A comparison between beauty in Islamic urban textures and European historic cities: differences in urban conservation strategies
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/4185
SummaryAccording to the Oriental-Islamic notion of urban space, socio-economic classifications cannot be materialized on the exterior appearance of buildings. On the contrary, in a European historic city, the social status of citizens can easily be expressed on urban facades. Introverted-Islamic textures consist of buildings with courtyards in which interior private facades are more important than the exterior appearance of buildings. In this definition, the European concept of urban façade is not observed. Pursuing an analytic-comparative method, this article attempts to analyze the fundamental differences in the concept of urban beauty between the European historic center and the introverted inner city. Furthermore, the paper defines urban aesthetics with respect to the particularities of the relationship between open and closed spaces. In addition, the principles and characteristics of esoteric beauty in introverted fabrics are discussed. With integral knowledge of the basic differences in urban aesthetics in the two different contexts, the paper tries to analyze the sequent differences which possibly exist in urban conservation strategies. Likewise, the reasons for differences in urban regeneration strategies have been analytically argued. The paper concludes that the definition of urban beauty in introverted-Islamic fabrics completely differs from the perception of beauty in European historic cities. Accordingly, urban conservation strategies in introverted areas should pursue the particularities of Islamic urban beauty. However, the paper emphasizes the necessity for urban transformation in order to give such static areas a new lifestyle.  RiassuntoSecondo la nozione orientale-islamica di spazio urbano, le classificazioni socio-economiche non possono materializzarsi sull’aspetto esteriore degli edifici, mentre invece nelle città storiche europee lo status sociale dei cittadini può esprimersi facilmente attraverso le facciate esterne. Le strutture islamiche introverse consistono di edifici con un cortile nei quali le facciate interne private sono più importanti dell’aspetto esteriore degli edifici stessi. In questa definizione non rispettiamo il concetto europeo di facciata urbana. Perseguendo un metodo comparativo-analitico, questo articolo cerca di analizzare le differenze fondamentali nel concetto di bellezza urbana che ci sono tra il centro storico europeo e la città interna introversa e definisce, inoltre, l’estetica urbana in relazione alle particolarità del rapporto tra spazio chiuso e aperto, verificando poi i principi e le caratteristiche della bellezza esoterica nei tessuti urbani. Avendo una conoscenza integrale delle differenze di base dell’estetica urbana nei due diversi contesti, l’articolo cerca di analizzare le conseguenti differenze che possono esistere nelle strategie di conservazione urbana, descrivendo appunto analiticamente i motivi delle differenze nelle strategie di rigenerazione urbana. Si conclude sostenendo che la definizione di estetica urbana nei tessuti islamici introversi differisce completamente dal concetto di bellezza nelle città storiche europee. Di conseguenza, le strategie di conservazione urbana nelle aree chiuse dovrebbero seguire le particolarità della bellezza urbana islamica. Ad ogni modo, l’articolo enfatizza la necessità di una trasformazione urbana di dare un nuovo stile di vita a queste aree congelate. RésuméD’après la notion orientale/islamique d’espace urbain, les classifications socioéconomiques ne peuvent pas se matérialiser sur l’aspect extérieur des bâtiments, alors que dans les villes historiques européennes, le statut social des habitants peut s’exprimer facilement à travers les façades extérieures. Les structures islamiques tournées vers l’intérieur consistent en bâtiments avec une cour, où les façades intérieures privées sont plus importantes que l’aspect extérieur des bâtiments eux-mêmes. Dans cette définition, le concept européen de façade urbaine n’est pas respecté. Cet article adopte une méthode comparative et analytique pour tenter d’analyser les différences fondamentales existant dans le concept de beauté urbaine entre les quartiers historiques d’Europe et la ville tournée vers l’intérieur. L’esthétique urbaine est définie d’après les particularités du rapport entre espace fermé et espace ouvert, en examinant également les principes et les caractéristiques de la beauté ésotérique dans les tissus urbains. Avec une connaissance complète des différences fondamentales dans l’esthétique urbaine de ces deux contextes, l’article tente d’analyser les différences pouvant exister en conséquence dans les stratégies de conservation urbaine, et décrit analytiquement les raisons des différences dans les stratégies de régénération urbaine. Il conclut en soutenant que la définition d’esthétique urbaine dans les tissus islamiques tournés vers l’intérieur diffère entièrement du concept de beauté dans les villes historiques européennes. De ce fait, les stratégies de conservation urbaine dans les zones fermées devraient suivre les particularités de la beauté urbaine islamique. Dans tous les cas, l’article souligne la nécessité d’une transformation urbaine, afin de donner un nouveau style de vie à ces zones « congelées ». ZusammenfassungNach dem orientalisch-islamischen Verständnis des städtischen Raums können soziale und wirtschaftliche Klassenunterscheidungen nicht im äußeren Aussehen der Gebäude Ausdruck finden, während in den historischen europäischen Städten, der soziale Status der Bürger leicht an den Außenfassaden zu erkennen ist. Die introvertierten islamischen Strukturen bestehen aus Gebäuden mit einem Hof, wo die privaten Innenfassaden wichtiger sind, als das äußere Aussehen der Gebäude selbst. Mit dieser Definition respektieren wir nicht das europäische Verständnis von städtischer Fassade. Anhand einer vergleichend-analytischen Methode versucht dieser Artikel, die wesentlichen Unterschiede in der Auffassung von stadtbaulicher Schönheit zu untersuchen, die zwischen der europäischen Altstadt und der introvertierten, internen Stadt bestehen und definiert darüber hinaus die stadtbauliche Ästhetik in Bezug auf die Besonderheit der Beziehung zwischen geschlossenem und offenem Raum, wobei dann die Grundsätze und die Merkmale der esoterischen Schönheit des städtischen Gefüges untersucht werden.  Dank einer vollständigen Kenntnis der grundlegenden Unterschiede zwischen Stadtbau-Ästhetik in den beiden verschiedenen Umfeldern, versucht der Artikel die daraus folgenden Unterschiede zu analysieren, die in der Strategie der Stadtkonservierung bestehen, und beschreibt analytisch die Gründe für die Differenzen zwischen den Strategien zur Regenerierung der Städte. Abschließend wird behauptet, die Definition stadtbaulicher Ästhetik im islamischen Gefüge sei völlig verschieden von der Auffassung von Schönheit in den europäischen Städten.  Demzufolge sollten die Strategien der Stadtkonservierung in geschlossenen Bereichen den Besonderheiten der stadtbaulichen Schönheit des Islams folgen. In allen Fällen unterstreicht der Artikel die Notwendigkeit der Umwandlung der Städte, d.h. die Notwendigkeit, diesen eingefrorenen Gebieten einen neuen Lebensstil zu vermitteln. ResumenSegún la noción oriental islámica de espacio urbano, las clasificaciones socioeconómicas no se pueden materializar en el aspecto exterior de los edificios, mientras que en las ciudades históricas europeas el estatus social de los ciudadanos puede expresarse fácilmente a través de las fachadas exteriores. Las estructuras islámicas introvertidas se conforman por edificios con un patio en el que las fachadas interiores privadas son más importantes que el aspecto exterior de los mismos edificios. En esta definición no se respeta el concepto europeo de fachada urbana. Persiguiendo un método comparativo-analítico, este artículo intenta analizar las diferencias fundamentales entre el concepto de belleza urbana del centro histórico europeo y el de la ciudad interior introvertida y, además, define la estética urbana en relación con un vínculo especial entre el espacio cerrado y el espacio abierto, para luego verificar los principios y las características de la belleza esotérica en los tejidos urbanos. Con un conocimiento integral de las diferencias a la base de la estética urbana en estos dos contextos diferentes, el artículo intenta analizar las consiguientes diferencias que pueden manifestarse en las estrategias de conservación urbana y realiza una descripción analítica de los motivos de las diferencias en las estrategias de regeneración urbana. Para concluir se afirma que la definición de estética urbana en los tejidos urbanos islámicos introvertidos difiere completamente respecto al concepto de belleza de las ciudades históricas europeas. Como consecuencia, las estrategias de conservación urbana de las áreas cerradas debería seguir las características de la belleza urbana islámica. En todo caso, el artículo pone énfasis en la necesidad de una transformación urbana para dar un nuevo estilo de vida a estas áreas congeladas.РезюмеСогласно восточно-исламскому понятию городского пространства социально-экономическая классификация не может отражаться на внешнем виде зданий, в то время как в исторических европейских городах, наоборот, общественный статус граждан легко может выражаться во внешних фасадах. Интроверсные исламские структуры  представляют собой здания с  двором, внутренние частные фасады которых более важны, чем сам внешний вид зданий. В этом понимании не выдерживается европейское понятие городского фасада. Используя сравнительно-аналитический метод, данная статья пытается проализировать основные различия концепции городской красоты между европейским историческим центром и внутренним интроверсным городом, а также определить городскую эстетику в связи с особенностью отношений между открытым и закрытым пространством, а затем проверить  принципы и характеристики эзотерической красоты в городской ткани. На основе глубокого познания основных различий в городской эстетике двух разных контекстов в статье анализируется вытекающие различия в стратегии городской консервации, именно с подробным описанием причины различий в стратегиях городской регенерации. Сделан вывод, что определение городской эстетики в интровертных исламских тканях полностью отличается от понятия красоты в европейских исторических городах. Следовательно, стратегии городской консервации в закрытых зонах должны бы придерживаться особенностей исламской городской красоты. Во всяком случае, в статье подчеркивается необходимость городской трансформации, чтобы дать новый стиль жизни этим замороженным местам. 摘要按照东方-伊斯兰城市空间的概念，社会的经济等级不会表现在建筑的外部，反而在欧洲的历史城市可以通过建筑外部明显地表达出来公民的社会地位。伊斯兰的内向建筑实际上是有庭院的房子，其内部的私人门面比外部还重要。这种定义不符合欧洲的城市门面概念。通过对比分析的方式，该文章试图分析欧洲历史中心和内向城市美学概念的基本区别，并且确定了有关城市美学的封闭和开放空间的特殊性关系;另外也研究了城市结构内的神秘美丽的原则和特征。通过两个方面城市美学基本区别的完整认识，该文章试图分析城市保护策略所造成的不同，以及解释分析了城市再生策略的不同因素。最后文章确定了伊斯兰内向结构的城市美学跟欧洲历史城市的美学概念完全不同。从而封闭空间的城市保护策略应该遵循伊斯兰的城市美学特点。总而言之，文章强调了城市转型现象应该给予这些”冻结”区域一个崭新生活风格的必要性。
application/pdf
1973-9494
4185
it
Pourya Nazemi
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
urban conservation
A comparison between beauty in Islamic urban textures and European historic cities: differences in urban conservation strategies
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
13
Articles
2013-12-30
2014-02-09
2013-12-30
2015-11-02
193-211
CSCH
Pourya Nazemi
2013/12/30
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/4185
193
1973-9494
urban conservation
it
211
HAMIDI S.; Ramezani S., 2010, Privacy and Social Interaction in Traditional Towns to Contemporary Urban Design in Iran, American J. of Engineering and Applied Sciences, pp. 502-8.
La bellezza urbana nelle strutture urbane islamiche a confronto con le città storiche europee: differenze nelle strategie di conservazione urbana
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/4185/3630
13
A    COMPARISON BETWEEN BEAUTY IN ISLAMIC URBAN
     TEXTURES AND EUROPEAN HISTORIC CITIES:
     DIFFERENCES IN URBAN CONSERVATION STRATEGIES



