10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17317
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Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
socio-spatial organization
The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the ksour (south-west of Algeria)
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
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Articles
2023-07-20
2023-06-21
2023-07-20
2023-07-20
223-241
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Ratiba Wided Biara
2022
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/17317
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Department of Architecture, Tahri Mohamed Bechar University, Algeria
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socio-spatial organization
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The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the ksour (south-west of Algeria)
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/17317/16533
22
T    HE SOCIOCULTURAL IMPACT OF THE DJEMAA ON THE
     ORGANIZATION OF THE KSOUR
     (SOUTHWESTERN ALGERIA)

   Abdelmalek Benaradj * , Ratiba Wided Biara
   Department of Architecture,
   Tahri Mohamed Bechar University, Algeria.

   Keywords: djemaa, socio-cultural impact, ksour configuration, socio-spatial orga-
   nization



   1. Introduction

     The ksour1 of Southwest Algeria housed a community life marked by the solidarity
and cohesion of its members, strongly attached to the arable land and the palm grove.
Despite the austerity of the desert and the severe climatic conditions, ksour society was
able to establish a spatial structure in response to its socio-cultural needs and the way
of life of the community, as well as the physical environment. [1].
     If the spatial organization of the ksour obeys the culture and tradition of the society,
the djemaa would be the institution that deals with the management of collective inter-
ests. The authority of the djemaa represents the central power of the ksar1.
     The attributions of the djemaa encompassed questions of public law and some of
private law, applied according to the custom (carefully preserved in writing) “The com-
petence of the djemaa is very broad, it extends not only to the status of persons and
property, but to all matters of private and public law, thus touching on the question of
the sacred” [2]. “In the ksour, it will deal in particular with the organization of water shar-
ing, the system of cultivation in the palm grove” [3]. The settlement of local conflicts in
terms of land ownership, organization of water distribution and personal conflicts was
so complex that the colonial power could not revoke the djemaa.
     Today, the djemaa has lost not only most of these prerogatives, but also its tradi-
tional organization: its only prerogatives today are limited to the hydraulic field (distri-
bution and management of water). According to the researcher Soltani Hadj Mokhtar,
“The djemaa, whose role had declined or disappeared with the arrival of the French
settlers, lost most of these prerogatives. Today it is limited to the distribution and man-
agement of water and the sharing of collective land.”


   2. Methodology

    In order to identify the socio-cultural involvement of the djemaa in the organiza-
tion of the ksour environment, this study mobilizes the following investigation methods:




   * Corresponding author: benaradj2010@yahoo.fr
                                                                                                                                           a qualitative research method, supported by a comparative analysis between the
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                           djemaas inherent in the different ksour of the Bechar region (case study), which will
                                                                                                                                           help us determine to what extent the djemaa was an institution allocated to the manage-
                                                                                                                                           ment of community interests, as well as to the socio-spatial organization of the ksour.
                                                                                                                                               In other words, to highlight the socio-cultural impact of the djemaa on the logic of
                                                                                                                                           the configuration of the ksour heritage in the region of Bechar, we adopted:
                                                                                                                                               A socio-historical approach.
                                                                                                                                               A morphological reading of some ksour specimens.
                                                                                                                                               A comparison based on the reading of written and graphic documents relating to
                                                                                                                                           the spaces called djemaas.
                                                                                                                                               Interviews with some of the notables, old people, and specialists (historians and
                                                                                                                                           anthropologists) all locals from the ksour.


                                                                                                                                              3. Presentation of the case study

                                                                                                                                              3.1. Field of investigation

                                                                                                                                                In order to deepen knowledge on the role played by the djemaa in the management
                                                                                                                                           and configuration of the ksour, the region of Bechar was investigated; it is rich in tradi-
                                                                                                                                           tional establishments and was formerly managed by the institution of the djemaa.
                                                                                                                                                Located in the south-west of Algeria, 980 km from the capital Algiers (see Figure 1),
                                                                                                                                           Bechar is the capital of the wilaya (prefecture: governmental administrative division of
                                                                                                                                           the territorial organization of the Algerian state that exists in many countries), which is
                                                                                                                                           made up of 12 daïras (subdivision of the wilaya or prefecture in the Algerian territorial
                                                                                                                                           administration which groups together several communes) and 21 communes (the ba-
                                                                                                                                           sic Algerian territorial collectivity, and the smallest administrative subdivision in the
                                                                                                                                           territorial organization of the Algerian state) enclosing the ksour (traditional settlements)
                                                                                                                                           (Figure 2).
                                                                                                                                                As part of this study, we investigated the djemaa inherent in the ksour of Kenadsa,
                                                                                                                                           Taghit, Beni Abbes and Beni Ounif.




