10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9236
Questo documento descrive le tecniche multi-analitiche e i trattamenti che sono stati intrapresi nella conservazione di due cartonaggi deteriorati del periodo greco-romano. A causa della mancanza di specialisti di cartonnage e della natura complicata del pro­cesso di restauro, i cartonnages all’interno dei musei e delle aree di stoccaggio egizi­ani sono in cattivo stato di conservazione. La questione del restauro del cartonnage è, finora, ancora oggetto di controversie scientifiche. La ricerca descritta in questo documento ha riguardato la conservazione e il restauro di due mummie di cartonaggi trovati a Saqqara. Sono stati identificati i fattori di danno e uno studio biologico è stato condotto per identificare i microrganismi che avevano portato all’infezione biologica. Inoltre, sono state ispezionate anche macchie di macchie causate dall’uso di resina nel processo di mummificazione. La microscopia elettronica a scansione (SEM-EDX), i risultati della diffrazione ai raggi X e dell’infrarosso (FTIR) hanno rivelato i componenti del cartonnage. È chiaro dagli spettri ottenuti con il campione di colore blu che è stato utilizzato il blu egiziano. La composizione del pigmento bianco appare come una com­binazione di calcite e come silicato di calcio mescolato con silicato di alluminio. FTIR ha rivelato la presenza di tre strati di tessuto di lino, che erano fatti di strati di lino e talvolta di papiro e montati con colla animale. Dopo aver esaminato le condizioni dei cartonnages e studiato i risultati dell’analisi precedente, è stato sviluppato e applicato un piano di trattamento e ripristino. Trattamenti: rinforzo dei colori e parti deboli, puli­zia, rimozione dei materiali di restauro precedenti, sostituzione delle parti mancanti e preparazione di due nuovi supporti.
application/pdf
1973-9494
9236
en
Eyad Almasri
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
Egyptian blue
Using Interdisciplinary Studies and Analyses in the Conservation of Greco-Roman Cartonnage
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
18
Articles
2018-12-31
2019-03-18
2018-12-31
2019-11-05
219-238
CSCH
Eyad Almasri
2018/12/31
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/9236
219
Hashemite University, Zarqa
1973-9494
Egyptian blue
en
238
Using Interdisciplinary Studies and Analyses in the Conservation of Greco-Roman Cartonnage
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/9236/9071
18
U     SING INTERDISCIPLINARY STUDIES AND ANALYSES
      IN THE CONSERVATION OF GRECO-ROMAN
      CARTONNAGE

    Firas Alawneh*12
    Department of Conservation Science, Queen Rania Faculty of Tourism & Heritage,
    Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan.

    Abdel Rahman Elserogy
    Department of Restoration, Faculty of Archaeology,
    Fayoum University, Fayoum, Egypt.

    Eyad Almasri
    Department of Sustainable Tourism, Queen Rania Faculty of Tourism & Heritage,
    Hashemite University, Zarqa, Jordan.

    Keywords: cartonnage, conservation, mummy, SEM-EDX, Egyptian blue.


    1. Introduction

   Ancient Egyptians employed various methods for decorating their mummies, such
as using plaster or gold leaf, as in the collection of Tutankhamen [1]. They also used
wooden coffins with different decorations. Features varied from one period to another.
The coffins were decorated with geometric designs, an assortment of deities or inscrip-
tions which included verses from the Book of the Dead, painted in different colors [2, 3




                                                                                                  CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
and 4]. The gold-covered plaster masks were cast immediately after death and took on
the shape of the deceased’s facial details. The forms were flexible enough for molding
while wet against the irregular surfaces of the body. This method was used for decorat-
ing the mummies, creating funerary costumes, and to produce cases, masks or panels
to cover the mummified body.
   Egypt has a huge number of cartonnages (mummy masks) in its museums and in
storage areas. In many cases, deterioration and damage of these cartonnages can
be observed and the linen fabric in the plaster is often exposed. A cartonnage can be
defined as a form dedicated to decorating and preserving the mummy consisting of
linen and sometimes of papyrus layers bonded together by a layer of mortar or gesso.
The word gesso is the Italian word used for a gypsum (CaSo4, 2H2o) and glue mixture
which acts as a primer/ground in painting. A fine layer was applied over a coarse layer
to obtain a cohesive painting surface. Egyptian archaeologists also use the same term
for a white limestone powder and glue solution mixture [5].
   A cartonnage is composed of multiple layers of linen and glue formed in a mold and
then covered on one side with a mixture of gum, lime or gypsum, which is then suitable
for coloring and gilding, and after drying, is decorated with inscriptions and colors and
occasionally painted in part with gold [6].


