10.48255/1973-9494.JCSCH.21.2021.08
L’Algeria, centro e cuore del Maghreb, è stata spesso ambita dai conquistatori, attratti dalla sua ricchezza e dalla sua posizione geostrategica nel Mediterraneo. Questa particolare situazione ne ha fatto un crocevia culturale. Così, il “moresco”, come una delle espressioni più notevoli dell’architettura musulmana e una tradizione architettonica locale specifica di questa regione, ha subito le alterazioni e le ripercussioni derivanti dalle successive acculturazioni. Quest’arte, nata nel Maghreb nel X secolo, si è affermata come stile specifico dal XIII secolo. Se consideriamo l’autenticità di questa produzione originale, appariranno diverse trasformazioni e deformazioni come la “copia e la copia della copia” a causa dei cambiamenti socio-politici derivanti dai periodi coloniali. Da qui, sorge una domanda cruciale: queste diverse figure apparse dal “moresco” (l’autentico, il “turco-moresco”, il “neo-moresco”, il “neo-arabo”) sono legate da un rapporto di continuità o di rottura? Attraverso un approccio iconografico comparativo basato su un supporto documentario (piante, foto, ecc.), cercheremo di esporre i legami esistenti tra queste architetture. Questo contributo descrive e analizza le peculiarità e le metamorfosi di questo stile nel corso della sua storia: dal “regno ottomano”, che fu seguito dal “neo-”moresco” coloniale francese e infine alla forma “neo-arabista” del periodo dell’indipendenza. Come conclusione, si può dire che l’appropriazione di questo stile architettonico era un modo per legittimare la presenza dei successivi padroni dell’Algeria. Il moresco servì loro come strumento di trasmissione ideologica, culturale e politica.
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Ahmed Zerrouki
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Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
Oranie
From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity
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Ahmed Zerrouki
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L.A.M.A.U.S (Laboratoire, Métropole, Architecture, Urbanisme, Société), Département d’Architecture - Université des Sciences et de la Technologie d’Oran Mohamed Boudiaf USTO-MB, Oran, Algeria
1973-9494
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From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity
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F   ROM MOORISH TO NEO-MOORISH IN ORANIE (ALGERIA):
    A STYLE BETWEEN RUPTURE AND CONTINUITY

   Ahmed Zerrouki *   1




   L.A.M.A.U.S (Laboratoire, Métropole, Architecture, Urbanisme, Société), Département
   d’Architecture
   Université des Sciences et de la Technologie d’Oran Mohamed Boudiaf USTO-MB,
   Oran, Algeria

   Keywords: authentic, copy, heritage, Moorish, Oranie.

   DOI: 10.48255/1973-9494.JCSCH.21.2021.08



   1. Introduction

     Moorish architecture has undergone many deformations and transformations due
to the conflict of cultures and ideological signs1 between the conquering colonial soci-
ety and the dominated society. After independence, a new avatar of this entity2 emerged
under the impetus of the new political power. Each colonial power in Algeria marked its
way by celebrating its cultural values to the detriment of local or indigenous culture.
Each of them3 interpreted the traditions of the colonized society in its own way, pretend-
ing to do better than their predecessors.
     Moorish became “Turco-Moorish” under the Ottoman protectorate in Algeria and
then took on a new look with the colonial conquest of the French empire, the former ri-
vals of the Turks.
     With Algeria’s independence, Moorish architecture experienced another boom, driv-
en by the will of some technocrats and Algerian architects who wished to reconnect with
the ancient architectural traditions of our country. For example, we can mention the ar-
chitect, Abderrahmane Bouchama, the author of several projects, scattered throughout
the country, which express the desire to break with colonial traditions and claim a pres-
tigious past dislocated by colonial enterprise. Each of these phases in the history of
Moorish architecture in Algeria is linked to the other two4 by a relationship of rupture or
continuity. Multiple transformations and deformations punctuate an evolution in which
each dominant force in Algeria has left its imprint. A way to build an identity attached to
Algerian history but, also, a way to assert its sovereignty over this country. Here too, we
see that architecture is instrumentalized in favor of political power and ideologies.
     Other factors and contributors explain this triple incarnation5 of the Moorish, the
ethnic and/or cultural belonging of the designers and the classic relations of tension
established between the nation of the conqueror and that of the colonized society.
These different postures are successively represented in this contribution.
     In contemporary Algeria, the master builders, architects, and designers commonly in-
troduce into their architectural and constructive practice in the public and private sectors,
architectural elements drawn from the traditional or local Maghribi and specifically from
an Algerian architectural repertoire, such as Abderrahmane Bouchama and Halim Faïdi.


   *Corresponding author: ahmed.zerrouki@univ-usto.dz
                                                                                                                This postcolonial practice seems to be similar to that of the French colonial period,
                                                                                                           when some French architects such as Benjamin Bucknall, Toudoire, Georges Gui-
                                                                                                           auchain, Albert Ballu practiced architectural “arabization” known as neo-Moorish in 1905,
                                                                                                           and later called “arabisances” by François Beguin in 1983. Could the Algerian architec-
                                                                                                           tural practice of the Moorish be considered as a form of identity claim? If not, can it be
                                                                                                           considered as an extension of “neo-Moorish” colonial work? Of these two productions,
                                                                                                           which one is the closest to the “authentic Moorish” work produced by the original authors,
                                                                                                           the Moors? The aim here is to understand whether these two architectural productions
                                                                                                           are part of a process of architectural innovation or, on the contrary, a process of architec-
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           tural progression and “modernization” that finds its references in the local heritage.
                                                                                                                While Algerian colonial architecture has been widely studied and discussed on the
                                                                                                           one hand by European and Algerian researchers, such as Nabila Oulabsir and N. Bou-
                                                                                                           zar, that of the independence period, on the other hand, is rarely treated, with the ex-
                                                                                                           ception of a few works by architectural authors such as Delluz and Ravéreau. In addi-
                                                                                                           tion, this return of Algerian architects to traditional referents and architectural orders
                                                                                                           drawn from Algerian heritage may seem to announce the birth of an architectural
                                                                                                           movement that tends to detach itself from the universality of architecture and globaliza-
                                                                                                           tion that crushes all local specificity and identity. The last part of this contribution will at-
                                                                                                           tempt to provide some answers to this question. Through an iconographic comparative
                                                                                                           approach, based on documentary support (plans, photos, land surveys, etc.) we will try
                                                                                                           to highlight the nature of the relationships, such as continuity or rupture between the
                                                                                                           following three chronologically observed architectures6: the Moorish pre-colonial, the
                                                                                                           French neo-Moorish7 [1] and the “neo-Arabic” independence.


                                                                                                               2. The authentic Moorish

                                                                                                               2.1. Origin of the Moorish

                                                                                                               Moorish architecture owes its name to the Almoravids in the 10th century who were
                                                                                                           the masters of Marrakech and the Maghreb. Coming from the Berber tribe of the Ne-
                                                                                                           foussa originating from Central Africa (Niger), the Almoravids are the ancestors of the
                                                                                                           famous nomads, the Tuareg, founders of an immense Empire, which was able to ex-
                                                                                                           tend its authority over the territories of the Iberian Peninsula, under the reign of Youssouf
                                                                                                           Ben Tachfin. According to Girault de Prangey [2], Muslim Spain became Moorish or Afri-
                                                                                                           can during the conquest of the Almoravids.
                                                                                                               Hispano-Moorish architecture replaces Syro-Byzantine architecture. Algeria owes
                                                                                                           the Almoravids three of its oldest prayer houses in Algiers, Nedroma and Tlemcen.
                                                                                                           Georges Marçais “states that it was at this time that Western Muslim art asserted its
                                                                                                           personality. Even the Tlemcen dyestuff tent, which dates back to the 11th century, still
                                                                                                           presents an imitation of the Roman composite, but announces the appearance of the
                                                                                                           Hispano-Moorish capital” [3].


