10.6092/issn.1973-9494/7115
Gli scavi condotti nella necropoli occidentale di Himera dalla Soprintendenza di Palermo, tra il 2008 e il 2011, hanno consentito di indagare oltre 9500 sepolture, del VII e il VI sec. a.C. Si tratta di uno studio di eccezionale importanza che consente di avere un quadro storico e archeologico molto dettagliato della sfera funeraria di una colonia greca. Si accennerà anche allo studio dei reperti biologici attraverso uno scheletro di un individuo affetto da nanismo e prove di interventi chirurgici al cranio. La lettura tafonomica delle sepolture, è di grande interesse per conoscere la composizione dei cadaveri nelle tombe e dei rituali connessi alla sepoltura. Infine, l’esame di centinaia di scheletri di bambini, ha fornito dati sulla mortalità infantile. Viene inoltre illustrato sinteticamente il lavoro svolto in occasione del restauro dei manufatti rinvenuti. In particolare vengono descritte l’organizzazione del laboratorio di restauro, realizzato ed attrezzato nell’area di scavo; i materiali utilizzati durante gli interventi; le principali criticità presentate dai manufatti sottoposti alle diverse fasi di restauro e alcuni risultati raggiunti.
application/pdf
1973-9494
7115
2
en
Stefano Vassallo
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
restoration
Battles of Himera (480 and 409 b.c.): Analysis of Biological Finds and Historical Interpretation. Experiences of Restoration in the Ruins of Himera 2008-2010
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
15
Articles
2017-06-01
2017-07-04
2017-06-01
2017-09-04
27-40
CSCH
Stefano Vassallo
2015
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/7115
27
Soprintendenza di Palermo, sezione archeologica, Palermo
1973-9494
2
restoration
en
40
Battles of Himera (480 and 409 b.c.): Analysis of Biological Finds and Historical Interpretation. Experiences of Restoration in the Ruins of Himera 2008-2010
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/7115/6826
15
B     ATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.): ANALYSIS OF
      BIOLOGICAL FINDSAND HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION.
      EXPERIENCES OF RESTORATION IN THE RUINS OF
      HIMERA 2008-2010

    Francesco Bertolino*, Flavia Alaimo2
    Studio d’Arte e Restauro Keramos, via Ricasoli 21, Misilmeri, Palermo, Italy
    Stefano Vassallo
    Soprintendenza di Palermo, sezione archeologica, via P. Calvi 13, Palermo, Italy

    Keywords: necropolis, Himera, restoration


    1. Introduction

   Archaeological excavations carried out by the Superintendency of Palermo in the
western necropolis of Himera, in Buonfornello, and funded entirely by the Italian State
Railways, constitute one of the most important research efforts in the funerary areas
of Greek colonization in recent decades [1]. The western necropolis of Himera, lo-
cated just outside the fortifications of the city, occupies a strip of land parallel to the
beach (Figure 1). Another layer of about 3.5 m of alluvial land has accumulated in the
centuries after the abandonment of the colony and has provided outstanding protec-
tion for both the graves, which have never been subject to problems or violations in
modern ages, and also for the conservation of those external signs that character-
ized the funerary landscape, i.e. grave markers placed on graves to perpetuate the




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
memory of the deceased (in Greek: semata). All explored tombs are dated from the
beginning of the 6th century B.C. until 409 B.C. when Himera (founded in 648 B.C.)
was destroyed by the Carthaginians [1-3]. During the survey, which lasted three con-
secutive years, 2008-2011, 9,574 graves were discovered, bringing to 12,988 the total
number of tombs found in all the Himera necropolises. The site of the research was
remarkable and run by an outstanding team, made up of more than 60 workers and
30 specialists including archaeologists, anthropologists, conservators and designers
who worked at the excavations daily. The constant presence of anthropologists, led by
Prof. Pier Francesco Fabbri, of the University of Salento, enabled important results to
be obtained from an anthropological, archeological and historical perspective, as in the
case of the graves of the soldiers who died in the battles of Himera in 480 and 409 B.C.
   Particular attention was placed on the discovered graves and the restoration of
ceramic artifacts, such as funerary items. Although ceramic products can appear par-
ticularly firm and compact, over time they too, suffer inevitable “deterioration”, with
alteration of the technical characteristics of the original ceramic material. The dete-
rioration or “degradation” may be limited to mechanical disruption or also comprise
alteration of the material, as a result of processes of a chemical nature, favored by
concurrent mechanical disruption. Conservation work must therefore act by slowing
down all processes of degradation and decreasing imbalances between the object and

