre-
ciation in their interaction with local communities. Lastly, indigenous knowledge forms
part of global knowledge through its potency and the role of traditional African belief




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
systems in natural resource management and conservation. The presence of multiple
interacting threats to biodiversity and the increasing rate of species extinction make
it critical to prioritize management efforts on species and communities that maximize
conservation success.
    In this context, indigenous knowledge needs to be preserved, transferred, or adopt-
ed and adapted [2]. Attuquayefio and Gyampoh argue that before the advent of mod-
ern natural resource conservation methods, traditional societies operated a complex
religious and cultural belief system via norms, myths, taboos, totems and closed sea-
sons to preserve, conserve and manage certain natural resources. The use of these
belief systems helped in protecting and promoting the conservation of the natural en-
vironment. Indigenous communities in Africa are constantly struggling to maintain their
rights, their traditions and their indigenous knowledge in a system dominated by a
western worldview. They face the challenge of living in two worlds; the indigenous
and the non-indigenous one. The two world views are in constant tension with each
other, with the latter having more power in shaping the former. As a result, indigenous
populations suffer from invasion and oppression where their indigenous knowledge
has been eclipsed by western knowledge, imposed on them through western institu-
tions. Their diverse forms of indigenous knowledge, deeply rooted in their relationship
with the environment as well as in cultural cohesion, is disappearing. Such indigenous

*   Corresponding author: mandila1978@gmail.com

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                                                                                                          knowledge would allow these communities to maintain a sustainable use of natural
                                                                                                          resources and to enhance their culture from one generation to the next [3].
                                                                                                              Also, the current increasing rate of natural resource loss is a major threat to both
                                                                                                          human and animal survival. The loss of each species comes with the loss of potential
                                                                                                          economic benefits, as well as interfering with or even destroying the balance of the
                                                                                                          ecosystem [4]. As such, there has been an increased interest in issues relating to the
                                                                                                          environment all over the world. Academics have taken greater interest in conducting
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                          research into indigenous knowledge in response to environmental issues and the fail-
                                                                                                          ure of “development projects” [5].
                                                                                                              This paper discusses the significance of totems through socio-cultural belief sys-
                                                                                                          tems in Africa to conserve natural resources. The paper identifies a number of African
                                                                                                          totems and their cultural symbolic meanings; it then explores the implication of such
                                                                                                          totems for environmental sustainability. Despite the existence of common experiences
                                                                                                          on environmental conservation, the authors acknowledge the diversity and uniqueness
                                                                                                          of indigenous communities around the continent. The examples used are therefore
                                                                                                          not exhaustive nor do they pretend to be universally representative of all indigenous
                                                                                                          groups.
                                                                                                              The main purpose of the study was to explore forms of Indigenous Knowledge
                                                                                                          Systems (IKS) practiced among selected tribes in Kenya and South Africa through
                                                                                                          symbolic totems and relate them to issues of environmental conservation. There is
                                                                                                          extensive destruction of vegetation due to human activities, killing of animals, pollution
                                                                                                          and drying of rivers. There is, therefore, an urgent need to provide solutions to reduce
                                                                                                          or prevent further degradation in addition to finding ways of enhancing the contribution
                                                                                                          of indigenous knowledge to environmental conservation.


                                                                                                            2. Literature review

                                                                                                            2.1. Indigenous knowledge

                                                                                                              Indigenous knowledge (IK) is knowledge that local people in a given area or com-
                                                                                                          munity have developed over time and which they continue to develop [6].This means
                                                                                                          that indigenous knowledge is dynamic and is not only confined to the original inhabit-
                                                                                                          ants of one area, but rather, is knowledge which is locally developed and continues
                                                                                                          to evolve [6,7,8,9]. Grenier further clarifies that indigenous knowledge: “is the unique
                                                                                                          traditional knowledge existing within and developed around specific conditions of
                                                                                                          women and men indigenous to a particular geographical area.” [8]. What makes the
                                                                                                          knowledge indigenous is its inalienable link to the native people of a particular local-
                                                                                                          ity. Indigenous knowledge is usually shared and communicated orally through cultural
                                                                                                          practices such as stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances, myths, cultural values,
                                                                                                          beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language and taxonomy, agricultural practices,
                                                                                                          equipment, materials, plant species and animal breeds [8,6]. This explains why the
                                                                                                          preservation of indigenous knowledge is vital to environmental conservation, as dis-
                                                                                                          cussed in the present study.




