10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17307
application/pdf
1973-9494
17307
en
Rodrigo Almonacid
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
roofs
Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
22
Articles
2023-07-20
2023-06-20
2023-07-20
2023-07-20
129-145
CSCH
Rodrigo Almonacid
2022
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17307
129
Department of Theory of Architecture and Architectural Design University of Valladolid, Spain
1973-9494
roofs
en
145
Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/17307/16523
22
W       HY THE COURTYARDS OF HISTORICAL PALACES
        SHOULD NOT BE ROOFED IN

   Javier Pérez Gil * , Rodrigo Almonacid
   Department of Theory of Architecture and Architectural Design
   University of Valladolid, Spain

   Keywords: historical palaces, courtyard, conservation, architectural theory, roofs.



   1. Introduction

     Whether as a means of conservation, or as a solution allowing certain functions to
take place without the inconvenience of inclement weather, there is a growing trend to
cover the courtyards of historical palaces and other great buildings. The idea is not
new. It goes back to the nineteenth century, when technical achievements and indus-
trial materials were brought into play for a wide range of buildings, generally utilitarian,
such as factories, railway stations, or markets, even approaching the scale of a whole
town with the construction of arcades and shopping galleries. Thereafter, glass roofs,
perhaps unthinkingly, began to be adopted in other, less prosaic types of building. An
example was the work done by Félix Duban in 1863 on the courtyard of the Palais des
Études of the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, an eclectic building by Duban himself,
with a view to finding space for casts and sculptures to be brought from the Louvre.
Another is the magnificent Natural History Museum of the University of Oxford, con-
structed in 1885 by Sir Thomas Newenham Deane and Benjamin Woodward, although
its daring mix of metal structures in gothic style and skylights did not escape criticism
from John Ruskin.
     Against this background, glass roofs eventually came to be installed over truly his-
toric courtyards, such as the Schlüterhof, the main yard of what is today the Deutsches
Historisches Museum in Berlin. In 1877 Kaiser Wilhelm I decided to make a museum
out of the Zeughaus, an arsenal in Baroque style, and instructed the architect Friedrich
Hitzig to cover the courtyard. More than a century later, this first roof was replaced, and
evoked, by the present-day canopy, the work of Ieoh Ming Pei (2003).
     Currently, among many other edifices, a number of great museums have called on
famous architects when applying this solution, making it more popular and prestigious on
a world scale (Figure 1). This has been done at the Louvre (in the Cour Marly and Cour
Puget yard by Ming Pei and Michel Macary, 1993), at the British Museum (the Great
Court by Foster and Partners, 2000) and at the Prado in Madrid (the Claustro de los
Jerónimos (Hieronymite Cloister) by Rafael Moneo (2007). Society would seem to have
received these positively, with newspaper headlines as eloquent as “Art’s Shining Fu-
ture” [1] referring to the roofing of the Calderwood Courtyard at the Harvard Art Museums
in Boston designed by the architect Renzo Piano in 2014; “Culture occupies another




   * Corresponding author: jpgil@tap.uva.es
                                                                                                         space” [2] with regard to the roof of the Saldañuela Palace built by José Manuel Barrio
                                                                                                         Eguíluz and Alberto Sainz de Aja del Moral in 2017; or “The dome is already crowning
                                                                                                         the Ducal Palace” [3] describing the work done on the Palacio Ducal de Medinaceli in
                                                                                                         Soria by Xavier Vitoria Ágreda in 2014. These three courtyards are also the property of
                                                                                                         cultural institutions (Harvard University, the Caja de Burgos Foundation and the Casa
                                                                                                         Ducal de Medinaceli, Town Council of Medinaceli and DEARTE Foundation, respective-
                                                                                                         ly), which would appear to provide backing for the approach taken in these interventions.
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                              Figure 1. Puget Courtyard (Louvre Museum, Paris, France). Source: Javier Pérez Gil.


                                                                                                             Indeed, it is quite unusual to find any profound criticism of this sort of work regarding
                                                                                                         the courtyards of great historical buildings. One of the few instances was the project for
                                                                                                         roofing over the courtyard of the Tosio Martinengo art gallery in Brescia, located in the
                                                                                                         Palazzo Martinengo da Barco. This was approved in 2019 by the city authorities and, as
                                                                                                         was noted by Councillor Fabrizio Benzoni, was supposed to follow “uno stile che è stato
                                                                                                         più volte usato in grandi musei del Nord Europa” 1 [4]. Nevertheless, the project was
                                                                                                         halted at the last moment by the heritage conservation authorities because insufficient
                                                                                                         justificatory detail had been provided of the impact of the technical solutions proposed on
                                                                                                         pre-existing structures, and the matter ended up in the courts with a harsh confrontation


                                                                           130
between the Soprintendenza and the Comune in 2022. This suspension of the project, at
least temporarily, joins the ranks of others, such as that affecting the courtyard of the
Palazzo Viani Dugnani in Verbania, promoted by the town council in 2001.
    The fact that something is accepted or barely questioned does not necessarily
mean it is a good thing, let alone needful, at least in general terms. More than that,
from the point of view of architectural theory, it may be asked whether such interven-
tions harm the essence of the architecture of the patios and courtyards affected or their
authenticity as heritage.


