10.6092/issn.1973-9494/7119
L’impatto degli insetti alieni sui beni culturali e sul paesaggio e spesso sottovalutato, sebbene più del 50% delle specie dannose per beni culturali in Europa sono di origine esotica. Si fornisco diversi esempi ed informazioni di queste introduzioni e si illustrano possibili soluzioni anche legislative. Si evidenzia pure documentate notizie che eventi simili si sono manifestati anche in tempi lontani quale il periodo dell’antico romano. Viene discussa la necessità di implementare la stima dei costi dovuti ai danni create da queste specie e la mancanza di aspetti legislative specifici.
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1973-9494
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en
Barbara Manachini
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
biodiversity
Alien Insect Impact on Cultural Heritage and Landscape: an Underestimated Problem
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
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Articles
2017-06-01
2017-07-04
2017-06-01
2017-09-04
61-72
CSCH
Barbara Manachini
2015
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/7119
61
Dipartimento Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche STEBICEF, Palermo
1973-9494
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biodiversity
en
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Alien Insect Impact on Cultural Heritage and Landscape: an Underestimated Problem
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/7119/6829
15
A      LIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND
       LANDSCAPE: AN UNDERESTIMATED PROBLEM

    Barbara Manachini*5
    Dipartimento Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche
    STEBICEF, Via Archirafi, 18, Palermo, Italy


    Keywords: Invasive species; economic impact; insect pests; biodiversity


    What is an invasive alien insect?

    Invasive species are referred to as non-natives, exotics, aliens, non-indigenous
harmful species and by a host of other names. All these definitions incorporate a basic
concept: invasive species are organisms that have been introduced into an environ-
ment in which they did not evolve and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause
economic or environmental harm [1]. Typically, they have few or no natural enemies to
limit their reproduction and/or spread. Moreover, the hosts (e.g. native trees) for inva-
sive insects often have not co-evolved with the introduced pest. Consequently native
hosts are much more likely to be damaged or killed by the invasive pest. Today, inva-
sive species cause millions of dollars of damage to croplands, rangelands, pastures,
wetlands, waterways and forests. In addition, they have caused ecological and societal
impacts [2]. Alien insects are more than 30% of all other alien species introduced into
Italy and represent one of the most important environmental worries as they are con-
sidered one of the major causes of loss of biodiversity. More than 60% of these alien




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
insects have a negative impact on economic and human health. However, their impact
on cultural heritage and on landscape is still underestimated [3, 4].

    Alien insect and landscape

   The number of new records of alien species increases continuously, with a marked
acceleration in recent decades. Aliens accidentally introduced into Europe originate
from all parts of the world, but mainly from Asia. Among the alien species, the majority
are generally Coleoptera. In fact, more than 250 alien Coleoptera species belonging to
41 of the 137 beetle families have been recorded in Europe and in particular Weevils
and Bark Beetles [5]. Wood and seed borers are specially linked to human-mediated
dispersal due to their protected habitat. Alien coleopterans mainly attack stems and
half of them are xylophagous. The majority of alien Coleoptera, in particular Anobiidae
and Curculionidae, live in human-modified habitats, but many species live in forests
and other natural or semi-natural habitats.
   An evident and well-known example of how an alien insect can change the land-
scape is the case of Rhynchophorous ferrugineus (Coleoptera Curculionidae) known
as the Red Palm Weevil, which has affected the Sicilian (Italy) landscape [4]. How-
ever the list is really long. In northern Italy, the alien Citrus Longhorn Beetle (Figure

*   Corresponding author: barbara.manachini@unipa.it

                                                                                            61
                                                                             1a, b) (CLB, Anoplophora chinensis, Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) was detected in
                                                                             2007, becoming a widespread and serious pest (Figure 1c) even though several
                                                                             million Euro were spent only to try to control it [6, 7]. A. chinensis is a native from
                                                                             Asia, particularly widespread in China, Korea and Japan, where it is a serious pest
                                                                             of Citrus and many other ornamental and forest plants [8]. Recorded in the A2 list
                                                                             of quarantine pests of EPPO, and regulated according to the EU Directive 2000/29/
                                                                             CE (Figure 1d), the species was first detected in Europe in 1980, in the Netherlands;
                                                                             then, in 1998 in Austria, in 2000 in the UK, in 2003 in France, in 2007 in Croatia and
                                                                             Germany.
B. Manachini - ALIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND LANDSCAPE




                                                                             Figure 1. Anoplophora chinensis (a, adult; b, larvae) and the consequences of its damage (c, d).