                                                                                                               2.2. The evolution of authentic Moorish across Oranie

                                                                                                               In his chronicles of Algiers, J. J. Deluz explains that an authentic architecture is
                                                                                                           an architecture expressing a national truth, far from all mannerisms in search of orig-
                                                                                                           inal forms [4]. Yet, few vestiges illustrate this architecture. Some buildings located in


                                                                             182
Tlemcen escaped the French destruction which occurred at the beginning of coloni-
zation, such as the Almoravid Mosque of Nedromah (classified as the oldest mosque
in Algeria according to Marçais)8 [5] and that of Algiers. These mosques present the
same Andalusian Maghreb style and are characterized by a certain harmonious sim-
plicity of the spans and an elegance in the pointed horseshoe arches resting on ro-
bust pillars.




Figure 1. Model of the mosque of Sidi Bel-Hassen on display in the municipal museum of Tlem-




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
cen (Source: Author, 2016).


     Similarly, the Zeiyanide mosque of Sidi Bel Hassen built in 1296 [5], whose deco-
ration of the dome and ornamentation of the mihrab are equal only to those of the Al-
hambra or to the two Marinid achievements, (Sidi Bou-Medine (1339) and Sidi El Hal-
loui (1359) (Figure 1 and 2). The mosque of El Mansourah is part of a royal complex
built by Abu Yacoub Yussif during the eight-year siege of Tlemcen by the Marinids 9 [6]
(Figure 3).
     In Oran and Algiers, the situation is different because “Moorish” art was hybridized
by Turkish influences. As a result, Moorish architecture has lost its authenticity by pro-
ducing a composite style: the “Turco-Moorish” [7]. The great mosque of Algiers, Dja-
maa El Kabir, survives as a typical monument of this authentic architecture. Fine col-
onnades with twisted barrels have replaced the massive pillars supporting horseshoe
arches specific to Moorish art. The fine cylindrical or octagonal Turkish minaret has re-
placed the Andalusian-Maghrebian square minaret.
     This evolution sees the golden age of sumptuous decoration and abundant orna-
mentation, gradually decline and decay. This does not mean that architectural creation
in Algeria ended. In the same way, the two-thousand-year-old cities of Algiers and
Oran, in the eighteenth century, experienced terrible earthquakes that ravaged almost
all their buildings. The reconstruction enterprise, carried out under the authority of the
new Turkish masters, shows a Balkan and Ottoman influence.


                                                                                               183
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                               Figure 2. Mihrab of the Sidi Bel Hassen Mosque, now a museum (source: Author, 2016).

                                                                                                                                                                    It is obvious that each new invasion
                                                                                                                                                                or conquest of Algeria brought with it
                                                                                                                                                                major transformations in the indigenous
                                                                                                                                                                or local culture of the occupied territo-
                                                                                                                                                                ries. From Roman to French coloniza-
                                                                                                                                                                tion, each conqueror introduced their
                                                                                                                                                                own methods of construction and archi-
                                                                                                                                                                tectural forms. The Moorish style adapt-
                                                                                                                                                                ed to these “intrusions” in Algeria by tak-
                                                                                                                                                                ing on new figures, forms or looks, such
                                                                                                                                                                as the Turco-Moorish style produced in
                                                                                                                                                                Algeria with the arrival of the Ottomans.
                                                                                                                                                                As an illustration, we can mention, in
                                                                                                                                                                Oran, two remarkable mosques that are
                                                                                                                                                                typically “Turkish-Moorish”: the Hassan
                                                                                                                                                                Pasha Mosque and that of the Pearl.
                                                                                                                                                                The Pearl Mosque (Bey Mohamed Ben
                                                                                                                                                                Athman El-Kèbîr10 Mosque) is located
                                                                                                                                                                next to Pearl Square (Figure 4) and was
                                                                                                           Figure 3. Minaret of El Mansourah (source: Author,   built in 1793 by El Bey Ben Athman El-
                                                                                                           2014).                                               Kèbîr to celebrate his military victory
                                                                                                           against the Spanish [8].
                                                                                                               The Mosque of Hassan Pasha11 is a typical Oran Mosque of “Turkish-Moorish” [7]
                                                                                                           architecture; the graceful architectural aspect of its octagonal minaret distinguishes
                                                                                                           this building [8-9]. Thin and slender, on three levels, it presents harmonious, elegant
                                                                                                           proportions, and is richly enameled and framed with white and green ceramics; all
                                                                                                           these characteristics make this element one of the most beautiful Turkish minarets in
                                                                                                           Algeria (Figure 5).


                                                                          184
Figure 4. The Mosque of the Pearl; a) view from the church of Saint Louis; b) the main gate with the
minaret (source: Author, 2016).




                                                                                                         CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                        Figure 5. Pasha Mosque (source: Author, 2016).

    There are other buildings in Oran attributed to Bey Mohamed El-Kèbir, which date
back to the end of the 18th century, a period marked by the appearance of this visible
“Turkish-Moorish” style [7]. For example, the Guerkentah Mosque and Bey Palace.
The Palace, built in 1792, underwent many modifications by the new French occupan-
ts, causing it to lose its Moorish authenticity.
    However, Algiers is the city that has benefited the most from this “Turkish-Moorish”
architectural legacy, as it has the most famous monuments and the most well-known
architecture in Algeria. However, the main objective of our study is to highlight the least
known and little studied monuments in Oran, without downplaying those that have
great coverage.


                                                                                                       185
                                                                                                              2.3. Character and specificities of Moorish architecture