   2. Courtyards as spaces open to the sky

     Since Roman times, patios and courtyards have been an element present in west-
ern domestic architecture, whether noble or popular. In the seventh century, Isidore of
Seville sought the etymology of the Latin word atrium used to designate such spaces
in the term ater [5] meaning “dark” or “black”. This was partly because in early times
the hearth had been located there, leading to blackening with soot, and partly because
in any case Roman atriums were certainly dark, an outcome of the small size of the
compluvium, the opening through which light entered.
     According to this explanation, the Roman atrium had its likely ancestor in Etruscan
huts, whose openings allowing smoke to exit could be seen as the precursor of Roman
compluvia [6]. The scholar from Seville was thus basing his etymology on the hybrid
function performed by the atrium in early Roman houses, with the more prosaic needs
of a dwelling merging with the symbolism that was gradually acquired as it became
part of its representative layout.
     A number of modern languages have derived their words for this concept from terms
other than atrium, but nevertheless are unanimous in defining it as being an unroofed
space. This occurs with terms based on the late Latin curtis. An example is the French




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
cour, defined variously as an “espace découvert, entouré de murs et/ou de bâtiments,
faisant partie d’une habitation, d’un édifice administratif, scolaire, etc., qui souvent s’or-
donne autour d’elle”2 [7], or as an “espace découvert entouré de bâtiments ou de murs”3
[8]. English has courtyard, described as “an area without a roof surrounded by the walls
of a building” [9] whereas the Italian cortile is a “porzione di area scoperta comprime il
corpo del tessuto di un edificio ed è destinata a dare aria e luce ad un ambiente interno,
al passaggio delle persone, o ad altre funzioni”4 [10]. The same is true of Spanish patio
and Portuguese pátio, which is defined as “espacio cerrado con paredes o galerías, que
en las casas y otros edificios se suele dejar al descubierto”5 [11].
     In view of this essential characteristic ascribed to courtyards, the question arises as
to whether or not this is a condition sine qua non for recognizing a space as such.


   3. Functions of courtyards

    Antón Capitel [12] defined a courtyard as a systematic, versatile archetype, able to
cope with a wide range of different uses, shapes, sizes, styles and characteristics. It is,
indeed, an architectural element that at times gives its form to the whole, and is always
complex, an outcome of its multifunctional and symbolic nature. Its functions or uses
determine its shape and constitute its definition. If attention is concentrated on the case
of historical courtyards, especially those of Renaissance palaces, and on their heritage


                                                                                                 131
                                                                                                         aspect, half a dozen essential functions may be identified, depending directly upon the
                                                                                                         unroofed condition of courtyards. These must inevitably be suppressed or curtailed if
                                                                                                         they are covered. This being so, it puts into question the whole concept of a courtyard.


                                                                                                            3.1. Light

                                                                                                              One of the principal functions of courtyards is to provide light for the inner rooms
                                                                                                         that open onto them. This benefit becomes especially clear when there are limitations
                                                                                                         for the building due to siting, size of the plot or functional needs (such as thermal insu-
                                                                                                         lation or defence), which sometimes require outside openings to be small or even omit-
                                                                                                         ted. In such cases, a simple light-well may be the sole entry point for natural light for
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         the rooms placed around it. For this reason, modern interventions to roofs over court-
                                                                                                         yards normally use glazed solutions that supposedly keep this entrance for natural
                                                                                                         light. However, it may be asked whether this is truly so.
                                                                                                              With an eye to improving the energy efficiency in an area that becomes an en-
                                                                                                         closed or interior space, the glass used is normally a low emissivity (“Low-E”) one or
                                                                                                         an enhanced thermal insulation material. If they are kept clean, such types nowadays
                                                                                                         offer very high light transmission, but it never reaches 100% of the total. That is not all.
                                                                                                         Such spaces are negatively affected by the presence of frames and supports for the
                                                                                                         glass, which generate zones of shadow and reduce the overall surface upon which
                                                                                                         light falls (Figure 2). Moreover, it should not be forgotten that in people’s experiences of
                                                                                                         such spaces, light as an agent affecting perceptions, is tightly linked to other factors
                                                                                                         like temperature, ventilation and noise, all these being modified by a roof. In 2019 a
                                                                                                         study by the École Polytechnique Fédérale in Lausanne [13] demonstrated that differ-
                                                                                                         ing levels of natural light influenced the perception of temperature among users of a
                                                                                                         space. The conclusion was that there is a significant psychological feature changing
                                                                                                         the perception of warmth as a function of the amount of natural illumination.




                                                                                                                Figure 2. Courtyard of the Velada Palace (Ávila, Spain). Source: Javier Pérez Gil.


                                                                                132
   3.2. Ventilation and temperature

    As well as light, an open courtyard offers ventilation for the rooms surrounding it.
This comprises both the removal of stale air, smoke or fumes from interior areas, and
the constant flow of fresh air in the room of the courtyard. In both instances, adding a
roof eliminates or radically transforms this function, and the same is true of tempera-
ture. It is eliminated, in particular, when the purpose of the roof is specifically to control
the temperature or achieve energy efficiency. It is radically transformed when the pres-
ence of a canopy has the consequence of requiring activation of other mechanisms for
ventilation, heating and cooling (Figure 3).




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
  Figure 3. Courtyard of the Episcopal Palace of Teruel (Spain). Source: Rodrigo Almonacid.


    When ventilation is deficient, covered courtyards face hitherto unsuspected prob-
lems, such as overheating or condensation, the results often outweighing the expected
advantages. When the courtyard is provided with a ventilation system, the problems of
installing it, and the noise arising from running it, are matched by the difference in out-
comes. Even the most modern double-flow systems, which go beyond mere extraction
to control the condition of the air being renewed, through filtration, and temperature
and humidity regulation, still create a different atmosphere. It may perhaps be more
comfortable, but it is still artificial.
    It should not be forgotten that architects over the centuries were already aware of
the drawbacks of open courtyards and tried to find remedies of various sorts. In cities
with cold climates, it is common to find a division into one or more bays running across
them, depending on their orientation. If one of these is enclosed, it is the southern bay
oriented towards the north; when only one is left open, it is the opposite bay; and when
there is a side fitted with a wall, this is the southern part, so it concentrates the sun’s
warmth. Some courtyards were also surrounded by glazed openings. However, in all
these cases, little would remain of the original solutions if a roof were to be added.
Once again, they would become useless and illogical. Their function and sense would
be stripped from them, abolishing any authenticity as architectural elements.