                                                                                Extremely polyphagous, it attacks different species of broadleaf plants (e. g. Citrus,
                                                                             Acer, Aesculus, Platanus, Betula, Carpinus, Fagus, Malus, Pyrus, Rosa). Damage is
                                                                             caused by the xylophagous larvae which bore tunnels into the trunk and roots, causing
                                                                             the plants to easily die.
                                                                                An ad, serving as a public warning on-line and on television was also realized by
                                                                             the Servizio Fitosanitario della Lombardia (available at https://www.youtube.com/
                                                                             watch?v=RUv865h-T6k).
                                                                                In North Italy A. chinensis was detected in the region of Marche and in Rome, creat-
                                                                             ing great concern about this invasive species arriving in southern Italy, where Citrus
                                                                             spp. is one of the major crops and a symbol of the cultural heritage.
                                                                                But the situation is even more complicated as another species of Anoplophora,
                                                                             the species A. glabripennis known as the Asian Longhorn Beetle and A. malesiaca,
                                                                             have recently been recorded in Italy, in public and private gardens, and in urban
                                                                             and rural areas [7, 9]. They can attack many different plant taxa e.g. those belong-
                                                                             ing to the genera Ulmus, Acer, Aesculus, Salix, Populus and Betula. The heaviest
                                                                             attacks were found on Ulmus campestris (a common tree in rural landscapes) and
                                                                             on Acer spp..
                                                                                The list of alien invasive insects is very long and not only includes coleopteran
                                                                             species that can threaten our trees and landscape; for example, the horse chestnut
                                                                             leaf-miner, Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae) produces severely defoli-
                                                                             ated trees with smaller seeds and poor health that seriously affects horse chestnut
                                                                             regeneration. A single leaf can host up to a hundred leaf-miners (Figure 2a, d) often
                                                                             spoiling the panorama and boulevards in historical Villas [10].




                                                                        62
Figure 2. Attacks of Cameraria ohridella on the horse-chestnut in Lombardy (Italy). a) Leaf miners;
b) larvae; c) pupa inside the leaf; d) adults.




                                                                                                           CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
   Alien insects known to cause damage to heritage works

   Coleopteran species are also the major pests in heritage works. Among the 105
coleopteran species declared pests for heritage assets, 70 are certainly Alien Invasive
Species (corresponding to 67% of the pest species) (Table 1). The origin of the other
35 species is often uncertain as they are synanthropic and have lived with man for cen-
turies. Nowadays, the majority are cosmopolitan. Since the start of the 19th century,
the number of coleopteran aliens introduced into Europe has continued to increase.
Many species-rich families have surprisingly few aliens, whereas some relatively mi-
nor families, such as Anobiidae, Dermestidae and Nitidulidae, have a relatively high
representation of alien species. More than 50% of Anobiidae infesting cultural heritage
assets in Europe are alien species. These last two families are well known and have
had significant economic impacts, particularly as pests of wood, stored foodstuffs, tis-
sues, but in Italy Gastrallus pubescens preferentially eats paper and is now considered
a threat for books and libraries [11]. Moreover, invasive species often have a higher
biotic potential than native ones. This is the case of Lyctus brunneus (Coleoptera,
Lyctidae). This pest originates in the tropics and was recorded for the first time in Ven-
ice in 1972 [13]; it is more aggressive and prolific (60–70 eggs per female) than the
European species L. linnearis (20 eggs per female) and is now more common than the
native species. Alien species strongly impact on the conservation of European herit-


