10.6092/issn.1973-9494/12792
L’articolo tratta il problema della distorsione delle proporzioni del corpo nelle statue di Ramses II durante le inadeguate operazioni di restauro effettuate nel 21° secolo in Egitto. Si discute anche delle corrette proporzioni del corpo nell’arte e delle caratteristiche di Ramses II, che devono essere rispettate quando si assemblano e si restaurano le statue che lo raffigurano, tenendo allo stesso tempo in considerazione altre statue, rilievi e dipinti dello stesso soggetto non restaurati. Inoltre, si esaminano le tecnologie di restauro a livello mondiale che possono aiutare a risolvere il problema dei restauri non corretti effettuati in Egitto.
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Sara A. Abdoh
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Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
Akhmim
Deformed Statues of Ramses II: a Study of Disruptive Restorations in Egypt in the 21st Century  
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
20
Articles
2021-05-13
2021-04-27
2021-05-13
2021-05-13
99-109
CSCH
Sara A. Abdoh
2020
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/12792
99
Department of Sculpture, Architectural Formation and Restoration, Faculty of Applied Arts, Benha University, Egypt
1973-9494
Akhmim
en
109
Deformed Statues of Ramses II: a Study of Disruptive Restorations in Egypt in the 21st Century  
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/12792/12508
20
D     EFORMED STATUES OF RAMSES II:
      A STUDY OF DISRUPTIVE RESTORATIONS IN EGYPT
      IN THE 21ST CENTURY

   Sara A. Abdoh *
   Department of Sculpture, Architectural Formation and Restoration
   Faculty of Applied Arts
   Benha University, Egypt


   Keywords: bad restoration, digital tools, canon of proportions, Luxor Temple, Akhmim.



   1. Introduction

    In the light of the existence of tremendous technological progress in the 21st century,
the world is looking to use technology to preserve antiquities, to help professional re-
storers in assembling the missing parts of statues correctly and to avoid the gross mis-
takes that could harm the antiquities themselves. However, Egypt still uses old tech-
niques and methods that cause unsuccessful results when assembling the statues, in
addition to destroying the artistic proportions of the statues that reflect the era in which
they were created. Consequently, their restoration results in the loss of the artistic and
historical value of the monuments. Recently, several restoration projects in Egypt have
failed to follow the international standards of restoration for the protection of cultural
heritage, and most of them concern restoration operations on the Ramses II statues at
Luxor temple and Akhmim. The paper consists of a critical study of some statues whose
artistic proportions have been distorted by recent incorrect restorations in Egypt.
    The research deals with looking at the problem of the many distorted proportions in
the body of Ramses II statues in 21st century Egypt which are the result of restoration
work; it is undoubtedly a dangerous practice for ancient Egyptian antiquities, despite
the presence of digital tools that could help the restorer avoid this problem. An addi-
tional issue is the limitation of restoration operations in Egypt, which are for archeolo-
gists and restorers only, and exclude art historians and artists, whose presence would
probably help to avoid these specific artistic problems in the statues.


   2. Materials and methods

    It is clear that similar restoration principles apply to all types of monuments, one of
the most important principles being that an antiquity should not be restored in a way
that disguises the age of the monument or hides the original work of the artist [1].
    The concept of restoration was previously approached in a different way in some
countries, where the practice was to replace deteriorated sculptures with copies. Nowa-
days, the concept has changed completely and the philosophy of “conserve as found”


   * Corresponding author: S.mohammed@fapa.bu.edu.eg
                                                                                                              has been adopted. There are many specialized people involved in the conservation
                                                                                                              process: the art historian, the archeologist, the architect, the scientist, the conservator
                                                                                                              and the owner [2].
                                                                                                                  Despite the establishment of specific rules for restoration operations many years
                                                                                                              ago, Egypt is still witnessing incorrect restoration in the twenty-first century. The most
                                                                                                              prominent of these was the inappropriate restoration of the golden mask of Tutankha-
                                                                                                              mun, when an Egyptian restorer glued the beard to the face with epoxy, in the Egyptian
                                                                                                              Museum in August 2014. This angered the entire world until the Egyptian Ministry of
                                                                                                              Antiquities requested the help of conservators from the Roman-Germanic Central Mu-
S.A. Abdoh - Deformed statues of Ramses II: a study of disruptive restorations in Egypt in the 21st century