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   2.2 Environmental conservation

   Conservation and management are among the most important elements of sustain-
able development [10]. There is no single definition of environmental conservation;
however, several definitions have been coined for the concept with some scholars
stressing the structural roots of anthropological interests. For example, Usher defines
environmental conservation as the maintenance of genetic species and ecosystem
diversity in the natural abundance in which they occur [11,12]. Thomas, on the other
hand, defines environmental conservation as the sacrificing of immediate rewards in
return for delayed ones. Smith and Wishnie see environmental conservation as actions
that prevent or mitigate biodiversity loss designed for such purpose [13]. Rim-Rukeh et
al view conservation as the management of valuable natural resources such as timber,
fish, topsoil, minerals, forests, wildlife, parkland and wilderness and watershed areas
[14]. In this present study, conservation is viewed as the maintenance and protection
of natural resources for the survival of all living things through the use of African totems
and taboos. Environmental degradation has seen various international conferences
being held, aimed at protecting our environment, yet the destruction of the biodiversity
is continuing at an unprecedented rate [15]. Studies have shown that people protect
their natural resources using taboos and totems [16]. For example, Millar argues that
the spiritual world in Ghana is the major driving force that regulates the performance
of all traditional institutions in their quest to manage natural resources [17]. Wildlife
species regarded as totems in many parts of Africa have a historical or socio-cultural
significance, as well as symbolic, for clans that adhere to these traditions and beliefs.


   2.3. Totem

    A totem is any natural or mythical animal, plant, bird or insect which serves as a




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
symbol of a family or clan whose members feel a close connection to during their lives
[18]. Some tribes in different parts of the world, including Africa are inclined to refer
to totems that give them insight and understanding of their lives since they consider
them to be holy and sacred. According to Freud and Alun, people who believe to be of
one blood, descendants of a common ancestor, and are bound together by common
obligations to each other by a common faith, reverence that totem [19,20]. Members of
these ethnic groups, clans, or family do not eat, kill or trap such totemic animals, birds
or fish. When a totemic object dies or is sold, members of the group it represents would
show respect, for example, by mourning and burying it as in the case of a human being
[21]. This is because they believe to be ancestrally related to them as a tutelary spirit.
Totems have been used basically, to preserve humanity, in that it has in many ways
culminated in the conservation of other life forms bequeathed to humankind on whom
one is dependent such as sacred forests, rocks, mountains and rivers.


   2.4. Symbolism

   Symbolism is defined as the applied use of symbols that carry particular socio-
cultural and spiritual meanings [19]. In the process of discovering their identity, Africans
restore the heritage that has been scattered, hidden, suppressed, denied, distorted


                                                                                               203
                                                                                                          and forbidden, through the use of symbols such as animals, birds, plants, insects or
                                                                                                          fish. It is through what these living organisms symbolize that Africans in their specific
                                                                                                          natural and cultural environments discover themselves. This paper presents the role
                                                                                                          played by totems through the cultural symbolic meanings they embody to enhance
                                                                                                          environmental conservation. The study has been motivated by the fact that, despite the
                                                                                                          potency and the role of traditional African belief systems in natural resource manage-
                                                                                                          ment and conservation, little attention has been given to this informal institution [22].
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                          This could be attributed to the advent of western technology, the growing influence of
                                                                                                          foreign religion and beliefs, lack of regulations to enforce traditional rules, and prob-
                                                                                                          lems of migration, urbanization and resettlement [23].


                                                                                                            3. Methodology

                                                                                                              The study was based on a cross sectional survey of literature reviews among ran-
                                                                                                          domly sampled tribes in Kenya and South Africa. Secondary data was derived from rel-
                                                                                                          evant library data which were gathered from published and unpublished books, articles
                                                                                                          in journals, government records, and websites. The reviewed literature concentrated
                                                                                                          on totems, symbolism and environmental conservation. Totems were categorized un-
                                                                                                          der different themes for data presentation and analysis.
                                                                                                              One approach to natural resource conservation and management is the use of in-
                                                                                                          digenous knowledge belief systems of totems, as discussed below.


