10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9948
L'analisi sulla letteratura accademica e sulle fonti specifiche, mostra una grave carenza di studi, ricerche e pubblicazioni sul ruolo del feltro nella cultura materiale dei baschiri. L’esame delle informazioni disponibili sul feltro può fornire le basi per ulteriori approfonditi studi in questo settore. Questo articolo ha la finalità di presentare ai lettori la storia del feltro, il suo ruolo nella vita quotidiana e il suo riflesso nella cultura spirituale baschirica. Ciò che rende rilevante questo studio è il fatto che colma la carenza della ricerca sul feltro come elemento della cultura materiale e del folklore baschiro. Questo lavoro, basato sul folklore legato al feltro e sui materiali etnografici tratti dagli  studi sul campo, già pubblicati dagli stessi autori o inediti, cerca di mostrare la ricca storia del feltro, dai tempi antichi ai nostri giorni, e di identificarne il posto nella cultura spirituale baschirica. L'approccio analitico utilizzato per questo studio ha rivelato la forte presenza di feltro nel folklore, in particolare nelle fiabe e nei costumi di Bashkir, evidenziando la menzione del feltro bianco, che è stato ampiamente usato nei rituali e nella medicina tradizionale. Esempi tratti da varie fiabe illustrano le osservazioni degli autori sul ruolo del feltro nella cultura spirituale baschirica.
application/pdf
1973-9494
9948
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Gulnaz Yagafarova
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
cultural heritage
Felt as a Surviving Part of Material and Spiritual World Culture
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
19
Articles
2020-03-18
2019-10-25
2020-03-18
2020-03-18
117-132
CSCH
Gulnaz Yagafarova
2019
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9948
117
Institute for History, Language and Literature, Ufa Research Center, Ufa
1973-9494
cultural heritage
en
132
Felt as a Surviving Part of Material and Spiritual World Culture
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/9948/9704
19
F   ELT AS A SURVIVING PART OF MATERIAL AND SPIR-
    ITUAL WORLD CULTURE

   Gulnur Khusainova*1
   Institute for History, Language and Literature, Research Center, Ufa, Russia.

   Ilsuyar Sharapova
   Educator at the People’s Friendship House, Ufa, Russia.

   Aigul Khakimyanova
   Department of Folklore Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature Ufa
   Research Center, Ufa, Russia.

   Florida Fazylova, Firdaus Yunusowa
   Department of Literary Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature Ufa
   Research Center, Ufa, Russia.

   Gulnaz Yagafarova
   Department of Linguistics, Institute for History, Language and Literature Ufa Re-
   search Center, Ufa, Russia.


   Keywords: folklore, conservation, sethnography, cultural heritage


   1. Introduction

    Modern Russian research welcomes interdisciplinary studies, in particular, in the
field of folklore and ethnography. Investigating the representation of material culture in
folklore is one of the major current research topics that needs to be addressed in more
detail [1-3]. The present article examines such a relationship using the example of felt.
    Felting seems to have had a rich and fascinating history, given that felt and felt
products used to be an integral part of the everyday life of many peoples throughout
the world. A people’s daily lifestyle is reflected in their folklore, including oral tradi-
tions and arts (speech, tales, songs, poetry), and having played a major role in many
societies and cultures, it naturally forms part of their heritage. As such, it is a valuable
source of information which is worth studying. Analysis of Bashkir folklore sources
has revealed that felt is mostly mentioned in fairy tales whereas epic poetry makes
only passing references to felt. In this connection, this research study draws mostly
upon Bashkir fairy tales.
    Bashkir ethnographer, Z. M. Davletshina, wrote a number of articles on felt [4] and
its revival [5], as well as traditions and innovations in Bashkir felt making techniques
[6]. Of special interest to the topic under investigation is her research entitled Felt in
Bashkir rites [7], which overlaps – to some extent – with the present research study.
Bashkir cultural studies comprise a number of articles focusing on the presence of

*1 Corresponding author: bashfolk@yander.ru
                                                                                           various cultural artefacts in Bashkir oral lore and literature. Among them are studies
                                                                                           by G. R. Khusainova [8, 9, 10], A. M. Khakimyanova [11], G. V. Yuldybaeva [12], I. R.
                                                                                           Sharapova [13], F. B. Yunusova [14, 15] and F. S. Fazylova [16]. Cf. a research study
                                                                                           by Yakut linguist, L. M. Gotovtseva [17] on the vocabulary for outerwear, its elements
                                                                                           and details in Olonkho texts, as well as the structure and semantics of words for head-
                                                                                           wear and its components.
                                                                                               The aim of the study is to investigate the history and symbolism of felt making, to iden-
                                                                                           tify Bashkir fairy tales mentioning felt and to examine its function in them. Research into
                                                                                           the representation of a cultural artefact – felt – in popular culture, notably, in folklore, is of
                                                                                           considerable importance for Bashkir folklore studies and ethnography because it proves
                                                                                           the existence and active use of felt in the Bashkirs’ everyday and spiritual life.


                                                                                              2. Materials and methods
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                              Bashkir fairy tales and field data collected by present-day folklore specialists and
                                                                                           ethnographers served as the major primary sources for the present research project.
                                                                                           Other sources included information contained in the publications and research studies
                                                                                           of pre-revolutionary and present-day researchers.
                                                                                              The study adopted a holistic and systemic approach combining historical, cultural
                                                                                           and comparative historical research methods based on a system of universal catego-
                                                                                           ries, contrasts, images and symbols.


