10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17359
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1973-9494
17359
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Yerbol Ussenbayev
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Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
structuring core of culture
Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs as a phenomenon of cultural heritage, the original source of material and spiritual culture
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
22
Articles
2023-07-20
2023-06-23
2023-07-20
2023-07-20
289-306
CSCH
Yerbol Ussenbayev
2022
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17359
289
Faculty of Vocal, Conducting and Music Education, Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan 
1973-9494
structuring core of culture
en
306
Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs as a phenomenon of cultural heritage, the original source of material and spiritual culture
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/17359/16540
22
E    LEMENTS OF ARCHAIC MUSIC REFLECTED
     IN PETROGLYPHS AS A PHENOMENON
     OF CULTURAL HERITAGE, THE ORIGINAL SOURCE
     OF MATERIAL AND SPIRITUAL CULTURE


   Gulzhan Suleyeva, Ainur Yessetova*
   Faculty of Music Education and Management,
   Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

   Aigul Kossanova
   Faculty of Folk Music,
   Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

   Aisulu Kaldayakova
   Faculty of Instrumental Performance,
   Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

   Lyailya Kaliakbarova, Yerbol Ussenbayev
   Faculty of Vocal, Conducting and Music Education,
   Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory, Almaty, Republic of Kazakhstan

   Keywords: petroglyphs, ceremonial music, ritual melodies, shamanistic ritual,
   structuring core of culture


   1. Introduction

    The purpose of our research is to study the most important components of the cultur-
al heritage of petroglyphs and shamanic ritual culture, which is why we are considering
this subject within the research field of history and the theory of culture. The study of rock
paintings and ritual culture in the context of ethnographic, folklore, philosophical, psycho-
logical and, above all, musical heritage, has still not attracted much attention.
    A complex and specific sound palette in many cultures was used in shamanistic
rituals by specially trained shamans, suggesting some connection between tones of a
certain frequency and individual chakras that affect the state of consciousness. As an
important component of culture, shamanistic ritual, as a specific genre, required the
presence of spectators. Approaching theatricalized ideas, having a certain dramatic
structure and combining canonical and improvisational elements, the ritual ceremony
demonstrated the origin of musical thinking itself and the subordination of all kinds of
sound and musical activity to the ritual.
    The magical effect of music has attracted people’s attention since ancient times;
the magic felt in ‘immateriality’ generated some assumptions about its special, un-
earthly origin. ‘Being a spiritual and emotional experience, music conveyed a complete



   * Corresponding author: ainur_y12@rambler.ru
                                                                                                                                               picture of the world in its unity of feelings and thoughts. While appealing to feelings, it
G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs



                                                                                                                                               created a model of the Universe in the system of emotional images’ [1].
                                                                                                                                                     Reflecting the connection of times, music, like Eternity itself, affecting the world and
                                                                                                                                               dissolving its boundaries, conveyed a sense of belonging to the Universe and its Mys-
                                                                                                                                               tery. Distinguished by an internal integrity and syncretism of life spheres, music did not
                                                                                                                                               allow the separation of ‘reality from the mythological, the material from the spiritual, the
                                                                                                                                               practical, daily, logical and rational, from the sensitive and the emotional’ [1].
                                                                                                                                                     The spiritual value, correlating with ritual, ethical, cosmogonic features, expressed
                                                                                                                                               ‘…the original harmony of the system: Sound-Culture-Space, finding expression in artis-
                                                                                                                                               tic, cosmogonic, material, spiritual and practical activities’ [2].
                                                                                                                                                     The way of life, the specificity of spiritual views indicates the initially high status of
                                                                                                                                               music. Aesthetic feeling was one of the highest manifestations of spirituality. Musical
                                                                                                                                               art, as one of the forms of human activity, was close to ‘…religious cognition of the
                                                                                                                                               world, the ability to reproduce and discover the beauty of man and nature, and it gave
                                                                                                                                               the broadest opportunities for creative cognition of these phenomena’ [3].
                                                                                                                                                     During the time of the primitive communal system, the scenes of hunting, wars,
                                                                                                                                               labor processes and ritual ceremonies were reflected in the pictorial activities of an-
                                                                                                                                               cient man. Natural conditions generated vivid emotional experiences and the desire to
                                                                                                                                               fix them with the means at hand. The stylistic richness of cave paintings, which give an
                                                                                                                                               idea of the creators’ artistic taste of the surrounding reality, testify to a complex world-
                                                                                                                                               view, rich imagination and a syncretic musical creativity among the tribes living in the
                                                                                                                                               III-I millennium BC. Proof of this is found in works by Margulan [4], Sher [5], Bernshtam
                                                                                                                                               [6], Akishev [7], Maximova [8] and others.
                                                                                                                                                     A variety of petroglyphs reflecting archaic representations, and ritually magical cult
                                                                                                                                               and mystery actions are found all over the world: Kazakhstan (Tamgaly); Mountain
                                                                                                                                               Altai (Kuyus); Mai valley; the Aldan tributary; Shiveet-Khairkhan rock; Suruktah-Khaya
                                                                                                                                               rock in Yakutia on the river Tocco; Gobustan in Azerbaijan; Khakass-Minusinsk hollow;
                                                                                                                                               Alta in Finnmark county in northern Norway; Spain (Altamira cave); Algeria; Tassi-
                                                                                                                                               lin-Adjer mountain plateau in the Sahara; France (Caves de Font-de-Gaume, Mon-
                                                                                                                                               tespan and others); Siberia, Don (Kostenki); Zalavruga in Karelia, Russia, as well as in
                                                                                                                                               Italy, England and Germany. The expanses of Kazakhstan literally abound in rock
                                                                                                                                               graphics, carrying coded information. While being sacred concentration centers of the
                                                                                                                                               spiritual culture of ancient communities, they represent sanctuaries, where there are
                                                                                                                                               ‘…open-air temples, with the magical properties of a consecrated place’ [9].
                                                                                                                                                     Representing ‘…encryption keys, known only among a specific sociocultural com-
                                                                                                                                               monality of a specific historical epoch’ [10] and differing in artistic and sensual imagery
                                                                                                                                               and emotional expressiveness, petroglyphs do not cease to amaze the imagination and
                                                                                                                                               cause speculation.
                                                                                                                                                     According to sacral ideas, the world was endowed with a creative and generative
                                                                                                                                               power; the interaction of the objective state of the world and the subject of its spiritual
                                                                                                                                               development with creative practice, manifested itself in artistic thinking. The specifics
                                                                                                                                               of work, the way of life itself and natural conditions, influenced the sound characteris-
                                                                                                                                               tics of music, and the appearance of specific types of musical instruments that were
                                                                                                                                               distinguished by a certain richness in the timbre of the sound scale: ‘from low over-
                                                                                                                                               tones to “thick”, chest sounds with hoarse, high, and strained falsetto sounds’ [11,12].
                                                                                                                                               Defining the semantic orderliness of the universe and the harmonious connection be-
                                                                                                                                               tween man and the Universe, music did not transform the world, but recreated harmo-
                                                                                                                                               ny, and was the subject of aesthetic enhancement.
                                                                                                                                                     Hunters, shepherds, and shamans were the first musicians. As time passed, these
                                                                                                                                               peoples’ tasks were differentiated, which led to the stratification of the syncretism in