                                                                                                            4. Totem animals

                                                                                                            4.1. Peacock




                                                                                                                                              Figure 1. Peacock

                                                                                                             The term “peacock” is commonly used to refer to birds of both sexes. Technically,
                                                                                                          only males are peacocks and females are peahens; together they are called peafowl.
                                                                                                          Peacocks are mainly ground-dwelling birds preferring forests and farmland. They can
                                                                                                          also be found in bushlands and rainforests. Many will nest on the ground while some
                                                                                                          will roost in trees. However, peacocks are one of the birds listed as vulnerable to

                                                                                                    204
extinction due to hunting and a reduction in extent and quality of habitat [24]. Luck-
ily, there are certain African clans and tribes that protect peacocks and preserve their
habitat against destruction because of their totemic cultural function. For instance, a
peacock is a totem bird for a number of clans/tribes in African countries such as the
Tswana in South Africa. A peacock is a majestic and mystical totem that symbolizes
inner wisdom. Whenever a peacock visits, it is an invitation to view higher aspects of
oneself through the image displayed in its feather plumes. Peacocks are thus pro-
tected since members of the community are prevented from using them for domestic
and commercial uses. This stems from the belief that a peacock is their lesser god. The
totem can be kept as a pet and thus treated with religious respect with the belief that it
is connected to the supernatural being.


   4.2. Vulture




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
                                      Figure 2. Vulture

    Vultures constitute an important functional group in many ecosystems, providing
crucial ecosystem services both in natural and humanized environments. However, the
number of these scavengers are drastically dwindling worldwide as they are particu-
larly vulnerable to extinction. As a result, their populations are facing massive declines
in most ecosystems. Several causes have been reported throughout the world, with
intentional poisoning and sanitary regulations in Europe and poisoning by diclofenac
residuals in livestock carcasses in Asia being the most outstanding in those continents.
In Africa, multiple decline causes have been reported, such as unintentional and in-
tentional poisoning, intensive use for traditional medicine and sorcery and hunting for
food, as the threats with the greatest reported impact on vultures. As a key-stone spe-
cies, vulture declines have a wide range of impacts including effects on human health,
economic costs of disposal for local communities, cultural and religious values and
several other biodiversity impacts. Some cultural beliefs among a number of African
clans and tribes work to the benefit of protecting vultures and conserving their habitats.
The vulture also known as lenong among the Tswana, is a totem animal for particular
Tswana clans. The vulture symbolizes dignity, perseverance, mystery, vigilance and
patience. The vulture teaches members of the clan the ability to accept help from oth-
ers with graciousness and dignity. It is forbidden to eat the flesh from this bird, and it is
believed that if eaten the whole body would swell.

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                                                                                                            4.3. Owl
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                                                                Figure 3. Owl

                                                                                                              Owls are found in most parts of the world, except for Antarctica. They live in a va-
                                                                                                          riety of habitats including forests, grasslands, deserts, forests, prairies and even the
                                                                                                          Arctic tundra. They nest in trees, in holes, in the ground, in barns, and in caves. How-
                                                                                                          ever, more than 1,300 owl species across the globe face extinction driven by the loss
                                                                                                          of places to live and breed. For each bird, the impacts of human activities on the land-
                                                                                                          scape, such as logging, have caused the destruction or disappearance of their habitat,
                                                                                                          which has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature [24] to list owls as
                                                                                                          one of the endangered/threatened bird species. Furthermore, for some African com-
                                                                                                          munities such as the Luyia, Luo and Kalenjin tribes in Kenya, an owl is considered as a
                                                                                                          bad omen [25]. As a result, many owls are normally killed by members of these tribes,
                                                                                                          wherever they are seen. However, for other tribes such as the Tsonga clans in South
                                                                                                          Africa, the owl is respected and conserved for the future prosperity of the community.
                                                                                                          Among these clans, the Morubishi (owl) symbolizes wisdom, seduction, magic, hidden
                                                                                                          secrets and prophesy. Its ability to navigate through the darkest night and bring back
                                                                                                          nourishment for itself and others is the foundation of this essence. Those who honour
                                                                                                          the owl understand the power of magic. For these reasons, an owl should never be
                                                                                                          killed nor should its habitat be destroyed by members of the community.


                                                                                                            4.4. Crocodile

                                                                                                              Crocodiles (Crocodylus mindorensis) are classified as critically endangered on the
                                                                                                          IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [26]. Hunting, the use of destructive fishing
                                                                                                          methods, chemicals and the conversion of freshwater habitats continue to threaten the
                                                                                                          remnant crocodile populations in Africa [27]. Despite the threat, a crocodile (Ingwenya)
                                                                                                          is a totem animal among some Zulu tribes in South Africa. For these tribes, a crocodile
                                                                                                          symbolizes a fierce fighter. Members of this clan believe in themselves as fierce fight-
                                                                                                          ers and therefore, they have a sacred attitude towards the animal. Every day, they pray
                                                                                                          to their god for the safety and prosperity of the crocodile. Many rivers and streams that
                                                                                                          provide sources of drinking water and a natural habitat for crocodiles are protected on


                                                                                                    206
the basis that the lesser gods and other living spirits reside therein. Due to the value
attached to crocodiles, water bodies are protected from being mismanaged, and plants
and animals, including fishes living in the water bodies are not harvested.