   Pourya Nazemi•
   Faculty of Architecture
   Sapienza Università di Roma



   Keywords: introverted-Islamic architecture, European urban façade, urban beauty,
   courtyard houses, urban conservation

  1. Introduction

    According to the Oriental-Islamic notion of urban space, socio-economic classifica-
tion cannot appear in material form on the exterior of buildings. On the contrary, in a
European historic city the social status of citizens can easily be expressed on urban
facades. Expressing status and social condition through dwellings is normal and una-
voidable, because, in general, an individual is obliged to have a house to be identified
as a citizen. Introverted-Islamic structures consist of buildings with courtyards in which
interior private facades are considered more important than the external characteristics
of the buildings themselves. In this definition, the European concept of urban façade is
not perceived. Pursuing an analytic-comparative method, this article attempts to explain




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
the fundamental differences in the concept of urban beauty existing between the Euro-
pean historic center and the introverted inner city. Furthermore, the paper defines the
urban aesthetics concerning particularities in the relationship between open and closed
spaces. From this viewpoint, differences between the characteristics of open spaces in
the past and the modern era are analytically debated. Particularities in the open spaces
of introverted-closed urban textures are analyzed. In addition, the mutual relationship
between socio-philosophical factors and urban aesthetics in introverted textures is dis-
cussed. The principles and characteristics of esoteric beauty are consequently verified.
    European countries are considered pioneers in urban conservation debates. As a
consequence, urban planners prevalently pursue European approaches and meth-
ods in conservation schemes. Likewise, European urban regeneration policies and
strategies predominantly influence the general procedure of revitalization programs,
especially in developing countries. On the other hand, Islamic historic centers have
extremely different characteristics insofar as the definition of urban beauty in such fab-
rics completely differs from the perception of beauty in European historic cities. With
integral knowledge about the basic differences between urban aesthetics in introverted
and extroverted historic centers, the paper tries to analyze the sequent differences
which may exist in urban conservation strategies. In addition, reasons for differences
in urban regeneration policies and strategies are analytically described.


• Corresponding author: pouryanazemi@gmail.com

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                                                                                                        2. Private facades in introverted Islamic urban textures compared to the beau-
                                                                                                        ty of European urban facades

                                                                                                          In introverted architecture, a designer concentrates all his attention on interiors;
                                                                                                      as a result, interior facades are more important than the exterior character of build-
                                                                                                      ings. In the center, there is a courtyard with a definite geometrical form. The other
                                                                                                      spaces are located around this private open space. All windows and apertures open
                                                                                                      onto the courtyard providing natural lighting and ventilation. In the irregular plots with
                                                                                                      no specific shape, courtyards - as a geometrical element - can play a key role in reg-
                                                                                                      ularizing architectural spaces [1]. Introversion was considered a fundamental princi-
                                                                                                      ple in Islamic cities. However, it is also seen in the pre-Islamic era in Persia (before
                                                                                                      the Arab attack in 651 AD). This kind of architecture originates from the dominant
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      oriental philosophy emphasizing the privacy and independence of spaces. However,
                                                                                                      during the Islamic era, this approach was accentuated by Islamic regulations. Ac-
                                                                                                      cording to Pirnia some scholars believe that introversion is merely a religious matter
                                                                                                      which emerged in Persia after the Arab attack by changing the official religion from
                                                                                                      Zoroastrian1 to Islam.
                                                                                                          Nevertheless, this kind of architecture can also be seen in the pre-Islamic period
                                                                                                      [2]. He argues:

                                                                                                             Introversion and the Persian architects’ tendency towards including courtyards,
                                                                                                         central garden yards, [and other spaces such as] vestibules and the Kolah Farangi2
                                                                                                         around which other architectural spaces such as the Shabestan3 are located, are
                                                                                                         considered to be a Persian principle dating back to ancient times. [...] As observed
                                                                                                         in the Persepolis4palaces, the rooms, halls and porticos are located around a court-
                                                                                                         yard; similarly, in the Sassanid5 palace of Sarvestan, and in Islamic edifices, there
                                                                                                         is an introverted architecture. This logical tendency towards introverted architec-
                                                                                                         ture has never been discarded by the Persians; they have always built their homes
                                                                                                         and palaces in this manner, which is similar to a kind mother who has warmly
                                                                                                         embraced her child [3].