*   Corresponding author: Firas-alawneh@hu.edu.jo

                                                                                            219
                                                                                                                This method has been used since the beginning of the Middle Kingdom [7]. The ear-
                                                                                                            liest known examples of cartonnages date back to the 18th Dynasty (1549/1550 - 1292
                                                                                                            B.C.) and spread during the Roman period. Linen layers were sometimes replaced by
                                                                                                            papyrus, which was often written on. Several studies have been conducted on papyrus
                                                                                                            cartonnage. This process had a specific use in creating burial masks and was also
                                                                                                            used to cover the bodies of the dead. The main function was to protect and decorate
                                                                                                            the mummy with personal funerary decorations [8].
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                                The studied artifacts were two first century AD (Greco-Roman) cartonnages of two
                                                                                                            female mummies displayed in the Ismailia Museum, Ismailia (Egypt). Figure 1a shows
                                                                                                            the painted plaster cartonnage of a woman wearing a long Egyptian-style wig, a crown
                                                                                                            of pink flowers on her head, a deep-red tunic with black vertical stripes, and jewelry
                                                                                                            that includes two rings on her left hand and snake bracelets adorning her right and left
                                                                                                            arms. At the lower edge of her tunic are two holes which were used to attach the mask
                                                                                                            to the mummy. Figure 1b shows a female mummy cartonnage with a gilded face that
                                                                                                            reflects the association of the deceased with the gods. The decoration was applied in
                                                                                                            layers, with the final layer being the gilding. The eye inlays are made from glass, as
                                                                                                            well as the gold scarab on the top of the head. The scarab has gilded wings which
                                                                                                            stretch down to the sides. A colored collar with five vertical stripes and geometric pat-
                                                                                                            terns adorns the mask. The golden face of this mask shows no signs of age or emotion.
                                                                                                                Due to the bad condition of the studied cartonnages, a rapid intervention for the
                                                                                                            maintenance and restoration of the artifacts was needed (Figures 1c – f).
                                                                                                                To better understand and find a suitable intervention approach, it was important
                                                                                                            to identify and characterize the components of the cartonnages. Different analytical
                                                                                                            techniques were used, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM−EDS), X-ray
                                                                                                            diffraction analysis (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscope (FTIR). The
                                                                                                            obtained results will help to develop a reliable conservation plan for the damaged
                                                                                                            cartonnages. Furthermore, a microbiological analysis will be conducted aimed at di-
                                                                                                            agnosing any biological hazard that infects the cartonnages. Finally, the cartonnages
                                                                                                            will be re-displayed in a manner that best serves the methods for their conservation
                                                                                                            and preservation.


                                                                                                              2. Experimental

                                                                                                               Preliminary condition assessments of the cartonnages were conducted by visual
                                                                                                            examination. For better understanding and to find the correct method for treatment,
                                                                                                            a detailed physical, chemical and biological study was planned. Various techniques
                                                                                                            were used in order to obtain further information about the nature of the materials em-
                                                                                                            ployed to execute and color the cartonnages. The analysis was carefully conducted
                                                                                                            taking the necessary precautions, paying attention to the critical state of the artifact
                                                                                                            and attempting to minimize the risk of further damage. Representative samples were
                                                                                                            selected from parts that were already separated from the cartonnages to identify the
                                                                                                            constituents and degree of deterioration. These samples were representative of the
                                                                                                            blue, red, green, yellow and gilded layers as well as the linen and preparatory layers.
                                                                                                            Investigations were performed using optical microscopy (OM); this examination mainly
                                                                                                            focused on the stratigraphy and thickness of the paint layers, as well as the prepara-
                                                                                                            tory layers (Figures 2a, b, and c).



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Figure 1. Studied artifacts: a) colored plaster cartonnage of woman with red clothes;
b) gilded cartonnage; c) and e) show details of the different deterioration features on the plaster
cartonnage; d) and f) show details of the different deterioration features on the gilded cartonnage.