                                                                                                              seum, “RGZM”. In April 2015, the committee developed a new restoration plan, which
                                                                                                              was carried out from October-December 2015 [3].
                                                                                                                  On the other hand, in 1935, the restoration of a Menkaure statue was completed
                                                                                                              with the help of Joseph Lindon Smith, the American painter who documented reliefs in
                                                                                                              the Giza tombs. He helped to complete the missing parts of the statue based on a re-
                                                                                                              lated sculpture in Cairo and was assisted by graduates of the Museum School, an art
                                                                                                              school linked to the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston [4]. Unfortunately, this is in contrast
                                                                                                              to what we currently see happening in some restoration operations in Egypt. There have
                                                                                                              appeared in Egypt many wrong assemblies and restorations of some statues without
                                                                                                              any consideration for the ancient Egyptian canon of the body proportions for the period
                                                                                                              to which the statue belongs. This approach highlights the great danger that Egyptian
                                                                                                              antiquities face if they are subjected to the wrong restoration operations; if this unsci-
                                                                                                              entific and incorrect approach continues, the main features of the artistic style of each
                                                                                                              period will be obliterated.
                                                                                                                  The “International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and
                                                                                                              Sites” (The Venice Charter 1964) in Article 9 states: “The process of restoration is a
                                                                                                              highly specialized operation. Its aim is to preserve and reveal the aesthetic and historic
                                                                                                              value of a monument and is based on respect for original material and authentic docu-
                                                                                                              ments. It must stop at the point where conjecture begins, and in this case, moreover,
                                                                                                              any extra work which is indispensable must be distinct from the architectural composi-
                                                                                                              tion and must bear a contemporary stamp. The restoration in any case must be pre-
                                                                                                              ceded and followed by archeological and historical study of the monument”. Article 12
                                                                                                              states: “Replacement of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but
                                                                                                              at the same time must be distinguished from the original so that restoration does not
                                                                                                              falsify the artistic or historic evidence” [5]. The restoration rules have been very clear
                                                                                                              and straightforward for a long time. Articles 9 and 12 explain in depth the correct and
                                                                                                              comprehensive meaning of the word “restoration.”


                                                                                                                 2.1. The canon of proportions of the body in ancient Egyptian art

                                                                                                                  The basic structure of ancient Egyptian sculpture divides the shapes according to
                                                                                                              horizontal and vertical guidelines, depending on the canon of proportions.
                                                                                                                  Ancient Egyptian artists created this canon of proportions of the body that was
                                                                                                              often applied from the Fifth Dynasty until the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, except during the
                                                                                                              era of Akhenaten. The standing person was equal to 18 vertical squares starting from
                                                                                                              the foot and ending with the hairline; and the proportions of the body were linked to
                                                                                                              the hand’s breadth or palm, which was used as a unit of measurement in ancient
                                                                                                              Egypt until the end of the Late Period (palm=4 digits, small cubit = 6 palms and Royal
                                                                                                              cubit = 7palms) [6, 7].


                                                                         100
     Gay Robins states that our knowledge of the units of measurement in ancient Egypt
was mainly based on the work of Lepsius, although there are some points that are still
obscure. However, the most important standard units known to us are the small cubit,
its length equaling about 45 cm, which is divided into six units, with one unit equaling
the width of the palm of the hand, and each palm width divided into four fingers. In ad-
dition to the small cubit there was the royal cubit, which is divided into seven units and
equals about 52.5 cm [8].
     By applying gridlines to some paintings and reliefs in the period of Ramses II
(Figure 1), I found that the position of the knee exceeded the sixth square, as Robins
mentioned that the knee is located in different squares in the Nineteenth Dynasty, but it
should be noted that the ancient Egyptian gridline canon of body proportions was applied
on reliefs or paintings, not on statues. One of the aims of the research is to apply it to
3D, not 2D, monuments and therefore the main purpose in the research is to compare
the proportion of the body of the statues of the same king and period that were not
restored, to discern if the restoration is based on the right scientific references.