                                                                                                          On the contrary, in a European city, each citizen is considered an individual, and
                                                                                                      simultaneously, they represent their connection with the civitas (Figure 1).
                                                                                                          The visible and inevitable behavior for its realization is the relationship with the
                                                                                                      material form of living, i.e. the urbs. Put differently, the physical aspect of single
                                                                                                      houses accurately reflects self-representation of each individual in relation to oth-
                                                                                                      ers [5]. In fact, people demonstrate their urban status through the “site”, “type” and
                                                                                                      “style” of their house. In ancient times as well as in the world of Islam, the short-lived
                                                                                                      awareness of citizenship is unconnected to the visible materiality of the urbs. This
                                                                                                      means it cannot be expressed on exterior facades. This phenomenon can be ob-
                                                                                                      served in the ancient city of Herculaneum or in the Persian city of Isfahan. In such
                                                                                                      cities, modest closed walls can be seen in which just a few decorated doors are
                                                                                                      located [5]. This may be assumed to be the basic difference between an Islamic city
                                                                                                      and European historic urban fabrics. In fact, two different interpretations of the city
                                                                                                      are evident. According to the European perspective, citizens’ social status can be
                                                                                                      expressed on urban facades. On the contrary, according to the Oriental-Islamic idea
                                                                                                      of urban space, socio-economic classifications are not easily found on the exterior
                                                                                                      of buildings.


                                                                                                194
        Figure1. Introversion in the urban texture of the historic Persian city of Yazd [4]




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
   In a European city, the social ascent of citizens tends to be demonstrated in a gradual
progressive improvement in houses; this means grander apartments in more prestigious
zones, advanced equipment and valuable furniture, gardens, terraces etc. Expressing
the status and social condition through the “house” is normal and inevitable; because
each person is obliged to have a house to be identified as a citizen (Figure 2).
   When a person buys a house or villa in a prestigious neighborhood, they also pur-
chase credit and success. The equality of citizens is an unquestionable moral value;
but the same mechanism of social mobility produces visible inequality in houses [5].
Relatively reduced personal financial capital does not prevent citizens from being rep-
resented by their houses according to their personal tastes. It is similar to the lan-
guage of a nation, which may, more or less, be suited to expressing the concepts of
another culture, even though that tradition, style or thought is missing; on the contrary,
it may be appropriate to express the ideas of each individual. In this way, the shape
of buildings are considered a code which allows each level of “social stratification” to
be expressed [5]. Conversely, when the constitutive units of an urban fabric generate
their main spaces around isolated courtyards, it means the network of streets is char-
acterized merely as a set of simple pathways. As a result, public spaces are comprised
of simple closed walls without openings, green spaces, decorative and ornamental
elements and other recognized urban attractions. Because of introversion, buildings
connect easily with each other via different communicating paths so as to generate
a “continuous” fabric, where, interestingly, a number of geometrical courtyards are


                                                                                              195
                                                                                                      located. Instead, a European façade offers figurative expressions. This expression
                                                                                                      includes the dimension of lots, the length and height of the built part; the number, size,
                                                                                                      reciprocal disposition of the openings; the windows with their windowsills, frames, ar-
                                                                                                      chitraves, shutters, joinery; the front doors with knockers, doorbells, lamps, civic num-
                                                                                                      bers, emblems; the balconies with their frequency, size, depth, railings; the sidewalks,
                                                                                                      cornices, protruding eaves, the roofs and their inclines, the chimneys; visible materials,
                                                                                                      coating, plasters, colors; decorations, frescoes and sculptures. All these items can rep-
                                                                                                      resent different aspects of a citizen’s personality, which is reflected on the walls. This
                                                                                                      aesthetic expression of facades has two aspects: at first sight, the facades seem to
                                                                                                      be “similar”; but at the same time, they are always “different” [5]. In an Islamic context,
                                                                                                      due to the absence of any external architectural elements, what is observed is extraor-
                                                                                                      dinary equality in the architectural units.
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      Figure 2. Aerial view of introverted historic centers in comparison with extroverted European
                                                                                                      urban textures. Upper-left hand [6]: Bazaar area in historic center of Isfahan in Persia; upper-right
                                                                                                      hand: inner city of Siena in Italy; below [6]: historic center of Yazd in central Persia.

                                                                                                196
    Pursuing this approach, we see internal private aesthetics trying to remain hidden
from strangers. Despite the uniformity of European facades, it is possible to distinguish
different tastes belonging to various architects and architectures. These different archi-
tectural tastes can be immediately identified due to differences in details. In an Islamic
historic center, these differences are not visible on the simple modest exterior walls
which have no openings or decorations. In reality, all architectural details have been
created in the interior of the courtyard buildings. From the fifteenth century onwards,
the European elite wished to be distinct from other social classes. This “social distinc-
tion” is expressed not only in good execution, but also in “style”. For instance, during
the Renaissance period in European cities, both public buildings and the buildings of
the aristocracy were constructed on the basis of variable norms of classicism which
had been reinterpreted by local architects [5]. In an Islamic city, the individuality of the
aristocratic elite does not appear on urban facades. This distinctive characteristic can
be related to the size and magnificence of the private interior facades of their court-
yards.
    When we speak of ‘figurative orders’, we allude to individual artwork. When an art
work is executed by a group, our discussion regards its central leader. For example,
a painting is created by a painter, a building is constructed by an architect and finally,
a city could be built well if it pursues a unitary directive. But it is difficult to imagine
that a will superior to the wishes of citizens could impose a social system on the civi-
tas. In this perspective, it is unthinkable that the physical order of the urbs coincides
with the figurative model of an elite or the design of an artist [5]. Having deductive
characteristics for a European city, we can identify a specific figurative order. To be
precise, the model of ‘ideal city’ – at the basis of city planning, in Eighteenth-century
urbanism and modern urbanization – indiscriminately intends to create very ‘beautiful’
cities; however, it is not related to a principle with long-established roots. In fact, the
ancient dreamers of the perfect city – Plato, Augustine and Farabi – were especially




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
occupied with the regulations of the civitas and not the urbs; while, the Sixteenth-
century utopians were well aware of the connection between civitas and urbs [5]. In
an Islamic city, we see architectural regulations used mainly for creating private archi-
tectural facades, while urban facades are left untouched [7]. Moreover, the complexity
of introverted architecture is mostly based on the spatial compositions between the
interior spaces instead of the exterior appearance of the building. For this reason
more than any other, there are regulations regarding the quality of the composition in
the different spaces.
    In general, we can identify three constituent elements for an Islamic historic center:
the Friday Mosque (Jamè); residential neighborhoods; the Bazaar [8]. All constituent
parts of an Islamic city have introverted characteristics. The Friday Mosque is recog-
nized as a key socio-urban node which has a particular spatial configuration and struc-
tural connections with the adjacent residential and commercial textures. In the past,
besides its religious role, it was a place where important decisions related to the city
were made [8]. In the majority of mosques the spatial structure includes closed, semi-
closed and open spaces, with decorative elements and symbols, which have gradually
become the principal symbols.
    The external facades are of little importance except for the entrances which are
large and richly decorated so as to be easily distinguished. Even the architectural
element of the Minaretis prevalently used for a functional purpose and not for the ex-
ternal appearance of the facade [8]. The decorative walls horizontally and vertically