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work activities. Gradually, workers’ tools started acquiring profiled properties, as a re-
sult of which all-round craftsmen were replaced by experts: musicians, narrators, mas-
ters of musical instruments. In turn, they contributed to the formation and crystallization
of instrumentalism, the extraction of overtones and microtone vibrations as an indepen-
dent type of artistic creativity [13], which gave the sound a special refined color [11].
Expanding the possibilities of purposeful identification of feelings and increasing the
effectiveness of emotional expression, a musical instrument was not a momentary
explosion, but always an art, a communicative act.
    Musical instruments were used in hunting to bait birds and animals by brilliantly
imitating their voices. They imitated their singing, the call of birds, animals, the
sounds of female animals luring a male, and a calf calling its mother; they were also
used in the sphere of work to promote labor and the well-being of the family. Being
the basis of the instrumental structure of the shamanic cult, musical instruments
were an integral part of the ritual activity and ‘contributed to the development of mu-
sical forms and performance skills. As a result, the shamanic ritual became melodic
and aesthetic’ [14].
    The singing, and poetic and instrumental creativity of shamans was a model of true
improvisation requiring extraordinary imagination and special creative talent. The sha-
man was a wonderful poet, artist, composer, singer, improviser and a dancer, who bril-
liantly combined all these qualities. The shamanic chants used during ritual ceremo-
nies were melodic recitations of short saryns (a recitative song genre) and were
characterized by specific imitation of the voices of animals and birds, and special types
of guttural singing. Subordinated to the ritual act, shamanic music was distinguished by
a variety of intonation types: melodic intonation, melodic recitation, shamanistic ritual
with a kobyz (a stringed musical instrument used by a shaman during the ritual process),
a tambourine, an asatayak (a percussion instrument), singing, verbal communication
with the participants of the ceremony. Shamans also used recitative phrases when con-
juring the spirits.




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
    The culture of ancient rituals, represented by an impressive volume of petroglyphs,
which convey the spontaneous dialectics of multidimensional life, made it possible to
trace ‘…the peculiarities of musical thinking, determine the specificity of culture, the
nature of its outlook and aesthetic nature’ [15], ‘…harmony of the universe, orderliness,
existence, stability’ [16], and features of perception [17]. Having a sacred meaning, this
culture became the basis of artistic creation [18].
    The methodological setting of this work is the study of ritual musical culture and the
ceremonial context in the complex of the principles of historical-ethnographic, structur-
al-semiotic and comparative analysis reflected in petroglyphs. When describing music
as being a representative of the picture of the world, we relied on materials from the
works of American scientists, such as S. Сhianis, the works of the French researcher
J. Combarien, the Russian researchers I. Zemtsovsky and I. Macieuski, the Kazakh
philosopher S. Ayazbekov, the art historians A. I. Mukhambetova, B. Amanov, S. Utegali-
yeva and others, and the pre-revolutionary works of A. I. Levshin.
    We considered the abovementioned aspects in the context of musicology, ethnog-
raphy, cultural studies, philosophy, folklore, cultural history, philology, based on the
works of V. Terner [19], P. Radin, E. Emsheimer, M. Eliade, A. Baiburin [20], V.I. Brud-
nyiy [21], T. A. Bernshtam [22], and Ch. Valikhanov [23].
    In identifying the symbolic nature of rock art, we used a semiotic approach, which
allowed us to determine the structure of the gestures and establish their semantic
content (semantics) and to determine the effectiveness of gestural communication in