*   Corresponding author: franberto@hotmail.com

                                                                                              27
                                                                                   the environment of future preservation. Nevertheless, any restoration that is carried
                                                                                   out prolongs their conservation.
                                                                                       Deterioration factors in ceramic artworks can be divided into two large groups: en-
                                                                                   vironmental causes and human interventions. Environmental causes include those
                                                                                   aspects that characterize the external environment which is never completely stable
                                                                                   and is the main problem in protecting the object from further damage. Of course the
                                                                                   importance of environmental factors varies in relation to the environment in which the
                                                                                   artifact is stored. Three categories of factors can be identified: physical, chemical and
                                                                                   biological [4-7]. Human activity, and therefore the use of the ceramic artifact itself, in-
                                                                                   evitably causes some transformation of the original characteristics.
                                                                                       In constant environmental storage conditions, the chemical-physical characteristics
                                                                                   of ceramic materials behave differently. In practice, the intrinsic features of the mate-
                                                                                   rial, such as porosity, mineralogical composition, presence of vitreous or amorphous
                                                                                   phases, mechanical strength, type of coating, etc. help to preserve the objects during
                                                                                   the centuries. These characteristics are determined by the manufacturing technology
                                                                                   of the article, but usually vary with progressive degradation and also depend on the
                                                                                   type of environment. Porosity, for example, can increase or decrease. This depends
                                                                                   mainly on the corrosive effect or filler material from the environment. Overall, however,
                                                                                   the degradation weakens the object, so the rate of decay increases. Building on these
                                                                                   general data, the most likely causes of degradation in the ceramic artifacts found at
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                   the site of Himera will be identified, with particular reference to the artifacts from the
                                                                                   necropolis [8]. The characteristic of the Necropolis of Himera is the composition of
                                                                                   the layers above the original stratigraphic level of the site. The tombs were generally
                                                                                   found at a depth of about three meters below the current level. The overlying layer is
                                                                                   characterized by being very compact and homogeneous, which over the centuries has
                                                                                   protected the necropolis below; this is due to possible flooding of the sea or flooding
                                                                                   of the nearby river. The original layer and the original land of the necropolis consists
                                                                                   mainly of sand. This meant artifacts were well-preserved and above all facilitated min-
                                                                                   ing operations, as the sand was easily removed [1-8].




                                                                                          Figure 1. General plan of the site of Himera with localization of the necropolises.


                                                                              28
   2. Results and discussion

   2.1 The tombs

    During excavations several types of tombs were found: trenches dug in the sand,
wooden chests, sarcophagi, infant depositions as in enchytrismos. Almost all anthro-
pological remains were recovered in burials that accounted for 88% of the tombs dis-
covered (cremation graves were 12%). In many cases, the bones were not in good
condition, owing to their fragility, the corrosiveness of the soil, and especially due to the
time of infiltration of sand into the empty tomb; this meant the skeleton could undergo
a process of consolidation and mineralization that was more or less rapid, or lead to
full degradation of the bone tissue. Anthropologists began systematic analysis and we
were often able to determine where the bodies were located thanks to taphonomic
investigations, with interesting observations on the funeral ritual. After a first analysis
of the findings, the bone remains were cataolgued and we started research on the age,
sex, stature, diseases and nutritional aspects of the findings in the laboratory, built in
a container in the area of investigations. Several lines of research were activated: with
the Universities of Northern Colorado, Georgia and Salento, on aspects of bioarchae-
ology, with DNA analysis, to investigate human adaptation to the environment and
paleonutrition in Himera and in the Ancient Mediterranean. For example, a study on
the skeleton of a dwarf, also from a genetic point of view (Figure 2) is in progress with
Prof. Robert Desnik of the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York. The contribu-
tion of anthropology was particularly significant during the discovery of surgical drilling
and infant burials. The discovery of the skull of a girl of 19-21 years, dated between the
6th and 5th century B.C., with a circular perforation (diam. 132 mm) in the right hemi-
frontal bone of the skull (Figure 3), was particularly significant; it is the oldest use of a
type of surgical drill, which Hippocrates of Kos, the father of medicine, speaks about
a few decades later. The holes of the drilling are not healed, indicating that people did