   Another aspect was to study the microstructure of the cartonnage components of
both artifacts, such as the pigments, pigment size, inclusions and porosity. Samples
were prepared, coated with gold and then examined under a scanning electron mi-

                                                                                                       221
                                                                                                            croscope. The SEM/EDX investigation was carried out using a high-resolution field
                                                                                                            emission electron microscope JSM-6300 F, combined with a microprobe analyzer
                                                                                                            JXA-8800 L (JEOL, Japan). The beam voltage for the quantitative determination of
                                                                                                            elements was set to 25 kV, in order to obtain better excitation of the low-energy and
                                                                                                            low-concentration compounds. Finally, the distribution of the elements (mapping) in
                                                                                                            cross sections was determined by simultaneous acquisition of X-ray data from each
                                                                                                            pixel of the secondary electron (SE) image areas.
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                               The mineralogical composition of the different parts of the cartonnages (e.g. colors,
                                                                                                            plaster, basic layer and other components) was determined using a Shimadzu LabX,
                                                                                                            XRD-6000 X-ray diffractometer. Using monochromatic CuK radiation operating at 30
                                                                                                            kV and 15 Ma, spectra were collected in the range of 2–80o 2θ, with a step size of
                                                                                                            0.03o/s. Selected samples were examined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to obtain
                                                                                                            total element content qualitatively and quantitatively. XRF measurements were per-
                                                                                                            formed in situ (non-destructive analysis). An XRF spectrometer was used for elemental
                                                                                                            analysis (JSX- 3222) equipped with end window type X-ray tube, tube voltage 5 to 50
                                                                                                            Kv (in 1Kv steps), tube current 0.01 to 1.0mA, using Rh anode as target, window Be,
                                                                                                            127µm thick. X-ray fluorescence was detected by an X Flash silicon drift detector with
                                                                                                            high speed electronics and an energy resolution of 149 eV at Fe Kα spectral line (5.9
                                                                                                            keV, 4000cps).
                                                                                                               In order to confirm the chemical analysis by SEM-EDS regarding the identifica-
                                                                                                            tion of pigments, selected paint layers were analyzed by Fourier-transform infrared
                                                                                                            spectroscopy (FTIR). The FTIR analysis was performed in a Bruker, Equinox 55/S
                                                                                                            spectrometer. Transmittance spectra were collected in the range 4000–650 cm−1 with
                                                                                                            a spectral resolution of 4 cm−1 and acquiring 400 scans.
                                                                                                               A microbiological study was also carried out aimed at identifying the most important
                                                                                                            fungi present on the cartonnages and thereby finding the means and materials to treat
                                                                                                            the infected area.


                                                                                                               3. Results and discussion

                                                                                                                The purpose of the analysis was to identify the basic components of the carton-
                                                                                                            nages, characterize the materials used in their preparation and to diagnose the nature
                                                                                                            of the damage to the cartonnages before treatment and restoration. Prior to discussing
                                                                                                            and interpreting the resulting spectrum, it is worth mentioning that the selected spec-
                                                                                                            trums are the most significant.
                                                                                                                The preliminary examination, done by naked eye, light microscope and a hand-held
                                                                                                            magnifying lens (x I0) indicated that both cartonnages were composed of more than
                                                                                                            one material in a single installation. It consists of the following: color layer, gesso layer
                                                                                                            and linen. These materials differ in their physical and chemical properties. According to
                                                                                                            the examination of the two cartonnages inside the museum, it was possible to observe
                                                                                                            many damaged features.




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                                                                                                        CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Figure 2. a) Image of the gilded cartonnage; b) and c) images of the plaster cartonnage showing
location of the analyzed samples.



    The factors responsible for the damage can be summarized as follows:
    High relative humidity in the storage area, which exceeded 70% as a result of the
regular cleaning process of the museum. This led to increased water content in the
cartonnages, especially in the hygroscopic components such as flax, glue and colors.
It also caused the loss of the medium (used as a color bond), thus changing the me-
chanical and physical properties of the colors, turning blue to green in some parts of
the colored plaster cartonnage. Also, it caused the dissolution of the glue with separa-
tion and splitting of the base layer, which deformed the area of the head in the plaster
cartonnage, as well as the chest in the gilded cartonnage. Due to the growth of micro-
organisms, brown spots can be seen in different areas on the cartonnages.
    The most significant aspect of the temperature was its effect on relative humidity
(RH). Ismailia Museum is characterized by high indoor temperature and is considered