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                                                                                                                                               the rituals associated with emotionality. An integrated approach, including musicological,
G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs



                                                                                                                                               informational-communicative, semiotic, semantic, psycho-physiological components
                                                                                                                                               contributed to the disclosure of the logic of using pictorial language in petroglyphs,
                                                                                                                                               comprehending psychological, technical, and methodological possibilities in creating
                                                                                                                                               artistic images. The works of A.Kh. Margulan, A.G. Maksimova, A. Hygene, C.E. Hoop-
                                                                                                                                               wood, R. Beardmore, K.M. Baypakov, A.N. Maryashev, D.K. Dosbatyrov, etc. were
                                                                                                                                               consulted to research the subject of petroglyphs.


                                                                                                                                                  2. Literature review

                                                                                                                                                   By examining petroglyphs with images of ancient instruments from past ages we can
                                                                                                                                               learn about their structure and the music that was performed. The developing perfor-
                                                                                                                                               mance capabilities of instruments that influence the formation of musical thinking required
                                                                                                                                               ‘…creating and cultivating various instruments, changing a number of typical characteris-
                                                                                                                                               tics, and improving performance techniques and improvisational abilities’ [24].
                                                                                                                                                   On rock paintings with ritual scenes, shamans can be seen with various musical
                                                                                                                                               instruments, such as a kobyz, a dabyl (a small-sized percussion instrument, like a
                                                                                                                                               tambourine), a daulpaz (a percussion instrument of large size), an asatayak (a ritual
                                                                                                                                               noise-producing instrument in the form of a rod and covered with metal suspensions),
                                                                                                                                               widely used in ritual practices and testifying to the formation and development of genre
                                                                                                                                               and creative foundations. Along with the transcripts of A. Medoev [25], Z. Samashev
                                                                                                                                               [26], K.M. Baypakov [27], M.K. Kadyrbaev and A.N. Maryashev [28] and others, we will
                                                                                                                                               present our vision of individual pictorial artifacts and consider the role of religious and
                                                                                                                                               ideological traditions in the formation of musical culture.
                                                                                                                                                   An attempt to decipher the petroglyphs is given in the work of D.K. Dosbatyrov [29],
                                                                                                                                               who examines pictorial artifacts in the process of the genesis of circus art and acrobat-
                                                                                                                                               ic elements, which constitute the basis of ancient sacred acts. D.K. Dosbatyrov’s view
                                                                                                                                               has a reason to exist, but we believe that the music which accompanied the vital pro-
                                                                                                                                               cess of humanity was paramount. Occupying a special place and, due to its spiritual
                                                                                                                                               nature in the context of ancient cosmogonic ideas, music was an organic part of a
                                                                                                                                               single life space, a mysterious phenomenon of human existence.
                                                                                                                                                   Elements of traditional culture are oriented toward signs, and especially to music.
                                                                                                                                               A necessary means of communication is the presence of a language, thus, ‘Any sys-
                                                                                                                                               tem that serves the goals of communication between individuals can be defined as a
                                                                                                                                               language’ [30].
                                                                                                                                                   A. Baiburin identified three ‘languages’ of traditional culture: verbal (as a combina-
                                                                                                                                               tion of verbal and written texts); operational (as a system of rituals, ceremonies, tech-
                                                                                                                                               nology, etiquette in their action); subject (as a complex of things) [31]. It also includes
                                                                                                                                               a fourth ‘language’ – a musical one, which includes sounds, homemade styles, tunes
                                                                                                                                               and musical genres [32]. According to Konen, we understand musical language as ‘a
                                                                                                                                               set of artistic techniques and means that make up the unique specifics of music’ [33],
                                                                                                                                               confirming the opinion of Asafiev [34], who states ‘…musical language is similar to a
                                                                                                                                               verbal one, because it is a communicative system developed for the transmission of
                                                                                                                                               special information’ [35].
                                                                                                                                                   Music genres that convey certain meanings, concentrating clusters of vital, cult
                                                                                                                                               meanings, have visible and tangible features – remarkability. ‘The conventional signs
                                                                                                                                               – archaic styles and melodies used in ritual practice – have meanings of magical
                                                                                                                                               reputation.’ ‘The music of the rituals is directed toward the “numinous” recipients of