                                                                                                               “Architecture is at the same time the mirror of societies, one of their most perenni-
                                                                                                           al images, and the container of their well-being, the concretization of their culture as
                                                                                                           well” [10]. Moorish architecture is essentially based on the gesture of man, the logic of
                                                                                                           materials and its relationship with the environment. It presents itself as a logical re-
                                                                                                           sponse to climatic stress and the morphology of the place. Mores and religious beliefs
                                                                                                           have most influenced this architecture, its shape and the spatial layout of its buildings.
                                                                                                           In the “manual of Muslim art”, Georges Marçais [11] raises the importance of religion in
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           the formation of Muslim art and architecture when he says that “art is at the service of
                                                                                                           worship.” It owes its values ​​to religion.
                                                                                                               Muslim architecture, in general, is appreciated on foot. The notion of the architec-
                                                                                                           tural journey is enhanced by architectural events such as courtyards, steps and water
                                                                                                           points. A desire of discovery is provoked in the walker. New events and spaces on the
                                                                                                           march (the walk). The notion of the right or direct perspective peculiar to the West is
                                                                                                           lost in this architecture. “... Arab architecture gives us a precious lesson. It is best ap-
                                                                                                           preciated in walking, on foot: it is by walking, by moving, that we see the order of archi-
                                                                                                           tecture develop” [12]. From there, Le Corbusier inspired one of the famous fundamen-
                                                                                                           tal principles of his architecture: that of the architectural walk. In addition, his famous
                                                                                                           Modulor is a result of the discovery of the Kasbah and the Algerian cities of Mozabit,
                                                                                                           such as Ghardaïa.
                                                                                                               Everything revolves around man, space and functionality, shape and scale, height
                                                                                                           and size. This is the ordering element of this architecture. The dwellings in traditional
                                                                                                           Algerian architecture were often rudimentary, on a human scale, with no great heights.
                                                                                                           On the other hand, mosques and public buildings had a kind of monumentality. But the
                                                                                                           latter was not as strongly expressed compared to the buildings of Cairo or those of Syr-
                                                                                                           ia and the Middle East. French settlers, who described the architecture found in Alge-
                                                                                                           ria as banal and rudimentary, often mentioned this phenomenon [13].
                                                                                                               According to Le Corbusier (1987), “Everything is still standing in the congested
                                                                                                           Kasbah of Algiers; all the elements of an architecture infinitely sensitive to the needs
                                                                                                           and tastes of man. The European city can draw a decisive lesson, not whether it is to
                                                                                                           bombard a glossary of Arab ornaments, but to discern the very essence of architecture
                                                                                                           and urbanism. Other problems are then posed, referring to different customs and hav-
                                                                                                           ing to satisfy other needs. A fundamental base is common: the sun of Algiers” [12].
                                                                                                               Introversion, due to the Quranic and religious guidelines of Islam, reflects the ideal
                                                                                                           of equality between Muslims, even in architecture and constructions. The rich cannot
                                                                                                           manifest their economic status, ostentatiously, and stand out from their co-religionists
                                                                                                           and the masses. This value of Islam, this principle, gave these buildings a certain uni-
                                                                                                           formity and architectural harmony. All dwellings were very similar, making it difficult to
                                                                                                           distinguish between the home of a rich man and that of a poor man. The difference be-
                                                                                                           came noticeable only after having penetrated inside. This confinement in Moorish ar-
                                                                                                           chitecture was severely criticized by newcomers in Algeria: “... In the middle of this uni-
                                                                                                           formity of architecture, this regular layout of the building, the richness of the interior
                                                                                                           sculptures, should we not recognize that in this the Orientals better understand the in-
                                                                                                           terior life than we (Westerners), who, most often, exhaust all our fortunes for the luxu-
                                                                                                           ry of our buildings outside, while hardly we think of the interior comfort” [14].
                                                                                                               This observation was made by François Duvilliers-Chasseloup12 who, during his
                                                                                                           visit to the Dey Hospital in Algiers in 1856, was to make surveys as a landscape archi-
                                                                                                           tect. The description of the Dey Hospital informs us about the quality of the introversion


                                                                          186
of Moorish architecture compared to exhibitionist Western architecture. Moorish archi-
tecture gives priority to privacy and the privacy of its occupants. This confinement and
discretion are materialized by the existence of the patio or the courtyard. This element
becomes inseparable from all Moorish houses and buildings. It is a reservoir of air and
light through which breathe all spaces, rooms and premises far away from prying eyes.
     Ultimately, Moorish buildings and dwellings were often modest and simple in scale
compared to mosques and madrasas. In this period between the 13th and 18th centu-
ries, buildings for worship were more important than dwellings and houses. They were
more monumental and more spectacular. Even the palaces were arranged in pavilions
to identify with the human scale. Man is always the main design module in this architec-
ture. Everything revolves around this element. It must also be said that the site and the
environment are well integrated by Moorish architecture. The latter is designed and de-
veloped according to these two important elements. However, like any Muslim architec-
ture, the Moorish style owes its values to the cult, such as the simplicity of the archi-
tecture, the simplicity of the forms, the regulation of the relationships between neighbours,
such as Muslim equality, (the facades of the houses of the rich are similar to those of
the poor). Prohibition of opposite buildings (no window in one building faces the inte-
rior of another). Thus, the overall logic of the spatial framework is defined by religious
beliefs as fundamental principles of design. In its true sense, it is an architecture at the
service of worship.
     The neo-Moorish represents a surprising architecture by the multiplicity of its di-
mensions: cultural, historical and geographical. The uniformity of its architectural forms
and the diversity of its authors (architects from different European nations practiced
neo-Moorish under French colonial rule). In order to symbolize its belonging and its
doubtful rooting in this land of Algeria, which is properly Moorish, the French colonist
produced this architecture. A contradictory act, with regard to the colonial tradition,
which destroyed and erased all the pre-existing indigenous culture, at the beginning of
colonization. This borrowing from Moorish architecture by the colonial enterprise seems




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
rather strange, because it presents a demand for a culture of others (that of the Alge-
rians) and a reinvention of a new story which raises many questions. Several research-
ers and art historians, among whom we can cite the work of Nabila Oulebsir [15-16],
have treated this subject. Our magister dissertation entitled “The Neo-Moorish colonial
legacy in Oranie from 1830 to 1930” also addresses this question [1].


   3. The copy of the Moorish: the neo-Moorish

   3.1. Colonial France and indigenous culture

    During the conquest of Algeria, the concept of heritage was not ripe enough for the
new occupants to save the vestiges of the local culture from destruction. Similarly, in
France, a considerable number of monuments were sacrificed during the French Rev-
olution of 1789. Algerian cities such as Annaba, Algiers, Constantine, Oran and Tlem-
cen consequently underwent significant destruction, which led to the partial or total dis-
appearance of the traditional fabric in order to create new fabrics that were alien to the
original site (Kasbahs and medinas have been designed according to a morphology
that adapts to the nature of Algerian urban sites).
    To describe the immensity of the destruction of Algerian cities by the French, Marçais
reports that: “in Tlemcen, a 13th century mosque was transformed into a fodder loft.


                                                                                                187
                                                                                                           Has the madrasa Tachfinia with its mosaic portal been demolished to make way for the
                                                                                                           most grotesque town hall in sight? These are the historical inscriptions used in the pav-
                                                                                                           ing of the sidewalks, a royal epitaph known by the learned world of Europe, which dis-
                                                                                                           appears (stolen by the French scientists) one knows not how. Lastly, for the Turkish
                                                                                                           time, it is Algiers of the corsairs butchered (destroyed by the French); it is the capital of
                                                                                                           the Deys recut on the model of a Marseilles suburb.” [17].
                                                                                                                Nevertheless, a new page was being written in the history of colonial urban and ar-
                                                                                                           chitectural policy in Algeria. Academicians and scientists such as Georges Marçais,
                                                                                                           Stéphane Gsell and others, supported this evolution. This group of French-Algerian
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           elites acted on two different terrains. The first was to disseminate information about in-
                                                                                                           digenous art and historical monuments produced by the local society as an attractive
                                                                                                           source for promoting tourism and economic enrichment of the colony (Algeria). The sec-
                                                                                                           ond field of action was intervention against any destruction of pre-existing monuments
                                                                                                           and the call for their restoration. It was an S.O.S launched to save what was left of the
                                                                                                           Kasbah of Algiers and its historic buildings. The committee of old Algiers was part of
                                                                                                           this group [18]. In 1930, it had 330 members belonging to the Algerian historical soci-
                                                                                                           ety, including architects, archaeologists, historians, jurists, etc.