                                                                                              3. Results


                                                                                              3.1. History of felt

                                                                                                Felt (from the Turkic word ojlyk “cover”) is a gross, non-woven textile material made
                                                                                           from felted wool; it is breathable and has low heat conductivity. Items made from felt
                                                                                           such as felted cloths, clothing, headwear and footwear are also in high demand. In
                                                                                           ancient times, felt was an indispensable part of the everyday life of people living in
                                                                                           severe climatic conditions and involved in herding activities. Consequently, felt making
                                                                                           is a very ancient art. “A great steppe corridor passing through all of Northern Eurasia
                                                                                           stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific one. Semi-legendary warrior and no-
                                                                                           madic tribes who knew no other dwelling, but one made from felt used to live here.
                                                                                           They slept on felt, wore felt clothes and felt would always accompany marriages, births
                                                                                           and deaths, great military campaigns, religious rites and communication with gods.
                                                                                           Felt protected people from cold, hardships, evil spirits and enemy arrows, and every-
                                                                                           thing in their tough lives was related to felt” [18]. Felt helped people survive, protected
                                                                                           them from cold and heat and served them as clothing and building material, therefore,
                                                                                           it is hard to imagine the life and culture of nomads and peoples living in severe climatic
                                                                                           conditions, such as the Urals, without felt.
                                                                                                The history of felt making dates back to the 5th or 6th millennium BC. “Pieces of wool
                                                                                           falling from wild sheep and accumulating inside caves were the distant ancestors of
                                                                                           felt. With the passage of time, the accumulated wool would thicken, and men used it
                                                                                           as flooring” [18]. Felt was invented much later than weaving, which had first appeared


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some 20,000 years ago. This is because felt making could not appear until sheep
breeding was fully developed. The wool of wild sheep cannot be felted and has no
scales that would tie fibers to one another, hence the need to breed domestic sheep.
Furthermore, very large amounts of wool were needed. For instance, a minimum of
100 kilograms of wool is required to cover one yurt (tent), so big flocks of sheep were
necessary. Although sheep were domesticated fairly early on, they could not be organ-
ized into flocks until the domestication of horses, which dates back to approximately
the 5th or 6th millennium BC. This period is generally regarded as the birth of felt making
when local manufacturing assumed a wider and life-altering significance. “The very
first felt products, identified to have been made by proto-Iranian tribes and dated by ar-
cheologists to around 3000 BC, were found in Asia Minor. Felt making techniques have
survived to this day and are still widespread among peoples living in Transcaucasia,
Asia Minor, Iran and Central Asia” [18]. The Turkmen are one of the major representa-
tives of the Iranian felt making tradition.
    Omnipresent pictorial representations of felt on Scythian gold artefacts reveal the
existence of numerous felt products among northern nomads. Herodotus describes
Scythian felt hats, kaftans and tents, i.e. “even the Scythians were skilled at making”
felt [19]. (The Scythians are known to have appeared in Europe in the 7th century
BC and to have disappeared some 2,300 years ago). The Russian researcher, V.I.
Gulyayev, drew upon the materials of archeological research carried out in Ukraine
and Russia, including his own excavations, to make the following conclusion: “The
dwelling of the Scythian nomad during the archaic period was a nomadic tent, covered
with felt or skins and mounted on a cart” [19]. Given the “sorry state” of the surviving
Scythian clothing from the Northern Black Sea Region, he considers it fairly appropri-
ate to turn to similar items from the Altai Mountains “where ice-bound burials dating to
the 5th-8th centuries BC have preserved the treasures of the long-gone nomadic culture
known as the Pazyryk culture and closely related to the Scythians. The ice which had
formed early in the Pazyryk burials preserved, so to say, the organic material made




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
from wood, fur, leather, felt and fabrics” [19]. Felt covers and appliqued felts were
discovered in the “frozen” burials of nomadic noblemen, with fish, wolves and goats
pictured on them” [19]. In ancient times, felt was used to keep dwellings warm and to
make items of clothing (hats, felt boots with high tops, high white felt boots and fur
jackets with felt lining) and household items (felt carpets, a felt pouch for a mirror and/
or horn comb and many more) [19].
    Excavations at the Pazyryk burials in Altai, dated to the 6th-4th centuries BC, have
revealed intricately decorated felt items that are among the best known in the world.
They are made from 1-2-mm thick panels, decorated with felt-over-felt applications
and occasionally feature embroidery, white fringes or details cut out from gold foil. Per-
fectly preserved, these felt artefacts reveal the great technique and exquisite beauty
of Scythian culture. Felts featuring fine applications have come to be known as the
“Pazyryk line”. One particular example, a felt curtain measuring over 30-square-meters
depicting a horseman kneeling before a deity has achieved truly cult status among felt
lovers throughout the world.
    A thick, multi-layered felt canvas covered with fabric, pictures of fighting animals
and other mythological subjects, decorations in the form of applications with manda-
tory stitches and fringes using thick, curling cord are among the typical features of
felting and decoration techniques used in the felt items uncovered in the Noin-Uly
burial site (Xiongnu, 2nd-1st centuries BC) in Inner Mongolia. The Xiongnu were a bel-