                                                                                                  223
                                                                                                            an inappropriate place for keeping archaeological artifacts. The poor indoor climate
                                                                                                            conditions of the museum, direct exposure to sunlight and bad air circulation make it
                                                                                                            an inappropriate place for preserving the cartonnages (Figure 3). The lighting system,
                                                                                                            moreover, accentuates the poor indoor conditions and leads to loss of water content.
                                                                                                            This has led to the cracking and destruction of the cellulose chains, the main compo-
                                                                                                            nent of the flax, as well as twisting, in some of the interior and edges of the preparatory
                                                                                                            layer.
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                               Dust and dirt are solid particles which can absorb sulfur dioxide, which later turns
                                                                                                            into sulfuric acid and may lead to the destruction of the artifacts. Dust can also carry
                                                                                                            insect eggs which helps in the spread of biological damage and deterioration [9]. Dust
                                                                                                            and dirt are hygroscopic and will attract additional dust and dirt to the cartonnages,
                                                                                                            which can cause further damage. Accumulated dust and dirt were held loosely to the
                                                                                                            surface of the cartonnage by electrostatic forces or weak chemical bonds; deposited in
                                                                                                            the cracks dust and dirt can stain the surface of the cartonnages.
                                                                                                               Both humidity and heat, as well as poor ventilation in the museum environment has
                                                                                                            encouraged the growth of fungi. The presence of some components, such as animal
                                                                                                            glue in the basic layer or in the linen, are considered to be suitable nutrition for micro-
                                                                                                            organisms.




                                                                                                                  Figure 3. Photograph showing the direct impact of sunlight on stored cartonnages.




                                                                                                      224
   3.1 Results of color analysis

   All the color samples from both cartonnages (plaster and gilded) were analyzed,
with particular focus on the pigment layer. In the case of the plaster cartonnage, analy-
sis of the blue sample using an X-ray diffraction device (RD Philips Analytical X.Ray
BV) revealed that Egyptian blue (Ca Cu Si4 O10) was used consisting of copper silicate
and calcium (Figure 4a)). In order to confirm the XRD result, the same blue samples
were also analyzed using SEM (EDX). It is clear from the spectra obtained that the
blue colored sample is Egyptian blue (Ca Cu Si4 O10), as seen in Figure 4 b.




                                                                                                     CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 4. Color analysis; a) XRD spectrum for the blue color; b) EDX spectrum for blue color
sample.



   XRD and EDX analyses were conducted for identification of the red pigment from


                                                                                               225
                                                                                                            the crown of pink flowers in the plaster cartonnage (Figure 2c). The majority of red
                                                                                                            pigments used in ancient Egypt were earthen based colors containing iron oxide. He-
                                                                                                            matite (αFe2O3) was very common [10]. The spectrum of the red sample contained
                                                                                                            bands at 222, 292, 407, 492, 607, 662 and 1320 cm−1 (Figure 5), that is, the typical
                                                                                                            bands of hematite (Fe2O3). This means that the dark red of the sample comes from this
                                                                                                            mineral. As expected, the presence of hematite was found as the main component for
                                                                                                            the red pigment, while for the red-pink sample of the corneal cornea above the head
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            of the plaster cartonnage (Figure 2b), XRD analysis revealed that it is red-lead Pb3O4.




                                                                                                                                     Figure 5. EDX spectrum for the red color.



                                                                                                               For the gilded cartonnage, the composition of the white pigment appears as a com-
                                                                                                            bination of calcite and as calcium silicate mixed with aluminum silicate. The XRF analy-
                                                                                                            sis of the sample showed the distinctive peaks of gypsum and dolomite. In the case of
                                                                                                            the plaster cartonnage, XRD results for the yellow color of the corneal cornea above
                                                                                                            the head turned out to be composed of Goethite Fe2O3H2O while the green color of the
                                                                                                            corneal lobes above the head proved to be Paratacamite Cu2 (OH) 3CL. The results of
                                                                                                            the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis were compared with the
                                                                                                            reference spectra of well-known organic adhesives. In this respect, the FTIR spectra
                                                                                                            evidenced the C=O bond stretching and NH bond bending bands found between 700
                                                                                                            and 1500 cm-1, both of them characteristic of the amide groups of proteins. This find-
                                                                                                            ing is confirmed by the presence, between 1500 and 1700 cm-1 of the CH2 bond of the
                                                                                                            methylene group as well as by the -CH3 methyl group band at about 2900 cm-1, all of
                                                                                                            them suggesting the presence of animal glue [11]. In Figure 6, the use of animal glue
                                                                                                            is also shown in this IR spectrum by the presence of a band at 1540 cm‐1 associated
                                                                                                            with the deformation vibration of the N‐H link in the protein. The bands that appear in
                                                                                                            the IR spectrum can be attributed to animal glue. This band includes multiple bands
                                                                                                            made up of multiple N-H groups (its primary amides), both in the solid state and in the
                                                                                                            presence of hydrogen bonding.




                                                                                                      226
                      Figure 6. FTIR spectra of the blue color medium.



   In order to determine cartonnage components a scanning electron microscopy of
cartonnage tissue lining was conducted on both artifacts. It appears that a flax fabric
was used (Figure 7a). The basic layer is often made up of calcium carbonate or cal-
cium sulfate with a glue medium. This layer is very important as it prevents absorption
of the paint layer and also facilitates the movement of the brush during painting. The




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
results of the electron microscopy and FTIR revealed the presence of three canvas
layers consisting of a linen textile. Cracks and holes were seen on the basic layer and
the linen fabric (Figure 7b).