        (A)                (B)                (C)                   (D)                 (E)

Figure 1. A) The knees are placed in squares 6 and 7. Seti I, Abydos temple [8];




                                                                                                       Conservation science in Cultural Heritage
          B) The knees are placed in the 7th square. Ramses II temple, Abydos;
          C) The knees are placed in squares 6 and 7. Relief from the plinth of a seated statue of
             Ramses II, the façade of Luxor temple;
          D) The knees are placed in the 7th Square. Relief from the plinth of a seated statue of
             Ramses II, the façade of Luxor temple;
          E) The knees are placed in squares 6 and 7 [9]. (B, C, D: photographed and edited by
             the author).


    2.2. Restoration of the statues of Ramses II at the façade of Luxor Temple

    There were only three statues of Ramses II in front of the façade of Luxor temple for
a long time, two seated and the third standing, until the Ministry of Antiquities decided
to start restoring three other statues of King Ramses II and erected them in front of the
temple façade. The statues were inaugurated one by one, each year from 2017-2019,
on World Heritage Day. Unfortunately, during this period some improper restoration
was carried out in which the correct artistic proportions of the statues of Ramses II
were destroyed. Not only was the restoration erroneous, but the last statue, which
was an addition, has an Osirian position, and differs completely from the position of
the other statues that were placed at the facade causing the loss of the characteristic
symmetrical design. The symmetrical design is one of the basic elements of architec-
tural design for the façades of ancient Egyptian temples, since even when the style


                                                                                                     101
                                                                                                              of the temple façade differed, such as in the Hatshepsut temple, the façade design was
                                                                                                              always symmetrical.
                                                                                                                  For this paper, two statues of Ramses II were chosen. The two statues retain the
                                                                                                              original upright body proportions which were in use during his reign (Figure 2. A, B) and
S.A. Abdoh - Deformed statues of Ramses II: a study of disruptive restorations in Egypt in the 21st century




                                                                                                                      (A)                (B)                 (C)                 (D)                (E)

                                                                                                              Figure 2. A) Ramses II statue, Egyptian Museum, Tahrir Square, Cairo;
                                                                                                                        B) Ramses II statue, Luxor temple, Luxor;
                                                                                                                        C) Ramses II statue, the façade of Luxor temple, Luxor;
                                                                                                                        D) Ramses II statue, the façade of Luxor temple, Luxor;
                                                                                                                        E) Ramses II statue, Akhmim, Sohag. (Photographed and edited by the Author).




                                                                                                                      (A)                (B)                (C)                 (D)                 (E)
                                                                                                              Figure 3. A) Osirian statue of Ramses II, Karnak temple, Luxor;
                                                                                                                        B), C), D), E) Osirian statue of Ramses II, façade of Luxor temple, Luxor.
                                                                                                                        A), B), C), D): photographed and edited by the Author, E [10] and edited by the Author).


                                                                             102
have the same pose as two of the statues that were restored and placed, one on the
façade of Luxor temple and the other in Akhmim (Figure 2.C, D, E). The chosen stat-
ues serve as a guide so as to compare them with the contemporary restoration of the
Ramses II statues. Added to this is the Osirian statue of Rameses II from the Temple
of Karnak (Figure 3. A) to compare it with his Osirian statue on the façade of the Temple
of Luxor (Figure 3. B, C, D, E).
     It was found that the level of the knee height in the restored statues, (Figure 2. C, D)
is lower than the level of the knee height in Figure 2. A and B; the hand size takes two
squares in Figure 2. C and D instead of the normal size of one square, as in Figure 2.
A and B. The level of the knee height in the restored Osirian statue (Figure 3. B, C) is
lower than the level of the knee height in the original statue (Figure 3. A).


   2.2.1. Standing statue of Ramses II on the right side of the façade of Luxor Temple

    On April 18, 2017, the Ramses II statue was unveiled in front of the first pylon of
Luxor temple, after the restoration and assembling of the more than 75 grey granite pieces
that make up the statue. The existing parts of the statue are approximately 60% and
the rest is missing. The statue weighs 75 tons and is 11 meters in height (Figure 2. C)
[11, 12, 13].
    It is evident that the knees of the statue are lower than the knees in statues 2. A and B,
and gives the impression that the statue’s body is compressed. In addition to that, the
statue’s hands occupy more than one square meaning that the main unit of measurement
is completely wrong, according to the ancient Egyptian canon of proportions of the body.