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                                                                                           ligerent people devoted to a nomadic lifestyle, so little space was given to weaving
                                                                                           in their culture. The only textiles they made were felts, hence their great importance
                                                                                           in the Xiongnu’s daily life. The depiction of Genghis Khan’s huge, felt-covered yurt
                                                                                           (tent), as well as other traditional Mongolian felt items, both ancient and contempo-
                                                                                           rary, confirm that the Mongolians are the direct successors of the Xiongnu felt-mak-
                                                                                           ing tradition [18]. Many Central Asian peoples, including the Tibetans, the Tuvinians,
                                                                                           the Altai and the Kazakhs, have followed in this tradition. The Xiongnu felt-making
                                                                                           techniques spread as far as the North Caucasus, with each people introducing their
                                                                                           own national elements into the decoration of their felt items; all Steppe peoples have
                                                                                           perceived felt as an essential element of their lifestyles. The Xiongnu felt-making
                                                                                           tradition, born in the territory of modern-day Buryatia, still continues there today.
                                                                                               Since ancient times, felting has been one of the traditional Buryat activities to be
                                                                                           carried out during the short Siberian summer. The first step was sheep shearing (Fig-
                                                                                           ure 1). This process took place in late June or early July: shearing was not done any
                                                                                           later because the sheep would not have had enough time to grow new wool before
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                           the winter and could die. The Buryats’ initial processing of wool does not differ from
                                                                                           that of other peoples specialized in felting. Small-sized felt items used to be felted
                                                                                           manually. This job was considered to be relatively easy and, consequently, was done
                                                                                           by women. Large cloths to be used as a yurt covering material were specially manu-
                                                                                           factured by men. A roll of would-be felt was sewn into raw cow skin, ropes were tied
                                                                                           to the edges of a pole, the loose ends of the harness straps were then tied to the
                                                                                           stirrups of a saddled horse, and the roll was passed over an even grass field until
                                                                                           the felt was ready. A distance of 15-20 arrow flight paths, the equivalent of about
                                                                                           1.5-2 km, was thought to be sufficient to obtain high quality felt. Nomadic daily life
                                                                                           activities needed large amounts of felt but, no matter how important it was for yurt
                                                                                           covering, small-sized pieces of felt used inside yurts were also of great importance.
                                                                                           People slept on felt mattresses and ate sitting on felt rugs. Felt was decorated with
                                                                                           love: women would meticulously stitch centuries-old patterns with threads made from
                                                                                           the tendons of horses and wild animals in order to protect themselves, their families
                                                                                           and the entire tribe from evil forces, hoping for the best (Figure 2). Therefore, felt was
                                                                                           regarded not only as an intermediary between humans and gods, but also as a good
                                                                                           spirit and the guardian of the hearth [18].
                                                                                               The Slavs have never been involved in nomadic ways of life and have never lived
                                                                                           in yurts, yet they had first-hand knowledge about felt and were skilled at producing
                                                                                           both felts and half-felts typical of European felting. Old Slavic terms for wool fabrics,
                                                                                           known to us from the surviving chronicles, sound unusual and mysterious to us:
                                                                                           водмол (vodmol), апона (apona), орниц (ornits), ерига (yeriga) and сукно (sukno).
                                                                                           The word sukno starts to appear in ancient manuscripts from the 12th century, but
                                                                                           it is manifest that its manufacturing method dates back to a more remote period. In
                                                                                           the territory of old Ladyga, archeologists have found fragments of felt (for unknown
                                                                                           uses) and a head scarf dated to the 8th century. However, they have not yet found any
                                                                                           felt footwear. Does it mean they did not wear valenki (traditional winter footwear)?
                                                                                           We know of one method the Slavs used to felt sukno, or coarse woolen cloth: they
                                                                                           put wool on a board and constantly poured a small amount of hot water over it; two
                                                                                           strong men sat in front of each other near the board and moved the fabric with their
                                                                                           feet back and forth, thus forming a thin layer similar to fine felt. In cold weather, Slavic
                                                                                           women and men wore long, warm clothes made from sukno, called svity (from the
                                                                                           word svivat meaning “wrap”). Felt was also widespread among the Slavs in making


                                                                                     120
horse harnesses such as draft collars, saddle linings and horsecloths. From Scyth-
ian times to this day, felt has been the most suitable horse harness material. In the
remote past, the Slavs used to wage wars continuously. As a material, felt faithfully
served them in military matters, being used as soft inner lining for helmets, it would
cushion blows struck with an axe or a sword. Felts were equally widespread for mili-
tary uses. Myatel or coats, which could be used as pieces of military clothing, were
made from sukno. By wrapping this thick felted material around his arm, the soldier
could protect himself as if with a shield, and this kind of coat served as both a blanket
and a tent during military campaigns [18].


   3.2. Felt in Bashkir culture

    Felt made from sheep wool, using a special technique, was an indispensable mate-
rial in the daily activities of the Bashkirs living in the Southern Ural. It was mostly used
to cover their yurts (тирмә) or their temporary summer dwellings and to make cloth-
ing, footwear, horse harnesses and so on.




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                             Figure 1. First stage of felt making.