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
not survive the operation, unless an improbable post mortem drilling was performed.
From a historical point of view, these findings are a sign of the presence of a school of
advanced medicine [10, 11]. There are also children’s graves and those of sub-adults,
indicating, as is well known, high infant mortality in the ancient world.
    A survey of a significant sample of children’s skeletons (91 cases), showed that
55% of cases are related to infant deaths in the first few months of life, 9.9% at around
6 months of age; the mortality curve descends gradually until the sub-adult age. The
greatest risk of death, therefore, occurred between birth and the first six months of life,
confirming that birth was a high risk factor of mortality. This was due to various rea-
sons related to the trauma of childbirth and hygienic conditions; among the perinatal
deaths there are also cases of fetuses with development between the eighth and ninth
month of pregnancy. Children, especially those who died in the first year of life, were
mostly interred in large containers usually in a hyperflexed or partially flexed position
[9] (Figure 4). There are, however, other examples of child burials, such as that cata-
loged as W6258, in which the skeleton was in a lateral decubitus position with strongly
hyperflexed limbs or catalogue number W4739, in which the little corpse was placed
on sand in right lateral decubitus with arms and legs flexed; the pit was closed with
simple fragments of floor tiling.
    Several collective and individual graves were also found of soldiers who died in the
great battles between the Greeks and the Carthaginians in 480 and in 409 B.C. These


                                                                                                29
                                                                                    Figure 2. Grave W3760 of an individual suffering from dwarfism.
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                   Figure 3. Cases of surgical drilling of skulls from eastern necropolis.




                                                                              30
                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Figure 4. Infant burial of pit type (top) and enchytrismos inside Corinthian transport amphoras
(bottom).



are two events of great importance for the history of the island and western Greece
was frequently mentioned in the stories of Greek historians [12-15]. In the excavation
of the western necropolis seven common graves and other single burials were brought
to light; from archaeological and anthropological data it can be deduced that they died
in this battle (Figure 5). Indeed, only males were found here, leading to the exclusion
of mass graves resulting from epidemics, massacres, or tragic natural events, such as
earthquakes, which would also affect women and children. The mass graves, oriented
towards the North / South, contained from a minimum of two to a maximum of 23
individuals arranged next to each other, side by side, in the dorsal position, with their
lower and upper limbs lying generally along the sides or with elbows slightly bent and
skulls always oriented towards the East. The partial overlapping of the upper limbs
enables us to reconstruct the sequence of deposition of the corpses. As seen in Figure
6 the largest holes were parallel to each other and aligned along the same limits North
/ South, at a regular distance of about 5-6 meters to facilitate excavation of the pits,
the placing of the bodies and subsequent burial. The anthropological study also deter-
mined the sex of the individuals (all males), through radiological analysis of the teeth


                                                                                                  31
                                                                                   and the mean ages; in holes 1-4 there were individuals of mean age 28.9 years (from
                                                                                   15 years to 47.1), in the other mass (5-7) the average age was 44.4 years (from 36.9 to
                                                                                   56.7 years). In several skeletons, traces of deep wounds caused by cutting or throwing
                                                                                   weapons were found and the presence of weapons still embedded in the skeletons.
                                                                                       Many examples of wounds were found. Among these, for example, in the skull cata-
                                                                                   loged W482, a lesion caused by a blow was found by removal of the cranial bone in
                                                                                   the occipital region (Figure 7). The blow, given during a battle, was probably lethal, as
                                                                                   it hit the cervical vertebra.
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                                      Figure 5. Mass grave of the dead in the battle of 480 BC.




                                                                                   Figure 6. The arrangement of three mass graves of the dead of 480 BC in the general fabric of
                                                                                   the necropolis.


                                                                              32
                      Figure 7. Skull with cut caused by a bladed weapon.

    Equally significant is the discovery of weapons (arrows, spearheads, swords, dag-
gers) that were not extracted from the bodies before their burial. The analysis of the
type of weapons in connection with their position offers good ideas to study the dynam-
ics and modes of the duels between the soldiers and the battle techniques. For exam-
ple, in tomb W2764 of hole 7, the spear stuck in the shoulder from above, behind the
clavicle and fully penetrated into the left, suggests a blow from above, perhaps from a
horseman, against a soldier who was standing or kneeling: a pattern of attack that is
suggestive evidence in figurative Attic ceramics. Another example is skeleton W336 of
pit 1, which was found with two spearheads, one of which came from the back so hard
it reached the front of the abdomen; the second strike penetrated from the top to the
abdomen (Figure 8). Equally extraordinary cases have also been seen in tombs des-




                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 8. Reconstruction of the dynamics of the penetration of two spears in an individual from
mass grave 1.