                                                                                                                                                   Figure 1. Geographical location of the Saharan region of the town of Bechar [4].


                                                                                             224
                                                                                             CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




         Figure 2. Plan of the ksour, Kenadsa, Taghit, Beni abbes, and Beni ounif [5].




   4. What does the term djemaa mean?

    According to a researcher-historian from the Bechar region, “the djemaa, a tradi-
tional organization in the form of a local assembly, is a council of wise men whose role
is to manage the daily life of the ksar (ksar and gardens), external relations, celebra-
tions, conflicts... Its decisions are indisputably applied”.


                                                                                           225
                                                                                                                                                The djemaa was a kind of municipal council in which each lineage, locally called
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                           achira, represented a group in society. It is interested in all the affairs of the city; its
                                                                                                                                           mission lies in the management and maintenance of water resources, construction,
                                                                                                                                           maintenance and the repair of property and, it is responsible for the security of the city.
                                                                                                                                                “The djemaa was considered as a para-administrative structure or rather as a real
                                                                                                                                           influential power to support the decisions of local ksar officials. Appointed then elected,
                                                                                                                                           the djemaa was the emanation of the most influential groups at the local level”, accord-
                                                                                                                                           ing to a researcher-sociologist living in Kenadsa. The council of elders of the village or
                                                                                                                                           city is at the origin of public morality in this public space known as the “djemaa” and is
                                                                                                                                           a local assembly of notables who managed the interests of the community, and their
                                                                                                                                           “desire to live together” [6].
                                                                                                                                                The djemaa therefore, is a traditional organization in the form of a local assembly
                                                                                                                                           composed of a council of elders whose role is to manage the daily life of the oases
                                                                                                                                           (ksar and gardens), external relations, festivals, conflicts, etc. Its decisions are indis-
                                                                                                                                           putably applied. Furthermore, the djemaa designates an assembly of Muslims gath-
                                                                                                                                           ered to perform prayer, given its proximity to the mosque [7]. Indeed, the djemma is,
                                                                                                                                           therefore, always located in the vicinity of a mosque.
                                                                                                                                                According to Isabelle Eberhardt’s travelogue [8]: “it is the djemaa, an assembly of
                                                                                                                                           lineages and ksour, which is sovereign. All political and administrative questions have
                                                                                                                                           been submitted to the deliberations of the djemaa. Do we need a leader? It is the dje-
                                                                                                                                           maa who appoints him. As long as he retains his investiture, this leader is obeyed, but
                                                                                                                                           he always remains responsible to those who have chosen him.”


                                                                                                                                              4.1. Organization and attributions of the ksour institution, the “djemaa”

                                                                                                                                                Widespread in the territories of North Africa, typically in the ksour of the Sahara, the
                                                                                                                                           institution of the djemaa is very old. Each ksar had a djemaa. Not far from the main
                                                                                                                                           mosque, the djemaa is easily accessible from all sides of the ksar. This so-called council
                                                                                                                                           of “elders” represented a meeting place: a sort of square equipped with stone benches-
                                                                                                                                           punctuated by commercial and artisanal production buildings. As a common place where
                                                                                                                                           the members of the djemaa gather, it was often treated in a special way to provide shade
                                                                                                                                           and to stay cool in summer, creating a sheltered, open spatial unit in the square. The
                                                                                                                                           members of the djemaa sat, either directly on the ground or, on low niches around this
                                                                                                                                           space, most often on the dokkanat, which were benches made of mud brick or stone,
                                                                                                                                           long enough to allow a person to lie down on them. This customary institution of councils
                                                                                                                                           which formed spontaneously within the group was charged not with enacting new regu-
                                                                                                                                           lations, but with ensuring, by general consent, the application of rules dating back to the
                                                                                                                                           most distant past. In a culture of oral tradition, only men of advanced age were able to
                                                                                                                                           assimilate all the useful knowledge. Even today, older men still have some authority.
                                                                                                                                                The djemaa was therefore considered as a para-administrative structure, or rather,
                                                                                                                                           as a real influential power to support the decisions of local officials. Appointed, then
                                                                                                                                           elected, the djemaa was the emanation of the most influential groups at the local level,
                                                                                                                                           supported by the local authorities. The notables in the ksour sphere kept their privileg-
                                                                                                                                           es until the departmentalization of the Sahara in 1957. In this new system, the interme-
                                                                                                                                           diate structures and the djemaas were destined to disappear.
                                                                                                                                                The power of the djemaa was weakened with the advent of colonization. Hence
                                                                                                                                           forth, it was the colonists who managed the ksar. Deprived of its authority, the djemaa
                                                                                                                                           had only an advisory role in the various fields of social life.