Figure 7. SEM microscopy; a) SEM image showing the identified textile fabric; b) SEM image
showing a cross section of the cartonnage components




                                                                                             227
                                                                                                               Scanning electron microscope of the linen fiber shows progressive damage, rough-
                                                                                                            ened surface, cracking and longitudinal splitting. Some ﬁbers are damaged with a
                                                                                                            brush–like fracture (Figure 8a, b and c). In the longitudinal section, the length of the
                                                                                                            cells varies from 27.4 to 36.1 microns and their diameter from 17.8 to 21.6 microns.
                                                                                                            Fibers were in the shape of a cylinder divided by thick-walled cross-sections. When
                                                                                                            examining the linen used in the cartonnages, and as a result of the various damage
                                                                                                            factors already mentioned, the fibers were fragmented and incomplete, the linen sur-
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            face is extremely rough. The damage is evident in the form of scratches, holes and
                                                                                                            transverse cracking of fibers (Figure 8).




                                                                                                            Figure 8. a) SEM images showing the fibers are fragmented and incomplete and separated into
                                                                                                            small lobes; b) SEM images showing the roughened surface, cracking and longitudinal splitting ;
                                                                                                            c) Images showing the brush-like fracture of the linen fiber.



                                                                                                               3.2. Biological test results

                                                                                                                To establish or confirm the diagnosis of a fungal infection, swabs were taken from
                                                                                                            different areas of both cartonnages. The samples collected depended upon the sus-
                                                                                                            pected location of the infection from different areas where biological damage was vis-
                                                                                                            ible. Fungal testing was used to detect infection, determine which specific fungus or
                                                                                                            fungi were present and to help establish proper treatment [10]. For fungi, microbial
                                                                                                            samples were cultured on Czapek–Dox agar plates (30 g sucrose, 1 g K2HPO4, 0.5
                                                                                                            g MgSO4.7H2O, 0.5 g KC, 0.01 g FeSO4, 15 g agar, distilled water 1000 ml at pH7.3)
                                                                                                            (Figure 9). Composition of the various media used are given in Table 1. The fungi were
                                                                                                            grown in static culture in the dark at 25 degrees Celsius for 4 weeks to maximize the
                                                                                                            recovery of slowly growing fungi.

                                                                                                            Table 1. Showing media used for growing fungal culture


                                                                                                             Formula (in /gl)
                                                                                                             Potato extract                    4.00
                                                                                                             Glucose                           20.00
                                                                                                             Agar                              15.00
                                                                                                             pH                                5.6 + 0.2


                                                                                                      228
A pure fungus was isolated from the isolates taken from the cartonnages; classification
of these fungi was done on the basis of color and shape according to Raper & Fennell,
1965, the color and shape of the forms being examined with the naked eye; micros-
copy was then used to determine their type. These cultures were classified according
to Domsch, Gams and Anderson 1980, [11, 12, 13 and 14]. The species character-
istics, such as colony color, colony appearance, mycelial texture and pigmentation
on both obverse and reverse, on plates, were observed after 3–7 days of incubation
under standard incubation conditions. Results revealed the most common fungi to be
found on the cartonnages were: Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillius sulphureus, Aspergil-
lius terreus, Aspergillius fumigatus, Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium chrysogenum, and
Rhizopus oryzae. In addition, Micrococcales and Bacillales, were the most abundant
orders among the Actinobacteria to be found (Figures 9 and 10).




                                                                                                          CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Figure 9. Fungi isolates inside Petri dishes before purification.
a) Aspergillus; b) Rhizopus oryzae; c) Aculeatus; d) Aspergillius; e) Alternaria; f) Penicillium




Figure 10. Identified fungi species. a) Alternaria Sp.; b) Penicillium Sp,; c)Aspergillus Sp.; d)
Aspergillus flavus; e) Aspergillius terreus; f) Aspergillus niger.




