10.6092/issn.1973-9494/5445
This paper, by referring to the archaeological reports and local gazetteers and comparing images of porcelain wares, makes a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the layout of power and space in Jingdezhen Imperial Factory according to its geography, geomancy, security management, space regulation, architectural features, production characteristics and production layout. It contends that the Imperial Factory which integrates porcelain making factory with local government is the embodiment of absolute monarchy in ceramic culture. The factory is located on Zhushan mountain, the center of Jingdezhen’s industry, business and transportation. Being at the center, it gives off an air of prestige and majesty, overlooking dominantly the surrounding private kilns. It has also turned the political system into power operation, setting up not only workshops but also administrative offices. By taking advantage of the best resources, it has produced porcelain for imperial family and court. Its specialized production has solved the contradiction between complicated technology and numerous procedures of production. The shape, color and pattern of the porcelain wares are strictly stipulated and the best of the best wares are demanded. Hence the porcelain production is featured with longest firing, largest scale, superb craftsmanship, and best kinds of wares. All of these reveal the process and rule power and space are intersected and different cultures overlapped.
application/pdf
1973-9494
5445
2
en
Zhan Jia
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
power-space
The Layout of Power and Space in Jingdezhen Imperial Factory
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
14
Articles
2014-12-30
2015-09-24
2014-12-30
2016-06-14
83-98
CSCH
Zhan Jia
2014/12/30
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/5445
83
Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute, Jiangxi, China
1973-9494
2
power-space
en
98
Zhu Hong,Qian Junxi, Feng Dan. On the Symbolic Meanings of Space [J] Progress in Geography 2010, 29 (6): 643-648.
The Layout of Power and Space in Jingdezhen Imperial Factory
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/5445/5158
14
T    HE LAYOUT OF POWER AND SPACE IN JINGDEZHEN
     IMPERIAL FACTORY

    Jia Zhan
    Jingdezhen Ceramic Institute
    Jiangxi, China


   Keywords: Jingdezhen Imperial Factory, regulation of government building, techno-
logical system, power-space

   1. Introduction


    Space has social attribute, and the study of space in human geography gradually pro-
ceeds from the exterior to the interior and eventually into the complicated structure of the
society. The study of culture in geography no longer treats culture as the object of spatial be-
havior, instead, it focuses on culture itself, exploring the function of space in constructing and
shaping culture [1].The concentrated and introverted space of imperial power is typical of this
function. In the centralized system of absolute monarchy, the emperor with arbitrary authority,
controlled and supervised the whole nation and wield his unchecked power at will. The idea
of spatial practice and representations of space proposed by Henri Lefebvre provides a good
reference for the study of the above-mentioned issues, such as the material environment,
allocation, organization and ways of representation of production [2].To study the production
path and control mode of the landscape from the perspective of power, we can see that cul-
ture is not only represented through landscape, but also shapes the landscape, they interact-




                                                                                                          CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
ing with each other in a feedback loop [3].We can also understand the relationship between
social environment and space of imperial power which starts from the emperor, moves down
to the imperial court and then to the provinces. This method of social government is also
reflected in the Imperial Factory, the center of imperial power in ceramics. The Imperial Fac-
tory, located in Zhushan Region (the center of Jingdezhen), facing south, reflect the spatial
ethics that the more central and higher one is positioned, the more prestigious and dominant
one is, highlighting the majesty of the imperial court. The imperial landscape, guided by the
ideology of family-governed monarchy and absolute loyalty to the emperor, finds expression
in the regulation of government building and layout of workshop: the Imperial Factory is the
carrier of the evolution of power and porcelain made for imperial use the vessel of system
and technology. In this paper, the Imperial Factory refers to Jingdezhen Imperial Ware Fac-
tory in Ming Dynasty and Jingdezhen Imperial Kiln Factory in Qing Dynasty.


   2. The Power-space of the Imperial Factory

    The operation trajectory of politics in space refers to not only the architectural space
but also behavioral space. Power is not only symbolic but also practical.If space and
its boundary can be said to have social attribute, then the physical movements such
as going through doors and crossing boundary and space can be regarded as social
practices [4].Jingdezhen Imperial Factory is the spatial representation of the operation

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                                                                           of imperial power which is both physical(as in architecture) and hierarchical. They are
                                                                           planed and built according to the geographical situation and by taking advantage of
                                                                           the climate and geographical features, aiming to achieve the state of perfection among
                                                                           climate, geography and people.At the same time, the landscape becomes the tool of
                                                                           power to constrain the private kilns and discipline the potters.
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                                         Figure 1. Map of Jingdezhen in the 21st year of Kangxi




                                                                                   Fig. 2 Map of Jingdezhen in the 48th year of Qianlong



                                                                      84
  2.1. Monarchical representation in the geography and geomancy of the Impe-
  rial Factory

    Fuliang County Gazetteers published in the 21st year of Kangxi reign (Fig. 1) and
48th year of Qianlong reign (Fig. 2) and Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics (Fig. 3) pub-
lished in the 20th year of Jiaqing reign have drawn a rough outline of Jingdezhen town
proper, which highlight the Imperial Factory but ignore streets and markets. In fact,
they are more sketch maps than topographic ones. This is especially true of the map
in Fuliang County Gazetteers which simply represents the space of Jingdezhen town
proper during Ming and Qing Dynasty. The town proper is embraced by mountains and
surround by water in the west, south and north. In the north of the town lies Lishidu, in
the south Xiaogangzui, in the west Changjiang and in the east Ma’anshan. To the east
of Jingdezhen there are tall mountains, to the west rivers, hence the town can only be
extended to the south and north,not east and west. Most of the streets and markets
run from north to east instead of east to west and are parallel to the Changjiang River.