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                                                                                                      cover the “interior facades”. It is usual to try to present the mosque looking towards
                                                                                                      the city square or streets. In this way, while responding to its special interior func-
                                                                                                      tions, a religious building represents itself to a greater urban space. By showing their
                                                                                                      more beautiful and decorative elements, in comparison to other buildings, mosques
                                                                                                      can represent their particular functional differences [8]. On the one hand, the Friday
                                                                                                      mosque hides its basic identity in the courtyard; on the other, it presents some of its
                                                                                                      vertical elements on its exterior in relation to its surroundings. Therefore, another
                                                                                                      aspect of urban beauty in an Islamic city is related to the spatial architectural-urban
                                                                                                      compositions existing between the prominent buildings and their surrounding en-
                                                                                                      vironment. In fact, the beauty of an Islamic city is fundamentally based on several
                                                                                                      spatial connections and compositions. In this approach, the three-dimensionality of
                                                                                                      urban spaces is considered more important than the two-dimensionality of urban
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      facades. On the contrary, according to Benevolo, in European contexts, some build-
                                                                                                      ings possess an “internal balance” between the built volume and the open space
                                                                                                      (courtyard, garden, vegetable plot), while all of them overlook the “public space”
                                                                                                      through a bivalent wall: the “façade”. It simultaneously serves the building (provides
                                                                                                      illumination, access, presentation, etc.) and qualifies the surrounding urban environ-
                                                                                                      ment [9].
                                                                                                          In European cities, the general form of squares, monumental streets and historic
                                                                                                      centers, depends on the quality of facades. Accordingly, everyone agrees with the ne-
                                                                                                      cessity of there being some control over such facades. For instance, in the fourteenth
                                                                                                      century, the municipality of Siena requested people to open arched windows with col-
                                                                                                      umns onto the Piazza del Campo [10]. The houses, streets and urban landscape can
                                                                                                      be constituent elements of the ‘style’ of a city [10]. According to Romano, we can iden-
                                                                                                      tify two notions of “beauty” and “style” for a European city and make the related urban
                                                                                                      considerations. When the streets are adequately designed and established the city can
                                                                                                      be considered “beautiful”. There is a principle from ancient times that says, bastides6,
                                                                                                      village settlements, new cities and their expansion are more beautiful if there are wide
                                                                                                      streets. Such streets, furthermore, respect the principles of alignment, perspective and
                                                                                                      typological considerations. Interestingly, a Venetian like Marco Polo states that the
                                                                                                      streets of Beijing are tortuous, while on the map they seem to be straighter than the
                                                                                                      streets of Venice. There is a concept that the beauty of streets is not damaged by a
                                                                                                      curved path; on the contrary, according to Leon Battista Alberti in the Sixteenth century
                                                                                                      and Raymond Unwinin the contemporary age, the winding streets, “like the curve of a
                                                                                                      river”, offer more pleasant perspectives in the dense historic centers as well as in pe-
                                                                                                      ripheral zones [5]. I should point out that from this view, there are similarities between
                                                                                                      European streets and the network of Islamic streets which consists predominantly of
                                                                                                      naturally curving pathways.
                                                                                                          As it is evident that the beauty of the urbs is also related to the beauty of the facades
                                                                                                      of its houses, it is right for the civic assembly to determine aesthetical regulations for
                                                                                                      the facades [5]. For example, in the past, Milan may have been considered “ugly”
                                                                                                      because its prominent buildings were qualitatively and quantitatively inferior to those
                                                                                                      of other cities. We can compare it with the city of Genoa and its old castles of Spinola
                                                                                                      and Doria and the sixteenth-century buildings located in Strada Nuova. It could also
                                                                                                      be compared with Venice and the splendid facades of the buildings along the Grand
                                                                                                      Canal (Canal Grande). The civitas, however, can impose uniform facades with a deter-
                                                                                                      mined standard, in order to make the urbs more beautiful. At the same time, it would
                                                                                                      like to give houses a determined standard of richness and aesthetics [5]. In the Nine-


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teenth century, it is the boulevards which finally fulfill this notion where the beauty of
the European city is also represented by the width of the streets. With this new model,
citizens could also be provided with equivalent and appropriate standards for air and
light [5]. In Haussmann’s experience, particular building regulations could generate
unified urban facades [11]. His works were imitated throughout Europe, especially after
1870 [11]. These established building regulations for new boulevards created a new
season in European urban beauty.
    In considering urban aesthetics, pavements and the cleanliness of streets are
also important factors. For example, the bad quality of the pavements in Palermo
and Naples create inadequate urban spaces [5]. The overflowing rubbish of Paris,
in the age of ‘Philip the Good’ or conversely, complacency for the clean elegance of
Lugano7 and Amsterdam can influence our judgment about their beauty [5]. On the
contrary, a network of introverted streets prevalently lacks suitable pavements. The
courtyard buildings focus on private facades; similarly, they place more attention on
private paving than the pavements and furniture of public spaces. Likewise, green
spaces are just limited to private courtyards and historic gardens. From this view, the
Islamic city also lacks the aesthetic potential of public green spaces. In addition, it is
interesting that in the middle of the thirteenth century in Europe everyone thought that
to be more beautiful, a city should have beautiful churches, buildings and squares
[5]. In fact, it is well-known that a beautiful church helps to make a beautiful city [5].
Pursuing this notion, in the fourteenth century, a new lawn for the fair in Siena would
have made this city more beautiful. The new clock in Lyon would have enhanced
the beauty of the city, and the Sagrada Familia would have made Barcelona more
beautiful [5]. Comparing this idea with its Islamic interpretation, the largeness and
magnificence of the Bazaar as well as the Friday mosque plays the same role as
those factors regarding beauty. There is a direct relationship between the prosperity
of a city and the length of its Bazaar (as a linear structure), in addition to the magnifi-




                                                                                                        CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
cence of its Friday mosque.
    Romano believes that by walking through a European city and reading it as a book,
we can immediately recognize the more well-known collective themes such as the
church, castle, square, park and stadium. In addition, we can identify the evident archi-
tectural vigor of the buildings. We can recognize the status of monasteries, monumen-
tal squares, commercial streets, grand shops and so forth [5].
    All of these items can create an identifiable ‘style’ for the city. Put differently, it can
be said that style can be recognized in collective themes. In an introverted-Islamic
historic center, by walking through the Bazaar and visiting the Friday mosque we can,
more or less, recognize the socio-economic as well as cultural richness of the citizens
(Figure 3).
    These spaces are the most public parts of the city and thus, places where it is
possible to comprehend socio-cultural behavior; on the other hand, there is less pos-
sibility to visit private courtyards. In this regard, Carla Serena8 says of the Bazaar in
Tehran:

       [...] the Bazaar is a place for appointments and public meetings. Besides
   speaking about their personal business affairs, people discuss social and politi-
   cal events. It could be considered not only a warehouse, but also a parliament
   [...] news, hearsay, scandal, gossip, obloquies and idle chatting start at the Ba-
   zaar [12].