                                                                                              226
     A researcher-anthropologist from the Bechar region says that “the djemaa is finding
it increasingly difficult to mobilize the inhabitants and settle conflicts. Its role is limited
to the maintenance of a few collective facilities, in particular mosques”, while for a re-
searcher-architect based in Bechar, “its legitimacy is sometimes disputed and some-
times recognized by the administration.” That said, the djemaa is not completely off-
side. It is called upon by local and even central authorities as well as by the population
to mediate in conflicts concerning illegal housing, equipment, roads, water, etc…
     During the pre-colonial period, which was characterized by political instability in the
Maghreb, the region of southwestern Algeria lived in insecurity, and travel (caravans in
particular) was risky. The region was therefore managed by the zawyas3 (religious or-
ganizations), who ensured the protection of the caravaneers against attacks, while the
management of the ksour was the task of the djemaa.
     “After independence in the 1970s, the djemaa lost its role in ksour society and be-
came an obsolete organization with the refinement of the administrative division, which
gave small spatial entities, that were promoted administratively, new institutional power”,
according to an interview with a historian.
     To make up for this, the djemaa established a new principle of aggregation and soli-
darity, becoming a more elaborate entity. The religious and cultural function marking
the djemaa of the ksar was at the origin of its subsequent spectacular development, a
development which considerably influenced the way in which these human settlements
were then organized.


   4.2. The djemaa: a physical and spiritual core

     The built environment of the ksour is not only the product of rational physical logics
and a functional response to objectifiable data, it is also assumed to be the result of the
djemaa, an institution with spiritual and immaterial beliefs and attitudes. Indeed, the
ksour are marked by their religious and spiritual dimension, by the relationship be-




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
tween the djemaa institution and the built environment, as confirmed by Moussaoui
Abderrahmane [9], when he states, “The mode of organization of this habitat remains
very particular and strongly marked by the formation of the places: the ksar owes its
existence and prosperity to the jemaa which has an important role in the management
and organization of the built space.”
     In these ksour, the djemaa is a space of management par excellence, as evidenced
by the elders (residents of the ksour). “The role of the djemaa goes beyond that of a
simple oratory, it is the socio-political and spiritual center of the community which com-
bines religious and political power”, reports one of the notables of Kenadsa.
     A symbol of faith and identity, the djemaa is the living space and the central core of
the ksour. From a morphological point of view, the djemaa is located near the mosque;
its layout is governed by the orientation of the wall of the quibla (direction of prayer).
From its central position in the ksar, which reinforces its importance, it constitutes a
point of articulation between the different entities (ethnic groups and families) orga-
nized around the great mosque according to a hierarchical principle. The mosque is
therefore associated with an old public square type of djemaa, which is a social institu-
tion, a place of exchange and where the assembly of notables meets.
     The djemaas of the ksour in southwestern Algeria have relative autonomy with re-
spect to central power, as each ksar has an assembly of notables called djemaa situ-
ated next to the public square. Each djemaa manages community interests on all lev-
els (social, economic and political).


                                                                                                  227
                                                                                                                                               According to the chaykh2, the head of Kenadsa’s zawya3, Hadj Laredj: “the compe-
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                           tence of the djemaa extended not only to temporal management, not only to the status
                                                                                                                                           of persons and property and to all matters of private and public law, but also to the
                                                                                                                                           management of the sacred”.


                                                                                                                                              4.3. Types of djemaa, and governing population

                                                                                                                                                The administration of the ksour has always been organized in a clear manner. Its
                                                                                                                                           organs are structured according to two types: the djemaa of lineage and the djemaa of
                                                                                                                                           the ksar.
                                                                                                                                                In general, the djemaa of the ksar was made up of representatives from each
                                                                                                                                           lineage; the number of representatives was not fixed and varied from one ksar to
                                                                                                                                           another. The representatives were appointed for life by the population. The basic
                                                                                                                                           criteria for fulfilling this role were eloquence, experience, courage and fortune. This
                                                                                                                                           system wascharacterized by the absence of the post of head of the djemaa. The
                                                                                                                                           powers of the djemaa included matters of public law and some questions of pri-
                                                                                                                                           vate law by applying custom usage, or örf 4 (a practice of long standing considered
                                                                                                                                           as unwritten law).
                                                                                                                                                The djemaa of lineage is an assembly that brings together all the heads of the
                                                                                                                                           families of the lineage, each head of family being the family representative within this
                                                                                                                                           organization. It regulates the internal affairs of the lineage, enlightens and advises the
                                                                                                                                           notables who represent it at the level of the djemaa of the ksar, manages the collective
                                                                                                                                           goods of the lineage, administers the makhzen (the food supply) constituted each year
                                                                                                                                           for general utility expenses, and pronounces food confiscation for the benefit of the
                                                                                                                                           community.
                                                                                                                                                Civil society, through the various forms of participation and engagement of citi-
                                                                                                                                           zens in the collective life of society, represents an important actor, which often influ-
                                                                                                                                           ences political and economic decisions (acting as a counter-power). Thus, “the par-
                                                                                                                                           ticipation of citizens in the development, implementation and evaluation of policies is
                                                                                                                                           no longer just a choice, but a characteristic of advanced democracies. The existence
                                                                                                                                           of a strong civil society forms the basis of democracy and indicates a concern for
                                                                                                                                           human solidarity” [10].
                                                                                                                                                Today, the djemaa has lost most of its prerogatives; its prerogatives are now lim-
                                                                                                                                           ited to hydraulics (distribution and management of water) and land (sharing of collec-
                                                                                                                                           tive land).