                                                                                                  33
                                                                                   tined for monosome burials (containing a single individual) identified in these cases as
                                                                                   the graves of soldiers who died in battle in 480 B.C. [3, 13-15]. This battle also includes
                                                                                   the burial of thirty horses, for which there is a detailed study of the skeletons that will
                                                                                   contribute significantly to the archaeozoological aspect (Figure 9).
                                                                                      The common grave 8/9, located almost at the eastern limit of the necropolis, distant
                                                                                   and isolated from the graves of 480 (Figure 10), is dated 409 B.C., when a great Pu-
                                                                                   nic army, commanded by the Carthaginian Hannibal, landed once more on the island
                                                                                   and destroyed firstly, Selinunte, then Himera, slaughtering its inhabitants and causing
                                                                                   a radical geo-political change in central and western Sicily. This pit has a different
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                                 Figure 9. Horse grave: probably died during the battle in 480 BC.




                                                                                            Figure 10. Mass grave of the dead in the battle of 409 BC and horse grave.


                                                                              34
orientation, from east to west. The skeletons, about 80, are much more numerous
than in previous collective burials and have an orderly arrangement in the lower level,
while the upper layers are disorderly, probably to make the most of the available area.
Finally, in the eastern part of the necropolis, in front of the city walls and mostly in the
upper layers, hundreds of chaotically placed skeletons were found; men and women
of all ages, often in quite unorthodox locations and the bones sometimes no longer
anatomically connected, they probably relate to disorderly burials made by the survi-
vors of the great slaughter of 409. We can say that this type of deep archaeological
and anthropological study has allowed a better reading of the history of the colony of
Himera and is further confirmation of the story told by Greek historians of these battles.

   2.2 Restoration of ceramic artifacts

   For each object being restored, it is possible to intervene following a procedure
which after pre-consolidation (if necessary), provides for various stages that include:
cleaning, consolidation, assembly of fragments, integration of missing parts, final pro-
tection and labeling.

   2.2.1 Cleaning

    We carried out the cleaning step after careful analysis of the fragments and only after
having photographically documented the artifact, in order to record the state of conservation
before our intervention. This intervention is an irreversible process, so we intervened, ini-
tially with the cleaning tests, to check which solution and / or solvents and which application
times were the most appropriate for the removal of encrustations and deposits of earth and
sand present on the surfaces without damaging the natural patina and original surfaces.
    First we washed all fragments with deionized water, in order to remove deposits
of earth and sand, then we carried out more effective cleaning tests, with EDTA (salt




                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
disodium to different percentages) applied using a supporting paper pulp (Arbocel).
After the test, we carried out the cleaning of all surfaces with the appropriate mixture;
where necessary, we removed mechanically, by brush, any difficult dirt. After this first
cleaning, we stored the objects according to a strict numerical order and according to
the dimensions of the warehouses [8].

   2.2.2 Consolidation

  When necessary, we consolidated the artifact with acrylic resin based on ethyl-
metacrylate (Paraloid B72) [8].

   2.2.3 Assembly

    We performed the assembly of the fragments only after they were thoroughly dry.
We used a resin, a diluted polyvinyl alcohol (K60) which, thanks to its characteristics,
is a compatible and reversible product for restoration: it is spread with a brush along
the fracture lines and junctions of the fragments. Through a flame fueled by an alcohol
burner, we speeded up the evaporation of the alcohol contained in the resin, the rise in
temperature making the resin adhesive, so that after only a few minutes, the fragments
were perfectly joined together. Once completely cool, the resin holds the fragments
firmly together [8].

                                                                                                  35
                                                                                      2.2.4 Integration of missing parts

                                                                                      The missing parts at the rim and the gaps were integrated because they represent-
                                                                                   ed small surfaces. Integration of the missing parts was carried out using gypsum plas-
                                                                                   ter colored with natural clays and oxides using the technique of undercutting; obviously
                                                                                   the color mix must be as close as possible to the colors of the original artifact. These
                                                                                   two measures satisfy the concept of distinguishability and recognition of interventions
                                                                                   made on the artifact and, at the same time, create a uniform surface which enables a
                                                                                   more correct study of the artifact itself as well as greater structural stability in time [8].