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G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      Figure 3. A comparison between the introverted-closed street network and the extroverted European
                                                                                                      public space (left and right: historic center of Yazd in Persia; center: historic center of Rome)

                                                                                                         This means courtyard buildings conceal their facades in their interior, in the form
                                                                                                      of private property; as a consequence, it is difficult to comprehend the architectural
                                                                                                      richness of different buildings. In other words, courtyard buildings lack any form of
                                                                                                      representation except their decorated entrances.

                                                                                                         3. Definition of urban beauty through the relationship between open and
                                                                                                         closed spaces

                                                                                                          Introversion of the urban fabric is defined in the relationship existing between filled
                                                                                                      and empty spaces. An introverted fabric consists of central geometrical open spaces
                                                                                                      surrounded by full spaces. Contrarily, in modern urbanism we observe a new defini-
                                                                                                      tion of open space which is completely different from the identifiable characteristics
                                                                                                      of the open space in historical fabrics. In this sense, Belfiore believes that the open
                                                                                                      space is a space in a modern city. Sporadically, it is seen in several past civilizations,
                                                                                                      for instance in Pre-Hellenistic Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia, and in some Pre-Co-
                                                                                                      lombian and Oriental cultures [13]. But, the modern urban space presents diversified
                                                                                                      characteristics in comparison to nineteenth-century ones. In this definition, for the first
                                                                                                      time, spaces without buildings become supporting structures [13]. The built space with
                                                                                                      its linear or precise character causes the disappearance of the three-dimensionality
                                                                                                      of the lot and façade as a principal urban point of reference. In this way, the connec-
                                                                                                      tions and articulations of a space, which consists of an internal private part (court-
                                                                                                      yards, gardens) and a public exterior one, are lost [13]. One of the most remarkable
                                                                                                      aspects of urban heritage in historical fabrics, both in European and Islamic cities, is
                                                                                                      related to the characteristics of open spaces. A considerable part of urban beauty in
                                                                                                      a European historic center concerns the particularities of semi-public and public open
                                                                                                      spaces; in urban revitalization programs, careful attention is paid to the conservation
                                                                                                      and enhancement of these details in open spaces. At the other end, in the modern era,
                                                                                                      the open space ratifies a clear separation between the built part and the street, each
                                                                                                      of them organized according to different and distinct structural matrixes. The street is
                                                                                                      liberated from continuously being overlooked by the facades and is reduced to a bi-
                                                                                                      dimensional band. Consequently, there are no differences between urban streets and
                                                                                                      territorial roads. In other words, the street loses its character as a place and a space


                                                                                                200
for holding a multitude of activities such as meetings, entertainment, business, repre-
sentations, assemblies, performances, work, ceremonies, competitions etc. [13]; it is
indeed specialized in simply being a path for traffic.
    A large part of the notion of urban beauty in Islamic neighborhoods is based on the
spatial qualities of private and public open spaces; the quality of the orientation of closed
spaces can thus be defined. While in a European city, urban aesthetics is predominantly
related to the spatial configuration of squares, streets and so forth, introverted-Islamic
urban beauty is based on the configuration of geometric-symmetric courtyards. In the
modern era, the open space places urbanism in a structural field which does not have
the specificity of all the built parts (artificial parts) of the ancient city. Hence, the bounda-
ries between the artificial part and the natural one are the open spaces [13]. It opens the
way for a process of reciprocal contamination and infinite possibilities for changing the
role of various urban spaces: the street becomes park, the garden, square or theatre,
etc. In short, the open space ratifies the break in the relationship, related to the total
identity of the ancient city, between the built space and the public one. This space loses
its structural characteristics with regard to continuity and unity, limited to the “islands”
or “lines” of local importance; there is a separation not only among, but also between
them and the collective historic spaces. While the ‘ancient’ space presents a powerful
structural completeness, the ‘modern’ space has contradictory characteristics: opening,
indeterminateness and indefiniteness [13]. All these changes have negatively influenced
the relationship between open and closed spaces, not only in European historic centers
but also in introverted inner cities. This new definition of open space has fundamentally
altered the spatial configuration of public spaces. In introverted areas, the drastic sepa-
ration existing between private courtyards and public spaces has caused old houses to
remain unchanged, as if frozen in time. These isolated private courtyards can no longer
continue their life without having a dynamic connection with public open spaces. This
discontinuity between private and public spaces is one of the most arguable problems in




                                                                                                          CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
the regeneration of courtyard houses (Figure 4).




Figure 4. A comparison between the notion of European urban façade and the private interior
facades of Islamic courtyard houses (upper right: New street or La Strada Nuova in Genoa; other
pictures are related to courtyard houses in the inner city of Yazd in central Persia [14])


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                                                                                                         4. Urban aesthetics and socio-philosophical considerations in introverted
                                                                                                         fabrics

                                                                                                          Introverted urbanism tries to keep the main character of courtyard buildings hidden;
                                                                                                      so before entering a building an individual is not able to comprehend its spatial configu-
                                                                                                      ration and architectural arrangement. In the Oriental world, basically, special attention is
                                                                                                      placed on the inner space of the human mind. There is a series of opinions in Sufism9
                                                                                                      which teach the individual to concentrate on themselves in order to achieve the truth
                                                                                                      about man and the universe. There is a close relationship between the principles of
                                                                                                      Sufism and the richness of architectural introversion emerging within the physical frame-
                                                                                                      work of courtyard buildings. While all Muslims believe they are on the way to God and
                                                                                                      hope to become close to God in Paradise, Sufis also believe that it is possible to draw
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      closer to God and to more fully embrace the Divine Presence in this life10. The chief aim
                                                                                                      of all Sufis is to seek to please God by working towards restoring the primordial state
                                                                                                      of fitra11 within themselves, described in the Quran [15]. In this state, nothing one does
                                                                                                      defies God, and everything is undertaken with the single motivation of love of God. A
                                                                                                      secondary consequence of this is that the seeker may be led to abandon all notions of
                                                                                                      dualism or multiplicity, including the conception of an individual self and to realize Divine
                                                                                                      Unity. Thus, Sufism has been characterized as the science of the states of the lower self
                                                                                                      (the ego) and as a way of purifying this lower self of its reprehensible traits, while adorn-
                                                                                                      ing it instead with what is praiseworthy; this, despite whether this process of cleansing
                                                                                                      and purifying the heart, is in time rewarded by esoteric knowledge of God or not. For
                                                                                                      the Sufi who is enraptured with the love of God who is the source of all existence, all
                                                                                                      existence is extraordinarily beautiful12. Evidently, interpretation of this esoteric beauty is
                                                                                                      different from the European concept of beauty. Introverted beauty is more sophisticated,
                                                                                                      indirect and mysterious. As a consequence, the physical appearance of this beauty is
                                                                                                      considered more “metaphoric” and “esoteric”. Hence, the aesthetic aspects of buildings
                                                                                                      can be seen in their interior in a more metaphoric-esoteric manner. In this interpretation,
                                                                                                      the emphasis on the human mind and spirit has been characterized as a fundamental
                                                                                                      philosophical principle. In fact, it is presented as a key solution for the happiness of a
                                                                                                      human being. Pursuing this approach, introverted architecture attempts to focus on its
                                                                                                      inside instead of its outside identity and avoids displaying itself to strangers. In the past,
                                                                                                      introverted-Islamic urbanism meant most social activities were performed in the interior
                                                                                                      spaces. People preferred isolated private courtyards for their social relationships rather
                                                                                                      than public spaces. Even the Bazaar, as the most prominent socio-economic pole of a
                                                                                                      city, has an introverted framework with a minimum of exterior display.