                                                                                                 133
                                                                                                            3.3. Rain

                                                                                                             A further consequence of the upper opening in a courtyard is the problem of rain.
                                                                                                         The atrium of a Roman domus was specifically intended to have as one of its main
                                                                                                         functions the gathering of rainwater into the pool or impluvium via the compluvium or
                                                                                                         opening. Many later architectures, not just domestic, but also others such as defensive
                                                                                                         structures, were provided with cisterns or tanks for a similar purpose. Moreover, in the
                                                                                                         absence of water, it would not be feasible to understand other types of courtyards such
                                                                                                         as the cloisters of monasteries and nunneries. These were seen as microcosms for
                                                                                                         spiritual withdrawal, as a hortus conclusus (enclosed garden), representing Paradise
                                                                                                         itself with its four rivers, so cloisters required the physical presence of water or some
                                                                                                         metaphoric reference to it. It was in the galleries and corridors of cloisters that the
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         mandatum or ritual washing of feet was performed, and at the door of the refectory
                                                                                                         there stood a sink for cleansing hands before entering to eat, an action as practical as
                                                                                                         it was ritualistic. This purifying presence of water is also to be seen in other similar
                                                                                                         spaces, for instance in mosques, where the sebil presides over the sahn 6.
                                                                                                             It is true that one of the intentions of modern roofing in of such spaces is to protect
                                                                                                         them from rain; not just the open area, but also the corridors and galleries around it,
                                                                                                         which can become wet if the raindrops do not fall perpendicularly to the ground. How-
                                                                                                         ever, excluding rain also excludes the courtyard itself. More than that, in Rome, with
                                                                                                         the exception of so-called testudinate atriums (of which more later), even the displuvi-
                                                                                                         ate atrium, which had its four roof sections sloping towards the outside, was left open
                                                                                                         to the sky. In this last instance, water was not gathered, but there was greater protec-
                                                                                                         tion against heat and cold, since the opening or compluvium was higher off the ground.
                                                                                                         For this reason, Vitruvius recommended this form for winter dining rooms [14].
                                                                                                             There is no need to roof over the opening to prevent water from getting into the
                                                                                                         corridors or galleries. There are traditional solutions, ranging from enclosing these fea-
                                                                                                         tures to installing drainage systems. Nonetheless, the first approach brings with it some
                                                                                                         drawbacks, since such a vertical closing in is not so different from a horizontal closure
                                                                                                         on the roof of the courtyard. First of all, especially in refurbishment works, there is a
                                                                                                         drastic alteration in the appearance and composition of the galleries. Openings are
                                                                                                         darkened, the play of light is weakened, and the whole rhythm of elements is thrown into
                                                                                                         disorder. An extreme example of this is provided by the courtyard of the Saboye Gallery
                                                                                                         of the Royal Palace in Valladolid, with all its bays fully enclosed and the original columns
                                                                                                         and their capitals embedded into walls with little rhyme or reason, let alone art.
                                                                                                               Secondly, and equally serious, is the fact that enclosing structures superposed
                                                                                                         upon an original design convert what were originally conceived as exterior elements
                                                                                                         into interior ones. This can go so far as to suppress the function, or even the existence,
                                                                                                         of original balustrades or low walls dividing off the principal open space. This is what
                                                                                                         happened in the main courtyard of the Royal Palace in Valladolid mentioned above,
                                                                                                         whose galleries were closed off for the greater part of the twentieth century with glazing
                                                                                                         and partitions. The stone capstones or sills of the balustrades bear various boards for
                                                                                                         playing Qirkat or alquerque, a forerunner of draughts, cut into them by former residents
                                                                                                         wishing to while away a weary hour or two. However, when the galleries were en-
                                                                                                         closed, these very significant testimonies of daily life in the palace were hidden.
                                                                                                             Thus, the drawbacks of open courtyards should perhaps be accepted as no more
                                                                                                         than minor inconveniences, somehow tolerable in the upkeep of a historical building.
                                                                                                         In return, by maintaining the original design of the open courtyards, their architectural
                                                                                                         authenticity is preserved. Transforming some of their most typical features ‒ such as


                                                                             134
wells, cisterns, gargoyles or paving ‒ into merely decorative elements makes them
appear awkwardly ridiculous and useless (Figure 4).




Figure 4. Courtyard of the Palazzo Barbaran da Porto (Vicenza, Italy). Source: Javier Pérez Gil.