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the Upper World and provides “communication” with the sacred recipients of the
Lower World’ [36].
     A ritual relating to the original sources of human culture and being the earliest syn-
cretic sign system with deep meaning [18] can be revealed only ‘in a specific historical
and temporal context and in the ritual process’ [17]. A ritual consisting of structural
layers of meanings: the upper level (‘common sense’), the level of everyday conscious-
ness expressed in verbal language (superficial, well-known) and the person in charge
of the ritual (having esoteric knowledge, using several languages), are important points
of the cultural focus.
     Structural semantic features of the rituals are discussed in detail in the work of E.
Emsheimer [36], and in the studies of M. Eliade [37], T. Lehtisalo [38], and A. Divaev
[39]. These works, which reveal the structure of the ritual and its semantics in the meta-
physical space, made it possible to determine the significant role of the sacred nature
of ritual music in culture and to reveal its connection with the material world of people
and the intangible world of spiritual entities.
     The ritual ‘preceded the emergence not only of world religions, but also national
religions’ [39]. Playing a certain role in culture, it became common in nomadic religious
traditions for ‘…the need to know about the Universe with its wonders, the question of
life and death in the relationship between people and nature, which led to the birth of
shamanism’ [23].
     There are many works devoted to the study of the phenomenon of shamanism from
different angles: Kirchenr examines the semiotics of the sacral religious ideas of sha-
manism [40], Eliade revealed features of the archaic technique of shamanistic ecstasy
[20]; Willard, Park and Metraux considered totem dances, shamanic rites, household
and religious rituals, which played a huge role in the development of musical culture
[41, 42]. Having a completely unique role, a high degree of harmony, and being an
artistic value, all of which satisfied the aesthetic needs of an ethnos, shamanic ritual
music was the structuring core of culture [17].




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
     The sound of bourdon, throat singing, the wealth of forms, melodies, rhythms, tones
and their variations, communicated the experience of a higher being and ideological
foundations and were directed ‘at the revelation of the soul and the divine spirit’ [43].
     While being one of the types of archaic musical culture, accompanied by various
instruments, the sacral rite of shamans was a vivid universal exponent of culture. The
shaman, as the forefather of all artists, and a demiurge of culture, was able to see
the unmanifested part of the universe and communicate with the spirits of ancestors.
Magical practice was his prerogative. The leading themes in musical creativity, mod-
eled in rituals and rites, were universality, harmony of the world order, space, society,
whose multidimensionality was determined by such aspects as existence, spiritual
activities in the context of historical, ethnogenetic, cosmogonic, religious and other
generalizations. The ritual ceremonial scene, reflected in the sufficiently large fac-
tual material of the rock paintings, testify to the versatility of ritual music, as ‘a key
world-modeling element that can significantly determine a picture of the world’ (Figure 1).
The conceptual description of the world picture, the peculiarities of the world view
with the inherent connection between the upper, middle and lower worlds are given
by Ibraev [44] in various types of traditional activities. As a spiritualized Universum,
the form of creative consciousness is viewed in the world of Ayazbekova: ‘…in the
formation of musical culture, the harmony, the spirituality of Space generated by music
was the source and beginning of all other harmonies, and the integrity and sustain-
ability of traditional culture’ [45].


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                                                                                                                                                  3. Results and discussion
G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs




                                                                                                                                                  3.1. Evidence of the musical instruments, ritual songs and dance performances

                                                                                                                                                   The ‘duality’ of the world, represented by vertical and horizontal space, was deter-
                                                                                                                                               mined by material and existential factors and a spiritual and creative principle. The role
                                                                                                                                               of harmonizing space belonged to music and was carried out with the help of certain
                                                                                                                                               cosmogonic, demiurgic, life-creating, protective and ritual functions. ‘There was noth-
                                                                                                                                               ing in life that could not be known. Everything was subject to unique cosmic laws’ [46].
                                                                                                                                                   Musical instruments acted as an intermediary between the world of people and the
                                                                                                                                               world of gods. Their anthropological construction testified to their connection with cos-
                                                                                                                                               mic harmony, for example, ‘the deck of the kobyz (the shaman’s musical instrument)
                                                                                                                                               and its two pegs, which regulate two strings, represents the Upper World. The slotted
                                                                                                                                               part of the kobyz, like the two halves of the brain, represents the Middle World. The
                                                                                                                                               lower world is the bottom of the kobyz and represents chaos. The bow and two strings
                                                                                                                                               represent two types of energy – solar and lunar, male and female’ [47].
                                                                                                                                                   Rock paintings depicting various musical instruments are found in Saimaly-Tash; the
                                                                                                                                               Chulak Mountains; Tamgaly Gorge; the valleys of the Terekty River; the Khantau Moun-
                                                                                                                                               tains of the South-West Balkhash Region; on the rocks of Yakutia on the Tocco River; in
                                                                                                                                               the Minusinsk Basin in Khakassia; the Ukhtasar Mountain in Armenia; in an engraving at
                                                                                                                                               the Tuschibek necropolis in Western Karatau, Mangyshlak, etc. Of particular interest are
                                                                                                                                               images in the archaeological complexes of Tamgaly and Kulzhabasy, researched by the
                                                                                                                                               European scientists Hoopwood and Beardmore, who believed that ‘These areas in
                                                                                                                                               southern Kazakhstan contain thousands of petroglyphs dating from the Bronze Age
                                                                                                                                               through to the present day, creating a unique record of human activities’ [48].
                                                                                                                                                   Musical instruments, without losing their signal purpose, were used for hunting and
                                                                                                                                               military campaigns. The powerful sounds of the dabyl and dauylpaz instruments (per-
                                                                                                                                               cussion instruments) were aimed at raising the spirit of the warriors before battle, cre-
                                                                                                                                               ating a sound effect which was meant to encourage them to fight bravely as well as
                                                                                                                                               inspiring fear in the enemy.
                                                                                                                                                   One of the brightest rock art museums is that of the Tamgaly, which is the oldest
                                                                                                                                               sanctuary included in the World Heritage List by UNESCO. ‘… the dense and coherent
                                                                                                                                               group of petroglyphs with sacred images, altars and cult areas, together with their as-
                                                                                                                                               sociated settlements and burial sites, provide a substantial testimony to the lives and
                                                                                                                                               beliefs of the pastoral peoples of the Central Asian steppes from the Bronze Age to the
                                                                                                                                               present day’ [49].
                                                                                                                                                   In our work we relied on the archaeological works of A. P. Okladnikov, L. Hermann,
                                                                                                                                               E. Emsheimer, Z. Samashev and others, who built their theory on rock paintings con-
                                                                                                                                               cerning the ritual and ceremonial character of the shamans [50]. The petroglyphs depict-
                                                                                                                                               ing a cult rite on the Suruktah-Khaya rock on the bank of the Tocco River in Yakutia are
                                                                                                                                               expressive in terms of composition (Figure 1). In the center is the figure of a shaman: in
                                                                                                                                               one hand he is holding a tambourine decorated with the image of the sun, represented
                                                                                                                                               here in the form of a solar sign; in the other hand he is holding an instrument, resembling
                                                                                                                                               a kobyz, used in ritual ceremonies. Next to him there is an equally mysterious figure,
                                                                                                                                               holding an object resembling a dombra (a two-stringed instrument); his head is crowned
                                                                                                                                               with horns, which are an indispensable feature of the shamanistic ritual.
                                                                                                                                                   We find similar images in the Kulzhabasy petroglyphs (Figure 2). According to Z. Sa-
                                                                                                                                               mashev, the shaman was depicted while carrying out ritual and ceremonial actions and
                                                                                                                                               performing a ritual song to the accompaniment of ocarina-shaped musical instruments.
                                                                                                                                               This drawing is distinguished by its elegance and compositional completeness and is