              Figure 3. Map of Jingdezhen in the 20th year of Jiaqing
                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE


   Fuliang County Gazetteers have drawn Changjiang River, West River,
   South River, and marked the ferries, village, mountains, ridges and temples along
both sides of Changjiang River. Although the names on the map are detailed, its rep-
resentation the topographic information is less realistic than that of Kangxi edition.
As for Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics, it is much improved because the topographic
information is realistically represented and keeps record of rivers, ferries, temples, but
gone are the villages. In addition, halls and streets and markets are added while the
space was narrowed at the east bank of Changjiang River.
   Through a general comparison of the three maps, it must be pointed out that: Firstly,
the three maps are sketches instead of topographic maps. Therefore, it is necessary
to note that in the east and north of Jingdezhen was high hills, while in the west and
south are small hills. The town proper is low while its surrounding regions high. Hence
the town in whole is a basin which opens in the south west. Secondly, as to rivers and


                                                                                             85
                                                                           their tributaries, West River and South River are tributaries while Changjiang is the ma-
                                                                           jor river which is shaped like the Chinese character “厂”. Changjiang River flows from
                                                                           northeast to southwest, passing Sanlv Temple, and then from north to south. Thirdly,
                                                                           the distance between Lishidu to Xiaogangzui （which runs from south to north）is
                                                                           about 13 Chinese Li (One Li equals 500 meters) and the distance between Changjiang
                                                                           and Ma’anshan (from east to west) is 6 Li [5]. All of these three versions of map have
                                                                           not properly represented the narrow and long shape of the region, but even so, all of
                                                                           their Imperial Factories stand right in the middle of the town.
                                                                               The formation of power-space needs not only majesty, but also strategy. Space
                                                                           becomes the tool to convey power, even a certain kind of institution itself which influ-
                                                                           ences, warns and deters people who are involved. The imitation of the imperial archi-
                                                                           tecture throughout the country is a reflection of the influence of imperial power. The
                                                                           Imperial Factory of Ming Dynasty, with an area of 54300m2,was chosen to be built
                                                                           up in Zhushan of Jingdezhen, to whose south lies Gongguan Mountain (nowadays
                                                                           The Middle Zhushan Road),to east Houshan pavilion (The Northern Zhonghua
                                                                           Road), to west Bijia Upper lane and Dongsiling, and to north Pengjia Upper lane
                                                                           [6].The buildings in Imperial Factory, mainly government offices and workshops,
                                                                           are located in the central high ground of the town, facing south and with north at
                                                                           its back. This position reflects the spatial ethics that the more central and high one
                                                                           is positioned, the more prestigious and dominant one is, highlighting the majesty
                                                                           of imperial court. Its location in the center of the transportation is also conducive
                                                                           to gathering and distributing goods. By overlooking the surrounding private kilns, it
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                           produces a dominating air, which deters the potters in their behaviors and minds.
                                                                               The formation of power-space is not only particular about hierarchy but also geo-
                                                                           mancy. The latter that observes the principle of harmony between heaven and human,
                                                                           balance of Yin and Yang, and mutual generation and restriction of The Five Elements,
                                                                           is important for construction of palaces, mansions and houses, etc, in terms of choice
                                                                           of location, direction, and architectural shapes. With geomancy, one can implement
                                                                           the optimal technology to utilize and improve nature. It is believed that the building can
                                                                           obtain vitality and prosperity by staying away from Yin, embracing Yang, being close
                                                                           to water, facing streets and with mountain at its back. Guanzhong(BCE 719-645,a
                                                                           famous thinker) contends that flood would cause the worst damage among the five
                                                                           natural disasters. Kilns in Jingdezhen are built along the river which is definitely advan-
                                                                           tageous for people to obtain and make use of water, but surrounded by water at three
                                                                           sides, Jingdezhen also has suffered the most from storms and floods. According to
                                                                           geomancy, Zhushan is located at the position of Xue (the best place). It is the only hill
                                                                           in the center of the town proper, overlooking the surrounding places. The place looks
                                                                           like five surrounding dragons holding a pearl. During Tang Dynasty, a pavilion called
                                                                           “Pearls Gathering Pavilion” was built there, hence the name Pearl Mountain. During
                                                                           Song, Zhongli Pavilion was built there which was appointed to be the headquarter of
                                                                           the revolting army by General Guan Yu. During the reign of Wanli, Ming Dynasty, it was
                                                                           renamed as Huancui Pavilion. During Yongzheng reign, Qing Dynasty, it was called
                                                                           Wenchang Pavilion. It is a prosperous place full of Feng (Wind) and Qi (Air) elements
                                                                           over various dynasties. The blue and white pattern of the Imperial Factory on the por-
                                                                           celain table collected by The Capital Museum (Beijing) (72.5 cm in diameter) (Fig. 4), is
                                                                           round in form, with the Imperial Factory at the center which connects streets and shops
                                                                           and is surrounded by rivers, mountains, (Fig. 4)
                                                                               Streets and buildings. On it there are green mountains and forests at the both