                                                                                                              3.2. France’s protector of indigenous culture and the emergence of neo-Moorish

                                                                                                                The Moorish style experienced another turning point in the late nineteenth and ear-
                                                                                                           ly twentieth century, marked by a certain late awareness shown by the colonial French,
                                                                                                           vis-à-vis the local heritage of the natives. It gave birth to the neo-Moorish or Arabisance
                                                                                                           movement studied by Beguin [19] in a well-documented book. The latter remains an
                                                                                                           essential reference for any research in this particular field of the history of Algerian and
                                                                                                           colonial architecture. The new figure of Moorish drawn by the French is linked to the
                                                                                                           directives of the general governor of Algeria Charles-Celestin Jonnart (1875-1927). His
                                                                                                           policy was rejected by many French colonists, in particular the assimilationists and the
                                                                                                           “Algerianists”. He tried to rebuild an Algerian identity from multiple components [15].
                                                                                                           He built madrasas, schools, train stations, and many public buildings in neo-Moorish
                                                                                                           style. Concerned with the economic development of the colony, he adopted a compos-
                                                                                                           ite and emblematic style, a sign of Algeria’s economic autonomy from the French me-
                                                                                                           tropolis. A ministerial circular, issued in 1905, succeeding13 that of 4 December 1904, re-
                                                                                                           lating to school buildings, made this new “Oriental Style” official and was to be adopted
                                                                                                           by the various administrative buildings [15].
                                                                                                                Moreover, this interpretation of Moorish is also closely linked to the evolution of archi-
                                                                                                           tectural creation. Djermoune and Oubouzar classify this architecture in the historicist rep-
                                                                                                           ertoire [20]. Since the Renaissance, when architecture was accepted as an independent
                                                                                                           and autonomous discipline, architectural creation has not ceased to oscillate between
                                                                                                           rupture or recourse to history [21]. The first trend is defined as modernist, while the oth-
                                                                                                           er presents the historicist current to which the Neo-Moorish belongs.
                                                                                                                Many other neo-styles were created in the second half of the nineteenth century:
                                                                                                           neoclassical, neo-Gothic, neo-Romanesque, neo-baroque, and the revisited past is due
                                                                                                           to the emergence of the rationalist movement following the reforms of the School of Fine
                                                                                                           Arts. The break with classical Greco-Roman traditions and openness to other referenc-
                                                                                                           es and sources of inspiration has nourished this architectural effervescence. In 1905,
                                                                                                           Jonnart passed a circular encouraging architects and authors of public projects and
                                                                                                           schools to use the Moorish forms specific to Algeria, although there are buildings built
                                                                                                           in the oriental style before this date. Such as the boys’ school group, “Ecole Gambetta”


                                                                          188
built in Tiaret in 187514, as part of the instructions given by the colonial administration for
the adoption of a new state style designated for school buildings [22]. Architects are rec-
ommended to give an artistic touch to Algerian schools inspired by indigenous architec-
tural sources (Figure 6).




  Figure 6. Ziane Chérif Abdelhamid School (ex-Gambetta School); (source: C. Aguilla, 2003)

                                               .




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
     In the treatment of the façade of the Ziane Cherif Abdelhamid School in Figure 7,
one can see the borrowing from the Moorish ornamental and decorative repertoire: the
same spandrel, the similar star (a) and the same type of bow (b). Part (c) is a detail of
the door of the madrasa Sidi Boumediene, El Eubab, made by Duthoit, E. during his
Architectural Mission of 1872 in Tlemcen [15]. We can see its influence on the design
of the openings of this school. The arcades of the courtyard recall the pillars and arches
of ancient Mowahidite mosques such as that of Nedromah (Figure 8).
   Similarly, he recalls the neo-Moorish college El-Saddiki in Tunis designed by Maillait
in 1875, cited in the book “L’architecture moderne de style arabe” by Guy, R. [23]. This
architectural production is much more decorative and ornamental; the spatial or func-
tional aspect remains Western, referring to the classical European model. Neo-Moor-
ish architecture is ornamental, geometrical and mathematical, reproducing His-
pano-Moorish architecture, applied to Western logic. To this adaptation of the Moorish,
we can relate other monuments built in Oranie that are part of our body of study. Thus,
the railway station of Oran15 is one of the neo-Moorish icons in Algeria: the architect A.
Ballu completed it in 1912, after the death of its designer, M. Toudoire [1] (Figure 9).
     The madrasa in Tlemcen, whose monumental doorway (Figure 10) is reminiscent
of that of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, is another example. Despite the western con-
ception of the superficially decorated Andalusian-Maghrebian plan, this madrasa re-
mains a good example of orientalist neo-Moorish architecture with its artistic and tech-
nical foundations.


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Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           Figure 7. Architectural details (Ziane Cherif Abdelhamid School and Sidi Boumedine Mosque);
                                                                                                           a) Detail of studded door of the Ziane Chérif School; b) Pointed arch window of the Ziane Chérif
                                                                                                           School; c) Spandrel of the porch of the Sidi Boumedine Mosque (source: Author, 2007).




                                                                                                                            Figure 8. The courtyard of the school; (source: Author, 2007).


                                                                        190
         Figure 9. Oran Railway Station (Karguentah Station); (source: Author, 2013).




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Figure 10. Madrasa de Tlemcen, former Franco-Muslim school; a) view from the public garden;
b) detail of the monumental gate; (source: Author, 2010).


     In the neo-Moorish style, the borrowing from Moorish architecture was reduced to
mere architectural formalism without any soul. It presented a Western architecture
dressed in a guise drawn from an ornamental and decorative Moorish repertoire. This
production was not the result of chance or arbitrariness; it had conceptual foundations.
     Talented architects and outstanding artists, erudite scientists and academics have
conducted studies, research and scientific missions to understand this indigenous ar-
chitectural art and culture and to make it known to the Western world.
     Among the most famous scientific explorations of Algeria is Edmond Duthoit’s 1872
exploration of Tlemcen. Based on a scientific approach that tended to decipher the
meanings and principles classifying Arab art, he also sought filiations with the Muslim
civilization in Andalusia. Through his work on the monuments of Tlemcen, he has demon-
strated that this architecture is based on geometric and mathematical concepts. In other


                                                                                              191
                                                                                                           words, it had scientific principles and could be interpreted in the same way as Western
                                                                                                           architecture [15].
                                                                                                                With the work of Marçais and his scientific conferences from 1905 onwards, the Eu-
                                                                                                           ropean world was made aware that Muslim art is of a scholarly nature and that Muslim
                                                                                                           culture is indeed urban, recalling that Arabs and Muslims founded the oldest cities in
                                                                                                           the ancient world. Thus, in studying ornamental motifs from Tlemcen, he demonstrat-
                                                                                                           ed that Moorish ornamentation and decoration were based on purely geometric norms
                                                                                                           and bases.16
                                                                                                                Mention should also be made of the work of Donjoy, who carried out extensive stud-
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           ies on the Tachfinya Madrasah and the Sidi Brahim Mosque in Tlemcen, whose remark-
                                                                                                           able drawings earned him a second-class medal at the Salon of 1873 and the Universal
                                                                                                           Exhibition of 1878 [15]. These developments confirmed and consolidated the conclu-
                                                                                                           sions of the architect Edmond Duthoit. Indeed, Moorish architecture was considered a
                                                                                                           “reasoned architecture” with geometric and mathematical bases, which could be associ-
                                                                                                           ated, through a scientific approach, with those architectures considered as learned.
                                                                                                                Therefore, the neo-Moorish cannot be reduced only to a political operation be-
                                                                                                           cause it is also the result of a cultural and scientific effervescence peculiar to this peri-
                                                                                                           od. In fact, the political will was associated with the cultural passion of artists and re-
                                                                                                           searchers, academics and historians, architects and painters. Neo-Moorish work
                                                                                                           remains an architectural expression based on principles and laws, even if the copy is
                                                                                                           far from being authentic. During the period under review, the neo-Moorish was essen-
                                                                                                           tially formalistic, but this characteristic was an expression of modernism in vogue. For
                                                                                                           some architects, this Arabic architectural expression was seen as a modernization of
                                                                                                           Arab architecture and an innovation in the world of Western architecture, marking a
                                                                                                           break with the monotony of classical historicist orders imposed by the Academy of Fine
                                                                                                           Arts as a unique source of reference and inspiration. Thus, Raphael Guy expresses
                                                                                                           neo-Moorish modern architecture in an Arabic style. Hence the title of his book: “Mod-
                                                                                                           ern architecture of Arab style” [23]. The latter must be able to reconcile the modern with
                                                                                                           the traditional, the past with the present, the West with the East. However, one condi-
                                                                                                           tion was necessary: the architecture had to conform to Western hygiene and comfort
                                                                                                           standards. In the end, the copy did not usually conform to the authentic, but rather,
                                                                                                           broke away from it completely.
                                                                                                                The neo-Moorish was always in search of roots and references in the Moorish. The
                                                                                                           perception of French authors, despite their efforts, was Eurocentric and based on a su-
                                                                                                           perficial and shallow knowledge of Algerian culture. Moorish art and architecture, in
                                                                                                           particular, can only be understood and reproduced in Algeria by Algerians, as they are
                                                                                                           the expression of their local culture and traditions par excellence.