                                                                                      2.2.5 Final protection

                                                                                      For a better reading, a microcrystalline wax diluted in oil of turpentine was spread
                                                                                   on the surfaces of the restored object.

                                                                                      2.2.6 Restoration environments

                                                                                      There were two restoration laboratories: one (A) for the restoration of large ceramic
                                                                                   containers, the other (B) for the restoration of small-sized items, part of the funerary
                                                                                   objects. Furthermore, due to the considerable number of artifacts found during the
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                   excavation, warehouses used to store the restored artifacts increased exponentially
                                                                                   in number up to 10. Once the artifacts arrived from the excavation, after any pre-
                                                                                   consolidation in situ, if necessary, the large amphorae were subjected to a first clean-
                                                                                   ing and, according to the directives of the Superintendent, the artifacts that were to be
                                                                                   completely restored were selected and identified either for reasons of conservation
                                                                                   and / or for reasons of historical importance.
                                                                                      The small ceramic artifacts, on the other hand, were preserved according to a strict
                                                                                   numerical order corresponding to the numerical list of the tombs provided by the ar-
                                                                                   chaeologists; these same artifacts were all subjected to the necessary conservation
                                                                                   work described previously. This organization allowed a first orderly cataloging and con-
                                                                                   servation of the artifacts found from the excavation to be made. Each restoration was
                                                                                   accompanied by a logbook entry with photographic documentation.
                                                                                      All steps in the restoration were followed directly by the restorers, based on the
                                                                                   directives of the Superintendent and according to the latest guidelines in best practice
                                                                                   in conservation restoration. To date more than 6000 restorations have been carried
                                                                                   out (Table 1).

                                                                                                            Table 1. Updated list of procedures performed
                                                                                   Small ceramic artifacts (funeral objects)                                   5.882

                                                                                   Large ceramic artifacts (amphorae...)                                       665

                                                                                   Metal articles                                                              169

                                                                                   Consolidation and / or restoration of bones                                 21

                                                                                   Implementation of silicone rubber casts                                     6

                                                                                   Cuts in skeletons and / or any part thereof                                 18

                                                                                   Separation of organic materials from others (wood)                          7


                                                                              36
  This list shows that the ceramic artifacts of small dimensions restored so far are
about 60% of all those found and the large containers restored to date, such as am-
phorae, are about 25% of those currently present in the warehouses.


      References

[1]     Vassallo, S., (2005) Himera città greca: Guida alla storia e ai monumenti. Paler-
        mo: Regione Siciliana, Assessorato dei Beni Culturali e Ambientali e della Pub-
        blica Istruzione. Dipartimento dei Beni Culturali e Ambientali e dell’Educazione
        Permanente.
[2]     Allegro, N., (1999) Imera. In: Greco E. (ed.) La città greca antica. Istituzioni, so-
        cietà e forme urbane. Roma: Donzelli editore, pp. 269-301.
[3]     Vassallo, S., (2009) Himera. Indagini nelle necropoli, proceedings from the study
        meeting, Fasciano, Tra Etruria, Lazio e Magna Grecia: indagini sulle necropoli,
        pp. 233-260.
[4]     Caneva, G., Nugari, M.P., Salvadori, O., (1997) La biologia nel restauro Firenze:
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[5]     Schillaci, D., Petruso, S., Raimondi, M.V., Cusimano, M.G., Cascioferro, S.,
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        staphylococcal biofilms agents, Biofouling, 26(4), pp. 433-8.
[6]     Cascioferro, S., Cusimano, M.G., Schillaci, D., (2014) Antiadhesion agents
        against Gram-positive pathogens, Future Microbiol., 9(10), pp. 1209-20.
[7]     Schillaci, D., Vitale, M., Cusimano, MG., Arizza, V., (2012) Fragments of
        β-thymosin from the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus as potential antimicrobial
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        85.
[8]     Bertolino, F., (2008) Progetto di restauro di un manufatto ceramico proveniente