                                                                                                      63
                                                                             age [13]. Wood and paper heritage works can also be affected by termites. In this case
                                                                             too, the number of alien species is higher compared to native ones. In 2008, Sbrenna
                                                                             and Sbrenna claimed that only two species of Isoptera are present in Italy, Kalotermes
                                                                             flavicollis and Reticulitermes lucifugus.
                                                                                 The West Indian drywood termite, Cryptotermes brevis (Walker) (Isoptera: Kaloter-
                                                                             miti), is another exotic pest from west India and has been recorded in Sicily. It was de-
                                                                             scribed for the first time in Naples in 1997 and in Sicily in 1999 [14], it infests structural
                                                                             lumber and has caused great damage to many historical buildings and artifacts.
                                                                                 After the report by Sbrenna and Sbrenna [15] another three species were collected
                                                                             in Italy. Reticulitermes urbis (Isoptera Rhinotermitidae) was recorded in 2011 [16], after
                                                                             the accidental introduction of Reticulitermes flavipes, commonly known as the eastern
                                                                             subterranean termite, and is native to the eastern and central regions of North Ameri-
                                                                             ca, ranging from Ontario to Florida and from Colorado to north-eastern Mexico. In the
                                                                             same year, the accidental introduction of Coptotermes gestroi was recorded in Italy
                                                                             and Europe [17]. Considering that termites are important pests in buildings and struc-
                                                                             tures, particular attention should be paid to the timely detection of events announcing
                                                                             their introduction and to the identification of the species involved, in order to adopt
                                                                             suitable measures to ensure eradication of the infestation, thus avoiding alien termites
B. Manachini - ALIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND LANDSCAPE




                                                                             settling and spreading in Italy. At present, 6 species of termites have been reported
                                                                             in Sicily (Italy). Isoptera infestation has a devastating impact on cultural heritage with
                                                                             important economic consequences. The cost of treatments and sanitary measures
                                                                             against termites and cockroaches is significant in Europe.

                                                                                Table 1. List of coleopteran native and Alien Species (1) causing damage to
                                                                                heritage works.
                                                                              Families             Species                                                    Species

                                                                              Anobiidae            Anobium punctatum (De Geer, 1774)

                                                                              Anobiidae            Ernobius mollis (Linnaeus, 1758)                              1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Gibbium psylloides (Czenpinski, 1778)                         1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Gibbium aequinotiale (Boieldieu, 1854)                        1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Calymmderus oblungus (Gorham, 1883)                           1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Epauloecus unicolor (Piller and Mitterpacher)                 1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius, 1792)                       1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Mezium affine (Boieldieu, 1856)                               1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Mezium americanum (La Porte de Castelnau, 1840)               1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Gastrallus pubescens (Fairmaire, 1875)                        1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Nicobium castaneum (Olivier, 1790)                            1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Ozognathus cornutus (Le Conte, 1859)                          1

                                                                              Anobiidae            Niptus hololeucus (Faldermann, 1835)

                                                                              Anobiidae            Oligomerus ptilinoides (Wollaston, 1854)

                                                                              Anobiidae            Priobium carpini (Herbst, 1793)


                                                                        64
Anobiidae        Pseudeurostus hilleri (Reitter, 1877)        1
Anobiidae        Ptilinerua marmoratus (Reitter, 1877)        1

Anobiidae        Ptilinus pectinicornis (Linnaeus, 1758)

Anobiidae        Ptinus clavipes (Panzer, 1792)               1

Anobiidae        Ptinus bicintua (Sturmr, 1837)               1

Anobiidae        Ptinus latro (Fabricius, 1775)               1

Anobiidae        Ptinus fur (Linnaeus, 1758)                  1

Anobiidae        Ptinus variegatus (Rossi, 1792)

Anobiidae        Stegobium paniceum (Linnaeus, 1758)

Anobiidae        Trigonogenius globulus (Solier, 1849)        1

Anobiidae        Xestobium rufovillosum (DeGeer, 1774)

Bostrichidae     Bostrychoplites cornutus (Olivier 1790)      1

Bostrichidae     Bostrichus capucinus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Bostrichidae     Dinoderus minutus (Fabricius, 1775)          1