                                                                      86
side of the river, ships coming and going for porcelain, zigzagging lanes filled with
busy workers and numerous shops packed with happy clients and owners.




          Figure 4. Blue and white round table with the pattern of Imperial Factory
          collected in Capital Museum

   In the east and west of the Factory are workshops, and in front of the main door are
halls and shops. Inside the door lie administrative offices and temples. The blue and
white drawing of varying shades and different density presents prosperous scenery




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
of the 13-Li Taoyan region. Therefore, in the early Ming Dynasty, the choice of The
Imperial Factory being built on a gentle slope, Zhanshan being the center of the Fac-
tory, and the symbolic significance of five dragons offering a pearl to drive away the
evil spirit, is a design that strikes a wonderful balance between the aesthetic value and
practical function.


   2.2. The evolution of security management of the Imperial Factory

     Space, as a place of production, is capable of changing and creating. The pro-
cess by which government transmits imperial power is one by which they can allo-
cate resources to develop, design, utilize and command the right of space production.
Raozhou Prefecture Gazetteers of Zhende Reign, Ming Dynasty, records that the evo-
lution of Jingdezhen porcelain kilns from Tang Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty: “Jingdezhen,
the place where ceramics are made, rose in Tang and developed in Song Dynasty.
Our Dynasty has set up a bureau to supervise it”. Jingdezhen kilns have gone through
four stages, developing from folk kilns, folk kilns firing tributary porcelain, official kilns
and eventually to the Imperial Factory in Ming and Qing Dynasty. Here, a bureau of
supervision is set up and pottery supervisors are appointed by the court. As a place of
rituals and moral teaching and an embodiment of evolution of hierarchical power, it is
a unique cultural landscape of China and even the whole world.


                                                                                                 87
                                                                              In the past, the political center of Fuliang County was located originally in the north-
                                                                           west of the county. In order to strengthen the security management, the Department of
                                                                           Patrol and Inspection was set up in Song Dynasty. It was moved to the town of Taoshu
                                                                           in Yuan Dynasty, and moved again to the town of Legong in Ming Dynasty, and not until
                                                                           42nd year of Wanli Reign was it relocated to Jingdezhen where the first and second
                                                                           hall and offices of the Department of Patrol and Inspection were built. In the 2nd year
                                                                           of Kangxi Reign, Fuliang barrack was set up in the county proper, and in the 4th year of
                                                                           Kangxi, magistrate Xiao Yunshu built government offices together with 60 army barracks
                                                                           there. In the 22nd year of Kangxi Reign, a military barrack of Raozhou Prefecture was re-
                                                                           located to Jingdezhen to repress local riots. In the 32nd year of Kangxi Reign, Raozhou
                                                                           Prefecture government appointed a governor to station in Jingdezhen [7]. In the 32nd
                                                                           year of Kangxi Reign,a department of Patrol and Inspection was set up in Jingdezhen. It
                                                                           is worth mentioning that the governors of Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties were respon-
                                                                           sible for supervising food, arresting criminals, defending coast and river, and managing
                                                                           water resource, etc. As officials ranking the fifth in the hierarchy of court officials, their
                                                                           high status show that the royal court had attached great importance to Jingdezhen.
                                                                              In Ming and Qing dynasties, Jingdezhen, as a town under the jurisdiction of Fuliang
                                                                           County, is not a political center, but was the center of porcelain making and economy
                                                                           of China. Therefore, different people are gathered here. “There are desperate fugitives
                                                                           and a lot of mobs who make it difficult to govern the place” [8]. From time to time, the
                                                                           inspection tours by provincial and municipal government are required, but these pa-
                                                                           trols are limited in time, incapable of stationing in Jingdezhen for long. Therefore, the
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                           court entitled the Imperial Factory with authorities of security management to ensure
                                                                           the smooth implementation of government decrees and security of the place. Besides,
                                                                           a department of patrol and inspection was set up in Jingdezhen to ensure local security
                                                                           during the reign of Wanli. And in the Imperial Factory, there were branch agencies of
                                                                           securities, patrol and inspection, such as offices of branches of Jiujiang Province, and
                                                                           of Raozhou Prefecture and Fuliang County.
                                                                              Jingdezhen Imperial Factory, though not as important as Fuliang County govern-
                                                                           ment, was of highly significance as it produces imperial porcelain so that ceramic su-
                                                                           pervisors were appointed by the imperial court or directly by the emperor himself to
                                                                           take charge of porcelain production. In Ming Dynasty, the ceramic supervisors were
                                                                           eunuchs of the court and officials of The Ministry of Industry or local governments,
                                                                           while in Qing Dynasty, most of them were officials of Customs and The Ministry of In-
                                                                           dustry, or local officials. Generally, ceramic supervisors governed better than eunuchs:
                                                                           the former facilitated the development of porcelain industry by devoting themselves to
                                                                           their duties and treating potters with kindness, while the latter hindered its develop-
                                                                           ment by embezzling money, colluding with businessmen and oppressing and abusing
                                                                           potters and the mass. Most of the ceramic supervisors ranked higher than the gover-
                                                                           nor of Fuliang County, some of them even ranked the third or fourth in the hierarchi-
                                                                           cal order, such as Tinggui Duan and He Cui of Ming Dynasty, Yingxuan Zang, Tingji
                                                                           Lang, and Gengyao Nian of Qing Dynasty. For the stable production of imperial por-
                                                                           celain, most of the ceramic supervisors managed effectively. Among them, Ying Tang
                                                                           stood out who made innovations of the variety, shape, decoration, and pattern of the
                                                                           wares,improved the quality of the ware and the transportation condition, guaranteeing
                                                                           potters with good life and maintaining social security. Ying Tang, whose contribution
                                                                           far outweighed that of magistrates of Fuliang County, helped Jingdezhen porcelain
                                                                           become worldly famous.