                                                                                                              3.3. The neo-Moorish after independence, a heritage in jeopardy

                                                                                                               After Algeria’s independence and the return of European settlers to their countries
                                                                                                           of origin, most of the vacated buildings and constructions were re-occupied by a new
                                                                                                           population who were of rural or nomadic origin. Considered as an easily accessible va-
                                                                                                           cant property, this real estate housed new ways of living and new appropriations of
                                                                                                           built space, marked in particular by the over-occupation of houses by the Algerian pop-
                                                                                                           ulation. In order to adapt it to their way of life, these new occupants made many chang-
                                                                                                           es, damaging this forgotten heritage, destroying some of the original elements and
                                                                                                           sometimes even ransacking it.


                                                                             192
     Numerous neo-Moorish civil buildings, private or public, of remarkable architectural
quality and striking beauty, which marked both the urban landscape and the architectur-
al decor of Algerian cities, were threatened by extinction. After independence, no political
or public will has been shown to save this heritage from the danger of degradation (Figu-
re 11), linked to the effects of time and the practices of the inhabitants. This deterioration
was accentuated during the 1980s and 1990s, marked by the housing crisis and a grow-
ing population which caused the over-occupation of these places by many families.
     One example that stands out is Villa Sainte Anne17, which was occupied by eighteen
families at the same time. Figure12 shows the state of deterioration of this construction
which was of great architectural beauty. Orientalist in style18, decorated with arabesques
and Moorish ornamentation, the moucharabies (or mashrabiyas) of this building were
made of finely carved wood. The columns were made of marble, with capitals represent-
ing acanthus leaves in Moorish style. Typical Andalusian-Maghrebian pointed arches,
crowned by projecting cornices covered with green tiles, framed the doors and windows.
It remains a very remarkable construction that attests to the know-how of its architect.




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
       Figure 11. Villa A. Pommert, built in 1924 in Mostaganem; (source: Author, 2015).




Figure 12. Villa Sainte Anne in Sanchidrian (Oran); a) global view of the villa; b) main façade;
c) detail of the moucharabieh; (source: Author, 2011).


                                                                                                   193
                                                                                                               Many neo-Moorish buildings have disappeared or are being disregarded in the ab-
                                                                                                           sence of any patrimonial policy of safeguarding or maintenance, which could curb the
                                                                                                           irreversible loss of this architectural heritage, which carries a historical memory. The
                                                                                                           Algerian authorities were hostile to this colonial architectural legacy. Some Algerian
                                                                                                           technocrats and architects questioned this neo-Moorish product, considering that this
                                                                                                           colonial interpretation of local traditions was only a disfiguration of the Algerian identi-
                                                                                                           ty and image. Conversely, Moroccans and Tunisians adopted a policy of safeguarding
                                                                                                           and maintaining this colonial heritage as a collective memory favorable to the promo-
                                                                                                           tion of a profitable tourism economy. To leave this inheritance to its fate, presents a
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           monumental error similar to that made by the French vis-à-vis the native culture at the
                                                                                                           beginning of the colonization of Algeria. Rooted within the territory, this group of build-
                                                                                                           ings reflects a striking phase in the contemporary history of our cities and that of our
                                                                                                           architectural culture.


                                                                                                              4. The copy of the copy, the neo-Arabian

                                                                                                               After independence, Algerians reclaimed their cities and the spaces that had
                                                                                                           been taken over by the French settlers. However, identity markers are blurred, an-
                                                                                                           cestral traditions can no longer be found. Algerian authenticity has been lost and
                                                                                                           erased forever from almost all cities. The remaining few, such as the Kasbah of Al-
                                                                                                           giers or the monuments of Tlemcen, have been altered completely, when compared
                                                                                                           with those of neighboring countries (Morocco and Tunisia). In 1907, Henri Saladin,
                                                                                                           made a descriptive statement relating to Algerian heritage after the French conquest:
                                                                                                           “Unfortunately, it must be noted that Algeria has the fewest monuments of Arab art,
                                                                                                           except in Tlemcen, and that we have not been able, particularly in Algiers, to pre-
                                                                                                           serve from destruction all those charming Moorish houses, most of which have al-
                                                                                                           ready disappeared” [24].


                                                                                                              4.1. Architectural trends in independent Algeria

                                                                                                                Since independence, Algerian cities have acquired architectural forms that are for-
                                                                                                           eign to the local culture. Varied and disparate architectural styles give urban landscapes
                                                                                                           a heterogeneous character. Among these architectures, it is possible to distinguish the
                                                                                                           following.
                                                                                                                The first trend favoring the continuity of colonial orders as a reference. Many
                                                                                                           buildings were designed according to this model by borrowing the linearity of the fa-
                                                                                                           cades along the street and the orientation of the courtyard inward. The notions of the
                                                                                                           islet, the street and the square dominate in this approach. The majority of the build-
                                                                                                           ings constructed are those of wealthy individuals who reproduce this colonial-style
                                                                                                           aesthetic as an expression of luxury, wealth and distinction, compared to other less
                                                                                                           privileged classes of society. This interest in colonial architecture appeared in the
                                                                                                           90s under the influence of academics and architects who rediscovered the charm of
                                                                                                           colonial architecture.
                                                                                                                The second trend is the one that has had the greatest impact on Algerian cities.
                                                                                                           The neo-modernist or contemporary architecture, ‘spectacle’ or ‘prestige’ architec-
                                                                                                           ture as Deluz describes it in his work “Le tout et le fragment” [25]; an architecture
                                                                                                           without roots and without cultural, geographical or social identity. Its history began


                                                                          194
in the 1970s, when the Algerian authorities turned to star architects, for the realiza-
tion of large-scale projects; as examples, we quote: “the University of Science and
Technology of Oran” (designed by Kenzo Tange), “the University of Constantine”
awarded to the Brazilian architect-sculptor Oscar Neimeyer, as well as “the sports
hall of Harcha (Algiers)”, etc. Many architects, of Algerian training, fascinated by
Western culture, followed this trend based on formal theories that break with Algeri-
an traditions. This “technological” architecture [25] whose aesthetic reference is
based on qualities intrinsically attached to the constructive system while using,
more often than not, glass curtain walls as cladding materials. This architectural pro-
duction seeks to portray a modern image of the country and an expression of its
economic opulence.
    The third trend is about historical character, vacillating between the Moorish and
the “neo-Arabian” which make use of the ancestral and local repertoire [26]. The latter
is described below.