                                                                                               121
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                                                      Figure 2. Felt making (Кейеҙ баҫыу)



                                                                                               According to Z. M. Davletshina, “the Bashkirs have maintained a respectful attitude
                                                                                           towards this universal product that served as an attribute of traditional family and do-
                                                                                           mestic rites and rituals” [4]. Importantly, there are extensive Bashkir research works on
                                                                                           felt and its significance for the Bashkirs [20].
                                                                                               A dictionary compiled by R. N. Karimova provides extensive information on the ex-
                                                                                           isting Bashkir types of felt:
                                                                                               • by color: аҡ кейеҙ (white piece of felt), аласа кейеҙ (patchy felt with patterns);
                                                                                               • by composition: тышлы кейеҙ (piece of felt with sewn-on palace), тәкиәмәт кейеҙ
                                                                                           (felt made from dyed wool);
                                                                                               • by thickness: ҡалын кейеҙ (thick piece of felt). The Bashkirs must have also
                                                                                           had thin felts and felts of medium thickness, which is not mentioned in the diction-
                                                                                           ary – Kh. G.;
                                                                                               • by application: түр кейеҙе (narrow, long felt rug) (let us also add һике кейеҙе,
                                                                                           иҙәнгә йәйә торған кейеҙ (felt rug for plank beds and floor) – Kh. G.), ҡамыт кейеҙе
                                                                                           (harness felt), ыңғырсаҡ кейеҙе (back band felt), төнлөк кейеҙе (piece of felt used to
                                                                                           cover the yurt’s chimney throat);
                                                                                               • кейеҙ итек / быйма (felt boots or valenki), кейеҙ ҡата (short valenki), кейеҙ
                                                                                           олтораҡ (felt insole), кейеҙ ҡалпаҡ (felt hat) can also be added to this list. Interest-
                                                                                           ingly, felt hats also used to be worn by Scythian noblemen. During excavations of a
                                                                                           royal kurgan (burial mound) near Kerch, among the once luxurious pieces of clothes,
                                                                                           archeologists found a felt hat decorated with gold plaques [8, p. 18], “they (Scythians)
                                                                                           wore pointed felt hats on their heads”, кейеҙ менән көпләнгән ишек, кейеҙ менән
                                                                                           йылытылған күреп and so on (felt-coated door; cold-proof felt box made from rods
                                                                                           and used on sledges) [21].

                                                                                     122
    In their summer camps, the Bashkirs are known to have washed in felt-covered
tents [22]. In 2011, the authors also gathered information regarding felt from Kh. A.
Akhmetova (Mutallapova) (b. 1935), a native resident of the village of Staroye Khal-
ilovo (Gayski District in Orenburg Region): “Бында йәшәгән ир-аттың ат өҫтөндәге
седлоға кейеҙ йәйә торған ғәҙәте булған. Шуны туҡым тигәндәр” (Men who lived
here had a habit of covering saddles with felt. This was called “tukym”), which is indica-
tive of the uses of felt in the local residents’ daily activities. Being of great importance
for the Bashkirs, felt is also mentioned in Bashkir folklore. Since no research has been
conducted on this topic, this study intends to fill this gap.
    Examination of available documents has revealed that the word кейеҙ or “felt” is
rather rare in Bashkir oral folklore. This can be attributable to the fact that Bashkir folk-
lore was written down at a relatevely late period, at the beginning of the 20th century,
i.e. during Soviet times when people were massively involved in collective farming,
folk arts and crafts having been even relegated to the background. In the 1960s, there
was a severe shortage of felt in villages. People were unable to find felt for insoles (in
those days felt insoles were not sold and people used to make their own), let alone felt
for plank beds and floors, which was indispensable for those whose homes were cold).
    If an item is no longer actively used, it is gradually forgotten and rarely mentioned.
Nonetheless, the word кейеҙ appears in rites and specific genres such as fairy tales
and epic poetry, fulfilling specific functions. For instance, according to F. G. Khisamitdi-
nova, “кейеҙ is a mythologized object that has positive semantic connotations, attracts
good luck, happiness and fertility” [23]. That is why, during the welcoming of the килен
(“bride”) in the house of the groom, they would spread out white felt under her feet
[24]; a white piece of felt would be thrown on the horse of the hero who won a horse
race [25]; a piece of white felt had to be thrown in front of a white snake for the latter to
leave its horn on it; historical writings also mention the habit of lifting the khan up on a
piece of white felt: “башҡорттар үҙҙәренең шул ҡан ҡәрҙәше Темәсйәнде аҡ кейеҙҙә
йыһангир Сыңғыҙ-хан итеп күтәрәләр” [26]. White felt was regarded as a symbol of




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
purity and prosperity; it also served as an amulet and the “continuation of a family line”
[4]. This may be why white felt was often used as a feature in wedding ceremonies. Ac-
cording to the respondent G. M. Bulyakova, born in 1957 in the village of Abdulmambet
of Burzyanski District, felt was an integral part of the bride’s trousseau. The following
tradition was common among the Bashkirs living in the Chelyabinsk Region: the girl
spends the night preceding the matchmaking ceremony in the house of a female friend;
in the morning, the girl’s female friends and sisters-in-law carry her home on a piece of
felt. Interestingly, the girlfriends pull the felt towards themselves and the sisters-in-law
towards themselves, which, in our view, illustrates the girl’s transition from one status to
another [27]. Presumably, the color of the mentioned piece of felt was white.
    According to the respondent, felt was also used for medical purposes. For instance,
if a woman had difficulty in giving birth, she was wrapped in a piece of felt and rolled
back and forth on the floor (also see [23]). In case of intoxication, the sick person would
be given milk and then treated similarly. A person suffering from a severe cold would
be washed in a steam bath and then wrapped in the skin of a previously slaughtered
sheep or goat or into a piece of felt. Z. I. Minibaeva, an ethnographer and researcher
on Bashkir popular medicine, when in the Khaybullinski District, heard that the sick
suffering from allergies are laid on pieces of felt, lifted and shaken, following which
allergies are said to disappear. According to folklore specialist, R. A. Sultangareyeva,
felt was also used for fumigation.