                                                                      88
   3.The buildings of government offices in the Imperial Factory

   By exploring the history of regional culture, studying the way how people utilize and
transform environment, and the process how they turn natural landscapes into cultural
ones, we can understand the energy of power in shaping space. Foucault’s Power-
Space in not simply an empty room or a showy appearance, instead, it is combination
of space and power to regulate people’s behavior and tame people’s thoughts [9].
Yunsu Li believes that the relationship between “Li (rites)” and architecture is related
to the building regulation of capital and imperial palace. Architecture is the embodi-
ment of political system, and also the content of “li (rites)”,used as a political tool [10].
In accordance with Chinese regulations, Jingdezhen Imperial Factory entitles the ar-
chitecture with hierarchical ranks by means of scale and form. Through the symbolic
function of its architecture, the Factory manifests social order and value orientation.
Even the construction of pavilions for supervisors and prisons in the Factory can form
a peculiar power-space.

   3.1 The spatial regulation of government offices in Imperial Factory
    In Ming and Qing Dynasty, Jingdezhen Imperial Factory produced wares exclusively
for royal families and court. Ceramic supervisors took charge of factory affairs on be-
half of the emperor, so his ranking was high with great power, well above that of the
magistrate of the county. Therefore, Imperial Factory is entitled with the authority of
government office; hence its architecture is naturally the same with that of government
office. Imperial Factory is of grand scale, even larger than the office of Fuliang County
government, a design that highlights the dignity of monarchy.
    The government office is the most majestic architecture in a place. Its architecture
reveres patriarchal moral codes while its spatial order emphasizes that the architecture
faces south and is symmetric. According to The Doctrine of the Mean, “the middle is




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
the fundamental”. Therefore, the left is allocated for ancestral temples and the right for
the altar of nation; civil officers stand on the left and military officers on the right; the
east is for the honorable and the west is for the humble; the administrative offices are
at the fore and living quarters at the rear; Ministries of Personal Affairs, Civil Affairs,
and Rites are located on the left and Ministries of Military, Penalty, and Industry on the
right. The overall architecture makes clear distinction between the important buildings
and the lesser ones. It is also rigorously arranged, not only standardizing the pattern
of space but also taming people’s behavior with space. Generally, three longitudinal
axes run parallel to each other, with the main axis in the middle and the auxiliary axes
alongside. On the main axis are screen wall, memorial archway, main door, the second
door, paved path leading to the main door, warning pavilion or archway, gatehouses
in the east and west, government offices and the hall; After Yangong door (the third
door) is the second courtyard; Behind the inner chamber is the third courtyard, that is,
courtyard for inner chambers. On the east axis are Land God’s Temple, guest houses,
kitchen, garden, houses for officers and so on; on the west axis are prisons, reception
rooms, rooms for constables, etc.