     Let us imagine that at some point the oculus of the Pantheon in Rome is glazed
over. In view of the precedents, this cannot be ruled out. Almost all architectural jour-
nals would be likely to enthusiastically praise such a solution for being capable of ret-
rofitting the artistic item to modern forms of expression. The interior would be protected




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
from rain and the intervention would almost certainly be explained as an act of preven-
tive conservation. In this way, there would be considerable savings on maintenance
and tourists would not get wet when it rains, so they would enjoy their visit more. How-
ever, this would no longer be the Pantheon. The cella, or inner space, would be bereft
of its symbolism through the loss of its opening to the sky; the temple would be stripped
of its soul. The structural complexities of the dome would cease to make sense. No-
body would understand the reason for the slope of the floor and the system of drainage
channels, because after two millennia of sterling service they would, at a stroke, com-
pletely lose their purpose.
     Does this mean, then, that the deterioration caused by exposure to the open air
should be accepted, albeit with resignation? The stance taken here is that indeed it
should. The façades opening onto a courtyard are not inner walls, but outer. This im-
plies that they will be exposed to inclement weather, even if less so than walls facing
the street. All historical buildings have had to undergo periodic maintenance and treat-
ment of their courtyards. International declarations going back as far as the Athens
Charter of 1931 (General Principle V) have advocated keeping sculptures, paintings or
decorative elements in their original location. This was later seen in the Kraków Char-
ter of 2000 as an “integrated part of the built heritage” [15] and their removal should be
avoided except when “this is the sole means of ensuring their preservation”. The same
criterion should be applied to the façades of courtyards, which have no need to be
covered with an artificial canopy, as if they were items in a museum display case.


                                                                                                   135
                                                                                                            3.4. Routes

                                                                                                              Another main function of courtyards, since they are spaces onto which a range of
                                                                                                         rooms open, is communication or the provision of routes. More than this, as noted by
                                                                                                         Gonzalo Díaz [16] in respect of some architecture of the Modernist Movement, in the
                                                                                                         wider meaning of certain projects there are courtyards that more than anything else are
                                                                                                         a system of composition, a method of introducing order and regularity into a building.
                                                                                                              Courtyards have a double impact when it comes to regulating internal routes
                                                                                                         through a piece of architecture. On the one hand, being open spaces that are frequent-
                                                                                                         ly central, they allow a range of access options. On the other, especially when they
                                                                                                         have galleries with porticos, they shape routes through the layout of their various ele-
                                                                                                         ments. This may involve the siting of exits towards rooms or staircases, the position of
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         columns or pillars acting as visual closures, or through the possibility of movements
                                                                                                         under cover along galleries when there are adverse weather conditions.
                                                                                                              Furthermore, it should not be forgotten that historical courtyards are almost always
                                                                                                         incorporated into noble or prestigious buildings, forming pathways that are highly in-
                                                                                                         volved in protocol or symbolism. This was already so in ancient Roman patrician hous-
                                                                                                         es, the layout or dispositio of which was governed by the daily ritual of the salutatio or
                                                                                                         formal greeting. The atrium, acting as an intermediate zone between the entrance hall,
                                                                                                         known as the vestibulum, or fauces, and the tablinum, a reception room or office open-
                                                                                                         ing off the atrium (which might in turn lead to a second courtyard with a peristyle or
                                                                                                         colonnade), thus counted as an essential space for transition, as made plain by the
                                                                                                         fact it was open to the sky. However, it was also a waiting area. In view of this purpose,
                                                                                                         its walls were adorned with bright paintings, mosaics, sculpted puteales7 or imagines
                                                                                                         majorum, the images of ancestors of the family, all of these being works with a clear
                                                                                                         propaganda purpose [17].
                                                                                                              More or less the same may be said about mediaeval and Renaissance palaces and
                                                                                                         great houses, in which the main courtyard lay between the principal entrance, with its
                                                                                                         hallway, and the main staircase going up to the piano nobille, the “noble floor” that was
                                                                                                         the prime area in the building. The courtyard once again had a strong representational
                                                                                                         and symbolic importance, which was always open to the view of any visitor. Thus, the
                                                                                                         artwork incorporated into its architecture, often included sophisticated features which
                                                                                                         illustrated the values held by the owners. One instance is Palazzo Vecchio in Florence,
                                                                                                         which has an accumulation of several successive strata of iconography, some overlay-
                                                                                                         ing others. Among its variegated decorations, several different messages are con-
                                                                                                         veyed, such as the emblems of the churches and guilds of the city, or the series of
                                                                                                         views of Austrian towns, painted in honour of Joanna of Austria on the occasion of her
                                                                                                         marriage to Francesco de’ Medici in 1565.
                                                                                                              However, a fully covered courtyard renders certain atmospheric conditions identi-
                                                                                                         cal both in the central area and in its perimetral corridors, so that routes cease to have
                                                                                                         any intuitive meaning. The logic of moving under shelter when there is rain, or in the
                                                                                                         shade when the sun is hot, made these corridors a practically obligatory path to follow.
                                                                                                         This factor no longer exists when it is possible to cut across the courtyard diagonally
                                                                                                         and more directly, because a divergence from the designated movement inside the
                                                                                                         courtyard essentially creates the freedom to move in any direction, possibly changing
                                                                                                         the way in which artistic repertoires and elements are recognized and contemplated.
                                                                                                         For instance, the set of effigies of the kings of Spain in the courtyard of the Palacio de
                                                                                                         los Dueñas in Medina del Campo has to be read in a fixed order, and the same is true
                                                                                                         of many monastery cloisters.


                                                                             136
     Even so, this is not all. The consequences of roofing in go beyond the courtyard
and extend to other spaces (Figure 5). The hallway, previously similar to the ancient
Roman fauces, ceases to be a transit path between two spaces open to the sky and
becomes a vestibule penetrating into an interior. Without undergoing the slightest mod-
ification itself, its function and authenticity is radically altered.

                                                                 Figure 5. Internal routes through
                                                                 a palace with either unroofed
                                                                 (A) or roofed (B) courtyard, and
                                                                 spatial integration of the entrance
                                                                 hall and the courtyard when the
                                                                 latter is roofed (C) (Source: Javier
                                                                 Pérez Gil).