                                    Figure 4. Crocodile

    In some Luhya tribes in Kenya, it is believed that crocodiles (chikwena) are human
beings. It is therefore a taboo for any member of the community to injure these sacred
animals; crocodiles are also seen as the incarnation of important ancestors. Thus, to
kill a crocodile is tantamount to killing a human member of their community. It is con-
sidered a murder, one of the most heinous kinds and would bring disaster upon the
clan. For this reason, people are extremely careful where these sacred crocodiles are
concerned. The presence of crocodiles in many water bodies, therefore, make it mind-
ful for the people to manage their water sources in such a way that the crocodiles are
not found wanting.
    As a result, harmful chemicals are not used for fishing in and around the water bod-




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
ies in the community. No matter the reason for such practices, one certain thing is that
biological diversity (flora and fauna) is conserved [28].


   4.5. Leopard

    The leopard’s (Panthera pardus) broad geographic range, remarkable adaptability
and secretive nature have contributed to a misconception that this species might not
be severely threatened across its range. However, it is reported that not only are sev-
eral subspecies and regional populations critically endangered, but also that the over-
all range loss is greater than the average for terrestrial large carnivores [29, 30, 31].
    Leopard habitats include tropical forests, grassland plains, deserts and alpine areas
[29]. Leopards can also persist near major towns, including Mumbai [32] and Johan-
nesburg [33]. However, the leopard is declining across its range similarly to other large
carnivores [34]. The key threats include habitat loss and fragmentation, prey depletion,
conflict with people, unsustainable trophy hunting, poaching for body parts, and indis-
criminate killing [35]. The IUCN classifies the leopard as vulnerable [26]. Despite their
vulnerability, a leopard is a totem for most tribes in Africa. In Kenya for example, for the
Tachoni tribe, a leopard (ingwe) symbolizes courage. Circumcised men and women of
the Tachoni tribe are expected to be courageous like their totem. For this, the ingwe


                                                                                               207
                                                                                                          is normally used as a key player in Tachoni initiation rituals. It is a taboo for a Tachoni
                                                                                                          to kill a leopard [28]; and among some Zulu clans, a leopard, also called ingwe, is to-
                                                                                                          temic. To the clan, a leopard symbolizes nobleness and honour. Members of this com-
                                                                                                          munity are therefore expected to honour a leopard by preserving its habitat and its life.
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                                                               Figure 5. Leopard



                                                                                                             4.6. Snake (Python)

                                                                                                              Within Asia, Africa, Oceania and Australia, pythons stay in relatively warm, wet cli-
                                                                                                          mates. Many species thrive in rain forests, though pythons also live in grasslands,
                                                                                                          woodlands, swamps, rocky outcrops, dunes and shrubs, according to the San Diego
                                                                                                          Zoo. Pythons shelter in hollows, debris, farms, under rocks, in abandoned mammal
                                                                                                          burrows and tree branches depending on the species. Thirteen species of python are
                                                                                                          on the IUCN’s Red List of Threatened Species [13]. Pythons (Python kyaiktiyo) are list-
                                                                                                          ed as vulnerable, with humans as their primary threat by regularly killing them for their
                                                                                                          skins. Based on IUCN assessments of nearly one in five reptile species, it estimates
                                                                                                          that 28% of pythons are threatened. As vital predators in sensitive habitats such as rice
                                                                                                          fields, their decline has wider ecological consequences, such as climate change. The
                                                                                                          main problems faced by snake populations and the cause of their decline include loss
                                                                                                          or deterioration of habitats and a diminishing number of prey.