                                                                                                89
                                                                                           Figure 5. Map of the Imperial Factory in 20th year of Jiaqing


                                                                               From “Book of Ceramics” in History of Jiangxi Province and “Map of the Imperial
                                                                           Factory” in Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics (Fig. 5), we can know the administrative
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                           offices are at the fore and living quarters are at the rear. Important architectures are
                                                                           standing along the north-south axis, including screen wall, the first door, the second
                                                                           door, and the hall. In front of the hall are three ritual doors, three drum towers, six big
                                                                           warehouses of the east and west, and eight warehouses inside and outside. From the
                                                                           ritual door to the hall are administrative areas, though there are no labeled names, but
                                                                           all are constructed according to the spatial regulations of government offices. There is
                                                                           no sign for the second hall. From the hall to the second hall, there is Huancui Pavilion
                                                                           on the left and Land God’s temple on the right as well as three supervisors’ pavilions
                                                                           and one prison. On the hill behind the hall is a pavilion, named “Wu Ran” in Ming Dy-
                                                                           nasty but changed to be “Hua Ji” in Qing Dynasty. On the left of the axis are office of
                                                                           Jingde Inspection, and West Yuanmen; on the right are Ceramic Temple, East Yuan-
                                                                           men, Guandi Temple, God of Wind and Fire. In the Southwest of Imperial Factory is
                                                                           the temporary office for the magistrate of the county, and supervisor’s offices of Patrol
                                                                           and Inspection of Jiujiang are in the southeast. Among management personnel of Im-
                                                                           perial Factory, civilian officers are small in number, including the person in charge, the
                                                                           supervisor, person in charge of the archives and copyists. But there are a good number
                                                                           of military officers, including patrolling soldiers, gate soldiers and warehouse soldiers.
                                                                           Factory regulations of Qing Dynasty mainly follow that of Ming Dynasty, only with one
                                                                           more screen wall outside the gate. Between screen door and the first gate, paved path
                                                                           in the east and west are built to connect downtown streets, and there are three doors
                                                                           in the southeast [11-12]. Following the rule of “full-empty-full”, the architecture (Fig. 5)
                                                                           emphasizes the connection of physical buildings and the overlapping of images. By
                                                                           barricading, the space for practicing rituals, administrating, resting and entertaining in
                                                                           the Imperial Factory is formed.




                                                                      90
   3.2. The architectural features of government offices in the Imperial Fac-
tory
    In terms of space, geography focuses on observing the natural attributes of measure-
ment, often ignoring the social attributes of history and culture, but in fact, as a product
of human practice, space is entitled with special implication by power operation. Power-
space needs auxiliary means to demonstrate, such as form of roof, color of structures, and
width of rooms. As to the height of roof, hip roof is the highest, mainly used for palaces and
temples, followed by gable roof, often used for secondary palace buildings, while hanging
peak and hard peak are usually used for civil buildings. Among colors, gold, red and yellow
are the most noble ones, used for the palaces of emperors and aristocrats; what follows
are cyan and green, used for houses of officials; black and gray are the color of lowest
level, used for houses of common people. Different length and height of wall, as a means
to separate space, shows differences of their owners’ power.
    Taking the map of Imperial Factory in “Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics” as an example.
Screen wall, the first door and the second door (ritual door) are built with hanging peak,
while the main hall with gable roof. The main hall is a two-story building with three halls and
five rooms, 0.8 meter higher than the ground and with five steps. The main hall, Office of
Jingde Inspection, Branch of Raozhou Perfecture government, Ceramic God Temple are
all installed with three doors of large size but different positions and different shapes [13].
Museum of Gongyi City collects famille rose square cup with the pattern of Imperial Factory
in the period of Emperor Xianfeng (28cm long,14cm wide,10 cm high). In the map, work-
shops are separated by enclosures; pavilions for band performance are built with gable
roofs or tented roofs. The Palace Museum of Beijing collects a big famille rose bottle with
the pattern of Imperial Factory in the reign of Daoguang (60.3 cm high and 20.2 cm diam-
eter). In it, workshops are built with eaves of rake angles, white wall and black tiles, scarlet
columns, jar-like stone seat, high wall and doubled eaves, overlapping doors, showing




                                                                                                        CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
clear boundary and respecting patriarchal moral codes. In this symbolic and ceremonial
space composition, power is overlapped, added and emphasized, taming people’s behav-
ior by shapes and colors of architecture, so it is of closed and introverted features.
    According to “Zuozhuan”, worshiping ceremonies and wars are the most important
affairs of a country. Therefore, the government office is built with the ancestral temple
on the left is and the altar of nation on the right, highlighting the tradition of respecting
saints and worshiping gods. Due to the difference of time and region, temples and
worshiping ceremonies of Jingdezhen Imperial Factory are different, with Temple for
Ceramic God, Guandi Temple and Temple for Grandmaster in the east and Temple of
Great Emperor Zhenwu in the west. “Regulations of former emperors require people
to worship god with ceremonies and stipulated religious rituals which cannot be con-
fused. Only through meritorious service, one can hold worshiping ceremonies, which
is the principle of Li (rites). Human should be honest while Gods are just, which is the
way of the communication between human and god. The five elements (metal, wood,
water, fire and earth) create life and there is a god for each element [14]. Offering sac-
rifices to the gods has already been part of the governing system, and people wish to
get benefits by communicating with gods. Kao Gong Ji writes that goodness are based
on the right place, the right time, good materials and skillful workmanship. The ancient
people believed that when creating things, people needed to follow natural laws, stress
the quality of materials, have a good command of technology, adjust production to
seasons, and harmonize the relationship between human and nature. This mysterious


                                                                                                   91
                                                                           thought gave birth to Ceramic God, and reflected the idea of “god’s work” in traditional
                                                                           craft. In Tang Ying’s Illustrations of the Manufacture of Porcelain, there is a picture
                                                                           in which people offer sacrifice to god and praying for blessings. By doing so, people
                                                                           express their wishes to produce wonderful porcelain as well as their pursuit of god’s
                                                                           work. Therefore, it is not only concerned with the ceramic making techniques, but also
                                                                           thoughts, feelings and ethnics.