                                                                                             294
Figure 1. Image of a shaman with a musical instrument shaped like a kobyz. Suruktah-Khaya Rock
near the Tocco River, Yakutia.

                              Figure 2. A shaman dancing with an ocarina-shaped musical in-
                              strument. Kulzhabasy petroglyphs.




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                              Figure 3. A shaman holding an asatayak. Petroglyphs found near
                              Colombian Plateau.

evidence of the birth of musical genres formed in ceremonial practice. Hermann thinks
that ‘Tamgaly was a place of worship for the sun’ [51].
    Images of shamans with various musical instruments are also found on the Colom-
bian Plateau (Figure 3). James D. Keyser in his work ‘The Indian Rock Art of the Co-
lumbia Plateau’ gives a detailed description of the ritual ceremony [52] which strikes
one with its scale and gigantic scenes that depict figures of animals, demonstrating the
impressive professionalism of these ancient artists, and their ability to use the natural
area and the texture of the stone.


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                                                                                                                                                    The sounds produced by instruments such as the kobyz, asatayak, dabyl, and dangy-
G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs



                                                                                                                                               ra, whose effects were enhanced during the ritual ceremony, were indispensable attri-
                                                                                                                                               butes. The kylkobyz (an ancient Turkic bowed string instrument), which was distinguished
                                                                                                                                               by the special character of the sound, had a special role during these practices. Its myste-
                                                                                                                                               rious and magical timbre literally fascinated and hypnotized the listener, and bestowed a
                                                                                                                                               ‘mystical’, ‘weird’ quality upon the music [53]. Sounds produced as a result of gently shak-
                                                                                                                                               ing the asatayak, induced rhythmic movements which served to drive away evil spirits.
                                                                                                                                               Instead, the powerful beats on a tambourine, which was similar to the daulpaz and dabyl,
                                                                                                                                               and designed to intimidate or scare away evil spirits, was replaced by a mysterious sound-
                                                                                                                                               ing kobyz, which attracted spirits, symbolized the fight against evil. The emotional and
                                                                                                                                               figurative structure of the rite was embodied in musical acts – aruahs – which had a mag-
                                                                                                                                               ical effect. Gradually increasing the intensity of the musical accompaniment, this expres-
                                                                                                                                               sive performance helped the shaman enter a state of ecstasy. Music was the most effec-
                                                                                                                                               tive means of helping the shaman to fall into a trance, and acting as a link between the
                                                                                                                                               worlds, it was the most important component of the ritual and symbolized the fight against
                                                                                                                                               evil. The emotional and figurative structure of the rite was embodied in musical composi-
                                                                                                                                               tions, artistic images, and in rhythmically clear sounds, ‘The shaman, having taken the
                                                                                                                                               kobyz in his hands, ...began to play, sing, gently swing, and then make various body
                                                                                                                                               movements’ [54]. Extracting overtone sounds, microtone ‘vibrations’, tones, overtones
                                                                                                                                               and even microtones, the shaman added a special, sophisticated flavor to the sound.


                                                                                                                                                  3.2. Solar signs

                                                                                                                                                   The well-being of society depended on the sacred meaning of the rite of consecra-
                                                                                                                                               tion. According to R.A. Amanova, ‘…the stratification of the syncretism of work activi-
                                                                                                                                               ties, the division of labor, the transformation of universal instruments into profiled ones,
                                                                                                                                               the replacement of those with universal characteristics with specialists – musicians,
                                                                                                                                               narrators, masters of musical instruments – led to the formation, and crystallization of
                                                                                                                                               instrumentalism as an independent kind of artistic creation’ [55].
                                                                                                                                                   The petroglyphs of Tamgaly, in the cave paintings of the Chu-Ili mountains, depict
                                                                                                                                               shaman figures that perceive the world around us as a single, integral space and
                                                                                                                                                                                               participation of their own lives in the exis-
                                                                                                                                                                                               tence of the Universe; the solar signs and
                                                                                                                                                                                               a halo of sunrays indicate this (Figures 4A
                                                                                                                                                                                               and B). Worship of the sun was born in
                                                                                                                                                                                               Neolithic times.