   4.2. The Moorish, the history of an Algerian identity

     Since the sixties, some never tired of wanting to “re-Algerianize” Algeria in general,
their aim being to reconnect with Algerian local traditions. Claiming a national identity,
Algerian technocrats and architects, who were resolutely “anticolonial”, called for a
complete break with colonial architectural traditions and its signs that memorized a
bloody past. In the main, they wanted to demonstrate the cultural and political indepen-
dence of Algeria vis-à-vis the former occupant. Abderrahmane Bouchama was at the
forefront of this movement in search of an Algerian architectural and cultural identity. In
his essay and manifesto,” l’arceau qui chante” [27], he tells how the corporation of ar-
chitects engaged in a lively debate in order to promote the emergence of a national ar-
chitecture. It encouraged architects to return to local culture and ancestral traditions as




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
a source of reference that was essential to the advent of a national architectural iden-
tity. From there, he proposed the rehabilitation of vernacular and local architecture
through a modern and innovative approach.
     Although recommended by administrative decision-makers and some Algerians,
this architectural tendency has not yet been paid much attention by the great mass of
the community of architects due to the simple fact that “Algerian culture” was, and re-
mains, unknown to its people, who are oriented towards a “spectacular modernism”
[28] without their own identity. These architects are attracted by the visual and formal-
ism. Abderrahmane Bouchama denounced the loss of artistic and architectural know-
how as evils of colonization. During a dialogue initiated as an architect with a wealthy
Tlemcenian sponsor and a talented chiseller, well-versed in this Moorish art, the archi-
tect admitted that he could not meet the requirements of the client who asked for a
‘pure style where the arches must sing’. The sponsor advised him to go to Morocco to
find master “maalams” who could reveal to him the treasures and secrets of his ances-
tors. This conversation awakened in the architect the notion of heritage and referents
to which he must resort [15].
     It was from there on that the course of an architect in search of an Algerian na-
tional identity would begin. However, his first achievement referring to the Moorish
style was prior to independence: indeed, he drew the plans for Dar-El-Hadith Tlem-
cen between 1936 and 1937, after his return from France and towards the end of his
studies.


                                                                                              195
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           Figure 13. Youth Hostel in Oran designed by architect N. Bouguenaya; (source: N. Bouguenaya,
                                                                                                           2010).

                                                                                                               This neo-Moorish style building was not unlike the French colonial buildings in Al-
                                                                                                           geria. This was his only project at that time, but after independence, he received many
                                                                                                           institutional and religious orders throughout the country: the headquarters of the
                                                                                                           Birkhadem National Archives, Benaknoun Cultural Center, the Supreme Court, Carou-
                                                                                                           bier University of Islamic Sciences, the Islamic Institutes of Constantine (1969), Tlem-
                                                                                                           cen (1970) and Le Caroubier (1970), etc. As a reference for these works, he cites Al-
                                                                                                           gerian, Arab-Muslim architecture and the famous Alhambra of Granada.
                                                                                                               In the years that followed, other young architects realized constructions of neo-Ar-
                                                                                                           ab character, answering the requests of the local authorities. As an outstanding exam-
                                                                                                           ple, Bougueneya, an architect in Oran19, recounts her experience with the Moorish,
                                                                                                           recommended at that time by the former mayor of Oran (Zoukh). The latter required ar-
                                                                                                           chitects and other builders to introduce arches as identifying signs of belonging to the
                                                                                                           old Moorish Algeria (Figure 13). She denounces how her work was denatured and dis-
                                                                                                           torted during construction, as the arches were made in Romanesque and non-Moorish
                                                                                                           style. Architects are no longer masters of their work or designs. Their architectural ex-
                                                                                                           pression is deprived of freedom by the administrative laws of the specifications, which
                                                                                                           do not respect the architectural work. The administration sets the rules. The architect
                                                                                                           becomes an instrument at the service of the administration and for the benefit of poli-
                                                                                                           tics. Nowadays, this opinion is shared by the great mass of the community of architects
                                                                                                           who practice their craft in construction yards throughout the national territory. This ob-
                                                                                                           servation is one of the points relating to the deterioration of the architectural quality and
                                                                                                           built environment in independent Algeria [4].
                                                                                                               In an article entitled, The Invisible Architect, Taher Djaout describes the architec-
                                                                                                           ture of a house built in the neo-Arab style, in a fun and relevant expression, when he
                                                                                                           says: ‘‘a neo-Moorish architecture open through the satellite dish to the universal” [28].
                                                                                                           Here he expresses that traditional architecture cannot be satisfied merely by adding a
                                                                                                           simple decoration and a few clichés; it must be the subject of research in order to
                                                                                                           achieve real reinterpretation.


                                                                          196
    Houses built by private individuals are often designed in Moorish fashion using a
disparate ensemble composed of various traditional decorative elements such as
Moorish arches, tiled awnings, green tile cornices, and even Cupolas and stucco plates
or Moorish ornamental plaster, etc. These productions make this architecture a patch-
work style that appeals to all forms of Muslim art and even, sometimes, Western.
    The Tlemcenian house in (Figure 14) is built in a patchwork style and has a hetero-
geneous element of Muslim art. The cupolas are Mughal style while the doors, col-
umns and cornices in tiles recall the Maghreb style. This reveals a certain disorienta-
tion of the Algerian who has lost his ancestral Andalusian-Maghreb landmarks. In
addition, another example, in Oran, is that of the regional Museum of Craft, inaugurat-
ed recently, and conceived in a “neo-Arab” architecture, in discordance with its archi-
tectural and urban neighborhood (Figure 15). The latter is composed of several towers
(contemporary) of medium height for residential use, whose referential landmarks are
universal, anonymous and relocated from the historical-cultural point of view, the terri-
tory and the site. There are numerous examples that dominate the architectural and ur-
ban landscape of our Algerian cities, a phenomenon that needs to be well analyzed,
studied and undertaken by the scientific and research community.

                                                                    Figure 14. Tlemcenian
                                                                    House (source: Author,
                                                                    2013).




                                                                                               CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 15. The Regional
Museum of Crafts (Oran).
Source: author, 2014.


                                                                                             197
                                                                                                              5. Conclusion