                                                                              4. The production of the Imperial factory

                                                                               “Space is not a non-material concept, but the incarnation of various cultural, political
                                                                           and psychological phenomenons....To some extent, space is always social. The com-
                                                                           position, experience and pattern of the space greatly shape the relationship between
                                                                           individuals and society.” [15] So, the space is not an empty container, but the product
                                                                           of history and culture, which is often limited by nature, ability and technology [16]. The
                                                                           imperial system which combines power and capital, will inevitably affect the layout and
                                                                           technology of production and production, forming special fields. With the specialization
                                                                           and labor division of imperial porcelain production, more and more production spaces
                                                                           arise. The layout of workshops and kilns has absorbed the features of landscape and
                                                                           architecture of gardening, paying attention to the cohesion of processing procedures,
                                                                           linking the courtyards with the workshops. In this way, a rare official factory with cultural
                                                                           landscape of imperial characteristics appears.
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                              4.1. The production characteristics of the Imperial Factory
                                                                               The buildings in the Imperial Factory consist of management buildings and produc-
                                                                           tion buildings. For the part of production, the buildings are courtyard, providing huge
                                                                           and orderly power space for royal porcelain production. From material processing to
                                                                           kiln filling and firing, production is mainly made of two general steps: molding and kiln
                                                                           firing, thus endows the workshops with producing function and auxiliary function. In
                                                                           this sense, the royal factory is hand-made porcelain workshop of large scale, compete
                                                                           with all kinds of workshops.
                                                                               “Book of Ceramics” in History of Jiangxi Province records: “For porcelain making,
                                                                           there are rooms for big bowls (7 rooms, and 7 small rooms), for wine cups (3 rooms),
                                                                           for small plates (8 rooms, 4small rooms), for plates (7rooms, 4small rooms), for cups
                                                                           (7 rooms, 4 small rooms), or stamps (10 rooms, 4small rooms), for Zuilong, for pigment
                                                                           painting (1 room),calligraphy (1 room),for coloring (7 rooms), for saggers (33 rooms),
                                                                           for clay (1 room), for big woods (5 rooms), for small wood (5 rooms), for ship woods (2
                                                                           rooms), for irons (4 rooms), for bamboos (2 rooms), for oil painting (3 rooms), for ropes
                                                                           (3 rooms), for buckets (1 room), for dyes (1 room), for Dongya (46 pieces), for Xipo (16
                                                                           pieces)...; for firing, there are kilns such as: Fenghuo kilns, Se kilns, Huang kilns (20
                                                                           kilns, with Se kilns counted), kilns for big dragon jars (16), kilns for saggers, and Qing
                                                                           kilns (44)...; 2 factories (ship wood factory, with 10 rooms; match factory, with 9 rooms),
                                                                           firewood rooms (87).” [17] Archaeological findings show that the advanced technology
                                                                           in labor distribution and processing techniques improved significantly in Ming Dynasty,
                                                                           for example, the methods of glazing is classified into four types: swinging, dipping,
                                                                           pouring, and blowing, and for molding process, it takes the method of secondary print-
                                                                           ing and secondary trimming. The kilns in the Imperial Factory have also developed


                                                                      92
generations: the gourd kilns were often used from Hongwu to Yongle reign, while the
dome kilns were popular after Xuande reign of Ming Dynasty.
    Illustrations of Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics records: “there are 23 workshops for
making porcelain. They are workshops for big wares, small wares, antique-style wares,
carved or inlaid wares, printed wares, pigment painting wares, innovated wares, cal-
ligraphy, coloring, oil painting, sagger, dying, slurry, big wood, small wood, ship, iron,
bamboo, rope, bucket, Dongdui, Xidui....There are 6 kinds of kilns: Qing kiln, big dragon
jar kiln, Fenghuo kiln, Se kiln, Lanhuang kiln, sagger kiln..” [18] Most of the technology
of Ming was adopted in Qing Dynasty, with some improvements: the big bowls, wine
cups, small plates, plates, bells are classified as big wares, small wares, antique-styled
wares, carved or inlaid wares, and innovated wares respectively. The round wares of
similar quality are combined and classified into big or small wares. Tang Ying writes in
Summary of Ordered Illustrations that “a single change in the blue and white pattern
painted on the round ware would affect hundreds of labors. If not the same paintings,
though similar in looks, there must be different in many ways. Hence, painters would
not learn to dye, and the dyers will not learn to paint. Painters and dyers are separated
in different rooms so that they can work wholeheartedly.” According to the Chinese
Technology in the Seventeenth Century:T’ien-kung K’ai-wu, “72 procedures complete
one piece of porcelain. The details of are far beyond words.” [19] Technology of porce-
lain making is complex, and is even sophisticated for imperial porcelains.