   2.2.2. Standing Ramses II Statue at the Left Side of the Façade of Luxor Temple




                                                                                                   Conservation science in Cultural Heritage
    On April 20, 2018, the statue of King Ramses II was unveiled in front of Luxor temple
after its restoration; the assembled parts consisted of 14 pieces, representing 40%
of the body of the statue. The largest of these pieces were the complete head of the
statue, the pedestal, and the feet. The statue’s height is 11.70 meters and weighs about
65 tons. The remains of the statue were excavated during the work of the Egyptian ar-
chaeological mission inside the temple from 1958 to 1960 (Figure 2. D) [14].
    The damage to the statue due to its incorrect restoration is comparable to that of the
previous statue; the knees of the statue are lower than the knees in statues 2. A and B and
the statue’s hands take up more than one square. In addition, the muscles of the king’s
body have been minimized, which is very clear in the areas of the shoulders and arms.


   2.2.3. Osirian Statue of King Ramses II at the First Pylon at Luxor Temple

    On November 28, 2018, the Ministry of Antiquities announced on its official website
that the Egyptian archaeological mission had begun work in collaboration with a group
of Americans (Chicago House), to restore an Osirian statue of Ramses II. The statue
is made of pink granite, and parts of it were found inside the temple in excavations
during the period from 1958-1960, and on April 18, 2019. The restoration of the statue
has been completed. It is about 12 meters in height and weighs nearly 60 tons (Figure 3.
B, C, D, E) [15, 16].


                                                                                                 103
                                                                                                                  After the unveiling of this statue, the specialists launched a sharp attack, and the
                                                                                                              restoration of the statue infuriated many because of its erroneous restoration and the
                                                                                                              doubts about the correctness of its location on the façade of the temple. However, the
                                                                                                              American side justified the location of the statue giving reasons that were unconvinc-
                                                                                                              ing, such as its reliance on the existence of two different reliefs for the temple façade
                                                                                                              and ignoring the fact that both are symmetrical designs without any Osirian statues. It
                                                                                                              emphasized the 100% accuracy of the reconstruction, and the American Egyptologist,
                                                                                                              Johnson confirmed this by saying: “The reconstructions, and original position, are 100
                                                                                                              percent correct.” Unfortunately, it was also supported by several archeologists [17, 18].
S.A. Abdoh - Deformed statues of Ramses II: a study of disruptive restorations in Egypt in the 21st century




                                                                                                                  The Ministry of Antiquities covered the statue again to fix the errors made in the
                                                                                                              restoration (“3. E” before and “3. D” after) [19, 20]. However, by looking at the statue,
                                                                                                              even without careful consideration, the mistakes are still noticeable, even after re-
                                                                                                              restoration, when the statue was unveiled again. Indeed, it can be seen that the hands
                                                                                                              are in the same position, but they are not at the same height and one of the elbows is
                                                                                                              higher than the other; the neck appears to be coming out of the chest and is not at the
                                                                                                              same level as the shoulder line, which is quite evident when looking at the statue from
                                                                                                              the side. Comparing the body proportions of the statue with the body proportions of
                                                                                                              another Osirian statue of Ramses II in Karnak temple (Figure 3. A), it was found that
                                                                                                              the knees of the restored statue are lower than those of the statue in Karnak temple.
                                                                                                                  The walls of Luxor temple contain a relief portraying the design of the temple pylon,
                                                                                                              dating to the first jubilee of Ramses II. There were two obelisks and six colossal statues
                                                                                                              of Ramses II [21]. The relief indicates the position of the statues; two of them are sitting
                                                                                                              and the other four are standing with their left foot forward and their hands close to their
                                                                                                              bodies. In addition, the façades of the ancient Egyptian temples are characterized by
                                                                                                              a symmetrical design, which was a distinctive characteristic in ancient Egyptian archi-
                                                                                                              tecture (Figure 4. A, B).




                                                                                                                                      (A)                                                  (B)

                                                                                                              Figure 4. A) After adding the Osirian statue to the façade of Luxor temple, completely distorting
                                                                                                                           the symmetrical design;
                                                                                                                        B) A relief portraying the design of the temple pylon, dating to the first jubilee of Ramses II
                                                                                                                           (Photographed by the Author).