                                                                                                123
                                                                                              3.3. Felt in Bashkir fairy tales

                                                                                               Numerous fairy tales also frequently mention felt, thus supporting the allegation
                                                                                           made about the presence of felt in Bashkir folklore. Felt assumes a specific role in
                                                                                           Bashkir fairy tales. Let us examine those fairy tales where the word кейеҙ appears.
                                                                                               First, there is a fairy tale entitled Кейеҙбай менән батша ҡыҙҙары (Kiizbay and
                                                                                           the Tsar’s Daughters) in which the name of the protagonist is directly related to the
                                                                                           word “felt”.
                                                                                               In Үгәй ҡыҙ (The Stepdaughter), “Шул ваҡыт һыйыр, телгә килеп, ҡыҙға: «Минең
                                                                                           алдыма аҡ кейеҙ сығарып йәй ҙә ике мөгөҙөмдө бәреп һындыр. Бер мөгөҙөмдән
                                                                                           бер көтөү турғай, икенсе мөгөҙөмдән бер көтөү сыпсыҡ осоп сығып, тары менән
                                                                                           бойҙайҙы айырырҙар», – ти” (Then the cow said: “Put a piece of white felt in front
                                                                                           of me and knock my horns out: sparrows will fly out of one horn, and bullfinches from
                                                                                           another; they will sort millet from wheat”) [28].
                                                                                               In Ҡара көсөк (The Black Puppy), the protagonist also asks for white felt: “Миңә аҡ
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                           кейеҙ, дүрт мөгөҙгә һөт һауып бир… Көсөк аҡ кейеҙ, дүрт мөгөҙ һөт алып сығып
                                                                                           китә. Тиҙҙән йылға буйына барып, аҡ кейеҙҙе йәйеп, дүрт мөгөҙҙө дүрт мөйөшкә
                                                                                           ултыртып, үҙе ситтән йәшенеп кенә ҡарап ята башлай. Салт төш ваҡыты еткәс,
                                                                                           һыуҙан ялтырап, алтын башлы, ынйы тешле, көмөш сәсле ике малай килеп сыҡты
                                                                                           ла яр буйындағы ҡомда аунай башланылар, ти. Уйнай торғас, кейеҙ өҫтөнә килеп
                                                                                           менәләр, ҡояш йылыһында йомшаҡ кейеҙҙә йоҡлап киттеләр, ти… Малайҙар
                                                                                           йоҡлап киткәс, ҡара көсөк кейеҙҙең дүрт мөйөшөнән тешләп алды ла сабып
                                                                                           ҡайтып китте, ти. Килеп, кейеҙҙе йәйеп ебәрһә, ҡатын аптырауынан ҡойолоп
                                                                                           төшә. Кейеҙҙә уның ике улы ята.” (“Give me a piece of white felt and four horns full
                                                                                           of milk… Having taken the piece of white felt and four horns full of milk, the puppy
                                                                                           goes away. Soon he comes to the bank of a river where he spreads the piece of white
                                                                                           felt, puts the four horns full of milk in four corners, hides and starts watching what will
                                                                                           happen. At noon, two enchanted boys came out of the river. They had golden heads,
                                                                                           pearly teeth and silver hair. The boys started playing in the sand on the riverbank.
                                                                                           While playing, they sat on the piece of soft felt and fell asleep on it under the warm
                                                                                           sun… When they fell asleep, the black puppy took the four corners of the piece of felt
                                                                                           in his mouth and ran home. At home, he unfolded the piece of felt, and the woman was
                                                                                           taken aback: her two sons were lying on the felt” [28].
                                                                                               In Туҡ-туҡ туҡмағым (Self-Beating Stick), the protagonist has a piece of felt spread
                                                                                           in front of a donkey: “’Әбей, аҡ кейеҙеңде йәй’, – тигән бабай. Әбей аҡ кейеҙҙе
                                                                                           йәйгән. ‘Алтын ҡоҫ! Алтын ҡоҫ!’ – тип икәүләп ишәккә ялына башлағандар. Ишәк
                                                                                           аҡ кейеҙгә бер нәмә лә һалмаған” (“Old woman, spread this white felt!” shouted the
                                                                                           old man. The old woman did so. “Give us gold! Give us gold!” they started asking the
                                                                                           donkey. The donkey, however, put nothing on the felt) [29]; “Ҙур аҡ кейеҙ йәйгәндәр,
                                                                                           ишәкте баҫтырғандар ҙа: «Алтын ҡоҫ! Алтын ҡоҫ!» – тигәндәр. Аҡ кейеҙ алтын
                                                                                           менән тулып киткән” (“They spread the white felt and put the donkey before it, saying:
                                                                                           ‘Give us gold Give us gold!’ And the white felt filled with gold”) [29].
                                                                                               In the above-mentioned fairy tales, the white felt is spread in front of the pro-
                                                                                           tagonist’s magical helpers: in the first tale, it was used to separate the wheat and
                                                                                           millet that the stepdaughter had to sort, and in the other two tales, the protagonist
                                                                                           needed it to obtain the missing gold and his missing sons. The objects mentioned
                                                                                           here – wheat, millet and gold – were, in people’s consciousness, very expensive and
                                                                                           even sacred to a certain degree, just like the sons from the other fairy tale and, as