                                                                                                         5. Different strategies for urban conservation in different contexts: introvert-
                                                                                                         ed and extroverted

                                                                                                         Urban space is transformed because of the nature of the city which is alive and is a
                                                                                                      dynamic organism. It is, in fact, the result of the symbiosis with the life of man, which
                                                                                                      is constantly evolving. “Transformation”, in its slow or accelerated state, is the natural
                                                                                                      condition of the physical space which registers different rhythms, the life-stream of so-
                                                                                                      cieties and their historic period. On the contrary, “conservation” is a cultural action; in-
                                                                                                      deed, it is an operation related to the values of memory, cultural identity, artistic quality
                                                                                                      and history of the built environment [13]. In the past, the stream of continuous changes
                                                                                                      was slow and imperceptible, because the demographic, economic, technological and


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social evolution of the city was more gradual. Nowadays, it is assumed it has a more
accelerated continuous character, because the evolution of settlements have over-
whelming rhythms and dynamism [13]. In an Islamic historic center, we observe the
development of new urban structures according to so-called modern life standards
without paying enough attention to the old parts. Moreover, the incompatibility of the
old districts with new trends, expectations and needs has led to their deterioration [16].
New streets, squares, large-scale inhuman open spaces and inappropriate interven-
tions have severely damaged the Islamic inner city. With the efforts of French and
British Mandate and post-Mandate urban planning interventions to embrace modernity,
the separation between the past and the present has intensified in many parts of the
Arab world. In this sense, Daher argues:

      In Damascus, Beirut, and several other cities, during the French Mandate in the
   1920s and 1930s, planners such as Echochard imposed schemes on the old organic
   pattern of the traditional city based on Haussmannian principles. Several new mod-
   ern plans introduced interventions, like boulevards and avenues which sliced into
   traditional settings, causing destruction and demolition of whole neighborhoods and
   a dichotomy of old traditional parts of town on the one hand and newly zoned areas
   on the other. Everything was sacrificed to the great infrastructure of transport. Only
   fragments and isolated monuments were retained for future generations [17].

   At present, we can classify Islamic urban fabrics into three parts: (1) Introverted
fabric: conserved areas; (2) Mixed fabric: old urban fabrics in which new direct streets,
circular squares and extroverted buildings have emerged; (3) Extroverted fabrics: mar-
ginal areas. The chaotic formation of diverse, as well as contradictory typologies has
generated fundamental alterations in urban features. In fact, the introverted old city
was limited to the area of the historic center and was unable to continue to grow. The




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
new public spaces had completely different characteristics. New street networks were
no longer considered just passages for people to pass through; instead, the windows
of buildings opened onto the streets and alleys; in this way, the notion of “urban façade”
was gradually formed. In a gradual manner too, the general tendency towards the
extroverted urban system increased; the old streets lost their prestige because of: (1)
monotonous and boring facades; (2) a lack of urban facilities and services; (3) a feeling
of insecurity in simple closed pathways; and (4) impossibility of access by car. Mod-
ern urban phenomena caused the formation of a mixed fabric comprising introverted
and extroverted units. From this time onwards, extroverted and discontinuous textures
next to or within the introverted continuous fabric can be seen. This contrast gradually
intensified due to an urban rival which appeared between the new and old districts.
New zones were seen as a symbol of development; they were relatively equipped with
new services. Naturally, they were the winners in this competition. This process led to
a gradual recession in the inner city.
   During the last century, the unprecedented development of the urban environment
has strongly influenced the procedure of urban transformation. Rapid urban expan-
sion, densification (or, conversely, decline and abandonment), inappropriate modern
interventions, gentrification, and changes in uses are occurring worldwide, directly af-
fecting the preservation of historic environments. It is now quite clear that cities all
around the world are in a state of continuous transition and transformation. This pro-
cess of continual transition and transformation occurs partly in response to political, in-
dustrial, economic, and social changes, and some believe that cities experience inflec-

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                                                                                                      tion points of growth and decline, both of which lead to transformation of urban space
                                                                                                      [16]. As previously described, in the past, lifestyle in the introverted urban typology
                                                                                                      meant most of a family’s needs could be met in the central yard. It meant social rela-
                                                                                                      tionships could be generated in public spaces at a limited level. By changing the urban
                                                                                                      form, from introversion to extroversion, the social context was affected. Mutations in
                                                                                                      architectural-urban approaches led to the emergence of new social relationships. Ad-
                                                                                                      ditionally, most of these relations and meetings were formed in the new urban spaces.
                                                                                                      It meant that they were no longer limited to the private courtyard, neighborhood center
                                                                                                      and Friday mosque. The appearance of new squares, streets, theatres, cinemas and
                                                                                                      so on, led to the creation of more social contact, which gradually succeeded in chang-
                                                                                                      ing people’s social behavior. These urban changes, moreover, reflected a fundamental
                                                                                                      change in lifestyle. With the development of new architecture, citizens were gradually
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      introduced to a new lifestyle. For example, having exterior openings looking towards
                                                                                                      public spaces was no longer considered a defect; instead, it was considered a symbol
                                                                                                      of modernization. Besides, living in a group became widespread due to residential
                                                                                                      complexes; it meant that having a closed private space was no longer considered an
                                                                                                      essential principle. All these modifications led to the creation of an opinion that recog-
                                                                                                      nized new extroverted buildings as a sign of development, whereas courtyard build-
                                                                                                      ings were considered symbolic of old traditions.
                                                                                                          Nowadays, urban heritage is identified as a precious cultural asset which should nec-
                                                                                                      essarily be conserved. Accordingly, a number of urban conservation and revitalization
                                                                                                      programs are pursued in historic neighborhoods by city governors. It is widely accepted
                                                                                                      throughout the world, that historic urban quarters have a special place in the cultural
                                                                                                      and historical heritage of any country, since they are coherent entities, which are clearly
                                                                                                      identified by their traditional character and architectural value [18]. The main aim of ur-
                                                                                                      ban conservation is to adopt measures for preserving the historical environment, which
                                                                                                      will continue its existence by reconciling past and future and by not losing its historical
                                                                                                      appearance. It can be clearly determined that in various earlier research, the subject
                                                                                                      is examined using multidimensional approaches within the framework of these meas-
                                                                                                      ures. In the context of these approaches, the importance of the conservation of physi-
                                                                                                      cal characteristics is emphasized together with cultural, social and economic aspects
                                                                                                      [19]. Belfiore entitles a part of her book using this phrase: “opposition of transformation:
                                                                                                      conservation” [13].She defines conservation as a type of intervention in the existent city.
                                                                                                      Furthermore, she points out that in opposition to the strong waves of Modernism, which
                                                                                                      was against the past, the theory of urban conservative reorganization was a response-
                                                                                                      reaction that led to the definition and elaboration of scientific-philological considerations
                                                                                                      in architectural and urbanism culture (Sitte, Viollet-le-Duc, Ruskin, Stubben, Boito, etc.)
                                                                                                      [13]. Being the witness of past civilizations and the accumulation of thousands of years’
                                                                                                      creativeness, historic urban quarters are the most precious constituent of the cultural
                                                                                                      heritage [18] to which careful attention should be paid by city governors.
                                                                                                          Pursuing the debate on urban conservation, I should point out that the general ten-
                                                                                                      dency of Islamic societies toward modernization caused people to reject traditional
                                                                                                      architecture; consequently, courtyard buildings became representative of what was
                                                                                                      old, degraded and inadequate. It is worth pointing out that nowadays, architects who
                                                                                                      intend to represent the spirit of Islamic building in their works refer to introversion. This
                                                                                                      means that introversion has been characterized as a key principle in Islamic architec-
                                                                                                      ture (Figure 5).