                                                                                                                                              5. Reading a sample of djemaas as a key to reading the ksour

                                                                                                                                               Nowadays, many ksour are depopulated due to their physical degradation while
                                                                                                                                           others testify to the weakening or downright cessation of the power of the djemaa in
                                                                                                                                           social life; however, we cannot ignore the role played by this institution in the local
                                                                                                                                           governance of the Saharan settlements of the past, nor the secular impact on the so-
                                                                                                                                           cio-spatial organization of the ksour.
                                                                                                                                               The identification of a set of djemaas located in the Saharan perimeter will make it
                                                                                                                                           possible to highlight the typology of common traits or differences between them. The
                                                                                                                                           selected djemmas are situated in the territories of Beni-Ounif, Beni Abbes, and Taghit,
                                                                                                                                           located in the wilaya of Bechar (Figures 3 and 4).


                                                                                              228
Figure 3. Beni Ounif Djemaa. Legend: 1. Public place; 2. Djemaa; 3. Stone base for sitting; 4.
Entrance to houses [11].




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




              Figure 4. Beni Ounif djemaa: benches for sitting in the shade [11].


                                                                                                 229
                                                                                                                                              5.1. The djemaa of Beni-Ounif
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)




                                                                                                                                               The djemaa of Beni-Ounif is located on the axis of a street adjoining the public
                                                                                                                                           square onto which it opens, the djemaa being an extension of the public square (Fig-
                                                                                                                                           ure 5) and consists of a corridor covered by a dwelling. During a djemaa meeting, men
                                                                                                                                           and women are separated into two physical spaces (outside/men; inside/women). The
                                                                                                                                           presence of women at local festivals is made possible by respecting customs based on
                                                                                                                                           the separation of the two sexes (male and female).
                                                                                                                                               According to the interview established with the researcher Hadj Mohamed Guili on
                                                                                                                                           the djemaa of the ksar of Ben Ounif: “Its room for maneuver has become completely
                                                                                                                                           obsolete following the establishment of communal assemblies governed by the code
                                                                                                                                           of the commune and the development of civil society. Its legitimacy is sometimes dis-
                                                                                                                                           puted, and sometimes recognized by the administration. That said, the djemaa is not
                                                                                                                                           completely offside” (Figure 5).




                                                                                                                                                             Figure 5. Map of ksar and the djemaa of Beni Ounif [12].



                                                                                                                                              5.2. The djemaa of Beni Abbes

                                                                                                                                              According to the interview with the researcher Benslimane Mohamed regarding the
                                                                                                                                           djemaa of the ksar at Beni Abbes, he states that, “The djemaa is made up of 10 mem-
                                                                                                                                           bers of notables elected for life”. He adds, “the djemaa is called upon by local and even


                                                                                              230
central authorities as well as by the population to mediate during conflicts, such as ille-
gal housing, equipment, roads, water, etc. Unquestionably, it continues to embody the
moral values of the ksour society and enjoys local popularity.”
     “The square was equipped with a portico where the council of village elders (djemaa)
met, and through which one accessed the imam’s house. It was also the meeting place
for the population of the ksar on feast days. Each tribe had its chaykh; everyone met in
the djemaa to discuss the problems of the ksar (water supply, harvest, justice...).”




                                                                                                CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




Figure 6. Plan and section of the djemaa square in the ksar of Beni Abbes [13]. Leg-
end: 1. Entrance gate to the ksar; 2. Public place; 3. Meeting place for the djemaa;
4. Tower; 5. Courtyard of a house; 6. Powder preparation stone; 7. Staircase to the eve-
ning meeting terrace.