                                                                                     124
such, deserved to be put upon the white felt, which the Turkic peoples, including the
Bashkirs, regarded as particularly important. As mentioned above, white felts used
to be spread on special occasions, as is the case with a nameless fairy tale written
down by L. K. Salmanova in the Samara Region in 2005, which says: “Убыр әбей
мейестәр эсенә ут яға ла, бер тирән ям, ямдың өҫтөнә ап-аҡ кейеҙен яба ла,
был әбей белән бабайҙы саҡырырға килә: ‘Әбей, бабай, беҙгә ҡунаҡҡа барығыҙ,
әйҙә’, – ти” (“The old ogress makes a fire in a deep pit, covers it with felt and in-
vites the old man and the woman over”) [30]. This excerpt reveals that, despite the
ogress’s bad intentions (she is going to roast her guests in the pit), she still observes
the practice of spreading white felt when getting ready for guests. Additionally, yurts
prepared for newly-weds, guests or festivities also used to be covered with white
felt. It is also worth mentioning another tale about a stepmother and a stepdaughter,
which the authors recorded in the Kurgan Region in 2010. In this tale, the dog wel-
coming the old man’s daughter starts barking as follows:

  Аҡ ҡапҡаны асығыҙ,                 Open the white gate,
  Аҡ кейеҙҙе йәйегеҙ.                Spread the white felt.
  Апайым килә һунарҙан.              My sister is returning from the hunt.

  By analogy, when meeting the old woman’s daughter, the dog barks:

  Ҡара ҡапҡаны асығыҙ,               Open the black gate,
  Ҡара кейеҙ йәйегеҙ.                Spread the black felt.
  Байығырға киткән апайым            The sister, who left to become rich,
  Байығып килә-ләү.                  Is returning very ‘rich’.

    This was a real boon for the ethnographic expedition. Despite hundreds of pub-
lished or archived adaptations of the popular Bashkir story about the stepmother and




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
the stepdaughter, researchers had had no texts with such a song included. In our
view, this is the best and the oldest sample so far, and the ethnic and genetic popular
memory has preserved it to this day. Firstly, national specificity is manifest here, be-
cause the Bashkirs used to do this only in special circumstances: they would spread
white felts in their dwellings on festive occasions such as weddings, and black felts – of
more practical use – on ordinary days. The return of the old man’s daughter with a lot
of money is a special, solemn occasion whereas that of the old woman’s daughter is
not. Secondly, the location and color symbolism are are also of significance. White felt
is reserved for the positive character (the stepdaughter), and black felt for the negative
one (the old woman’s daughter).
    In the fairy tale Таш һын (Stone Sculpture), the tsar makes the protagonist find
“донъяла булмаған ике метр кейеҙ» (“a non-existent two-meter piece of felt”); “егет
ил ҡарты менән ил ҡарсығының өйөн эҙләп таба. Егет донъяла булмаған кейеҙҙең
бында икәнен ишетеп килеүен әйткәс, ҡарттар аптырап ҡалалар. ‘Бындағы
кейеҙҙе тик ҡоштар ғына белә’, – тиҙәр. Егеттең ҡош телен аңлауына хайран
ҡалып, улар ике метр кейеҙҙәрен биреп ебәрәләр. Егет тиҙ генә кейеҙҙе ала
һалып, батша ҡыҙын алам тип килгән пароход эйәһенә бирә. Кейеҙҙе ул батшаға
индерә. Батша, кейеҙҙе күргәс, аптырап ҡала” (The young man finds the house of
the world’s old man and woman. When the young man said that he was searching
for the non-existent two-meter piece of felt, the old people were very surprised. ‘Only


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                                                                                           birds know about this felt’, they said. The old people were astonished to learn that the
                                                                                           young man knew the language of the birds and gave him their felt. The young man
                                                                                           took the felt and handed it over to a steamship owner who intended to marry the tsar’s
                                                                                           daughter. The man brought the felt to the tsar, and the latter was very surprised to see
                                                                                           the felt” [28]. The fact that the story revolves around a felt (кейеҙ) seems to point to
                                                                                           its national specificity, and the fact that the tsar needs this “кейеҙ” highlights its value
                                                                                           and significance. Unfortunately, the tale does not make it clear why the tsar needed the
                                                                                           felt. The role of the felt remains obscure. In all likelihood, it is a sort of magic felt carpet
                                                                                           similar to those from fairy tales such as Осар кейеҙ (A Flying Piece of Felt): “Егет
                                                                                           осар кейеҙгә ултырған да осҡан” (“The young man sat on the flying piece of felt and
                                                                                           flew away”) [3], and Таҙҙың төшө (Taz’s Dream): “ултырған кешене осортоп йөрөтә
                                                                                           торған бер кейеҙ” (“a piece of felt on which one can sit and fly”) [29]. In both cases,
                                                                                           the flying piece of felt made it into the hands of the protagonists from the children of a
                                                                                           shaitan/devil who fought for the magic objects, including the flying piece of felt, which
                                                                                           had belonged to their father.
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                               In fairy tales, as in real life, felt is used in popular medicine. For instance, in Акъял
                                                                                           батыр, Urman-batyr cut a strip of felt off, set it on fire and cauterized his wound. The
                                                                                           fairy tale Аҡхан улы менән Ҡарахан ҡыҙы (The White Khan’s Son and the Black
                                                                                           Khan’s Daughter) mentions кейеҙ only in passing: “аҫтыңа йәйергә кейеҙебеҙ юҡ”
                                                                                           (“we have no felt to make a bed for you”) [28]. The same goes for the fairytale
                                                                                           Габдрахман: “кейеҙ-юрғандарын ишек алдына сиҙәмгә түшәй” (“he spreads the
                                                                                           piece of felt, the blanket, on the grass of the courtyard) [29]. In the fairy tale Йылан
                                                                                           Йәркәй (Yarkay the Serpent), told by Nuria Utyabayeva (b. 1927) and recorded by
                                                                                           the authors in the village of Buranbayevo (Baymaksky District) in 2012, the serpent
                                                                                           says to the young girl: “Тәҙрәләрҙе кейеҙ менән ҡор” (“Close the windows with
                                                                                           felt”), which is indicative of the Bashkirs’ use of felt as mattresses and curtains. In the
                                                                                           tale, however, the serpent then transforms himself into a handsome young man, i.e.
                                                                                           felt also plays a magic role.