                                                                                                204
Figure 5. Appearance of new extroverted direct streets within the introverted-organic fabrics;
historic center of Yazd city in Persia
(Source of picture: Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Yazd city, Persia,
2010)

    Furthermore, the transformation process of cities, from introversion to extroversion,
continued until even traditional buildings such as the mosque were implemented on the




                                                                                                          CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
basis of extroverted principles. Likewise, the old Bazaar system became an extroverted
one within the framework of new commercial centers. Considering all these changes, it
seems a difficult task to revitalize historic neighborhoods which are mostly comprised
of courtyard buildings. As the lifestyle has drastically changed and citizens have experi-
enced a new social life, the regeneration of courtyard houses is not a simple task. There
is another problem which makes it more complicated: due to technological restrictions,
the majority of courtyard buildings are formed of just one or two storeys. From this point
of view, there is an apparent contrast between new and old districts. This problem is
not evident in European fabrics, as there is no drastic contrast between the inner city
and peripheral areas [8]. Altogether, the main obstacles for the regeneration of isolated-
introverted areas are the result of two factors which have drastically generated such con-
trast: (1) Difference in architectural typologies (introverted - extroverted); (2) Difference
in height (one or two storied buildings - high buildings). This contrast is not observed in
a European historic center; hence, from this perspective, a process of urban redevelop-
ment is easier than for an introverted city center. On the contrary, at the present time, it
would be difficult to make indigenous families return to the one or two storied courtyard
houses. To achieve this objective, multi-dimensional planned solutions are needed. In
some cases, a number of houses have been re-functionalized. This strategy has led to a
relatively dynamic conservation of such buildings. Yet the main problem is related to revi-
talizing courtyard houses which have a particular residential function. First and foremost,
urban conservators are attempting to solve this dilemma. They strive to find logical and


                                                                                                    205
                                                                                                      achievable solutions to eliminate the obstacle concerning the contrast existing between
                                                                                                      the two concepts of city and lifestyle.
                                                                                                          Conservation can be referred to as ‘surface’ conservation and ‘deep’ conservation.
                                                                                                      It can also be defined ‘passive’ or ‘dynamic’ conservation. Surface conservation deals
                                                                                                      with the external character of historical areas. For instance, in the historic center of
                                                                                                      Rome, passive conservation has controlled the appearance of buildings; however, it
                                                                                                      lacks dynamic programs for upgrading their exteriors. The old city with its peeling
                                                                                                      paint and sun-washed facades looks authentically old, but the interiors have been
                                                                                                      modernized. Deep conservation strives to restore historic environments to a rigor-
                                                                                                      ous, complete, and accurate form, inside as well as outside [20]. Notwithstanding the
                                                                                                      fact that in an Islamic historic center the streets practically lack any definite form of
                                                                                                      urban façade, city governors prevalently pursue a strategy of surface conservation.
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      This can potentially create conflict between different urban conservation strategies.
                                                                                                      However, in European contexts, while the uncovering of the historical form may be
                                                                                                      authentic, conversion to livable occupancy unavoidably coats them with a veneer of
                                                                                                      modernity. Conservation often preserves the form but modernizes the surface [20]. On
                                                                                                      the contrary, in Oriental-Islamic fabrics, external facades are difficult to modernize on
                                                                                                      the one hand; on the other, the spatial structure of interior spaces must necessarily be
                                                                                                      altered, whereby the building can be adapted to the new necessities of modern life.
                                                                                                      Thus, the situation is more complicated than the process of urban redevelopment in
                                                                                                      European fabrics. Ragghianti (1946) believes that architecture and urbanism are not
                                                                                                      superficial arts relating exclusively to facades [21]. The process of reconstruction dur-
                                                                                                      ing the postwar period and the insertion of new parts into the old, are also important in
                                                                                                      Rogers’ opinion (1958). He emphasizes that history is not ‘static’. It has always been
                                                                                                      distinguished by continuous mutations. Hence, the expression contemporaneity is in-
                                                                                                      evitable [21] (Figure 6).




                                                                                                      Figure 6.The general tendency of Islamic communities toward modernization caused people to
                                                                                                      reject traditional architecture; consequently, courtyard buildings were representative of being old,
                                                                                                      degraded and inadequate. Inner city of Yazd, Persia
                                                                                                      (Source of picture: Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism Organization of Yazd city, Persia,
                                                                                                      2010)


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   Factors such as privacy, personal space and territorial behavior affect perception of
convenience and quality of environment [22]. The need for privacy is common amongst
human beings and helps to meet other needs for security, affiliation and esteem [23].
However, the way people express this need and the way to achieve it, is different in dif-
ferent societies [24]. As described, traditional Islamic architecture puts strong emphasis
on the privacy of buildings. After the emergence of Modern urbanization a drastic conflict
was created between the two ways of perceiving personal space. Definitions of privacy
have one characteristic in common, the important point being the ability of one person
or a group of people to control audio-visual and olfactory interaction with other people
[22]. In other words, “privacy” and “social interaction” are closely related. Hence, privacy
should not lead to isolation [25]. A number of theorists have referred to the individual’s
need of territory as a need to manage the boundary between themselves and others
[26].Accordingly, at present, this type of spatial configuration, based on strong isolation,
cannot be pursued in urban regeneration plans. It is an extremely delicate matter. In
revitalizing such fabrics, fundamental transformations and remodeling are inevitable in
order to include isolated structures as part of urban spaces. In this way, central private
spaces can be connected to public spaces. As can be observed, this strategy seems
to be more complicated than the urban regeneration policies which are generally pur-
sued in European contexts. On the one hand, the basic urban identity of such fabrics
is based on introversion; while on the other hand, to modernize such areas, isolated
private courtyards would necessarily have to be connected to public spaces. These con-
tradictory objectives should be analyzed in more detail in urban revitalization strategies.

   6. Conclusions

    In a European historic city people are able to demonstrate their urban status through
the site, type and style of their house; in Islamic fabrics it cannot be expressed on exterior




                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
facades. In a European city, expressing status and social condition through dwellings is
normal and inevitable; forms of buildings are considered a code allowing each level of
social stratification to be expressed. Conversely, the constitutive units of an introverted
fabric generate their main spaces around isolated courtyards; so the network of streets
is merely considered a pathway without openings, green spaces, decorative elements
and other recognizable urban attractions. The facades of European houses can offer
figurative expression. Different traits in the personality of a citizen can be aesthetically
expressed on the walls. On the contrary, we see internal private aesthetics being kept
hidden from outsiders. In addition, despite the uniformity of European facades, we can
distinguish different architectural tastes, immediately identified by differences in details.
In an Islamic historic center, however, these differences are not visible and all architec-
tural details have been placed in the inner parts of courtyard buildings. In an Islamic city,
architectural regulations are adopted to create private facades, whereas urban facades
are left untouched. The complexity of introverted architecture is mostly based on spatial
compositions within the interior spaces. Another aspect of Islamic urban beauty is relat-
ed to the architectural-urban spatial compositions existing between prominent buildings
and their surrounding environment. In this approach, the three-dimensionality of urban
spaces is considered more important than the two-dimensionality of urban facades. In
contrast, in European cities, the general form of squares, monumental streets and his-
toric centers depends on the quality of the facades. As a result, everyone agrees with the
necessity of there being some control over the appearance of these facades.