                                                                                                    229
                                                                                                              4. State of conservation - cleaning

                                                                                                                The objective of the cartonnages’ conservation was to maintain their stability and
                                                                                                            structural cohesion. Apart from considering aesthetic reintegration, a conservator may
                                                                                                            perform partial or complete restoration on an artifact. This decision is based on results
                                                                                                            previously obtained from an understanding and knowledge of the materials employed.
                                                                                                            The use of materials which may become so intractable that their future removal could
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            endanger the physical safety of the cartonnage is to be avoided. In general, all treat-
                                                                                                            ments should be reversible.
                                                                                                                Cleaning is the first step before starting any remedial action on the cartonnages.
                                                                                                            The process was conducted by using soft brushes to remove dust and dirt. A steri-
                                                                                                            lization process and treatment with different phenols (e.g. thymol, cymol) was then
                                                                                                            conducted in a closed glass box and kept for one week to ensure sublimation within
                                                                                                            the cracks and gaps.
                                                                                                                The adherent deposits on the pictorial layer were removed quite easily. The 10 ml
                                                                                                            acetone, 20ml n-butyl alcohol, and 5 ml ethylene glycol-based solutions gave good re-
                                                                                                            sults, thinning the blackened surface without negatively impacting on the colors. Sup-
                                                                                                            port reinforcing was installed after removing previous grouting interventions, where
                                                                                                            various incompatible materials had been used. Cleaning the reverse side was carried
                                                                                                            out through physicochemical methods, with compatible substances.
                                                                                                                Each phase of the conservation and restoration was tracked and monitored through
                                                                                                            photographic documentation and surveys, supplemented by a detailed list of the inter-
                                                                                                            vention procedures. The old adhesive was removed very gently and slowly by applying
                                                                                                            small amounts of acetone with a Pasteur pipette. This method permitted the accurate
                                                                                                            application of the acetone and allowed the conservator to regularly check that the ac-
                                                                                                            etone was not affecting the painted part of the front of the mask.


                                                                                                              4.1 Previous restoration

                                                                                                               The first step is to remove the remains of any previous restoration materials from
                                                                                                            the internal parts of the cartonnages. To repair the broken parts, cotton strips applied
                                                                                                            with animal glue were used. All old tapes and cotton strips were removed by using
                                                                                                            warm water and alcohol (1:1) without excess, so that the solvent did not seep into
                                                                                                            the inside [5]. Cleaning was performed using diluted organic solvent to prevent dis-
                                                                                                            solving the color or the white preparatory layer [15]. Warm water was used to remove
                                                                                                            the animal glue in the cotton bands. Scalpels and medical tweezers were also used
                                                                                                            to help in the removal process. In the case of solid dirt, a solution of ethyl alcohol and
                                                                                                            turpentine (1: 2) was first used to dilute it and it was then removed. This method gave
                                                                                                            good results. Some colored parts were cleaned by eraser which was safe and gave
                                                                                                            good results. A new lining of mild flax was made as a posterior reinforcement for the
                                                                                                            mask using 15% Paraloid B72 with a xylene [16].


                                                                                                              4.2 Filling the gaps in both cartonnages

                                                                                                               Gaps were filled before starting the cleaning and repairing processes. Due to the
                                                                                                            extreme sensitivity of the cartonnage parts, 5% Paraloid B72 dissolved in xylene was


                                                                                                      230
used to strengthen these parts and to prevent their separation. After fixing the sepa-
rated and weak parts on the back side of the cartonnage and to avoid separation or
cracking of the filler material, missing parts and wide gaps were filled with strips of linen
using a 10% polyvinyl alcohol adhesive and alkoxide 2000 (Figure 11) [17].




       Figure 11. Image showing the process of filling the gaps in the gilded cartonnage.




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
   4.3 Completing the preparatory layer

     The preparatory layer was completed using clean brushes and spatulas (Figure
12a). This was completed in three stages so that each layer was lighter in texture than
the previous one, using a low glue concentration. The first layer consists of coarse cal-
cium sulfate, as well as a 10% polyvinyl alcohol adhesive. This layer was left to dry to
ensure easy and complete bonding with the subsequent layer. The second layer con-
tained fine calcium sulfate with 7% adhesive ensuring that the thickness of each layer
did not exceed 1 mm. Thick layers increase the probability of separation and cracking
of the preparatory layer [18]. The second layer was left to dry at room temperature.
Then a third layer with a concentration of 5% glue and a thin texture was applied.
After this layer was completely dried, the surface was smoothed with fine sandpaper
till the surface was ready for coloring [19]. Following standard conservation practices,
the method chosen must be reversible so that in the future any interventions can be
removed easily. All the completed parts were covered by Japanese paper and Paraloid
B72, dissolved in xylene at a concentration of 5% (Figure 12b).




                                                                                                231
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            Figure 12. a) Image showing the process used for the preparatory layer;
                                                                                                            b) image showing the process of applying the Japanese paper as a base for coloring.