                                                                                                                                               Figure 4A. Shaman tambourine with solar signs
                                                                                                                                               (housed at the Siberia Kemerovo Regional
                                                                                                                                               Museum).                                        Figure 4B. The petroglyphs of Tamgaly.


                                                                                             296
     Solar signs were used as protection, symbolizing safety and foreshadowing the
victory of good over evil. The sun personified the power that creates life, hence the
circularity of most ancient dances; a circle was seen as a symbol of the sun, light and
life. In the mountains of Karatau there is a multi-figure composition (Figure 5) depicting
people holding hands, performing choral songs, circular dances: ‘…a desire to show
the movement of the heavenly deity of the Sun’ [28].
     N. A. Struchkova believes that ‘…the function of a circular dance in the form of an
endless circle is associated with the cult of worshiping Heaven and Sun. Being a mys-
tic form of hymn singing, it is an expressive means creating an artistic image of a solar
deity’ [56]. She considers the circular dance of osuokhay (Yakut dance) to be a special
form of ritual behavior used during these rites.
     The interpretation of the solar sign in the shape of a circle is reflected in the dance
songs of various nations. The hands of the shaman in a rounded form are the ‘solar
circle’, plastically reproducing a cosmogonic motif, symbolizing the sun as a symbol of
life. The image of a sun-headed deity beating a tambourine hanging on a belt is also
found in the Tamgaly Gorge (Figure 6) [57].




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
 Figure 5. Warriors, singing and dancing before a battle. Petroglyphs in Karatau, Kazakhstan.

                                     Figure 6. Sun-headed deity. Tamgaly, Kazakhstan.



                                         Petroglyphs from Arpauzen (Figure 7) [25] repre-
                                     sent a group of people, in the center of which is the
                                     figure of a shaman with raised arms, symbolizing
                                     his appeal to the supreme deity. Before the battle,
                                     the shaman, surrounded by warriors, asks for bless-
                                     ings by performing a ritual dance, with an asatayak
                                     in his hands; his movements are filled with expres-
                                     sion and vivid imagery.
                                         Z. Samashev believes that these are two groups
                                     of masked characters, demonstrating strength and
                                     power to each other by performing a military dance
                                     ‘directed’ by the central figures of the shamans from
                                     the two tribes (one of them is holding a rod in his
                                     hand) [26].


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G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs




                                                                                                                                                          Figure 7. ‘The battle of tribes”. Petroglyphs from Arpauzen, Kazakhstan.

                                                                                                                                                                                                 A series of ritual dances under the lead-
                                                                                                                                                                                             ership of shamans is depicted in the Tamg-
                                                                                                                                                                                             aly petroglyphs (Figure 8). All participants
                                                                                                                                                                                             in the composition are moving in circles.
                                                                                                                                                                                             Seized by a single impulse, they demon-
                                                                                                                                                                                             strate courage and power under the awe-
                                                                                                                                                                                             some sounds of the daulpaz (a huge per-
                                                                                                                                                                                             cussion instrument).

                                                                                                                                                                                                  3.3. Functions of other ritual attributes

                                                                                                                                                                                                  Each attribute of the ritual had its own
                                                                                                                                                                                              function: a tambourine and kobyz acted as a
                                                                                                                                                                                              means of transportation to other worlds,
                                                                                                                                                                                              while a headdress, a ritual mask and a ritual
                                                                                                                                                                                              cloak with konyrau bells hanging on them,
                                                                                                                                                                                              made up the aesthetic aspects of the theatri-
                                                                                                                                                                                              cal and entertainment side of the various
                                                                                                                                                                                              forms of shamanic art. Being endowed with
                                                                                                                                                                                              supernatural power, with the help of which
                                                                                                                                                                                              the shaman foreshadowed the future and
                                                                                                                                                                                              moved into the other world, he acted as a
                                                                                                                                                                                              soothsayer, healer, hypnotist and artist; he
                                                                                                                                                                                              represented a whole dramatic mystery ac-
                                                                                                                                               Figure 8. Ritual dance. Tamgaly, Kazakhstan.   companied by the sound of various musical
                                                                                                                                                                                              instruments, singing and ecstatic dancing.
                                                                                                                                               Forming a peculiar language of magical symbols, carrying ‘a mystical beginning, the sha-
                                                                                                                                               manic rite represented a theatrical act’ [58].
                                                                                                                                                   Distinguished by a ‘high degree of dramatization’, the shaman’s action implied the
                                                                                                                                               presence of outstanding performing skills and improvisational abilities which combined
                                                                                                                                               ecstasy and drama. The Shaman’s ability to think in sensual images, control the sphere
                                                                                                                                               of the subconscious, together with his artistic type of thinking and behavior, allowed
                                                                                                                                               him to skillfully combine rhythm, words, music and dance’ [59].
                                                                                                                                                   The movements of the anthropomorphic characters found on the petroglyphs in the
                                                                                                                                               mountains of Kulzhabasy (Figure 9) strike the observer with their emotional expressive-
                                                                                                                                               ness. The choice of location is not accidental – around the sacred circle we see a large
                                                                                                                                               number of people performing ritual ceremonies – sacrifices [26].