                                                                                              231
                 Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)




232
      Figure 7B. Plan of the ksar of Beni Abbes [14].
                                                                                              Figure 7A. Photo of the ksar of Beni Abbes [14].
    Contiguous to the two doors of the main entrance of the ksar, the djemaa was ad-
jacent to the public square. The interior had a ceiling designed with trunks of palm trees
and was formed by a space bounded by two rows of stone pillars leading to an adjacent
corridor which led to the houses. The members of the djemaa had to sit directly on the
sand or on improvised seats (Figure 6).
    The djemaa in Beni-Abbes benefited from an extension on the upper floor, the ter-
race being accessible by an external staircase. This upper level of the djemaa could
serve as a place for nocturnal meetings during the hot season, in order to benefit from
the coolness of the night (Figures 7A and B).
    “The square and the public buildings being open spaces, foreign visitors could ac-
cess them without having to enter the alleys serving the private dwellings, and this was
only possible thanks to their design, which created a system of separation from the rest
of the building [15].


   5.3. The djemaa of Taghit

    In the preponderant role in the community life of the inhabitants, the djemaa has a
dual function; on the one hand it is an assembly of notables and wise chouyoukh, who
manage the interests and the conflicts of the community and, on the other hand, it is
the place where they hold their meetings. It is made up of the juxtaposition of three
squares: the Souk (market) square at the entrance to the ksar, the mosque square and
a meeting square for men (Figure 8A). Hard benches made of stone slabs are arranged
on either side of the passages that link the three squares (Figure 8B). Occasionally,
during local festivals, women stand back to attend and participate in the festivities.




                                                                                               CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




                    Figure 8A. Plan of the djemaa of the Taghit ksar [16]


                                                                                             233
                                                                                                                                           Figure 8B. Photo of the djemaa
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                           of the Taghit ksar [16].




                                                                                                                                              Figure 9. Map of the djemaa
                                                                                                                                              of the ksar of Taghit.
                                                                                                                                              Legend:
                                                                                                                                              1. Main entrance to the ksar.
                                                                                                                                              2. Central public square.
                                                                                                                                              3. Stone for preparing events.
                                                                                                                                              4. Ksar Mosque
                                                                                                                                              5. Secondary seat.
                                                                                                                                              6. Entrance to the houses.
                                                                                                                                              7. Djemaa [17].


                                                                                                234
    The researcher Nadhour Mohamed, ex-President of the APC of Taghit, evokes
aspects about the djemaa of the Taghit ksar regarding its representatives who “were
appointed for life by the “voxpopuli”; the basic criteria to fulfill this role were, eloquence,
experience, courage and fortune.” He adds, “Today the role of the djemaa is limited to
the maintenance of some collective equipment (the Koranic school and the mosque)
and the perpetuation of the festivities of the Mawlid and Saint Sidi Mohamed Ben-Ab-
deslam (Figure 9) (which have now completely disappeared”).


    5.4. The djemaa of Kenadsa

    Among the people of Kenadsa, the djemaa represents the assembly of lineages, or
ksour, which is sovereign. All political or administrative questions are submitted to the
deliberations of the djemaa. It is the djemaa which appoints the chief (Figures 10-12).




                                                                                                        CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
Figure 10. Photo of the djemaa integrated into the mosque and places of gathering of the faithful
at the ksar of Kenadsa [18].




Figure 11. Map of the djemaa integrated into the Ben Bouziane Mosque in Kenadsa and places
of gathering for the faithful. Legend: 1. Prayer room.2. Courtyard. 3. Minaret.4. Ablution room. 5.
Place de la djemaa.6. Garden.7. Cemetery.8. Passage [19].


                                                                                                      235
                                                                                                                                                                                                  Figure 12. Photo of the djemaa integrat-
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                                                                                  ed into the Ben Bouziane Mosque in
                                                                                                                                                                                                  Kenadsa and places where the faithful
                                                                                                                                                                                                  gather [20].