                                                                                                    208
                                    Figure 6. Python

    Pythons are thought by some clans such as the Luo and Luhyia of Kenya, to be sa-
cred. Such sacred snakes may not be killed by members of the respective clans. The
clans associate snakes with the living dead or other human spirits and such snakes
are given food and drink when they visit people’s homes. Among the Avatecho clan of
the Bukusu, pythons are not killed as it is believed that they bring more harvest and
luck to the community. Consequently, each member of the Avatecho clan is expected
to rear a python(s) which is usually handed down from one generation to another. They
believe that the killing of pythons results in instant death. Bushes and trees within the
homestead are not supposed to be destroyed because they habour such snakes. The
same protection applies to cobras, commonly referred to as omieri among the Luo of
Kenya. Among some Tswana clans, a snake symbolizes renewal (shedding old skin),
sexuality, higher knowledge and transition. For these reasons, snakes together with




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
their natural habitats should be protected by members of this community. The sur-
rounding forestlands are consequently protected on the basis that snakes reside in the
trees found in and around the homestead.


  5. Totem Plants

  5.1. Thyne

   Loss of habitats, especially the conversion of tropical forests into agricultural and
urban areas, is the main driver of the biodiversity crisis being observed today. Around
43% of the terrestrial world surface has been disturbed and the original vegetation
converted into anthropogenic new habitats. Extinction rates of plants such as thyne
are estimated to be more than two orders of magnitude higher in this century. Thyne,
otherwise called iboza/ibozane among particular clans in Zulu is a totem plant. They
hold the plant so sacred to the extent that there exists a taboo against any form of
destruction or damage to the plant by members of the clan. The violation of the taboo
results in a generational curse. Similarly, among the Khibe, a Bukusu clan in Kenya,
thyne (inderema) is a totem plant. All present-day members of the Khibe do not eat
the Inderema vegetable. If Khibes eat the vegetable, they will develop a skin rash as-


                                                                                            209
                                                                                                          sociated with allergy. It is also strongly believed that eating one’s totem leads to loss
                                                                                                          of teeth [36].
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                                                               Figure 7. Thyne



                                                                                                            5.2. Krantz Aloe




                                                                                                                                             Figure 8. Krantz Aloe

                                                                                                             Aloe vera, also known as medicinal aloe, is a species of succulent plant of the
                                                                                                          genus Aloe that is believed to have originated from Sudan. Aloe vera grows in arid
                                                                                                          climates and is widely distributed in Africa, India, and other arid areas. Many scientific
                                                                                                          studies of the use of extracts of Aloe vera have been undertaken. Based on the results,
                                                                                                          there is some preliminary evidence that Aloe vera extracts may be useful as a herb-
                                                                                                          al medicine, such as in the treatment of wound and burn healing, minor skin infec-
                                                                                                          tions, sebaceous cysts, diabetes and elevated blood lipids in humans. Aloe vera is also
                                                                                                          known for its culinary uses and as a food substance. These uses have caused Aloe
                                                                                                          vera to be listed among the endangered plant species due to its regular harvest. How-
                                                                                                          ever, among some clans among the Zulu of South Africa and Luhyia of Kenya, the Aloe
                                                                                                          vera plant can never be used for medicinal purposes or destroyed because the plant


                                                                                                    210
is believed to be sacred. Among the Zulu, the plant is called Inkalane or umhlabana
and among the Luhyia of Kenya it is called esikakha. Among these tribes, the plant
symbolizes love, spirituality, protection and luck. Members of the respective clans must
plant Krantz aloe in their homesteads, nurture the plant and protect it against any form
of destruction such as harvesting to attract good tidings to the home. Krantz aloe is
planted around homes in the belief that it wards off lightning and evil spirits. Exposed
roots are always covered with soil [37].


  5.3. Fig tree




                                    Figure 9. Fig tree




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
    Tree survival plays a central role in forest ecosystems. Habitat destruction is the
leading cause of the loss of global biodiversity. According to the Food and Agricul-
ture Organization (FAO), deforestation produced an annual average loss of 12 million
hectares between 1980 and 1995 and has physically changed forest landscapes in
all continents. These changes alter the physical space where species grow and in-
teract, and thus trigger biological responses that may lead to biotic collapse. There
is evidence however, that not all species equally decline towards extinction following
habitat destruction, with some species being at greater risk in fragmented landscapes
than others. Fig trees are one of the tree species on the decline through deforestation
activities due to the high demand of charcoal, firewood and timber in Africa. Therefore,
a major conservation task for ecologists consists in identifying the factors that globally
drive species sensitivity to habitat loss.
    A fig tree is a sacred plant among many societies throughout Africa. Therefore, the
tree is a totem plant in many tribes and clans in Kenya such as the Gikuyu, Meru, Luo
and some clans among the Luhyia, South Africa not being an exception. For example,
in some Zulu clans, a fig tree (Umvubu) symbolizes divination and fertility. Hence, the
Zulu clan make offerings, sacrifices and prayers around or under it. Among the Ta-
choni, a Luhya tribe, (Omutoto) and Gikuyu (mugumo) of Kenya, the tree symbolizes
spirits, gods and power of the community. The Gikuyu consider the mugumo tree as