Bostrichidae     Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius, 1792)       1

Chrysomelidae    Acanthocelides obtectus (Say, 1831)

Cerambycidae     Trichoferus holosericeus (Rossi, 1790)

Cerambycidae     Hylotrupes bajulus (Linneaus, 1758)

Cleridae         Necrobia ruficollis (Fabricius, 1775)        1




                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Cleridae         Necrobia rufipes (DeGeer, 1775)              1

Cleridae         Necrobia violacea (Linnaeus, 1758)

Cleridae         Opetiopalpus scutellaris (Panzer, 1797)

Cryptophagidae   Cryptophagus cellaris (Scopoli, 1763)        1

Cryptophagidae   Cryptophagus fallax (Balfour-Browne, 1953)

Laemophloeidae   Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens, 1831)    1

Laemophloeidae   Cryptolestes duplicatus (Waltl, 1834)

Curculionidae    Hexarthrum exiguum (Boheman, 1838)

Dryophthoridae   Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus, 1763)

Dryophthoridae   Sitophilus zeamais (Motschulsky, 1855)

Dermestidae      Anthrenocerus australis (Hope, 1843)         1

Dermestidae      Anthrenus caucasicus (Reitter, 1881)         1

Dermestidae      Anthrenus flavidus (Solsky, 1876)            1

Dermestidae      Anthrenus flavipes (LeConte, 1854)           1


                                                                  65
                                                                             Dermestidae    Anthrenus museorum (Linnaeus, 1761)
                                                                             Dermestidae    Anthrenus pimpinellae (Fabricius, 1775)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Anthrenus scrophulariae (Linnaeus, 1758)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Anthrenus verbasci (Linnaeus, 1767)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus bifasciatus (Olivier, 1790)               1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus smirnovi (Zhantiev, 1973)                 1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus cyphonoides (Reitter, 1881)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus fasciatus (Thunberg, 1795)                1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus pellio (Linnaeus, 1758)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Attagenus unicolor (Brahm, 1790)                    1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes ater (DeGeer, 1774)                       1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes bicolor (Fabricius, 1781)                 1
B. Manachini - ALIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND LANDSCAPE




                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes carnivorus (Fabricius, 1775)              1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes frischii (Kugelann, 1792)                 1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes lardarius (Linnaeus, 1758)                1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes maculatus (DeGeer, 1774)                  1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes murinus (Linnaeus, 1758)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes peruvianus (Laporte de Castelnau, 1840)   1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes undulatus (Brahm, 1790)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Megatoma undata (Linnaeus, 1758)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Phradonoma villosulum (Dufschmid, 1825)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Reesa vespulae (Milliron, 1939)                     1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Sefrania bleusei (Pic, 1899)                        1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Thylodrias contractus (Motschulsky, 1839)           1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes haemorrhoidalis (Küster, 1852)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Dermestes mustelinus (Erichson, 1846)

                                                                             Dermestidae    Trododerma augustum (Solier, 1849)                  1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Trogoderma glabrum (Herbst, 1783)                   1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Trogoderma granarium (Everts, 1898)                 1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Trogoderma inclusum (LeConte, 1854)                 1

                                                                             Dermestidae    Trogoderma megatomoides (Reitter, 1881)             1

                                                                             Lathridiidae   Adistemia watsoni (Wollaston, 1871)                 1

                                                                             Lathridiidae   Cartodere constricta (Gyllenhal, 1827)              1


                                                                        66
 Lathridiidae        Corticaria elongata (Gyllenhal, 1827)                      1
 Lathridiidae        Dienerella argus (Reitter, 1884)                           1

 Lathridiidae        Dienerella filum (Aubé, 1850)                              1

 Bostrichidae        Lyctus brunneus (Stephens, 1830)                           1

 Bostrichidae        Lyctus cavicollis J. L. (LeConte, 1805)                    1

 Bostrichidae        Lyctus linearis (Goeze, 1777)                              1

 Bostrichidae        Trogoxylon impressum (Comolli, 1837)