                                                                                                                                                                                                        In Kenadsa, it is the chief of the
                                                                                                                                                                                                   zawya who is the sole hereditary lord
                                                                                                                                                                                                   of the ksar. He decides all questions.
                                                                                                                                                                                                   Sidi M’hammed-Ben-Bouziane, the
                                                                                                                                                                                                   founder of the brotherhood 5, want-
                                                                                                                                                                                                   ed to make his disciples a peace-
                                                                                                                                                                                                   ful and hospitable association. The
                                                                                                                                                                                                   zawya enjoys the right of asylum,
                                                                                                                                                                                                   but the role of the djemaa is both a
                                                                                                                                           central power, and relay of the zawya. Even when the central power is strong, its rep-
                                                                                                                                           resentative is obliged to go through the djemaa. “The djemaa is here a very important
                                                                                                                                           space in the structure of the ksar, since it also articulates the most important routes
                                                                                                                                           within it, such as the derb (alleys), the arrangement of the souk (market), the routes
                                                                                                                                           from the dwiriyat (houses) to the palm grove. It is a space for communication and the
                                                                                                                                           development of social relations, all the more reinforced by the role of the Mosque of
                                                                                                                                           M’hammed Ben Bouziyane” [21].
                                                                                                                                                The historian Hadj Mokhtari Soltani informs us about the djemaa of the ksar of
                                                                                                                                           Kenadsa which, he claims, “after independence, the djemaa of Kenadsa lost its role in
                                                                                                                                           society, to the detriment of an organization without prerogatives. It finds itself replaced
                                                                                                                                           by a new institutional power in the local community of the municipality. The djemaa is
                                                                                                                                           finding it increasingly difficult to mobilize the inhabitants and settle conflicts. It no lon-
                                                                                                                                           ger fulfills its role of managing community affairs and the problems of society, it is only
                                                                                                                                           content to preserve the mosque and organize the festivals of Mawlid and the holy Sidi
                                                                                                                                           M’hammed-Ben-Bouziane”.
                                                                                                                                                According to the teacher-researcher Tahri Mebark, “in the southern regions they
                                                                                                                                           deal in particular with the organization of water sharing, which is essential for crops
                                                                                                                                           and the palm grove. Even when the central power is strong, its representative is forced
                                                                                                                                           to go through the djemaa on a fiscal level.”
                                                                                                                                                According to the current chaykh of the zawya, Hadj laredj Laredj, “in Kénadsa, it
                                                                                                                                           is the chief of the zawya, the only hereditary lord of the ksar-zawya who renders crim-
                                                                                                                                           inal justice, while civil cases are judged by the Cadi. But here again the Marabout is
                                                                                                                                           the last instance, and it is to him that we appeal judgments that come from the Cadi.
                                                                                                                                           Sidi M’hamed Ben Bouziane, the founder of the Zianiya brotherhood, wanted to make
                                                                                                                                           his disciples a peaceful and hospitable association. The zawya enjoys the right of
                                                                                                                                           asylum: any criminal who has taken refuge is sheltered from human justice. If he is a
                                                                                                                                           thief, the Marabout makes him return the stolen property. If he is an assassin, he must
                                                                                                                                           pay the price of blood. Under these conditions, the culprits do not incur any punish-
                                                                                                                                           ment, as soon as they have entered the enclosure of the zawya or even land belong-
                                                                                                                                           ing to him. The death penalty is not applied by the Marabout. If it happens that a
                                                                                                                                           criminal is put to death, it is by the parents of the victim or sometimes even by his own,
                                                                                                                                           never by the Marabouts.”
                                                                                                                                                According to the teacher-researcher Tahri Mebark, “…Thanks to the zawya, misery
                                                                                                                                           is unknown in Kénadsa. There are no beggars in the streets of the ksar-zawya; all
                                                                                                                                           unfortunate people take refuge in the friendly shade, and they live there for as long as


                                                                                                236
they please. Most make themselves useful as servants, workers, or shepherds, but no
one is compelled to work. No one dares to raise their voice and criticize the acts of the
master. We bow; we repeat the opinions of Sidi Brahim.”


   6. Interpretation and discussion of results

    The socio-cultural involvement of the djemaa in the organization of the ksourian en-
vironment according to the socio-historical analysis reveals that the djemaa manifests
itself as an organization that influences and shapes the structure of the ksour fabric,
contributing to the socio-cultural and spatial core of the ksar. It offers a meeting place for
the heads of families who manage the affairs of the tribe as well as being a place of
commercial exchange, and a gathering place for all the inhabitants of the ksar (Table 1.).

Table 1. Comparative table

 Ksar          Position in     Position in relation   Socio-historical role and power
               the ksar        to the mosque or
                               the zawya

                                                      Social: management of community life.
                                                      Cultural: cultural and spiritual power.
 Kenadsa       Central.        Near the mosque.       Spatial: organization of the environment,
                                                      structuring and management of land in
                                                      the ksour space

                                                      Social: management of community life.
               At the en-
                                                      Cultural: cultural and spiritual power.
 Taghit        trance of the   Near the mosque.
                                                      Spatial: organization of the environment,
               ksar.
                                                      structuring and management of land in




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
                                                      the ksour space.

                                                      Social: management of community life.
                               Near the mosque and
                                                      Cultural: cultural and spiritual power.
 Béni -Abbes                   the medersa (Koranic
                                                      Spatial: organization of the environment,
                               school).
                                                      structuring and management of land in
                                                      the ksour space.