                                                                                                                  2.3. Ramses II statue in Akhmim

                                                                                                                  In 1981, 70 pieces of a limestone statue of Ramses II were found in the temple in
                                                                                                              Akhmim, in the Sohag Governorate. The largest and most important pieces are the
                                                                                                              head without the crown, part of the neck, chest, and abdomen, the royal robe, part of one
                                                                                                              of the knees, some parts of the back pillar, and one hand, in addition to some other


                                                                          104
various small parts and blocks. On February 7, 2019, the Ministry of Antiquities an-
nounced on its official website that the Ramses II statue in Akhmim had been restored
in order to place it in its original location beside the Meritamun statue. On April 6, 2019,
a presentation was given for the restoration of the statue, which was about 12 meters
high and weighed about 45 tons (Figure 2. E) [22, 23].
    In fact, the most noteworthy element in the statue’s restoration is the disappearance
of the muscles in the statue’s body, especially in the chest, abdomen and arms, com-
pared to the well-known Ramses II statues that reflect his physical strength and youth
through his representation in an ideal body full of vigor and vitality. As a result of the
restoration, the king’s arm was transformed into something resembling a female arm,
with no muscles. An unacceptable situation for the king, who was famous for his heroic
warfare and was reflected accordingly in his statues and the arts of his time.


   3. Results and Discussion

    What is the solution to avoid incorrect restoration in Egypt in the future?
    The concept of restoration is more than esthetic consideration; it also plays a role in
protecting the monuments from vandalism. Any evident areas of restoration in the monu-
ments could invite vandalism, as they stand out as being different; also, if the structure is
not preserved well, vandalism will increase over time. On the other hand, if the monu-
ment is maintained in good condition, and restoration is carried out smoothly without
being too evident, vandalism decreases [24].
    While restorers are not knowledgeable about the correct proportions of these stat-
ues, recently in Egypt, the only solution has been to use technology that provides this
type of information. Many restorers all over the world are using digital restoration, which
includes technologies such as 3D scanning, 3D modeling (Computer Design programs)
and 3D printing. There have been many successful cases using these digital tools to




                                                                                                  Conservation science in Cultural Heritage
restore some statues.
    Mattia Mercante, a professional restorer who has restored famous artworks by
Renaissance sculptors, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, has said, “The
only thing that can limit or block a restoration is if the intervention risks damage to the
artwork and its material integrity” [25]. And that is the risk which is already happening
today in some restoration operations in Egypt.
    In one of his restoration projects in the Borromeo d’Adda Chapel in Arcore, near
Milan (Italy), Mercante restored the fingers of a statue, respecting the proportions and
artistic style. He says that digital scanning and modeling always ensure that the artistic
style of the artifacts is respected [25]. And that is exactly what we need in Egypt: to not
obscure the artistic features of the artifacts, especially if it helps to identify the time
period when the artifacts were executed.
    Another example is the restoration process employed for the earthquake- damaged
terracotta statue of the Madonna of Pietranico kept in the main church of the village
(Pietranico), in the region of Abruzzo in Italy, which depended totally on digital tech-
nologies. They created 3D digital models to study the possibility of its reassembly to
avoid further damage, and the 3d digital models allowed them to create a supporting
structure for the statue and to color and decorate it [26].
    One of the most important examples is a statue of Zeus in the Archeological Mu-
seum of Palermo, Italy. It was one of the most successful conservation and assembling
processes using 3D digital technologies to have been carried out. Using this technology


                                                                                                105
                                                                                                              allowed the re-production of the missing parts and the creation of a digital or physical
                                                                                                              copy of the statue with the same original proportions, which would have been very dif-
                                                                                                              ficult using the traditional casting techniques [27].
                                                                                                                   Thus, before deciding to restore any monument, etc., a virtual restoration should be
                                                                                                              made to study all the possible scenarios, in order to guarantee a successful restoration
                                                                                                              without damaging any part of the monument or artifact.
                                                                                                                   A traditional restoration may adversely affect the monuments and cost a lot, but digi-
                                                                                                              tal modeling can be more successful in physically reconstructing the artifacts and help to
                                                                                                              visualize the missing parts [28]. In addition to the 3D printing of the missing parts, there
S.A. Abdoh - Deformed statues of Ramses II: a study of disruptive restorations in Egypt in the 21st century




                                                                                                              is the advantage that they can easily be removed after integrating them into the original
                                                                                                              statue without any risk as well as guaranteeing the safety of the antiquities [27].