                                                                                                           CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
        dalla necropoli di Himera, degree thesis, Università degli Studi di Palermo.
[9]     Vassallo, S., (2014) Le sepolture dei bambini nelle necropoli di Himera: dati pre-
        liminari. In: Terranova C. (ed.) La presenza dei bambini nelle religioni del Medi-
        terraneo antico, La vita e la morte, i rituali e i culti tra archeologica, antropologia
        e storia delle religioni. Roma: Aracne, pp. 257-289.
[10]    Fabbri, P.F., Lonoce, N., Masieri, M., Caramella, D., Valentino, M., Vassallo,,
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[11]    Fabbri, P.F., Fornaciari, G., Caramella, D., Accomando, G., Vassallo, S., (2006)
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        Himera, Sicily (6th-5th century BC), Paleopathology Newsletter, 136, pp. 6-10.
[12]    Vassallo, S., (2011) Le battaglie di Himera alla luce degli scavi nella necropoli oc-
        cidentale e alle fortificazioni: i luoghi, i protagonisti, Sicilia Antiqua, VII, pp. 17-38.
[13]    Vassallo, S., Valentino, M., (2012) Scavi nella necropoli occidentale di Himera, il
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[14]    Fabbri, P.F., Schettino, R., Vassallo, S., (2006) Lo scavo delle sepolture della
        necropoli di Himera Pestavecchia (Palermo), in guerra e pace in Sicilia e nel
        Mediterraneo antico (VIII-III sec. a.C.). Arte, prassi e teoria della pace e della


                                                                                                      37
                                                                                        guerra, in proceedings of the Quinte Giornate Internazionali di Studi sull’area
                                                                                        elima e la Sicilia occidentale nel contesto mediterraneo, pp. 613-620, Pisa.
                                                                                   [15] Fabbri, P.F., Lo Noce, N., Viva, S., (2012) Primi dati antropologici dalla necropoli
                                                                                        occidentale di Himera. In: Ampolo, C. (ed.) Sicilia occidentale. Studi, rassegne,
                                                                                        ricerche. Pisa: Edizioni della Normale, pp. 73-83, Pisa.


                                                                                      Biographical notes

                                                                                      Francesco Bertolino is a restorer in stone and ceramic artifacts with a specializa-
                                                                                   tion from the Spinelli Institute in Florence. He graduated with a Bachelor’s Degree in
                                                                                   Conservation and Restoration in Palermo. Since 2001 he is the owner of Studio Art
                                                                                   and Restoration Keramos, where restoration work in several sectors is carried out:
                                                                                   stone and ceramic materials, canvas paintings, wax and wooden artifacts. He has
                                                                                   received numerous commissions and work supervision from the Superintendency and
                                                                                   Dioceses of Sicily. In particular, between 2009 and 2011 he was responsible for the
                                                                                   restoration workshops at the archaeological excavations in the necropolis of Himera.
                                                                                   He teaches at the ANFE institution in professional courses of restoration.
                                                                                      He is a scholar and lover of art objects, especially the history of Sicilian ceramics and
                                                                                   he has received consulting assignments for the evaluation and attribution of works of art.
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                      Flavia Alaimo graduated cum laude in Conservation of Cultural Heritage at the Uni-
                                                                                   versity Suor Orsola Benincasa of Naples (2004). She has a specialization (cum laude)
                                                                                   in the History of Medieval Art for the Protection, Management and Enhancement of
                                                                                   Cultural Heritage (2008). She qualified as a Restoration Operator of stone materials at
                                                                                   the Regional School ANFE of Palermo (2011-2014). She attended a Master’s Degree
                                                                                   in History and Technology of the Goldsmith’s Art at the University of Palermo (2013)
                                                                                   resulting in the monograph “Decorative arts in the Lanza Filangeri collection of Palazzo
                                                                                   Mirto” (2015). She has been tutor and assistant organizer in restoration projects of
                                                                                   frescoes and stone material for UniSOB at the: archaeological site of Pompei, Naples;
                                                                                   restoration workshop of San Vincenzo al Volturno (IS); restoration laboratory of the
                                                                                   National Archaeological Museum in Naples; hall of the Rectory UniSOB; Old Cabinet
                                                                                   “G. Murat” in the Royal Palace of Naples (2005-2010). Assistant consultant for the res-
                                                                                   toration of Palermo Archaeological Service at the archaeological site of Himera (2009-
                                                                                   2012). She has carried out restoration of medieval ceramic artifacts at Palazzo Steri
                                                                                   (2012). From 2014 she is professor of art history and a researcher at the Euro-Medi-
                                                                                   terranean Institute of Science and Technology of Palermo (Cultural Heritage Sector).