    3.5. Acoustics

    When courtyards are roofed over, there is also a change in their acoustics. This may
be the result of excluding external sounds, of echoing caused by the roof, or of new
sources of noise, such as extractor fans or air conditioning. This is of particular impor-
tance because sound quality has a fundamental role in the perception of spaces. As
Dell Upton noted [18], it should be kept in mind that humans are simultaneously bodily
beings and a part of the landscape, not observers from a distance (“the self is always a
self-in-space”). They relate to their surroundings through all the senses, not just sight,
and they aid them in the configuration of a given sensory landscape, in which they are
then participants. Sound thus takes on considerable importance and as it is the trans-
mission of vibrations through space, it is affected by architecture and its limits (Figure 6).




                                                                                                          CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 6. Acoustic performance in a courtyard: A) unroofed, considering noise from interior; B)
roofed, with noise from interior; C) unroofed, with noise from exterior; D) roofed, with noise from
exterior (Source: Javier Pérez Gil).


    There are noisy courtyards, such as schoolyards, which cannot be imagined with-
out the hubbub of children playing; courtyards in which the murmur of a fountain marks
the rhythm of the daily life of a house; and even silent courtyards, such as monastic
cloisters intended to provide a retreat from worldly bustle and a space for contempla-
tion. However, in all of these, sound is a major feature that ought not to be impaired by
enclosing space in a pod. This would modify conditions both within and without consid-
erably. Passers-by would no longer be able to wonder what was causing the clamour


                                                                                                        137
                                                                                                         emerging from a courtyard. Cloistered nuns would cease to hear the constant hum of
                                                                                                         a busy city, contrasting with their own silence. Never again would their imagination
                                                                                                         strive to put a face to all these nameless sounds, just as the prisoners in Plato’s cave
                                                                                                         strove to identify the flickering shadows projected onto their wall.


                                                                                                            3.6. Work

                                                                                                              Apart from their more representational aspects – intrinsic to the concept of a palace
                                                                                                         as a great house -, the courtyard can also host other activities since it really is the heart
                                                                                                         of these types of buildings. This potential quality, whether more prosaic or less ceremo-
                                                                                                         nial, was already present in the atriums and peristyles of Roman houses. It was also to
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         be found in the palaces of the Early Modern Age, where the main courtyard had admin-
                                                                                                         istrative and maintenance purposes. If a building had a second garden courtyard, similar
                                                                                                         to a Roman peristyle, it was generally for recreational use. Around it were found dining
                                                                                                         rooms, games rooms, fountains, benches and fragrant plants, which spoke of a sophis-
                                                                                                         ticated, private zone. In the largest palaces and great houses, it was common enough to
                                                                                                         find other courtyards or patios given over to entirely mundane activities, as was the case
                                                                                                         of kitchens, generally sited at the rear of such buildings to avoid smells and noise.
                                                                                                              It was in the humblest dwellings, though, that this working aspect of a courtyard, or
                                                                                                         rather farmyard, was most evident. A good example is provided by the description of-
                                                                                                         fered over a century ago by Fernández Balbuena (1922) of a typical house on the high
                                                                                                         plateau in Ardoncino in the Province of Leon (Spain). From that description, the first
                                                                                                         point that emerges is that the inner yard of a farmhouse was multifunctional [19]. What
                                                                                                         is more, it becomes plain that the sun-room or the portico were the preferred places for
                                                                                                         carrying out certain tasks, because they had the best light or the greatest shelter. Once
                                                                                                         again, it can be seen that the functioning of a yard, its layout and its routes, is shaped
                                                                                                         by the circumstances imposed by its open-air nature. The same is true in more up-mar-
                                                                                                         ket courtyards, like monastic cloisters. The archetypal Benedictine model had already
                                                                                                         organized the principal activities of the community through specialization of its spaces,
                                                                                                         for instance, the chapter house, the refectory, the cella or chapel and the mandatum
                                                                                                         area. Furthermore, other purposes were assigned to spaces, going beyond symbolic
                                                                                                         and operational functions. Thus, the northerly corridor (mandatum) was the place cho-
                                                                                                         sen for the exercise of lectio divina8, besides other activities such as the laving of feet
                                                                                                         on Maundy Thursday and the Easter processions in which Cluniac monks made their
                                                                                                         way to the entrance of the chapel, for example.
                                                                                                              However, all the sector-based division of labour in a courtyard, conditioned once
                                                                                                         again by the varying characteristics of its zones, would be blurred or even lost if a roof
                                                                                                         or canopy rendered the whole space homogeneous.


                                                                                                            4. The testudinate atrium

                                                                                                              In his De lingua latina, Varron states that the term cavum aedium9 is used to desig-
                                                                                                         nate the partially roofed space enclosed by walls that was intended for common use by
                                                                                                         all those living in a dwelling [20]. Nonetheless, he states that this inner court was called
                                                                                                         testudo if it was not open to the sky because of its similarity to the shell of a tortoise,
                                                                                                         just like a general’s tent in a military camp. Such a variant is also mentioned by Vitru-
                                                                                                         vius when he lists the five types of atrium: Tuscan, Corinthian, Tetrastyle, Displuviate