                                                                                                                    4. Conclusion and recommendations

                                                                                                                   After applying the 19th Dynasty canon of body proportions on a number of Ramses
                                                                                                              II statues that were recently restored in Egypt and comparing them to other statues of
                                                                                                              the same king that have not been touched by restorers’ mistakes, it has been con-
                                                                                                              firmed that the statues have been disfigured. This is a clear indication of the distortion
                                                                                                              of Egyptian antiquities and the disregard for international restoration rules, in addition
                                                                                                              to proving the lack of sufficient scientific awareness that is necessary for the conserva-
                                                                                                              tion and restoration operations of these ancient monuments.
                                                                                                                   The researcher recommends:
                                                                                                                   - Referring to a committee of specialists and avoiding making individual decisions;
                                                                                                              studying the conditions of the monuments and drawing up a professional plan for their
                                                                                                              correct restoration according to international restoration rules.
                                                                                                                   - Recording the entire restoration process, including the materials used, and publish-
                                                                                                              ing it in an international scientific research forum, as was done by foreign restorers when
                                                                                                              they repaired the improper restoration work on the Tutankhamun mask.
                                                                                                                   - Using available technologies, such as 3D scanning and 3D modeling, to perform a
                                                                                                              virtual restoration before starting the real restoration process. In addition, using 3D print-
                                                                                                              ing to complete any missing parts will be more accurate, cheaper and save time, as well
                                                                                                              as providing a scientific approach of the highest standard.
                                                                                                                   - Listening to those with experience, such as listening to those criticisms regarding
                                                                                                              the presence of the Osirian statue of Ramses II on the façade of Luxor temple because
                                                                                                              its position differs from that of the other standing statues. I fully support this scientific
                                                                                                              opinion, which is proven by the symmetrical design of all façades of ancient Egyptian
                                                                                                              temples. In addition, there are the two relief designs of the temple façade inside the
                                                                                                              temple, which confirm the ancient Egyptian insistence on the idea and philosophy of
                                                                                                              symmetrical design in the temple’s façade.
                                                                                                                   - The need for an international committee of specialists in the fields of restoration
                                                                                                              and art history, as well as artists and archeologists, if possible, to avoid the occurrence
                                                                                                              of such restoration problems again in Egypt.


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                                                                                                                 Biographical notes

                                                                                                                  Sara A. Abdoh is a Lecturer in the Department of Sculpture, Architectural Forma-
                                                                                                              tion and Restoration, in the Faculty of Applied Arts, Benha University, Egypt. She has
                                                                                                              a Master’s degree and a PhD in the History of Art, Faculty of Fine Arts, Helwan Univer-
                                                                                                              sity, Egypt. She is a Coordinator of the Professional Diploma “Architectural Sculpture
                                                                                                              Restoration Program” and a member of the ACAS Review Committee 2020, Tokyo,
                                                                                                              Japan. She teaches both at undergraduate and postgraduate level and is an associate
                                                                                                              supervisor of a number of master’s theses.


                                                                                                                 Summary

                                                                                                                  The research paper discusses the problem of distorting the body proportions in
                                                                                                              Ramses II statues during the inadequate restoration operations carried out in the 21st
                                                                                                              century in Egypt. It also discusses the correct artistic body proportions and formation
                                                                                                              of Ramses II, which must be followed when assembling and restoring statues depicting
                                                                                                              this figure, at the same time taking into consideration other, unrestored statues, reliefs


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and paintings of the same subject. In addition, it looks at global restoration technolo-
gies that can help to solve the problem of improper restoration in Egypt.


   Riassunto

     L’articolo tratta il problema della distorsione delle proporzioni del corpo nelle statue
di Ramses II durante le inadeguate operazioni di restauro effettuate nel 21° secolo in
Egitto. Si discute anche delle corrette proporzioni del corpo nell’arte e delle caratteri-
stiche di Ramses II, che devono essere rispettate quando si assemblano e si restaurano
le statue che lo raffigurano, tenendo allo stesso tempo in considerazione altre statue,
rilievi e dipinti dello stesso soggetto non restaurati. Inoltre, si esaminano le tecnologie
di restauro a livello mondiale che possono aiutare a risolvere il problema dei restauri
non corretti effettuati in Egitto.




                                                                                                  Conservation science in Cultural Heritage




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