                               Near the mosque and    Cultural: cultural and spiritual power.
 Beni -Ounif                   the medersa (Koranic   Spatial: organization of the environment,
                               school).               structuring and management of land in
                                                      the ksour space.




   7. Conclusion

    The organization of the ksar is hardly the result of chance or of an “architecture of
spontaneity” without rules or models. The anthropological bases of the human habitat
show that the ksour space cannot be explained solely by the climate, the materials, the
site, and the economy. Other irrational parameters dictated by the management of
the djemaa where local governance, which is difficult to quantify and more complex,


                                                                                                  237
                                                                                                                                           is projected onto the cultural and spiritual order. The organization of the ksar there-
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



                                                                                                                                           fore responds to logic, a well-defined order governed by the institution of the djemaa.
                                                                                                                                           Hence the djemaa represents local governance in the participation, and consultation
                                                                                                                                           of ksourian citizens in the management of their urban space and community life.
                                                                                                                                               The attributions of the djemaa concern the maintenance of the general order of the
                                                                                                                                           group and the organization of economic and social life, the reconciliation of the inter-
                                                                                                                                           ests of the group and the settlement of economic questions. As such, the djemaa ad-
                                                                                                                                           ministers and settles disputes relating to the collective domain generally by way of
                                                                                                                                           conciliation, appealing to notables, because of their in-depth knowledge of customary
                                                                                                                                           law and the natural authority they enjoy in the group. It is in the light of this socio-cul-
                                                                                                                                           tural register that we were able to understand the logic and the mode of organization
                                                                                                                                           of the space and to grasp in what way the habitat is specifically structured.
                                                                                                                                               If the djemaa plays the role of ordering mediator of the traditional ksour community,
                                                                                                                                           its members influence the structure of ksour society and arrange the ksour space in
                                                                                                                                           different ways in response to their needs and way of life.
                                                                                                                                               However, we note that the majority of the djemaas studied obey an identical de-
                                                                                                                                           sign, as an organizing element, structuring all the spaces of the ksar. In practical terms,
                                                                                                                                           the principle of management and power is the same, with some differences in manage-
                                                                                                                                           ment from one ksar to another (Table 2).

                                                                                                                                           Table 2. Comparative table of the role of the djemaas in the four ksour of the wilaya of Bechar.

                                                                                                                                            Ksar          Settlement of      Settlement of   Management of   Organization     Settlement of
                                                                                                                                                          social and         inter-tribal    the ksar        of water         land disputes
                                                                                                                                                          family conflicts   disputes                        distribution
                                                                                                                                            Kenadsa            Yes               Yes             Yes              Yes              Yes
                                                                                                                                            Beni ounif         Yes                 /             Yes              Yes              Yes
                                                                                                                                            Taghit             Yes                 /             Yes              Yes              Yes
                                                                                                                                            Beni Abbes         Yes                 /             Yes              Yes              Yes


                                                                                                                                               Common characteristics of the djemaa

                                                                                                                                               - Their central position in the fabric.
                                                                                                                                               - Their function as places of management of daily problems.
                                                                                                                                               - Their spatial composition which takes into account the presence of both sexes
                                                                                                                                                 without disturbing the cultural order and customs.


                                                                                                                                               Acknowledgements

                                                                                                                                               The authors would like to thank the Chaykh of the zawya of Kenadsa, as well as the
                                                                                                                                           interviewees in the four ksour for their help and advice in carrying out this work.


                                                                                                                                               Notes

                                                                                                                                              1
                                                                                                                                                ksar: a fortified place or village in the southern part of North Africa; ksour: several
                                                                                                                                           ksar (plural form).


                                                                                                238
     chaykh: head of a brotherhood, a spiritual father of the brotherhood.
      2

     zawya: seat of the religious brotherhood (seat of the brotherhood called Zianiya).
      3

   4
     orf: customary rules in ksour society.
   5
     brotherhood: Sufi path in Islam. It generally bears the name of its founder (here the
case of the zianiya in Kenadsa is Sid Ahmed Ben Bouziane).