                                                                             138
and Testudinate, this latter covered by a vault [21]. This means that some atriums were
completely roofed over in Antiquity. Nevertheless, it should be recalled that the testudi-
nate form was not very popular and was built only in those cases in which the span of
the opening was small. It was set in the centre of the house and was topped by a roof
with four sloping sides. If there were attic rooms, this structure was supported with
beams and trusses. For this reason, Fernández Vega [22] does not see it as reaching
the status of a courtyard, answering more to the concept of a room offering access to
others. Moreover, from the second century onwards, an interest in having more covered
spaces led to the replacement of atriums by vestibules.
     However, it is also true that in the course of history, certain atriums and open court-
yards, especially those of larger sizes, did receive some form of cover or canopy. This
was the case for the awnings or vela of the Romans, cloth hangings that gave shade
or protected against inclement weather, the first using fine fabrics, the second water-
proof materials, such as goatskin [23]. These coverings could reach extraordinary di-
mensions, as in the awnings of the Roman Colosseum or those of other amphitheatres
and theatres. In Renaissance and Baroque great houses such canopies were rarely
used, just like in the Governor’s wing courtyard in the Royal Palace Real of Valladolid.
One occasion was in June 1605, when the King and Queen visited the home of the
Duke of Lerma, a play was to be performed in the courtyard; for the sake of that event,
the opening was actually covered with an awning described as being very well made
and giving good shade [24].
     It may be asked whether such historical practices justify the roofing over of histori-
cal courtyards today. The answer should surely be no. Covering such open spaces
using totally reversible materials might, at most, justify its use for a brief period – a
temporary situation. In contrast, doing so in a permanent way would radically alter the
values of a space which by definition should be open to the sky, as has been shown.
The disadvantages of the uncovered patio are not only less burdensome than those of
its roofing but are also part of its essence.




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
     In recent decades, roofs have also been installed over open spaces of other sorts,
with the same dubious results from a heritage viewpoint. There have even been cases of
roofing over the parade grounds of a fair number of castles, which were originally intend-
ed to be clear open areas for horses to move around in and allow the gathering of troops.
The same has happened to bullrings, whose layout is reminiscent of ancient Roman
amphitheatres. From the 1980s onwards, some of these buildings have been roofed,
with the aim of guaranteeing their use whatever the weather, or of permitting other activ-
ities to take place in them, such as concerts or sports events. Examples of this trend in
Spain include the bullrings of Saragossa, Leganés, and León. Usually, these new roofs
have been developed as retractable devices, thus useful for indoor or outdoor activities.
This tendency has also been brought into play in brand-new bullrings, such as Illumbe in
San Sebastian which was designed by the architect Diego Garteiz in 1998.
     It should be asked whether this retains the true conception of such structures. It
would appear obvious that it does not. In the first place, as soon as the audience is
admitted to the central arena of a bullring or an amphitheatre, such edifices no longer
perform their designed functions, since such areas were never intended for spectators,
only for the spectacle. Even if their original purpose is respected, the historical model
of bullring is distorted. On the one hand, the enormous structures required to support
a retractable roof have to be based on the walls and distort the annular shape. On the
other, the zoning into well-established areas with specific names, like sol y sombra10
loses any meaning. Bullrings are set out in such a way as to ensure that the box for


                                                                                               139
                                                                                                         presiding dignitaries faces east, so it is protected from the sun during the late after-
                                                                                                         noon, when bullfights traditionally take place. As happened with Roman theatres and
                                                                                                         amphitheatres, the seating in a bullring is ranked according to its convenience and
                                                                                                         views. Neither the prices of the seats nor the experiences they offer are the same in all
                                                                                                         places. They may appear to be so but in reality, are not. Controls intended to homoge-
                                                                                                         nize the conditions in the whole space under a roof are incompatible with the authentic
                                                                                                         experiencing of the historical building. There may be more comfort, but the event is not
                                                                                                         the same. The difference between the two conceptions is as great as that between a
                                                                                                         car with a sunroof, a moonroof or a panoramic roof, and a convertible (Figure 7).
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         Figure 7. A) Courtyards of the Royal Palace of Valladolid (Spain); B) Ducal Palace of Lerma (Spain).
                                                                                                         Source: Javier Pérez Gil.


                                                                                                             5. Conclusion

                                                                                                             Courtyards are identified by the characteristics they possess deriving from being
                                                                                                         open-air spaces. Enclosing them under a roof, even if such interventions are attractive,
                                                                                                         reversible and limited, is never completely harmless. In addition, the situation is made
                                                                                                         worse if these actions are insensitive and directly invade the inner space with new
                                                                                                         supporting components, as occurs in instances such as the courtyards of the former
                                                                                                         University of Saint Catherine and the former Hospital of Saint Augustine (Figure 8), both
                                                                                                         situated at El Burgo de Osma in the Province of Soria (Spain).
                                                                                                             Various standards and recommendations relating to built heritage advise that no
                                                                                                         alterations should be made to pre-existing structures and volumes. It is true that
                                                                                                         earlier documents like the Venice Charter of 1964 advocated bringing in changes
                                                                                                         necessitated by the evolution of uses and customs so that they could fulfil “some
                                                                                                         socially useful purpose”. Even so, stress was laid on not changing “the lay-out or
                                                                                                         decoration of the building” and that “no new construction, demolition or modification
                                                                                                         which would alter the relations of mass and colour must be allowed” [25]. More re-
                                                                                                         cent texts have gradually incorporated immaterial values and aspects as fundamen-
                                                                                                         tals in the present-day concept of cultural heritage. Hence, the Charter on the Built
                                                                                                         Vernacular Heritage (1999) recognizes that “The vernacular embraces not only the
                                                                                                         physical form and fabric of buildings, structures and spaces, but the ways in which
                                                                                                         they are used and understood, and the traditions and the intangible associations
                                                                                                         which attach to them” [26]. The Charter of Krakow (2000) holds that it is not enough


                                                                       140
to preserve pre-existent structures, but that their authenticity and integrity should be
maintained, “including internal spaces, furnishings and decoration according to their
original appearance” [27].
    Over the last couple of decades, growing interest in immaterial aspects has caused
profound modifications to the way in which the heritage is envisaged. The Convention
for the Safeguarding the Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO, 2003) takes this to
be “practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills – as well as the instru-
ments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewith” [28]. The materi-
al and the immaterial are thus indissolubly linked, the former being an expression
of the latter. In courtyards, as has been seen, a roof may interfere with these variables
(use, sounds, the zoning of spaces, and the like).