                                                                                      Stefano Vassallo is Archaeologist at the Soprintendenza of Palermo. He studied
                                                                                   Archaeology at the University of Palermo; at the Graduate School for Classical Ar-
                                                                                   chaeology at the University of Rome, and then, for several years, was a volunteer at
                                                                                   the Institute of Archaeology of the University of Palermo. Between 1984 and 1985 he
                                                                                   received a scholarship in Archaeology at the Soprintendenza Archeologica della Re-
                                                                                   gione Siciliana in Palermo.
                                                                                      Since 1987 he has been employed as a technical manager – archaeologist, at the
                                                                                   Soprintendenza Archeologica della Regione Siciliana in Palermo, with several tasks,
                                                                                   and where he currently works as head of Unit 5, Sezione Beni Archeologici, coordinat-
                                                                                   ing preservation and archaeological research throughout the territory of the province


                                                                              38
of Palermo. Research activities: he has participated and directed many archaeological
excavations at various sites in the province of Palermo treating several topics and in-
vestigations related to different historical periods. Much of his scientific work has been
devoted to the investigations at Himera, where he has carried out systematic research
both in city contexts (settlement and agora), and at the fortifications, by the eastern
and western necropolises. He has also done research in several excavations in North-
ern Sicily: Colle Madore (Lercara Friddi); Terravecchia of Cuti (Palermo); Mount Kas-
sar (Castronovo di Sicilia); Montagna dei Cavalli (Prizzi). For the Soprintendenza he
has arranged several exhibitions in Italy and abroad, editing the relative catalogs.
   He has given prompt communication of all research conducted in dozens of articles
published in scientific periodicals and monographs, among which are:
   – Forma Italiae n. 34, S. Caterina Villarmosa, Firenze, 1990.
   – Colle Madore, Palermo 1999.
   – Himera, città greca. Guida alla storia e ai monumenti, Palermo 2005.




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                                                                                             39
                                                                                      Summary
                                                                                      Excavations conducted in the western necropolis of Himera by the Superintendence
                                                                                   of Palermo, between 2008 and 2011, made it possible to investigate more than 9,500
                                                                                   graves of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. It is a study of great importance as it gives a
                                                                                   detailed historic and archaeological view of the funerary context of a Greek colony.
                                                                                   Taphonomic studies of the tombs are of great interest to know the composition of the
                                                                                   bodies in the graves and the rituals associated with the burial. Finally, the examination
                                                                                   of hundreds of skeletons of children has provided data on child mortality.
                                                                                      This report, briefly, also aims to present the restoration of the artifacts discovered.
                                                                                   The article describes the organization of the restoration laboratory, built and equipped
                                                                                   directly in situ at the excavation, the materials used during the restoration, the main
                                                                                   problems presented during the various phases of restoration and several results.


                                                                                       Riassunto
                                                                                       Gli scavi condotti nella necropoli occidentale di Himera dalla Soprintendenza di Pa-
                                                                                   lermo, tra il 2008 e il 2011, hanno consentito di indagare oltre 9500 sepolture, del VII e
                                                                                   il VI sec. a.C. Si tratta di uno studio di eccezionale importanza che consente di avere
                                                                                   un quadro storico e archeologico molto dettagliato della sfera funeraria di una colonia
                                                                                   greca. Si accennerà anche allo studio dei reperti biologici attraverso uno scheletro
F. Bertolino, F. Alaimo, S. Vassallo - BATTLES OF HIMERA (480 and 409 B.C.)




                                                                                   di un individuo affetto da nanismo e prove di interventi chirurgici al cranio. La lettura
                                                                                   tafonomica delle sepolture, è di grande interesse per conoscere la composizione dei
                                                                                   cadaveri nelle tombe e dei rituali connessi alla sepoltura. Infine, l’esame di centinaia di
                                                                                   scheletri di bambini, ha fornito dati sulla mortalità infantile.
                                                                                       Viene inoltre illustrato sinteticamente il lavoro svolto in occasione del restauro dei
                                                                                   manufatti rinvenuti. In particolare vengono descritte l’organizzazione del laboratorio
                                                                                   di restauro, realizzato ed attrezzato nell’area di scavo; i materiali utilizzati durante gli
                                                                                   interventi; le principali criticità presentate dai manufatti sottoposti alle diverse fasi di
                                                                                   restauro e alcuni risultati raggiunti.




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