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                                                                                                                                           [20]   Benaradj, A., Biara, R-W., (2016) personal photography archive.
Abdelmalek Benaradj, Ratiba Wided Biara - The sociocultural impact of the djemaa on the organization of the Ksour (southwestern Algeria)



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                                                                                                                                              Biographical notes

                                                                                                                                                Abdelmalek Benaradj, has a PhD in Architecture; he is a teacher-researcher at
                                                                                                                                           Tahri Mohamed Bechar University, Algeria; his doctoral thesis is entitled “Impact of the
                                                                                                                                           sacred on the configuration of the ksour (case of the ksour-zawya of the wilaya of
                                                                                                                                           Bechar, ksar-zawya of Kenadsa and ksar-zawya of Kerzaz)”.
                                                                                                                                                His research interests focus on the ksour and vernacular heritage in southern Alge-
                                                                                                                                           ria. He has published articles on ksour architecture and on cities in the Sahara. He was
                                                                                                                                           a member of the commission for the feasibility project of the tramway in the city of
                                                                                                                                           Bechar and a member of the commission for the architectural competition for 6,000
                                                                                                                                           educational places at the University of Tahri Mohamed Bechar, before being a founding
                                                                                                                                           member of the review of architecture at Tahri Mohamed Bechar University.

                                                                                                                                                Ratiba Wided Biara, tracing her own path in architecture in the Saharan environ-
                                                                                                                                           ment, Ratiba Wided Biara, is a professor and researcher in architecture at the Univer-
                                                                                                                                           sity Tahri Mohamed Bechar. Dividing her time between research and teaching, she has
                                                                                                                                           directed several researchers and contributed to expertise and teaching in other univer-
                                                                                                                                           sities throughout the country.
                                                                                                                                                Author of two books and of several publications in international journals, she is to-
                                                                                                                                           day editor-in-chief of an architectural journal and expert member in renowned journals.
                                                                                                                                           She currently devotes herself to architectural studies in the Saharan environment, about
                                                                                                                                           which she is passionate.


                                                                                                                                              Summary

                                                                                                                                                The ksour (vernacular human settlements) of southwestern Algeria, founded on the
                                                                                                                                           site of the Saharan area called Saoura, are integrated into the modest dunes which run
                                                                                                                                           along the rocky escarpments (limiting them). They take the form of a harmonious heap
                                                                                                                                           of cubic volumes, of gray ocher color which merges with the natural landscape. Their
                                                                                                                                           architecture proves to be the fruit of the spirit of mutual aid and community participa-
                                                                                                                                           tion, coordinated by the institution of the “djemaa”: a public space extending from the
                                                                                                                                           mosque, which brings together notables in order to solve problems in ksour society.
                                                                                                                                                This paper focuses on the characteristics of the “djemaa” space. In addition to a
                                                                                                                                           privileged place of rest, meeting and exchanges, this institution once brought together
                                                                                                                                           all the notables who judiciously concerned themselves with the management of com-
                                                                                                                                           munity interests, as well as the socio-spatial organization of the ksour (situated in the
                                                                                                                                           southwest of Algeria). It was a local assembly for the management of collective inter-
                                                                                                                                           ests, whose powers were extremely broad. As council of the ksar, the djemaa played a
                                                                                                                                           primordial role in the organization of the community life of these ksour.
                                                                                                                                                This study highlights the socio-cultural impact of the djemaa on the logic of the
                                                                                                                                           configuration of ksour heritage in the Bechar region. For this purpose, a socio-histori-
                                                                                                                                           cal approach was adopted, which was then followed by a morphological reading of
                                                                                                                                           some ksour specimens.


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   Riassunto

    Gli ksour (insediamenti umani vernacolari) dell’Algeria sudoccidentale, fondati sul
sito della parte sahariana chiamata Saoura, sono integrati nelle modeste dune che cor-
rono lungo le scarpate rocciose (limitandole). Si stabiliscono sotto forma di un armonioso
ammasso di volumi cubici, di colore grigio ocra che si fonde con il paesaggio naturale.
La loro architettura si rivela frutto dello spirito di mutuo aiuto e di partecipazione comuni-
taria, coordinato dall’istituzione “djemaa”: uno spazio pubblico che si estende dalla mo-
schea, che riunisce notabili per risolvere i problemi. della società ksouriana.
    Questo articolo si concentra sulle caratteristiche principali dello spazio “Djemaa”.
Questa istituzione, oltre che luogo privilegiato di sosta, incontro e scambio, riuniva un
tempo tutti i notabili che si occupavano con giudizio della gestione degli interessi co-
munitari, nonché dell’organizzazione socio-spaziale degli ksour (dall’Algeria sud-occi-
dentale). Si tratta di un’assemblea locale per la gestione degli interessi collettivi, i cui
poteri erano estremamente ampi. In qualità di consiglio dello Ksar, il Djemaa ha svolto
un ruolo primordiale nell’organizzazione della vita comunitaria di questi ksour.
    Per evidenziare l’impatto socioculturale della djemaa sulla logica della configu-
razione del patrimonio ksouriano nella regione di Bechar, si è adottato un approccio
socio-storico, seguito da una lettura morfologica di alcuni esemplari di ksour.




                                                                                                   CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE




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