                                                                                             298
                     Figure 9. Petroglyphs of Kulzhabasy, Kazakhstan.


   3.4. The image of the shaman




                                                                                             CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
    As a musician and healer, the shaman attached great importance to the magical
and acoustic effects of musical instruments, along with reflex and associative reactions
aimed at increasing the response in sick people. He also used relaxing sounds, harmo-
nizing the sick person’s condition, simultaneously using suggestion and hypnosis.
    Only a chosen individual, who could master ecstatic practices, could become a
shaman:

          ‘When the fog covered the ground in the evening,
          A shaman who could see through the ground came.
          A large birch-bark tambourine was hanging behind his back.
          Then the great shaman Tordoor started spinning over the fire.
          His clothes are rustling,
          And the tambourine is booming like thunder.
          The shaman is calling for the help of the spirits...’ [4].
          [Excerpt from the Altai epic “Maadai-Kara Kaan Kara-Kul”].

    One of the engravings in ‘The Ritual Dance of the Shamans’ depicts a cult scene
(Figure 10), in which the shaman, with a tambourine in his hand, is performing a
dance in front of the sacrificial horses, and the figures of heavenly gods and dancing
people [4].


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G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs




                                                                                                                                                           Figure 10. Moment of sacrifice. Petroglyphs of Sary-Arka, Kazakhstan.


                                                                                                                                                   The petroglyphs of the Altai Mountains (Figure 10) depict the moment of sacrifice
                                                                                                                                               [60]. The figure of a shaman with a long tail is of particular interest. His hands are in a
                                                                                                                                               horizontal position; the fingers of one hand are splayed; in the other hand he is holding
                                                                                                                                               a tambourine. A number of animals, spellbound by a magical dance, are meekly reach-
                                                                                                                                               ing him for slaughter. The dance theme is peculiar to many monuments of rock art.
                                                                                                                                               Expressive plasticity and virtuosity of the dancing figures that strike with their artistic
                                                                                                                                               expression, represent a certain sequence of practical actions constituting a functional
                                                                                                                                               and structural unity.


                                                                                                                                                  4. Conclusions

                                                                                                                                                  The study of cave paintings reflecting ritual Kazakh culture made it possible to use
                                                                                                                                               new approaches which revealed the internal patterns of its composition and structure
                                                                                                                                               and are associated with ancient religious ideas. The ‘logic’ of the rock paintings, which
                                                                                                                                               convey the ‘grid of coordinates’ that help Kazakh people to understand the world, space
                                                                                                                                               and world order, testifies to the origin of musical, dancing, poetic, and dramatic forms.


                                                                                           300
Music as an integral component of all rituals has managed to preserve the genre and
semantic features of musical and poetic texts thanks to the specifics of its language.
    A certain musical conceptual sphere was formed as culture gradually evolved, in
which ethnic elements and features of musical language from the past were fixed and
shaped. The musical instruments depicted in the cave paintings were thought to be a
micro model of space and were a link between the different levels of sacral space.
    Understanding and deciphering the cultural significance of the semantic codes of
petroglyphs can be achieved through immersion in culture. With their amazing stability
and being an independent entity, cave paintings contribute to understanding the diver-
sity of sounds, through which a person ‘fits into’ and ‘enters’ the world of feelings and
spiritual values, reflecting the foundations of the life philosophy of distant ancestors.
Being a semiotic system, petroglyphs convey the peculiarities of perception and repro-
duction of artistic and aesthetic information and allow us to define the role of music as
the eternal ‘accompaniment’ of life. Being a source of information and a creative and
form-building comprehension of the world, cave paintings are a valuable means of
understanding material and spiritual culture. Petroglyphs open up a world based on the
structural-symbolic system of ritual music with features from ritual contexts. Consider-
ing the sacral nature of ritual as an archetype of culture, we have tried to identify the
role of music, which occupies a special place in ritual culture due to its spiritual nature,
richness of styles and performing diversity. The ritual ceremony, aimed at restoring
balance and world order with the help of a peculiar language, expressed certain ideas
which helped people to come into contact with otherworldly forces from the higher,
middle and underground worlds. Over the centuries, the ethnic features of rituals have
taken shape in crystal clear form; in a relatively “pure” form, they reflect important fea-
tures of ancient culture, general trends in musical formation and musical thinking.