 Mycetophagidae      Litargus balteatus (LeConte, 1856)                         1

 Mycetophagidae      Thyphea stercorea (Linnaeus, 1758)                         1

 Nitidulidae         Carpophilus dimidiatus (Fabricius, 1792)                   1

 Nitidulidae         Carpophilus hemipterus (Linnaeus, 1758)                    1

 Nitidulidae         Carpophilus ligneus (Murray, 1864)                         1

 Nitidulidae         Carpophilus obsoletus (Erichson, 1843)                     1

 Silvanidae          Ahasverus advena (Waltl, 1834)                             1

 Silvanidae          Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel, 1889)                       1

 Silvanidae          Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Linnaeus, 1758)                 1

 Silvanidae          Silvanus bidentatus (Linnaeus, 1792)

 Tenebrionidae       Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer, 1797)                      1

 Tenebrionidae       Alphitobius laevigatus (Fabricius, 1781)                   1




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
 Tenebrionidae       Palorus depressus (Fabricius, 1790)

 Tenebrionidae       Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758)

 Tenebrionidae       Tenebrio obscurus (Fabricius, 1792)                        1

 Tenebrionidae       Tribolium castaneum (Herbst, 1797)                         1

 Tenebrionidae       Tribolium confusum (Jacquelin du Val, 1861)                1



   Alien species from the past

   Human populations have migrated and interacted throughout time and in their trav-
els have intentionally or unintentionally carried other organisms with them. Several
alien species have been recorded from archaeological sites dating to the Roman oc-
cupation of Britain. Fragments of insects found in Roman and Viking graves (e.g., Sit-
ophilus granaries [18]; Pulex irritans, [19]) have proved that some invertebrate species
were introduced into Europe long ago.
   The recovery of Blatta orientalis, the ‘oriental’ cockroach, from late Roman Lincoln
[20] reflects Roman trade connections, direct or indirect, with Africa [21]. In the 1600s
the American cockroach (Periplaneta americana) was able to settle in various parts of


                                                                                            67
                                                                             Europe and more recently in Italy, where it began to pose a serious threat to cultural
                                                                             heritage, as in the case of statues of the Virgin Mary.
                                                                                Only six species are known in Europe, all of them having been introduced from
                                                                             tropical or subtropical regions: none is considered native. Blatta orientalis, Periplaneta
                                                                             spp. and Neostylopyga rhombifolia are synanthropic species that have long been in-
                                                                             troduced into Europe.
                                                                                Another example of ancient introduction is the known Indian Meal Moth, Common
                                                                             Clothes Moth, Webbing Clothes Moth or simply Clothing Moth, Tineola bisselliella
                                                                             (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) and Tinea pellionella; they are now a pest all over Europe, but
                                                                             was probably imported centuries ago from Asia (Figure 3).
B. Manachini - ALIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND LANDSCAPE




                                                                                  Figure 3. Leather painter: (a) infested by Tinea pellionella; b) larva; c) pupa; d) adult.

                                                                                Although some of these human-introduced fauna were able to successfully colonise
                                                                             these new geographical regions, a number of species struggled to find suitable niches
                                                                             when confronted with environmental or climatic restraints. Our ability to recognise and
                                                                             distinguish the indigenous species from the foreign is of great archaeological interest,
                                                                             just as the mapping of animal movement can provide insight into the movement and
                                                                             interaction of past peoples. However, considering this, faunal remains may serve as
                                                                             traces to elucidate past exchange and trade networks [22].