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                                                                                                          In addition, introversion of the urban fabric is defined in the relationship existing
                                                                                                      between full spaces and empty ones. While in a European city, urban aesthetics is
                                                                                                      predominantly related to the spatial configuration of squares, streets and so forth, in-
                                                                                                      troverted-Islamic urban beauty is based on the configuration of geometric-symmetric
                                                                                                      courtyards. With the emergence of modern alterations in the structure of open spaces,
                                                                                                      both European and Islamic historic centers have been negatively influenced. In intro-
                                                                                                      verted areas, the drastic separation existing between private courtyards and public
                                                                                                      spaces has caused old houses to remain unchanged. These isolated private court-
                                                                                                      yards can no longer continue their life without having a dynamic connection with public
                                                                                                      open spaces. This discontinuity between private and public spaces is one of the most
                                                                                                      controversial problems standing in the way of regenerating courtyard houses. Fur-
                                                                                                      thermore, there is a close relationship between introverted urban frameworks and the
G. Nazemi - A comparison between beauty in islamic urban architecture and european historic cities




                                                                                                      notion of esoteric beauty which is completely different from the European concept of
                                                                                                      beauty. This type of esoteric aesthetics is more sophisticated, indirect and mysterious.
                                                                                                      As a consequence, its physical appearance is more metaphoric and introverted.
                                                                                                          As stated by Cohen (1994), it has also been recognized that if historical elements
                                                                                                      are not correctly integrated in daily life, efforts made for their protection will fail and
                                                                                                      urban centers will continue to empty: the past would simply become both a cultural
                                                                                                      stumbling block and a burden to the public. Correctly integrating historical elements
                                                                                                      into daily life inevitably calls for a positive change. Recognition of the value of historic
                                                                                                      urban neighborhoods as capital stock, in addition to their intangible aesthetic value,
                                                                                                      plays a crucial role in changing attitudes towards the protection/conservation of these
                                                                                                      areas [18]. Nevertheless, conservation of introverted-Islamic neighborhoods has its
                                                                                                      particularities. In such areas, the general tendency towards the extroverted urban sys-
                                                                                                      tem has gradually increased. Modern urban phenomena has caused the formation of
                                                                                                      a mixed fabric comprising both introverted and extroverted units. The chaotic forma-
                                                                                                      tion of different typologies has generated fundamental alterations in urban features.
                                                                                                      It seems a difficult task to make indigenous families return to the one or two storied
                                                                                                      courtyard houses. First and foremost, urban conservators should try to find solutions
                                                                                                      to eliminate the obstacle concerning the contrast existing between the two different
                                                                                                      notions of city and lifestyle.
                                                                                                          On the other hand, notwithstanding the fact that in Islamic historic centers, the
                                                                                                      streets practically lack a determined urban façade, the strategy of surface conserva-
                                                                                                      tion is prevalently pursued by city governors. This can potentially create conflict be-
                                                                                                      tween urban conservation strategies. On the one hand, external facades can hardly be
                                                                                                      modernized; on the other, the spatial framework of interior spaces should necessarily
                                                                                                      be altered if the building is to be adapted to the new necessities of a modern life.
                                                                                                      Thus, the situation is more complicated than the process of urban renewal in European
                                                                                                      historic centers. In fact, this type of spatial configuration, based on strong isolation,
                                                                                                      cannot be pursued in urban regeneration plans. To revitalize such fabrics fundamental
                                                                                                      transformations would inevitably occur where by static-isolated structures could be
                                                                                                      connected to urban places. In this way, central private spaces could be connected to
                                                                                                      public spaces.
                                                                                                          Placing emphasis on the concept declared in the following quotation: “the future of
                                                                                                      architectural heritage depends largely upon its integration into the context of people’s
                                                                                                      lives and upon the weight given to it in regional and town planning and development
                                                                                                      schemes”, has resulted in the creation of a strong link, and a positive interdependency,
                                                                                                      between the “conservation” of historic urban quarters and their “revitalization” [18].


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On the one hand, the basic urban identity of Islamic fabrics is based on principles of
introversion; on the other, to connect private interior spaces to external public spaces
a series of transformations and remodeling would be inevitable. Consequently, creat-
ing a logical “balance” between these two different aspects of urban regeneration in
such fabrics must be taken into consideration by urban planners. Making a mistake
could lead to damaging the authentic urban beauty of such districts. Likewise, merely
pursuing restrictive conservation strategies can lead to creating a great urban museum
where the spirit of dynamic urban life is not evident.

      Notes

1
      ‘Zoroastrianism’, also called Mazdaism and Magianism, is a religion and philosophy
      based on the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra, in Av-
      estan) and was formerly among the world’s most widespread religions. It was prob-
      ably founded some time before the 6th century BCE in the eastern part of ancient
      Greater Iran(http://www.bestirantravel.com/culture/zoroastrian.html).
2
      A particular Persian vestibule.
3
      The roofed part of a mosque with its spatial module based on four columns.
4
      ‘Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire (ca. 550-330 BCE).
      It is situated 70 km northeast of the modern city of Shiraz in the Fars Province of mod-
      ern Iran. UNESCO declared the citadel of Persepolis a World Heritage Site in 1979.
5
      The ‘Sassanid Empire’ was the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, ruled by the Sas-
      sanian Dynasty from AD 224 to AD 651.
6
      ‘Bastides’ are fortified new towns built in medieval Languedoc, Gascony and Aquit-
      aine during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
7
      In the south of Switzerland
8
      1824-1884, Italian traveler




                                                                                                         CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
9
      ‘Sufism’ is defined by its adherents as the inner, mystical dimension of Islam (A.
      Godlas, Sufism’s Many Paths. University of Georgia). A practitioner of this tradition
      is generally known as a ‘Sufi’. Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as “a
      science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all
      else but God” (A. Zarruq; Z. Istrabadi; H.Y., Hanson, The Principles of Sufism (Amal
      Press, 2008). Alternatively, in the words of the Darqawi Sufi teacher Ahmad ibnAji-
      ba, “a science through which one can know how to travel into the presence of the
      Divine, purify one’s inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy
      traits”. (An English translation of Ahmad ibnAjiba’s biography has been published by
      Fons Vitae)
10
      http://islam.uga.edu/sufismintro.html accessed August 2012
11
      ‘Fitra’ is an Arabic word meaning disposition, nature, constitution, or instinct. In a
      mystical context, it can connote intuition or insight. It is similar to the Calvinist term
      “Sensus divinitatis”.
12
      http://islam.uga.edu/sufismdhikrlove.html accessed August 2012


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  Biographical notes

   Pourya Nazemiis holds a Ph.D. in “Recovery and Urban Regeneration” (Riquali-
ficazione e Recupero Insediativo) from Sapienza University of Rome. His major re-
search fields are comparative-analytic studies on European and Islamic-Oriental his-
toric urban textures with a focus on methods of urban conservation and regeneration
of old neighborhoods. His teaching experiences are: School of Architecture & Urban
Planning, Shahid Beheshti University of Tehran; Architecture Department, TAFE Uni-
versity (Branch of Australian University located in Tehran); and Department of Art in
Tehran Institute of Technology, between 2003 and 2008; Faculty of Architecture, Sa-
pienza University of Rome, as teaching assistant in the course of Urban Planning II of
prof. Roberto Cassetti, between 2009 and 2013.




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