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                                                                                                                                                  Biographical notes

                                                                                                                                                   Gulzhan Sozakpaуevna Suleуeva is a Candidate of Philology, Professor of the De-
                                                                                                                                               partment of Social and Humanitarian Disciplines and author of over 80 scientific articles.
                                                                                                                                               Communicative and pragmatic essence of musical terminoid remarks. European Journal
                                                                                                                                               of Science and Theology. SJR за 2013 - 0,253 (Scopus), (Elsevier, Netherlands). (Ro-
                                                                                                                                               mania). – 2014, Vol.10, Iss. 6. - ISS 1841-0464 .– P. 115-128. Linguistics of Russian-spe-
                                                                                                                                               aking Kazakh musicology. Journal «XLinguae». SJR - 0.310. Q1-2. 2017. SJR - 0,200.
                                                                                                                                               (Slovenia). ISSN 1337-8384. – Vol. 10. - Iss. 4. - P 13-25

                                                                                                                                                   Ainur Takeevna Yessetova is a Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Pro-
                                                                                                                                               fessor of the Department of Social and Humanitarian Disciplines at the Kurmangazy
                                                                                                                                               Kazakh National Conservatory and author of more than 20 scientific articles, including:
                                                                                                                                               Semiotic Signs and Performing Interpretation of a Kui in the Paradigm of National Con-
                                                                                                                                               cepts of Kazakh Music Pedagogy in Universal Journal of Educational Research Vol.
                                                                                                                                               8(11B): 6192-6199, 2020. DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2020.082257. SJR - 0.122. India. Scopus.

                                                                                                                                                  Aigul Shodanovna Kossanova is an Associate Professor of the department of
                                                                                                                                               Folk Singing at the Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatoire. She is an Honored


                                                                                             304
Worker of the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Author of 15 scientific articles: The syn-
thesis of the integrative and form-building possibilities of expressive means of music
painting and poetry, Astra Salvensis (Romania) ISSN2393-4727 (2018) V.6, ISS.12,
pp .589-602. [Indexed by Scopus & approved by UGC].

     Aisulu Abulkassymovna Kaldayakova is a Senior teacher in the Department of
General Piano at Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory. In 2011, she graduated
from the Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory with a degree in piano. In 2013,
she graduated from the magistracy of the Kazakh National Conservatory, Kurmangazy,
majoring in piano. In 2017, she defended her doctoral dissertation at the Kurmangazy
Kazakh National Conservatory, majoring in musicology (PhD). The best young scien-
tist of the CIS countries, 2020. She is the author of more than 30 scientific publica-
tions, including ACTA HISTRIAE, 23, 2015, 2, Republike Slovenije, pp 265-284.
(Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in Thomson Reuters)
ISSN 1318-0185.

    Lyailya Taitoleuovna Kaliakbarova is a Professor of Art History at Kurmangazy
Kazakh National Conservatoire, a Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences (PhD), and Pro-
fessor of Art History in the Department of Music Education at the same Conservatory.
She is a well-known expert in the field of Music Education. She has been twice awarded
The European Union Gold Medal for the highest achievements in Music Education of
Kazakhstan. She is the author of more than 200 scientific publications, including: Musical
world images of the composer and performer as a subject of linguistic and psychological
analysis, ACTA HISTRIAE (Slovenia 2015.-V.23.-Iss.2., Impact Factor 2014:0,202 (Jour-
nal Citation Reports, Thomson Reuters) and SJR 2014:0,100; Spatial Orientations of
Nomads’ Lifestyle and Culture in Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Hu-
manities (ISSN 0975-2935), Vol. 10, No. 2, 2018 (Indexed by Web of Science, Scopus &
approved by UGC]) DOI: р. 27-39. https://dx.doi.org/10.21659/rupkatha.v10n2.03.




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
     Yerbol Tungyshevich Ussenbayev is an Associate Professor of the Department of
Music Education at the Kurmangazy Kazakh National Conservatory and the author of
more than 35 articles, including: The synthesis of the integrative and form-building pos-
sibilities of expressive means of music painting and poetry in Astra Salvensis (Romania)
ISSN2393-4727 (2018) V.6, ISS.12.-P.589-602 (Indexed by Scopus & approved by
UGC); Semiotic Signs and Performing Interpretation of a Kui in the Paradigm of National
Concepts of Kazakh Music Pedagogy in Universal Journal of Educational Research
Vol. 8 (11B): 6192-6199 (2020) DOI: 10.13189/ujer.2020.082257. SJR - 0.122, Scopus.


   Summary

    This article examines the process of development of musical culture; the evolution
of the functional features of a musical instrument (production, cult, aesthetic); the grad-
ual allocation of a musical instrument from among ancient syncretic sound production
and magic complexes and its formation as a professional instrument; the influence of
the natural environment on the sound palette; the birth and realization of the specific
role of music characterized by the spatiality of the sound stream and influencing the
formation of worldviews and culture. The article proves the necessity of studying petro-
glyphs as a sign system, as the initial stage in the formation of musical art.


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                                                                                                                                                  Riassunto
G. Suleyeva, A. Yessetova, A. Kossanova, A. Kaldayakova, L. Kaliakbarova, Y. Ussenbayev - Elements of archaic music reflected in petroglyphs




                                                                                                                                                    Questo articolo esamina il processo di sviluppo della cultura musicale; l’evoluzione
                                                                                                                                               delle caratteristiche funzionali di uno strumento musicale (produzione, culto, estetica);
                                                                                                                                               l’influenza dell’ambiente naturale sulla tavolozza sonora; la nascita e la realizzazione
                                                                                                                                               del ruolo specifico della musica caratterizzato dalla spazialità del flusso sonoro che
                                                                                                                                               influenza la formazione delle visioni del mondo e della cultura. L’articolo dimostra la
                                                                                                                                               necessità di studiare i petroglifi come sistema di segni, come fase iniziale nella forma-
                                                                                                                                               zione dell’arte musicale.




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