                                                                                              4. Conclusion

                                                                                               Analysis has revealed that felt is frequently mentioned in Bashkir fairy tales, espe-
                                                                                           cially white felt, which had a special place in Bashkir culture and in the cultures of other
                                                                                           felt-producing peoples. Felt is mentioned as an ordinary household item in just a few
                                                                                           tales. White felt is present even in the modern record of two Bashkir tales, which points
                                                                                           to the specific uses of felt in material and spiritual folk culture, in particular, in fairy tales.
                                                                                               In the late 20th century, felt had almost fallen into disuse in daily life. However, felt-
                                                                                           ing experienced a revival in the Republic of Bashkortostan at the beginning of the 21st
                                                                                           century and has flourished since then. Today, felt is produced in a number of Bashkir
                                                                                           districts: for example, it has become an everyday product in the Abzelilovsky District.
                                                                                           This material is warm and water-resistant due to the particles of animal fat preserved in
                                                                                           it. Felt has remained in widespread use among rural dwellers to this day and felt mak-
                                                                                           ing itself remains a sort of celebration or a ritual for them. There now appears to be a
                                                                                           revival of interest in this ancient folk craft in educational institutions. As an example, for
                                                                                           over two decades, students enrolled in the Art and Graphic Design Department of the
                                                                                           M. Akmulla Bashkir State Pedagogical University (Dean: T. Kh. Masalimov, Candidate
                                                                                           of Pedagogical Sciences) have been choosing felt as a topic for their diploma work.


                                                                                     126
   In the Republic of Bashkortostan there are many artisans specialized in felting (Fig-
ures 3, 4 and 5). Some make valenki and slippers while others produce creative can-
vases that can be rightly called works of art. Felt has long become a favorite among
those who enjoy doing arts and crafts. Present-day craftswomen create miniature toys
and decorations made from felt [31].
   Today, there is a growing interest in felt, and more and more people want to
produce various felt items such as car and stroller seat covers. The artist, N. Bay-
burin must be right in saying that “another Bashkir brand product, namely, Bashkir
felt has to come onto the Russian and, later, international markets, in addition
to other Bashkir products, such as honey, koumiss (fermented milk product) and
petroleum” [32].




                                                                                                 CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
                                     Figure 3. A yurt




                                   Figure 4. Felt hats


                                                                                           127
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                                                              Figure 5. Felt footwear



                                                                                              In the 21st century, felt has not only remained relevant, but has also been further
                                                                                           developed. Nowadays, felt is used to produce not only everyday objects, such as yurts
                                                                                           and valenki, but also works of art, including felted blankets, souvenirs and decorations.
                                                                                           Felt can be combined with the latest trends in art, thus changing from a vitally impor-
                                                                                           tant craft into a vibrant form of artistic expression. Wool, obtained from sheep during
                                                                                           a humane shearing process, is a ‘living’ material from which artists and craftsmen
                                                                                           produce true wonders. Felt is a kind of loose textile obtained by means of interaction
                                                                                           between natural wool, hot water and soap using human hands. The basis of this pro-
                                                                                           cess is simple but ingenious, like everything created by nature. Felt is a solid, light and
                                                                                           insulating material which, additionally, is good for health.
                                                                                              Present-day felting builds on an experience accumulated in the course of many
                                                                                           centuries and actively uses the best creative practices of preceding generations. A
                                                                                           bright and unique cultural phenomenon, felt is a universal material in terms of manu-
                                                                                           facturing, but it has a deeply rooted national identity in terms of processing and uses.
                                                                                           As a result, felt is a steady, high-potential investment in the development of new
                                                                                           technologies and applications.


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                                                                                             Biographical notes

                                                                                              Gulnur R. Khusainova, Doctor of Philology, Head of the Department of Folklore
                                                                                           Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature of the Ufa Research Cent-
                                                                                           er. Research interests: folklore, history of folklore, study of epic poetry and fairy
                                                                                           tales, mythology. Author of six monographs: Poetics of Bashkir Fairy Tales (Mos-
                                                                                           cow: Nauka, 2000), Bashkir Fairy Tales: Textology and Poetics (Ufa: Gilem, 2016),


                                                                                     130
Bashkir Folk Art: Animal Tales (Ufa: Kitap, 2009), including three collective mono-
graphs: History of the Bashkirs. Vol. 6 (Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura, 2011),
The Bashkirs (Moscow: Nauka, 2015), The First Regional Committee Secretary:
M. Z. Shakirov (Ufa, 2016), some 30 research papers in peer-reviewed academic
journals. Khusainova has participated in 40 folklore expeditions and supervised
three Ph.D. students.