                                                                                Discussion and conclusion

                                                                                 However, researchers and policy makers rarely address directly the connection be-
                                                                             tween invasive species and loss in natural and cultural heritage. Invasive species have
                                                                             substantial, albeit not fully quantified impacts on cultural services including aesthetic val-
                                                                             ues, recreation and tourism. Furthermore, studies of the links between these species and
                                                                             loss in natural biodiversity and heritage, in botanical and historical gardens as well as in
                                                                             natural landscapes, are largely lacking in the literature [4]. Even current legislation is not
                                                                             enough, although in the Legislative Decree - D.Lgs n. 152/2006 - there are some potential
                                                                             quotations that could also refer to biological invasions. However, specific risk analysis on
                                                                             the introduction of alien pests relating to cultural heritage and landscape is scant.
                                                                                 The precautionary principle, that could be useful in the situation of a potential alien
                                                                             species threatening the landscape and the cultural heritage, is restricted to market
                                                                             products. In fact, it enables a rapid response in the face of possible danger to human,
                                                                             animal or plant health, or to protect the environment. In particular, where scientific
                                                                             data do not permit a complete evaluation of the risk, recourse to this principle may, for
                                                                             example, be used to stop distribution or order withdrawal from the market of products
                                                                             likely to be hazardous [23]. Some authors [24] suggest that new legislative instruments
                                                                             similar to “the polluter pays principle” mentioned in the Declaration of the United Na-
                                                                             tions Conference on the Human Environment should be implemented [25].

                                                                        68
    Perhaps the key lesson stemming from these few examples is that while we lack
full knowledge of the comprehensive impact of invasive species on natural and cultural
heritage, the impact perceived thus far has been severe enough to warrant action. Our
existing experience and practices indicate the need for a clear path forward in order to
minimise the threats of invasive species. With better research, longer-term data and
site-level specifics, we will be able to fill in gaps in knowledge and lessen uncertainty
regarding future scenarios.


      Acknowledgements

   Thanks are given to Daniela Lupi, Matteo Maspero, Costanza Jucker, Monica Testa
for their help in providing materials and photographs.


      References

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                                                                                              69
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                                                                               Biographical notes

                                                                               Barbara Manachini, PhD in Agricultural Entomology, Bologna University (Italy),
                                                                             Master in Science of Nematology, Ghent University (Belgium), Master in scientific di-
                                                                             dactics and divulgation, Roma Tre University (Italy), Degree in Natural Science, Milan


                                                                        70
University (Italy). Author and co-author of more than 150 published contributions. Co-
inventor of 2 patents. Senior researcher at the University of Milan (until 2007); in 2012
was awarded the National Scientific Qualification as Associate Professor in Applied
Entomology and Plant Pathology. She teaches entomology at the University of Paler-
mo, in courses of Restoration and Conservation of Cultural Heritage, Natural Science
and Biology and Ecology of Plants. Evaluator for European Project (FP7 and Horizon
2020). Member of the Management Committee of the COST Action 862. Member in
the GMO panel of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and ad hoc expert in
Plant Protection Products Non Target Organism and in-soil organisms working groups.




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




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                                                                                 Summary
                                                                                 The impact of alien invasive insects on cultural heritage and landscapes is very of-
                                                                             ten neglected; even though, more than 50% of species that threaten cultural heritage
                                                                             in Europe are of exotic origin. In addition they are more aggressive. Several examples
                                                                             and a description, are given of the most dangerous alien insects present in heritage
                                                                             sites that constitute a risk for the conservation of cultural property: museum collections,
                                                                             libraries, archives and historic buildings. Globalisation has increased this phenomenon
                                                                             but traces of the accidental introduction of insect pests have occurred since Roman
                                                                             times. The paper discusses the need to implement an estimation of the costs that arise
                                                                             from the damage caused by these species and the lack of specific legislative aspects.


                                                                                Riassunto
                                                                                L’impatto degli insetti alieni sui beni culturali e sul paesaggio e spesso sottovalutato,
                                                                             sebbene più del 50% delle specie dannose per beni culturali in Europa sono di origine
                                                                             esotica. Si fornisco diversi esempi ed informazioni di queste introduzioni e si illustrano
                                                                             possibili soluzioni anche legislative. Si evidenzia pure documentate notizie che eventi
                                                                             simili si sono manifestati anche in tempi lontani quale il periodo dell’antico romano.
B. Manachini - ALIEN INSECT IMPACT ON CULTURAL HERITAGE AND LANDSCAPE




                                                                             Viene discussa la necessità di implementare la stima dei costi dovuti ai danni create
                                                                             da queste specie e la mancanza di aspetti legislative specifici.




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