   4.2. The production layout of the Imperial Factory
    Imperial porcelain production is made by the craftsmen and supervised by the of-
ficials, and strictly follows the production standards in terms of variety, function, speci-
fication, style, glaze, decoration and design. Precise organization and division of labor
along with orderly and reasonable production layout, ensure the imperial requirement
for quality porcelain, and in this way, the emperor’s control of art is realized.




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




      Figure 6. Jiaqing famille rose vase with the pattern of Imperial Factory collected in
      Shanxi Province Museum




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                                                                             Jiaqing famille rose vase with the pattern of Imperial Factory (Fig. 6) collected in
                                                                           Shanxi Province Museum is 60.3 cm in height, and 20.2 cm in diameter (mouth).

                                                                               Daoguang famille rose with the pattern of Imperial Factory (Fig. 7) collected in the
                                                                           Palace Museum in Beijing is 63 cm in height, 22 cm in diameter (mouth), and 22.5cm in
                                                                           diameter (foot). Both of the vases are painted with figures who are engaged in quarrying,
                                                                           stirring clay, delivering material, throwing, painting body, blowing glaze, filling kiln, firing,
                                                                           painting with colors, firing(the second time), emptying kiln, loading, etc. Painters of the
                                                                           Imperial Factory are represented wearing robes or skullcaps, or (Fig. 7) glasses while
                                                                           the chore men wearing coarse linen jacket, or holding buns.
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                           Figure 7. Daoguang famille rose with the pattern of Imperial Factory collected in the Palace
                                                                           Museum



                                                                               The number of figure on the Daoguang vase is more than 61. Xianfeng famille rose
                                                                           square cup with the pattern of Imperial Factory collected in Gongyi Museum (28cm
                                                                           long,14cm wide, and 10cm high) are painted with potters engaged in lifting, carrying, repair-
                                                                           ing body while the supervisor urging craftsmen with a whip in hand. These representations
                                                                           confirmed the historical documents’ recordings about the factory’s organizational system,
                                                                           labor division, and production arrangement. Tang Ying in Illustrations of the Manufacture of
                                                                           Porcelain drew 20 pictures of porcelain making process, which proves the collaboration of
                                                                           specialized production. French missionary Père d’Entrecolles recorded that “those Chris-
                                                                           tians who are employed at it find it difficult to attend church; they are only allowed to go if
                                                                           they can find substitutes, because as soon as this work is interrupted all the other workmen
                                                                           are stopped”. His writing reveals the preciseness of the flow of process, and the strictness
                                                                           of the management system.
                                                                               In Ming and Qing dynasties, the distributions of porcelain process are generally simi-
                                                                           lar to each other, which is recorded in detail in “Book of Ceramics” in History of Jiangxi
                                                                           Province, and briefly recorded in Illustrations of Record of Jingdezhen Ceramics. The first
                                                                           13 processes are related to production which include body making, color painting, etc.,
                                                                           followed by ten auxiliary processes. In the end, they introduce 6 kinds of kiln for firing por-
                                                                           celain. In total,25 kilns were unearthed, including 7 gourd kilns, 15 dome kilns, and 3 seri-
                                                                           ously damaged kilns of unknown shape. The 7 gourd kilns, unearthed in the northeast of


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the Imperial Factory, lasted from Hongwu to Yongle reign, Ming Dynasty. In its southwest,
15 dome kilns with 6 wheel pits were unearthed [21], which lasted from Xuande reign of
Ming Dynasty to Jiaqing reign of Qing Dynasty. These kilns are similar in shape and have
not undergone substantial change. Archaeological findings prove that the workshops and
kilns in the Imperial Factory were distributed on both sides of the government buildings,
forming a symmetrical distribution featured with “one axis and two wings”. Together they
form a long ladder shape which is wide in south and narrow in north with a circumference
of 1145m, and a total area of 54300 m2 [22]. The above records show that the production
scale of Imperial Factory was large, and the workshops and kilns were in reasonable lay-
out, with one process closely linked to another.