                                                                                                                Through these three successive periods, Moorish architecture suffered multiple de-
                                                                                                           formations where each occurrence referred to a particular political and cultural affilia-
                                                                                                           tion. Each of the three figures analyzed, correspond to the perception of the master
                                                                                                           builder who conceived it. The authors, whether French or Algerian, each represented
                                                                                                           and redesigned this past, according to their own orientation. The architecture present-
                                                                                                           ed a tool to identify affirmation and ideological propaganda, even if the motives of each
                                                                                                           were very different. For the French, it was a cultural re-conquest after finishing with their
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           military conquest. It was a matter of justifying their presence on a territory that did not
                                                                                                           belong to them; but for Algerians, it was a raison d’être, and a reconstruction of an iden-
                                                                                                           tity that had been destroyed and erased by colonization. In other words, it was neces-
                                                                                                           sary to stage an image of affirmation of an independent Algeria to break with its pre-
                                                                                                           vious cultural dependence and with any tradition reminiscent of the colonial past.
                                                                                                           Moorish architecture becomes a semantic charged with a sign that reflects the relation-
                                                                                                           ship between a conquering nation and a conquered society. A malleable substance,
                                                                                                           easy to reshape for the manifestation of this cultural antagonism, nourishing politi-
                                                                                                           co-ideological and identity issues.
                                                                                                                Beyond the ideological or political conflict, the relationship of continuity or architec-
                                                                                                           tural break between these three figures of Moorish architecture is what prevails in this
                                                                                                           research. The “copy of the copy” or “neo-Arab” produced during the period of indepen-
                                                                                                           dence was like the colonial “copy of the neo-Moorish”, an unconvincing version of Al-
                                                                                                           gerian architectural identity. Most of the architects who worked for the Algerianisation
                                                                                                           of architecture had very poor knowledge of local know-how and ancestral architectur-
                                                                                                           al traditions. Even their architectural practices were not based on any scientific or ex-
                                                                                                           perimental research qualified to support their production. Their representation of the
                                                                                                           Moorish was purely profane and arbitrary. No efforts have been made to re-read and
                                                                                                           understand this culture. Some self-taught architects, but very few, are an exception.
                                                                                                           Similarly, in architecture schools in Algeria, not many have a reliable knowledge of this
                                                                                                           Moorish culture, or even Arab-Muslim in general, to be able to train practicing archi-
                                                                                                           tects in this field. Indeed, French colonialism, which lasted more than a century, has left
                                                                                                           its traces and misdeeds, in an Algerian society acculturated and torn between an al-
                                                                                                           most erased ancestral culture and a different and unknown Western culture.
                                                                                                                On the other hand, colonial neo-Moorish gives us a good example when Jonnart
                                                                                                           decided to promote this architecture as an expression of identity of French Algeria. Co-
                                                                                                           lonial society has resolutely embarked on academic research on Moorish arts and cul-
                                                                                                           ture. Most of the ancient or Muslim historical monuments were inventoried and classi-
                                                                                                           fied during this period. Handicrafts schools were created, and Moorish architectural
                                                                                                           elements were codified.
                                                                                                                The “neo-Arab”, to be recognized as a quality architecture whose principles are
                                                                                                           well founded and rooted, requires, on the part of those who promote it, the overcoming
                                                                                                           of interest focused only on the formal, aesthetic or visual aspect. This trend should no
                                                                                                           longer be limited to a historiographical setting, confined to the folklore of forms and
                                                                                                           scenery. The study of Moorish architecture must be integrated into a scientific ap-
                                                                                                           proach that identifies all related aspects such as the socio-cultural and cultural dimen-
                                                                                                           sions. The experience of André Ravéreau, who worked for a long time in Algeria, is en-
                                                                                                           riching; he pushed his research of an architecture strongly related to his objective
                                                                                                           conditions (places, climate, materials, construction, and modes of living and culture of
                                                                                                           space) as far as it was possible [29]. He was one of the masters of the rediscovery of


                                                                          198
traditional and vernacular architectures in Algeria, understood not as a model to “copy”
but as a source of inspiration and methodological teaching essential in the architec-
tural conceptual approach. Hence, Deluz deemed that: “Any teaching of architecture
should begin there” [12].


   Notes

    1
       The choices made by the colonial power in terms of architectural communication
(minaret, dome, calligraphic, geometric and floral ornamentation, etc.); see Figure 6 and
7 (signs of practical, cultural and political ideological dimension).
    2
      After the independence of Algeria in 1962, the authorities began to produce a new
Algerian style which was inspired by the local traditions of the country.
    3
      The Spanish, who were driven out by the Ottomans, conquered Algeria. Then, the
French conquered it in 1830, and remained until 1962. Each of these nations produced
Moorish architecture according to its understanding and perception of Algerian archi-
tectural traditions.
    4
       The Algerian architects of independence decide to draw inspiration from the An-
dalusian-Magreb style to the detriment of the Turkish Moorish style produced by the
Turks in Algeria and the neo-Moorish style created by the French. The two are the
Turkish-Moorish style and the neo-Moorish style.
    5
       Triple incarnation, these are the 3 figures of the Moorish:
       • The authentic (Andalusian-Maghreb style, the Turkish-Moorish style).
       • The copy: the French neo-Moorish style.
       • The copy of the copy, the neo-Arab style produced in Algeria after independence
          in 1962.
    6
      In order to better support our study of the many mutations or deformations under-
gone by the Moorish, we attributed to these three architectures the following distinctive
qualities: the authentic (source of reference and source of Orientalist architects and




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
authors of neo-Moorish) refers to the Moorish, the work of the Moors, peoples from
North Africa; the copy corresponds to Neo-Moorish, colonial work; the copy of the copy,
or neo-Arabian, qualifies the Algerian work of independence. Through this qualifica-
tion, we demonstrate that this production does not produce a significant break with the
previous copy.
    7
       The prefix “neo” marks a renewal within the framework of an old order. Hence the
expressions: neoclassical, neo-Moorish, neo-baroque, neo-traditional, etc. Ultimately,
this indicates the composite nature of the considered entity that incorporates new data.
As for the designation “Moorish”, it finds its origin in the qualifier of Moorish, which, ac-
cording to the Romans, was what belonged to ancient Mauritania (currently the Maghreb).
Subsequently, in the Middle Ages, this name was given to the people of the Maghreb
who conquered Spain. Currently, the name is attributed to the inhabitants of Western
Sahara (Mauritania).
    The definition of the National Center for Lexical Textual Resources (CNRTL) seems
the most appropriate for our research because it refers to the artistic and architectural as-
pect of the Moorish. This term is borrowed from the Spanish “morisco”, “Moorish” used
in the fourteenth century to designate the Moors of North Africa and those of Spain.
Moorish Architecture or Moorish Style is said of the style that flourished in Spain after the
Arab invasion (also called Hispano-Arab or Hispano-Moresque). The Moorish name in
the plural is attributed to the Moorish style decoration motif, formed by foliage (it can also
be written Moresque). (URL: http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/academie9/mauresque).


                                                                                                 199
                                                                                                                8
                                                                                                                  The great mosque of Tlemcen (built in 1135 by the Almoravid, Ali Ben Youssef Ben
                                                                                                           Tachfin) is one of the oldest mosques in the Maghreb. For the construction of the Town
                                                                                                           Hall and the layout of its municipal square, the French razed much of this historic mon-
                                                                                                           ument to the ground. In its first state, it had the same simplicity of architectural decora-
                                                                                                           tion as the mosque of Nedromah and that of Algiers. However, it benefited from enrich-
                                                                                                           ments that attest to an evolution of art and architecture among the Almoravids. Its
                                                                                                           dome, its Mihrab and the central nave affirm the implantation of Andalusian art in the
                                                                                                           Maghreb [3,5].
                                                                                                                9
                                                                                                                  Only the minaret and some walls remain of this medieval city. After the end of the
Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