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE


Figure 8. Courtyard of the ancient San Agustín Hospital (El Burgo de Osma, Spain). Source: Javier
Pérez Gil.


    In 2012 the Fiesta de los Patios (Courtyard Festival) of Cordoba was added to the
UNESCO Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage. More than the architectural worth of
these places, what was acknowledged was specifically the way in which they were
used. This would become unrecognizable if for some reason the decision were to be
taken to roof them over. Their dimensions and volumes, and the presence of water and
plants were designed as a function of the circumstances and context of Cordoba. If a
brand-new roof were to be slapped on top of them, the traditions that are materialized
in courtyard houses through music and acoustics (“murmuring water, birds chirping”
[29]), aromas, food, and social encounters would no longer be comprehensible in the
same way or might even become impossible.


                                                                                                    141
                                                                                                             The desire to control all variables is a very human impulse, and very architectural,
                                                                                                         as well. In one form or another it is to be found everywhere, even on a giant scale. The
                                                                                                         geodesic domes of the Eden Project in Cornwall designed by the architect Nicholas
                                                                                                         Grimshaw in 2001 are today’s version of greenhouses, but now of the size of a park.
                                                                                                         They enclose immense natural biomes, thanks to their total control over conditions of
                                                                                                         humidity, light and temperature. These domes have sometimes been called “Bucky
                                                                                                         Balls”, a modification of the slang term for fullerenes, carbon allotropes whose mole-
                                                                                                         cules have a rather similar shape, in honour of Richard Buckminster Fuller, who in
                                                                                                         1960, in collaboration with Shoji Sadao, had proposed covering Manhattan with a geo-
                                                                                                         desic bubble more than three kilometres in diameter. Something similar was imagined
                                                                                                         by Stephen King in his novel Under the Dome (2009), later adapted for television.
                                                                                                             Nevertheless, interventions of this sort, when proposed for heritage items like the
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                         courtyards of great historical houses, should be exceptional and very thoroughly justi-
                                                                                                         fied. When it is not a case of conservation imperatives, it should be extremely careful-
                                                                                                         ly weighed up whether any practical benefits are really worth the loss of, or damage to,
                                                                                                         the whole range of material and immaterial values listed. A mere search for some utili-
                                                                                                         tarian comfort should not be allowed to override the worth and authenticity of architec-
                                                                                                         ture that offers such a great deal as it is, which, moreover, society has supposedly
                                                                                                         committed itself to safeguarding.


                                                                                                            Acknowledgments

                                                                                                            The authors would like to thank the Instituto Universitario de Urbanística and De-
                                                                                                         partment of Theory of Architecture and Architectural Design, University of Valladolid,
                                                                                                         Spain, for their support.


                                                                                                            Notes

                                                                                                              1
                                                                                                                 “A style that has repeatedly been used in major museums in northern Europe”
                                                                                                         (literal quotation translated by authors).
                                                                                                              2
                                                                                                                “Open space surrounded by walls and/or buildings forming part of a dwelling, an
                                                                                                         administrative or school building, etcetera, these often being organized around it” (defi-
                                                                                                         nition translated by authors).
                                                                                                              3
                                                                                                                “Open space surrounded by buildings or walls” (definition translated by authors).
                                                                                                              4
                                                                                                                “Section of open area comprised within the structure of a building and intended to
                                                                                                         admit light and air to an internal space, to permit the passage of people, or for other
                                                                                                         purposes” (definition translated by authors).
                                                                                                              5
                                                                                                                 “Space enclosed by walls or galleries, which is usually left open to the sky in
                                                                                                         houses and other buildings” (definition translated by authors).
                                                                                                              6
                                                                                                                In a traditional mosque, the sebil is the main fountain available in the sahn, the
                                                                                                         courtyard placed outdoors preceding the prayer hall indoors.
                                                                                                              7
                                                                                                                Lidded breastworks or parapets around the mouth of a well or an access shaft to
                                                                                                         a cistern.
                                                                                                              8
                                                                                                                Readings from the Scriptures.
                                                                                                              9
                                                                                                                Hollow in a house, understood as a free space in the centre of the building, that
                                                                                                         may work as a court consequently.
                                                                                                              10
                                                                                                                  Literally, “sun-and-shade”, the two main areas in a bullring grandstand, only dif-
                                                                                                         ferentiated by the incidence of the sunlight.


                                                                           142
      References

[1]    “Art’s Shining Future”, The Harvard Gazette, 2 November 2014.
[2]    “La cultura gana otro espacio” (“Culture occupies another space”), Diario de
       Burgos, 7 June 2017.
[3]    “La cúpula ya corona el palacio ducal” (“The dome is already crowning the Ducal
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[4]    “Un tetto tutto di vetro coprirà la Pinacoteca e riparerá gli affreschi” (“A fully gla-
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[5]    Isidore of Seville (2004). Etimologías. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos,
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[6]    Boëthius, A., Ward-Perkings, J. B. (1970). Etruscan and roman architecture.
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[7]    Dictionnaire Larousse (2022). Available at: https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/
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[10] Istituto Treccani (2022). Available at: https://www.treccani.it/vocabolario, [Accessed:
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[11] Real Academia Española Dictionary (2022). Available at: https://dle.rae.es,
       [Accessed: 05/09/2022].
[12] Capitel, A. (2005). La arquitectura del patio. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, p. 6.
[13] Chinazzo, G., Wienold, J., Andersen, M. (2019) Daylight Affects Human Thermal
       Perception. Scientific Reports, 9, pp. 1-15.
[14] Fernández Vega, P.A. (2003) La casa romana. Madrid: Akal, p. 117.