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                                                                                                          sacred and prayers and offerings are performed under it. Rituals and curses are also
                                                                                                          performed under the fig tree. It is believed that if one lies, the tree could bring him or
                                                                                                          her bad luck or even kill them. It is a taboo among these communities for a fig tree
                                                                                                          to be cut or destroyed for whatever reason and must not be used as firewood. If by
                                                                                                          chance a fig tree falls, rituals are performed to appease the gods in order to protect the
                                                                                                          communities against their wrath [38, 28].
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                            6. Totem insects

                                                                                                            6.1. Ant




                                                                                                                                                Figure 10. Ant



                                                                                                              Ants are ubiquitous in nature, playing key ecological roles, not only in tropical and
                                                                                                          temperate ecosystems, but also in harsh environments like deserts and alpine habi-
                                                                                                          tats. Two of their ecosystem functions are pollination and seed dispersal. Most ants
                                                                                                          live in logs or in the hollow stems of weeds and nests, which may be located in the
                                                                                                          ground or under a rock or built above ground and made of twigs, sand or gravel. These
                                                                                                          habitats are frequently destroyed by human activities such as logging, the use of pes-
                                                                                                          ticides, fertilizers and farming. During such activities ants are endangered. On the
                                                                                                          contrary ants, including their habitats, are protected against destruction among some
                                                                                                          African clans. For instance, an ant is a totem in some clans in the Luhyia community.
                                                                                                          For them, the ant symbolizes patience, hard work, order and discipline. Members of
                                                                                                          the community are expected to be active, orderly and disciplined. Any damage caused
                                                                                                          to an ant-hill or its colony in such communities is equated to endangering the commu-
                                                                                                          nity’s welfare. Members of this clan do not eat ants either [37].




                                                                                                    212
   6.2. Bee




                                      Figure 11. Bee



    Human reliance on insect pollination services continues to increase even as pollina-
tor populations exhibit global declines due to the use of pesticides, disease and hab-
itat loss. Changing temperature and weather conditions due to climate change
has also restricted the area where bees can survive. While climate change and
other human activities threaten many bees, the bees have received special
attention that could help mitigate their threat such as totemic usage. A bee as
a totem in some Tachoni clans in Kenya symbolizes fertility, riches (the honey of life)
and accomplishing the impossible. Members of such clans are expected to make their
lives productive to realize their dreams. Destroying forests and flowers, habitats for
bees, amounts to killing the progress of the clan which is an abomination that calls for




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
sacrifices to appease the gods [28]. The numerous trees in and around homes are not
cut for firewood but are left in their natural state because they are prescribed homes
for bees [39].


   7. Implications of totems for environmental conservation

    Wildlife Conservation
   Prohibiting the killing and eating of totemic animals, birds and insects such as ants,
crocodiles, leopards and snakes in some communities has helped to conserve and
maintain some form of wildlife in the community. It has also helped the animals to sur-
vive and multiply in numbers over time despite threats from poaching.

   Forest Conservation
   Forests that support sacred totemic animals and plants are also protected because
they are believed to have special spiritual or cultural values and associations. As a re-
sult, harmful activities such as deforestation are discouraged in some communities be-
cause it poses a potential threat to the lives of the totemic animals living in the forests
and which could cause the wrath of the gods living in them if destroyed. Cutting down
forest trees for charcoal in these areas has also been prevented because of the belief


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                                                                                                          that lesser gods and other spirit beings reside therein. Trees and forests are preserved
                                                                                                          for posterity, despite increasing threats from modernity.


                                                                                                            8. Recommendations

                                                                                                            In view of the study findings, it is recommended that:
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                            •    Governments, international organizations and private institutions should sup-
                                                                                                                 port the development of educational, research and training centers which are
                                                                                                                 controlled by indigenous communities to allow them to disseminate indigenous
                                                                                                                 knowledge.
                                                                                                            •    Religious leaders, including pastors, priests, imams and traditional authorities
                                                                                                                 should preach more about the aspects that see human existence as closely
                                                                                                                 tied to its natural environment.
                                                                                                            •    More research and documentation on the benefits of African belief systems
                                                                                                                 in response to environmental degradation and natural resource conservation
                                                                                                                 should be done along with the root challenges involved.
                                                                                                            •    The need to integrate modern laws, traditional customs and norms on natural
                                                                                                                 resources conservation and management for the benefit of future generations.
                                                                                                            •    Documentation of information on IKS should be made public for it to have an
                                                                                                                 influence on local communities and the nation which will in turn help them to
                                                                                                                 develop a positive attitude and perception about IKS in resource conservation.
                                                                                                            •    Children should be taught totemic beliefs and traditions at the local community
                                                                                                                 level and through the school curriculum so that they can continue to survive;
                                                                                                                 many totemic beliefs and traditions are gradually being lost due to Christianity
                                                                                                                 and modern technologies.