                                                                                                           siège, the Tlemcenians ravaged it. It was then restored, or rebuilt, by the Marinid Abi
                                                                                                           El Hassen (the builder of the mausoleum of Sidi Boumedine El Ghaouth). The minaret
                                                                                                           is one of the jewels of Andalusian-Maghrebian architecture in Tlemcen. It was ranked
                                                                                                           third for its height of 38m, after that of the Giralda of Seville and that of the Kutubiyya
                                                                                                           of Marrakech; in 1875, the French restored it.
                                                                                                                10
                                                                                                                   Its square-based minaret, reminiscent of the mosques of Tlemcen and Andalusia,
                                                                                                           and its blind arches and lattice brickwork characterize it. In its neighborhood, on the
                                                                                                           same site, are the ancient Turkish baths built in 1708 by Bey Bouchlaghem. On the ter-
                                                                                                           race, you can see the domes of its damp, warm rooms. Under the French occupation,
                                                                                                           these baths served as laundries for the French soldiers.
                                                                                                                11
                                                                                                                   The Mosque of Pasha was built in 1796 by Bey Mohamed El-Kèbir and dedicat-
                                                                                                           ed to Pasha Baba Hassan of Algiers, who contributed to its construction, following the
                                                                                                           victory over the Spaniards. It was realized under the direction of the Amin (Syndic) of
                                                                                                           the masons Si Mohamed Ben Tadbirt.
                                                                                                                12
                                                                                                                   François Duvilliers-Chasseloup (1801-1887) was a French architect and landscape
                                                                                                           engineer, a founding member of the Horticultural Society of Paris and author of the
                                                                                                           book “Parks and Gardens”, published in 1871.
                                                                                                                13
                                                                                                                   In his book, Oulebsir, N. (2002) states that: “Several circulars written by Governor
                                                                                                           General Jonnart formalize at the beginning of the century the intention manifested by
                                                                                                           the colonial administration to adopt the neo-Moorish style as a state style. The first,
                                                                                                           transmitted on December 2 in 1904 to the municipalities, concerns the style to be giv-
                                                                                                           en to school buildings and draws attention to the interest of recommending to the ar-
                                                                                                           chitects to give an artistic stamp to the schools of Algeria by taking inspiration from the
                                                                                                           neo-Moorish style. The second (March 4, 1905), relates to the style to be attributed to
                                                                                                           the administrative constructions and completes the previous one by inviting the pre-
                                                                                                           fects to recommend to the municipalities to address to the architects, for the elabora-
                                                                                                           tion projects of administrative constructions (school buildings, town halls, houses of
                                                                                                           administrators, etc., using models of oriental architecture”[15].
                                                                                                                14
                                                                                                                   At this date, the neo-Moorish style is not yet official. The exteriorization of the
                                                                                                           forms and the (native) signs that characterize this style can be noted.
                                                                                                                15
                                                                                                                   Designed by the architect Marius Toudoire (1852-1912) for the French railway com-
                                                                                                           pany from Paris to Lyon and Marseille (PLM), it is identical to the Lyon train station with
                                                                                                           its spatial and functional provisions (plans), while its architecture is of the European type.
                                                                                                                16
                                                                                                                   Built in 1905 by the architect Henri Petit, in the neo-Moorish style with a magnifi-
                                                                                                           cent facade inspired by the mihrab of the Great Mosque, its devices present arabesques
                                                                                                           in mosaic of earthenware in several tones and has a beautiful courtyard paved with
                                                                                                           marble and many classrooms. The madrassah is located opposite the place of the for-
                                                                                                           mer Mujahideen, next to the Mausoleum of Sidi Maamar Ben Ali, which draws its par-
                                                                                                           ticularity from the fact that it is partially below ground level. This monument has be-
                                                                                                           come a museum of archeology in Tlemcen.


                                                                 200
    17
       A rich French farmer attracted by Orientalism, which was popular at that time,
built Villa Sainte Anne in Sanchidrillon in Oran around the end of the 19th century. It is
currently in ruins. Its land is intended to become the base for an administrative project.
    18
       The oriental or Orientalist concept is a precursor of the neo-Moorish concept; it
was used in colonial literature before the appearance of the decree of 1904, which an-
nounced it as the official style of Algeria.
    19
       Bougueneya, an architect trained at the Oran School of Architecture, built a youth
hostel in 2010 and other projects in Oran in neo-Arabian style.


Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the D.G.R.S.T. of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific
Research in Algeria for the support given to my research, as well as my research su-
pervisor Prof. Mohamed Madani for his help and guidance.


References

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                                                                                               CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
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Ahmed Zerrouki - From Moorish to neo-Moorish in Oranie (Algeria): a style between rupture and continuity




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                                                                                                              Biographical notes

                                                                                                               Ahmed Zerrouki is a teacher-researcher and Member of the Research Laboratory
                                                                                                           (L.A.M.A.U.S) at the University of Science and Technology of Oran, Algeria. His research
                                                                                                           focuses on the architectural heritage in Algerian Oranie. He has presented lectures
                                                                                                           discussing the question of the emergence of Moorish architecture and its evolution in
                                                                                                           the central Maghreb throughout its history. His current research discusses the relation-
                                                                                                           ship of continuity and rupture between the different architectures in Algeria: Moorish,
                                                                                                           Turkish-Moorish and French colonial neo-Moorish.


                                                                                                              Summary

                                                                                                               Algeria, the center and heart of the Maghreb, has often been coveted by conque-
                                                                                                           rors, attracted by its wealth and geostrategic location in the Mediterranean. This parti-
                                                                                                           cular situation has made it a cultural crossroads. Thereby, “Moorish”, as one of the
                                                                                                           most remarkable expressions of Muslim architecture and a local architectural tradition
                                                                                                           specific to this region, has undergone the alterations and repercussions resulting from
                                                                                                           successive acculturations. This art, born in the Maghreb in the 10th century, has asser-
                                                                                                           ted itself as a specific style since the 13th century. If we consider the authenticity of this
                                                                                                           original production, several transformations and deformations, such as the “copy and
                                                                                                           the copy of the copy”, will appear because of the socio-political changes resulting from
                                                                                                           the colonial periods.
                                                                                                               From there, a crucial question arises: are these different figures that have appea-
                                                                                                           red from the “Moorish”, the authentic, the “Turkish-Moorish”, the “neo-Moorish”, the
                                                                                                           “neo-Arab”, linked by a relationship of continuity or rupture? Through an iconographic
                                                                                                           comparative approach based on documentary support (plans, photos, etc.), we will try
                                                                                                           to expose existing links between these architectures. This contribution describes and


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analyzes the peculiarities and metamorphoses of this style throughout its history: from
the “Ottoman reign”, which was followed by the French colonial “neo-Moorish” and fi-
nally to the “neo-Arab” form of the independence period. As a conclusion, it can be said
that the appropriation of this architectural style was a way of legitimizing the presence
of the successive masters of Algeria. Moorish served them as an instrument of ideolo-
gical, cultural and political transmission.


   Riassunto

     L’Algeria, centro e cuore del Maghreb, è stata spesso ambita dai conquistatori, attrat-
ti dalla sua ricchezza e dalla sua posizione geostrategica nel Mediterraneo. Questa par-
ticolare situazione ne ha fatto un crocevia culturale. Così, il “moresco”, come una delle
espressioni più notevoli dell’architettura musulmana e una tradizione architettonica loca-
le specifica di questa regione, ha subito le alterazioni e le ripercussioni derivanti dalle
successive acculturazioni. Quest’arte, nata nel Maghreb nel X secolo, si è affermata
come stile specifico dal XIII secolo. Se consideriamo l’autenticità di questa produzione
originale, appariranno diverse trasformazioni e deformazioni come la “copia e la copia
della copia” a causa dei cambiamenti socio-politici derivanti dai periodi coloniali.
     Da qui, sorge una domanda cruciale: queste diverse figure apparse dal “moresco”
(l’autentico, il “turco-moresco”, il “neo-moresco”, il “neo-arabo”) sono legate da un rap-
porto di continuità o di rottura? Attraverso un approccio iconografico comparativo basa-
to su un supporto documentario (piante, foto, ecc.), cercheremo di esporre i legami esi-
stenti tra queste architetture. Questo contributo descrive e analizza le peculiarità e le
metamorfosi di questo stile nel corso della sua storia: dal “regno ottomano”, che fu se-
guito dal “neo-”moresco” coloniale francese e infine alla forma “neo-arabista” del perio-
do dell’indipendenza. Come conclusione, si può dire che l’appropriazione di questo stile
architettonico era un modo per legittimare la presenza dei successivi padroni dell’Alge-




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
ria. Il moresco servì loro come strumento di trasmissione ideologica, culturale e politica.




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