                                                                                                               4.4 Missing text and color

                                                                                                               Due to the loss of many large parts and the absence of knowledge of the scripts
                                                                                                            and drawings, it was decided not to color or complete the texts. Therefore, a single
                                                                                                            color, consistent with the general background color was used [20]. Acrylic paints were
                                                                                                            used to complete the missing parts of the red and brown on the chest area as well as
                                                                                                            a black color for the right eye [21]. Acrylic paint differs from oil paint in both its quick
                                                                                                            drying time, and in the way the paint dries. Acrylic paint dries in as little as thirty min-
                                                                                                            utes and dries by the evaporation of water solvent. Acrylic colors are characterized by
                                                                                                            reversibility and transparency which make them consistent with the background color.

                                                                                                      232
  4.5 Cartonnage protection

   From a preservation viewpoint, it is essential to protect the cartonnages from the
surrounding atmospheric conditions. The cartonnages were completely isolated using
3% Paraloid B72 dissolved in xylene by brushing both sides (i.e. outside and inside)
[22]. During the isolation process, we ensured that all material surfaces were com-
pletely dry and clean. During application of the coating layer of Paraloid B72, the direc-
tion of the brush strokes was taken into account, so one direction was used to elimi-
nate the appearance of brush marks on the surface. All processes were conducted in
a closed and clean environment [23].
   The final step was to create two holders for the cartonnages to provide a better
display option. A piece of sponge was placed to serve as a cushion for the carton-
nage head on the inside to avoid friction between the wooden stand and the car-
tonnage itself. A wooden holder made of beech wood was designed in terms of size
and shape and was coated with a shellac solution to ensure proper homogeneity and
uniform weight load distribution on all parts of the cartonnage (Figure 13). The carton-
nages were then able to be easily and safely carried and moved, together with the new
holders. The cartonnages after conservation are shown in the photos below (Figure
14).




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 13. Images showing: a) the new display holder; b) the old display holder




                                                                                             233
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            Figure 14. Images showing: a) and c) cartonnages after conservation;
                                                                                                            b) and d) cartonnages before conservation.




                                                                                                      234
      5. Conclusion

   An improper display setting is one of the major factors that significantly contribute
to cartonnage damage. The major environmental factors that affect the stability of car-
tonnages are light, temperature, relative humidity, air pollution and microorganisms.
Closed glass cases or cupboards create a harmful environment for the cartonnages
rather than protecting them. The results of electron microscopy and FTIR revealed
the presence of three layers of linen textile made of layers of linen, and sometimes
of papyrus, and mounted with animal glue. The preparatory layer consists of calcium
carbonate or calcium sulfate with an animal glue medium. The blue pigment was identi-
fied as Egyptian blue; the red pigment was identified as hematite. The gilded layer was
gold leaf. Results identified the adhesive/binder which was used in the linen layers as
animal glue. The study showed the existence of biological infection from bacteria and
fungi on the masks. They included several types of fungi, such as: Aspergillus niger,
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillius sulphureus, Aspergillius terreus, Aspergillius fumigatus,
Penicillium citrinum, Penicillium chrysogenum, Rhizopus oryzae and many types of
bacteria such as: Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus alvei, Bacillus coagulans


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                                                                                                              Biographical notes

                                                                                                               Firas Alawneh is an Associate Professor of conservation science at the Hashemite
                                                                                                            University; in 2006 he obtained a PhD in material science and engineering at Arizona
                                                                                                            State University. He is Dean’s assistant at Queen Rania Faculty of Tourism and Herit-
                                                                                                            age, as well as being the head of the Department of Conservation Science since 2016.
                                                                                                            He has participated in several archaeological excavations, international projects, work-
                                                                                                            shops and training courses. He teaches conservation science, including conservation
                                                                                                            and restoration theory and practice, materials characterization, history of architecture,
                                                                                                            documentation, and other courses. His research interests include conservation, resto-



                                                                                                      236
ration, material analysis and the history of architecture. He is the author of more than
30 publications in these areas.

   Abdel Rahman Elserogy is a Professor of monuments conservation. He obtained
his PhD in Conservation and Investigation of oil panting in 2002, Department of Res-
toration, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University, Egypt. He worked as Assistant Pro-
fessor at the Department of Restoration, Faculty of Archaeology, Fayuom University,
Egypt from 2005-2008. He now works as a faculty member at the Department of Con-
servation, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, Yarmouk University, Jordan. He
was head of the Department of Conservation in the lower Egyptian museums, Si-
nai and Northern coast of Egypt from 1995-2003. Since 2003 he has taught practical
courses in the treatment and conservation of various organic materials such as wood-
en coffins, icons, oil paintings, textiles, carpets, manuscripts, bone, basketry, feathers
and preventive conservation in museums.