      5. Conclusion

    Space is both a concrete material environment and abstract ideology, and develops
along with the civilization. Imperial power monopolizes and organizes political, economical,
cultural resources, and constructs ruling order with force, endowing the society with hier-
archical difference and unbalanced layout of space controlling and reassembling the ruling
regulations. Cultural landscape includes the relationship between supply and demand, his-
torical tradition, technology and natural telepathy, etc. Cultural zone and local area, being
the core concept of cultural geography, are adopted to study the mechanism of landscape
formation and spatial change [23]. Jingdezhen Imperial Factory, with its unique political,
economical, and cultural attributes, endows the buildings with the feature of government
office as well as special social function. The layout of space in Jingdezhen over the years
spreads out with a top-bottom order, shaping the abstract symbol of imperial power, influ-
encing the layout of buildings, affecting the combination of capital and technology. The pro-
duction layout and technological features of the Imperial Factory whose layout, procedures




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
and functions are interconnected in a multi-dimensional manner, reflects the combination
and separation of economics and culture and the interaction of time, space, quantity, struc-
ture and order [24]. The paper, through the change of security management of the Imperial
Factory, studies the construction of the power-space, focus on new cultural geography
and pays attention to the operational methods of culture in society [11]. It concludes that
the Imperial Factory does not only rely on the majesty of the imperial power, but also the
mechanism of rituals and law which can endow the factory with the system and function of
constraining, hence influencing the workers’ behaviors, creating a good social environment
and forming a special cultural landscapes.


      References

[1]     Zhou Shangyi, Anglo-American Cultural Studies and the New Cultural Geogra-
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[2]     Shi Song, Ning Yuemin, Evolution on Connotation of Space in Human
        Geography,Scientia Georaphy Sinica,25 (3): 340-345.
[3]     Zhu Hong, Lin Jie, Wei lei, The research Context of Cultural Geography in China
        Indicated by A Hundred Issues of Human Geography [J], Human Geography,
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                                                                           [4]   Zhu Jianfei, The Royal Battle - the Outline of the Political Layout of Qing Palace
                                                                                 Museum [J], Architecture, 1997.4. 101-112.
                                                                           [5] Jingdezhen Bureau of Relics, The Journals of Jingdezhen relics [M] Beijing: Bei-
                                                                                 jing Green Everlasting Press, 2007: 12-13.
                                                                           [6] Jingdezhen Bureau of Relics, The Journals of Jingdezhen relics [M] Beijing: Bei-
                                                                                 jing Green Everlasting Press, 2007:12-13.
                                                                           [7] Fuliang Local Journals Community, Fuliang County Records-Important Events
                                                                                 [M], Beijing: Beijing Fangzhi Press,1999
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                                                                           [9] Michel Foucault, Liu beicheng, Yang Yuanying Surveiller et Punir [M] Beijing:
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                                                                           [10] Li Yunye,Artistic conception in China[M],Tianjin:Yianjin University Press,2005
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                                                                                 carving copy
                                                                           [12,13,18]          Qing.Lan Pu Picture of Imperial Factory--Ceramic Records of Jing-
                                                                                 dezhen [M].Jiaqing 20 carving copy
                                                                           [14] Zhan Shan, Records of Reconstructing the Awarded Temple for Wan Shuohou[M].
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                                                                           [15] Dani Cavallaro,Critical and Cultural Theory [M]. Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Pub-
                                                                                 lishing 2006: 179
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                                                                                 ence,1990, 40: 495-501.
Jia Zhan - The layout of power-space in the Jingdezhen Imperial Factory




                                                                           [19] Song Yingxing,Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century:T’ien-kung K’ai-
                                                                                 wu [M]. Shanghai:Zhonghua Book Company.1959
                                                                           [20] Entrecolles, Records of Jingdezhen. Prist Aori, Church Accountant, Kangxi 51.
                                                                           [21,22] Liu Xinyuan,Quan Kuishan, etc. Guanyinge Kiln of Ming Dynasty in Jing-
                                                                                 dezhen City,Jiangxi Province.Cultural Relics, 2009.12. 39-58.
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                                                                                 Biographical notes

                                                                             Jia Zhan born in 1961, male, native of Jingdezhen, the research fellow of Jingdez-
                                                                           hen Ceramic Institute, PhD and Master’s Student supervisor, dean of the Ceramic
                                                                           Culture Research Center.


                                                                                 Summary

                                                                              This paper, by referring to the archaeological reports and local gazetteers and
                                                                           comparing images of porcelain wares, makes a comprehensive and in-depth analysis
                                                                           of the layout of power and space in Jingdezhen Imperial Factory according to its ge-
                                                                           ography, geomancy, security management, space regulation, architectural features,


                                                                      96
production characteristics and production layout. It contends that the Imperial Factory
which integrates porcelain making factory with local government is the embodiment of
absolute monarchy in ceramic culture. The factory is located on Zhushan mountain,
the center of Jingdezhen’s industry, business and transportation. Being at the center,
it gives off an air of prestige and majesty, overlooking dominantly the surrounding
private kilns. It has also turned the political system into power operation, setting up
not only workshops but also administrative offices. By taking advantage of the best
resources, it has produced porcelain for imperial family and court. Its specialized pro-
duction has solved the contradiction between complicated technology and numerous
procedures of production. The shape, color and pattern of the porcelain wares are
strictly stipulated and the best of the best wares are demanded. Hence the porcelain
production is featured with longest firing, largest scale, superb craftsmanship, and
best kinds of wares. All of these reveal the process and rule power and space are
intersected and different cultures overlapped.




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