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
[15] Charter of Cracow (2000), art. 7. Available at: https://www.triestecontemporanea.
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[16] Díaz y Recasens, G. (1992). Recurrencia y herencia del patio en el Movimiento
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[17] Fernández Vega, P.A. (2003). La casa romana. Madrid: Akal, pp. 118-131.
[18] Upton, D. (2007). Sound as Landscape. Landscape Journal, 26:1, pp. 24-35.
[19] Fernández Balbuena, G. (1922) La arquitectura humilde de un pueblo del
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[20] Varron, M. T. (1998) De lingua latina (L. A. Hernández, Trans.). Madrid: Gredos,
       p. 263.
[21] Vitruvius, M. (1787) Los diez libros de Architectura. Madrid: Imprenta Real,
       pp. 145-149.
[22] Fernández Vega, P.A. (2003) La casa romana. Madrid: Akal, pp. 111-113.
[23] Fernández Vega, P.A. (2003) La casa romana. Madrid: Akal, p. 124.
[24] Pérez Gil, J. (2004) El palacio de los condes de Fuensaldaña en Valladolid,
       cuarto de los alcaides duques de Lerma. De Arte, 3, pp. 85-104.
[25] ICOMOS (1964) The International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of
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       Charters/venice_e.pdf [Accessed: 08/08/2022].
[26] ICOMOS (1999). Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage. Available at:
https://www.icomos.org/charters/vernacular_e.pdf [Accessed: 08/08/2022].


                                                                                                 143
                                                                                                         [27]   Charter of Cracow (2000). Available at: https://www.triestecontemporanea.it/
                                                                                                                pag5-e.htm [Accessed: 06/10/2022].
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                                                                                                                06/10/2022].
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                                                                                                                doc%2Fsrc%2F16490-EN.doc&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK [Accessed: 06/10/2022].


                                                                                                            Biographical notes
Javier Pérez Gil, Rodrigo Almonacid - Why the courtyards of historical palaces should not be roofed in




                                                                                                             Javier Pérez Gil is a Ph. D historian and theoretician of architecture; full professor
                                                                                                         at the Higher School of Architecture of the University of Valladolid (Spain). His research
                                                                                                         interests focus on the conceptualization of the built cultural heritage and its conserva-
                                                                                                         tion. He has published more than fifty books, as well as chapters in collections and
                                                                                                         articles on this topic (available at https://uva-es.academia.edu/javierp%C3%A9rezgil).
                                                                                                         ORCID: 0000-0001-8803-9847.

                                                                                                             Rodrigo Almonacid is a Ph. D architect and senior lecturer on architectural histo-
                                                                                                         ry and theory at the Higher School of Architecture of the University of Valladolid (Spain).
                                                                                                         His research focuses on the connections of modern to contemporary architecture. He
                                                                                                         has published four books, as well as chapters in collections and articles on this topic
                                                                                                         (available at: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rodrigo-Almonacid). ORCID: 0000-
                                                                                                         0001-5353-7790.


                                                                                                            Summary

                                                                                                              There is a trend to roof over the courtyards of historical palaces and similar great
                                                                                                         buildings with an eye to conservation or to expanding their range of functions. This
                                                                                                         tendency is being popularized by major architects and barely a voice is raised against
                                                                                                         it. However, from the viewpoint of theory and heritage, such actions are not to be rec-
                                                                                                         ommended. In line with some international documents on cultural heritage, several
                                                                                                         architectural, perceptual and functional arguments show that, in order to preserve the
                                                                                                         cultural authenticity of courtyards, it would be advisable to avoid covering them.
                                                                                                              A courtyard is by definition an open space. Covering it, even with an apparently
                                                                                                         harmless glazed roof, radically affects its architectural essence and how it is experi-
                                                                                                         enced. Hence, such projects should not be accepted in a generalized and uncritical
                                                                                                         manner. It is best for courtyards to be left as courtyards, not as rooms with skylights.


                                                                                                            Riassunto

                                                                                                             C’è una tendenza a coprire i cortili dei palazzi storici dei grandi edifici per ampliarne
                                                                                                         i volumi e dedicarli a nuove funzioni. Questa tendenza è stata praticata dai maggiori
                                                                                                         architetti e, a malapena, si leva una voce contro di essa. Tuttavia, dal punto di vista
                                                                                                         della teoria della conservazione del patrimonio, tali azioni non sono da raccomandare.


                                                                        144
In linea con alcuni documenti normativi sui Beni Culturali, vengono mostrate diverse
ragioni architettoniche, percettive e funzionali atte a dimostrare che, al fine di preser-
vare l’autenticità culturale dei patii, sarebbe opportuno evitare di coprirli.
     Un cortile è per definizione uno spazio aperto. Chiudendolo, anche con una coper-
tura vetrata apparentemente innocua, si incide radicalmente sulla sua essenza archi-
tettonica e sul modo in cui viene vissuta. Pertanto, tali progetti non dovrebbero essere
accettati in modo generalizzato e acritico. È meglio lasciare i cortili come cortili, non
come stanze con lucernari.




                                                                                               CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                                                                                             145