                                                                                                            9. Conclusion

                                                                                                             The focus of this paper was to explore the significance of indigenous African belief
                                                                                                          systems: totems in natural resource conservation and management in Africa with spe-
                                                                                                          cial reference to tribes from Kenya and South Africa. Totems have helped to conserve
                                                                                                          not only the natural environment, but also traditional belief systems. Indigenous Afri-
                                                                                                          can belief systems in the form of totems have contributed immensely and effectively
                                                                                                          to the reduction in the incidence of wildlife and biodiversity loss. Some plant and tree
                                                                                                          species, animals and insects are conserved due to their significance to the community
                                                                                                          as totems. They are treated with reverence and protected for future use due to their
                                                                                                          sacred value and role in rituals. Totemic animals and plants are maintained mainly
                                                                                                          through two useful prohibitions: the first against killing and eating the totemic animal
                                                                                                          and the second against the destruction of plants and their habitats. These traditional
                                                                                                          belief systems are capable of protecting species biodiversity in particular and the en-
                                                                                                          vironment in general.


                                                                                                            Acknowledgements

                                                                                                            I wish to acknowledge my mentor, Senior Professor G.E. Ekosse who has been


                                                                                                    214
extremely supportive and concerned about my Post-Doctoral Research Fellowship.
Thank you for allowing me to attain my dream and for believing in me. I also thank the
editor and reviewers of the Journal of Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage for
their eye-opening comments and suggestions that have helped enrich this paper. To
the University of Venda, I sincerely thank you for supporting me financially and making
it possible for me to undertake this study.

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                                                                                                            Biographical notes

                                                                                                             Lucy Mandillah is a lecturer in the department of Language and Literature Edu-
                                                                                                          cation at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kenya. She holds a
                                                                                                          Doctorate degree in English and Applied Linguistics (2016); a Master of Arts degree
                                                                                                          in English and Linguistics (2006) and a Bachelor of Education Arts degree in English
                                                                                                          Language and Literature in English (2002). She is currently pursuing a Post-Doctoral


                                                                                                    216
Research Fellowship program at the University of Venda, South Africa. She has sus-
tained a research focus on Language and culture, Eco-linguistics, African linguistics,
Language education, Language and gender, Language acquisition, Language and di-
plomacy. To date, she has authored and co-authored various publications on these
themes particularly, as they pertain to sustainable development. She continues to
contribute to the academic community through her research contributions in various
international conferences and workshops. She is involved in the teaching, supervision
and co-supervision of several undergraduate, Masters and PhD students.

    Senior Professor G.E. Ekosse is a professor of Applied Clay Mineralogy and En-
vironmental Geology. He is the Secretary General of the African Academy of Sciences
(AAS) (2014 to date) and Member of its Advisory Committee on Space, Earth and En-
vironmental Sciences (2014 to date) and its Management Committee and Governing
Council. Senior Professor Ekosse is also a life Member of the Geological Society of
Africa (GSAf); and Association of Geoscientists for International Development (AGID);
Member of the Soil Science Society of Southern Africa (SSSSA), and International As-
sociation for the Study of Clays (AIPEA). Furthermore, he is the Deputy Chairperson
of Limpopo Research Forum (LRF) of South Africa; and National Research Foundation
(NRF); a C2 rated Researcher 2007-2012, 2013-2018. He has won different awards
that include the Indiana Black Expo, 1992 and Briscoe Scientific (UK), 1996/1997. Se-
nior Prof. Ekosse is a leader of both Clays and Clay Minerals in Africa and Human and
Enzootic Geophagia in Southern Africa Projects. He has authored/co-authored books;
book chapters; refereed journal articles; refereed articles in conference/workshop pro-
ceedings. He has also organized different scientific fieldwork; workshops, international
conferences and symposiums. His research findings have been presented internation-
ally. Currently, he is the Director of Research and Innovation at the University of Venda,
South Africa.