    Eyad Al Masri studied fine art in Jordan receiving a Bachelor’s degree in Art from
Yarmouk University in 1987, a Master’s degree in Archaeology at the same Univer-
sity in 1991. In 1997 he obtained a PhD in Art History from Baghdad University, Iraq.
He became Assistant Professor in 2003 and associated Professor in 2013 (to date),
teaching courses in the fields of art, archeology, civilizations and cultural resources
management. His research interests and publications are in art history with a focus
on Nabataean Art. He has participated in Archaeological excavations at three sites in
Jordan. He is a very active artist; his works abound with ancient symbols, seal inscrip-
tions and contemporary images, a visual interplay that fuses the past and present. His
medium and technique emphasize the spirit of the ancients as his works are not just
painted, but carved and sculptural in appearance.

   Summary




                                                                                                      CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
   This paper describes the multi-analytical techniques and treatment processes that
were undertaken in the conservation of two deteriorated cartonnages of the Greek-
Roman period. Due to the lack of cartonnage specialists and the complicated nature
of the restoration process, cartonnages within Egyptian museums and storage areas
suffer from neglect and various other problems. The issue of cartonnage restoration is,
so far, still a subject of scientific controversy. The research described in this paper dealt
with the conservation and restoration of two mummy cartonnages found in Saqqara.
Damage factors were identified and a biological study was conducted aimed at identi-
fying the microorganisms that had led to biological infection. Furthermore, spot-stains
caused by using resin in the mummification process were also inspected. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction and Infrared (FTIR) results revealed
the cartonnage components. It is clear from the spectra obtained with the blue colored
sample that Egyptian blue was used. The white pigment composition appears as a
combination of calcite and as calcium silicate mixed with aluminum silicate. FTIR re-
vealed the presence of three layers of linen textile, which were made of layers of linen,
and sometimes of papyrus, and mounted using animal glue. After examining the condi-
tion of the cartonnages and studying the results of the previous analysis, a treatment
and restoration plan was developed and applied. Treatments included: strengthening
the colors and weak parts, cleaning, removal of previous restoration materials and
replacing the missing parts as well as preparing two new display holders.


                                                                                                237
                                                                                                                 Riassunto
                                                                                                                 Questo documento descrive le tecniche multi-analitiche e i trattamenti che sono stati
                                                                                                            intrapresi nella conservazione di due cartonaggi deteriorati del periodo greco-romano.
                                                                                                            A causa della mancanza di specialisti di cartonnage e della natura complicata del pro-
                                                                                                            cesso di restauro, i cartonnages all’interno dei musei e delle aree di stoccaggio egizi-
                                                                                                            ani sono in cattivo stato di conservazione. La questione del restauro del cartonnage
                                                                                                            è, finora, ancora oggetto di controversie scientifiche. La ricerca descritta in questo
F. Alawneh, A.R. Elserogy, E. Almasri - Using interdisciplinary studies and analyses in the conservation




                                                                                                            documento ha riguardato la conservazione e il restauro di due mummie di cartonaggi
                                                                                                            trovati a Saqqara. Sono stati identificati i fattori di danno e uno studio biologico è stato
                                                                                                            condotto per identificare i microrganismi che avevano portato all’infezione biologica.
                                                                                                            Inoltre, sono state ispezionate anche macchie di macchie causate dall’uso di resina
                                                                                                            nel processo di mummificazione. La microscopia elettronica a scansione (SEM-EDX),
                                                                                                            i risultati della diffrazione ai raggi X e dell’infrarosso (FTIR) hanno rivelato i componenti
                                                                                                            del cartonnage. È chiaro dagli spettri ottenuti con il campione di colore blu che è stato
                                                                                                            utilizzato il blu egiziano. La composizione del pigmento bianco appare come una com-
                                                                                                            binazione di calcite e come silicato di calcio mescolato con silicato di alluminio. FTIR
                                                                                                            ha rivelato la presenza di tre strati di tessuto di lino, che erano fatti di strati di lino e
                                                                                                            talvolta di papiro e montati con colla animale. Dopo aver esaminato le condizioni dei
                                                                                                            cartonnages e studiato i risultati dell’analisi precedente, è stato sviluppato e applicato
                                                                                                            un piano di trattamento e ripristino. Trattamenti: rinforzo dei colori e parti deboli, puli-
                                                                                                            zia, rimozione dei materiali di restauro precedenti, sostituzione delle parti mancanti e
                                                                                                            preparazione di due nuovi supporti.




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