   Ilsuyar R. Sharapova, Candidate of Philosophy, educator at the People’s Friend-
ship House (a state unitary enterprise). Research interests: social philosophy, tradi-
tional festivities and folklore. Author of one monograph, Bashkir Traditional Festivi-
ties as a Socio-Cultural Phenomenon (Ufa, 2011), and numerous articles, three of
which have been published in peer-reviewed academic journals.

   Aygul M. Khakimyanova, Candidate of Philology, research assistant at the De-
partment of Folklore Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature of the
Ufa Research Center. Research interests: folklore, music in folklore, linguistic folk-
lore studies and mythology. Author of a monograph, Bashkir Wedding Songs: Texts
and Practices (Ufa, 2018), and numerous research articles, five of which have been
published in peer-reviewed academic journals. Khakimyanova has taken part in 30
folklore expeditions.

   Florida S. Fazylova, Candidate of Philology, senior research assistant at the
Department of Literary Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature of the
Ufa Research Center. Research interests: Bashkir literature, literary theory, poetry
and folklore. Author of more than 200 academic papers, including two monographs:
Works by Rafael Safin (Ufa, 1999) and Moral and Ethical Issues in Modern Bashkir
Poetry (second half of the 20th century – early 21st century) (Ufa, 2017), numerous
articles, four of which have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and study




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
guides. Member of the Union of Journalists of the Republic of Bashkortostan and
the Russian Federation. Fazylova has also published a collection of poetry, White
Lily (Ufa, 2002).

   Firdaus B. Yunusova, Candidate of Philology, senior research assistant at the
Department of Literary Studies, Institute for History, Language and Literature of the
Ufa Research Center. Research interests: Bashkir literature, literary theory, social and
political journalism, essays and folklore. Author of more than 200 research articles,
including two monographs: Genre Specifics of Modern Bashkir Essay-Writing (1980-
1990) (Ufa, 2014) and Modern Bashkir Essay-Writing: Documentary and Literary As-
pects (1980-1990) (Ufa, 2017)), numerous research articles, eight of which have been
published in peer-reviewed academic journals, and five study guides.

    Gulnaz N. Yagafarova, Candidate of Philology, senior research assistant of the
Department of Linguistics, Institute for History, Language and Literature of the Ufa Re-
search Center. Research interests: linguistics and linguistic folklore studies. Author of
more than 200 research papers, including three monographs: Bashkir Military Vocabu-
lary (Ufa, 2003), Onomasiological Approach to Research on Thematic Lexical Groups
in the Bashkir Language (Ufa: IIYal UNTs RAN, 2008) and Nomination Principles in the
Bashkir Language (Ufa: IIYaL UFITs RAN, 2018).


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                                                                                               Summary
                                                                                               An analysis of academic literature and of specialized sources shows a serious lack
                                                                                           of research studies and publications on the role of felt in Bashkir material culture. A re-
                                                                                           view of available information about felt can provide the groundwork for further in-depth
                                                                                           research studies in this area. This paper aims to introduce readers to the history of felt,
                                                                                           its place in daily life and its reflection in Bashkir spiritual culture.
                                                                                               What makes this study relevant in the present context is that it fills the gap in re-
                                                                                           search on felt as being an element of Bashkir material culture and its presence in
                                                                                           Bashkir folklore.
                                                                                               Based on felt-related folklore and ethnographic materials drawn from the authors’
                                                                                           published and non-published field notes, this paper seeks to show the rich history of
                                                                                           felt from ancient times to our days and to identify its place in Bashkir spiritual culture.
                                                                                           The analytical approach used for this study has revealed the strong presence of felt
                                                                                           in folklore, particularly, in Bashkir fairy tales and customs highlighting the mention of
                                                                                           white felt, which was widely used in rituals and traditional medicine.
G. Khusainova et al. - Felt as a surviving part of material and spiritual world culture




                                                                                               Examples drawn from various fairy tales illustrate the authors’ observations about
                                                                                           the role of felt in Bashkir spiritual culture.


                                                                                               Riassunto
                                                                                               L’analisi sulla letteratura accademica e sulle fonti specifiche mostra una grave ca-
                                                                                           renza di studi, ricerche e pubblicazioni sul ruolo del feltro nella cultura materiale dei
                                                                                           baschiri. L’esame delle informazioni disponibili sul feltro può fornire le basi per ulteriori
                                                                                           approfonditi studi in questo settore. Questo articolo ha la finalità di presentare ai lettori
                                                                                           la storia del feltro, il suo ruolo nella vita quotidiana e il suo riflesso nella cultura spiri-
                                                                                           tuale baschirica.
                                                                                               Ciò che rende rilevante questo studio è il fatto che colma la carenza della ricerca sul
                                                                                           feltro come elemento della cultura materiale e del folklore baschiro.
                                                                                               Questo lavoro, basato sul folklore legato al feltro e sui materiali etnografici tratti da-
                                                                                           gli studi sul campo, già pubblicati dagli stessi autori o inediti, cerca di mostrare la ricca
                                                                                           storia del feltro, dai tempi antichi ai nostri giorni, e di identificarne il posto nella cultura
                                                                                           spirituale baschirica. L’approccio analitico utilizzato per questo studio ha rivelato la
                                                                                           forte presenza di feltro nel folklore, in particolare nelle fiabe e nei costumi di Bashkir,
                                                                                           evidenziando la menzione del feltro bianco, che è stato ampiamente usato nei rituali e
                                                                                           nella medicina tradizionale.
                                                                                               Esempi tratti da varie fiabe illustrano le osservazioni degli autori sul ruolo del feltro
                                                                                           nella cultura spirituale baschirica.




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