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
   Summary
   Sustainable development, a development that meets the needs of the present with-
out compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, has eluded
most developing nations in the world today. The world’s countries inlude the devel-
oped and developing nations where most African nations fit into the latter category.
Attempts have been made to explain the circumstances under which African countries
are striving to develop, but the role of Indigenous Knowledge System (IKS) in the entire
process has not been exhaustively explored. Indigenous people have responded to
ecological and development challenges by using the cultures and knowledge systems
transmitted through their indigenous languages. The aim of this paper was to investi-
gate how totems, as cultural belief systems, have been used in Africa to promote the
conservation of natural resources. Qualitative methods (based on literature) were used
to explore the values and perceptions that underlie the use of totems. The information
was collected by reviewing some literature on African culture and totems from Kenya
and South Africa. The literature reviewed concentrated on the cultural symbolism at-
tached to totems among different tribes which were randomly selected from the two
countries. Data was analyzed through content analysis and presented thematically. It
was found that animal, plant and insect totems in Kenya and South Africa have sym-
bolic meanings attached to them. The symbolic meanings are usually accompanied
by taboos believed to have special spiritual and cultural associations. Due to these


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                                                                                                          cultural associations and taboos, totems are protected against harm by the respective
                                                                                                          tribes, conserving species diversity and ecosystem diversity. The study recommends
                                                                                                          that there is a need to appreciate the cultural values and beliefs that help in sustainable
                                                                                                          development. Findings of the study could add value to the existing body of knowledge
                                                                                                          on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) relating to the management and preserva-
                                                                                                          tion of indigenous knowledge produced in Africa for sustainable development.
K. Mandillah, G. Ekosse - African totems: cultural heritage for sustainable environmental conservation




                                                                                                             Riassunto
                                                                                                             Lo sviluppo sostenibile, uno sviluppo che soddisfa i bisogni del presente senza
                                                                                                          compromettere la capacità delle generazioni future di soddisfare i propri bisogni, oggi
                                                                                                          è sfuggito alla maggior parte delle nazioni in via di sviluppo nel mondo. I paesi del
                                                                                                          mondo comprendono nazioni sviluppate e in via di sviluppo. La maggior parte delle
                                                                                                          nazioni africane rientrano in quest’ultima categoria. Sono stati effettuati tentativi da
                                                                                                          parte di paesi africani, ma il ruolo del Sistema di conoscenza indigeno (IKS) nell’intero
                                                                                                          processo non è stato esplorato esaustivamente. Le popolazioni indigene hanno ris-
                                                                                                          posto alle sfide ecologiche e di sviluppo utilizzando le culture e i sistemi di conoscenza
                                                                                                          trasmessi attraverso le loro lingue indigene. Lo scopo di questo lavoro era di indagare
                                                                                                          su come i totem, come sistemi di credenze culturali, siano stati usati in Africa per
                                                                                                          promuovere la conservazione delle risorse naturali. I metodi qualitativi (basati sulla let-
                                                                                                          teratura) sono stati usati per esplorare i valori e le percezioni che sono alla base dei to-
                                                                                                          tem. Le informazioni sono state raccolte esaminando alcune pubblicazioni sulla cultura
                                                                                                          africana e sui totem del Kenya e del Sudafrica. La letteratura recensita si concentrava
                                                                                                          sul simbolismo culturale attribuito ai totem tra le diverse tribù che venivano selezionati
                                                                                                          a caso dai due paesi. I dati sono stati analizzati attraverso l’analisi del contenuto e
                                                                                                          presentati in modo tematico. Si è trovato che totem di animali, piante e insetti in Kenya
                                                                                                          e in Sud Africa hanno significati simbolici a loro associati. I significati simbolici sono
                                                                                                          solitamente accompagnati da tabù che si ritiene abbiano speciali associazioni spirituali
                                                                                                          e culturali. A causa di queste associazioni culturali e tabù, i totem sono protetti dalle
                                                                                                          rispettive tribù, conservando la diversità delle specie e degli ecosistemi. Lo studio ha
                                                                                                          lo scopo di spingere ad apprezzare i valori e le credenze culturali che aiutano nello svi-
                                                                                                          luppo sostenibile. I risultati dello studio potrebbero contribuire a incrementare il valore
                                                                                                          del Sistema di Conoscenza Indigena (IKS) relativa alla sua gestione e conservazione
                                                                                                          per lo sviluppo sostenibile.




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