The reclamation of Gandhara cultural heritage. Its uses in present-day Khyber-Pukhtunkhwa
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/4187
Summary This paper is divided into three parts. The first part gives a brief introduction to Gandhara in terms of geography and research activities in a historical perspective. The second part discusses the need for community involvement in Gandhara archaeology and the importance of Cultural Resource Management (CRM) in the field. The last part demonstrates the social, cultural, environmental, economic, political and religious returns as a result of these activities.         Riassunto L’articolo di divide in tre parti:  la prima fornisce una breve introduzione a Gandhara dal punto di vista geografico e delle attività di ricerca in una prospettiva storica. La seconda parte tratta del bisogno di un coinvolgimento della comunità nell’archeologia e l’importanza della Gestione delle Risorse Culturali (GRC), mentre la terza, infine, dimostra un ritorno in termini sociali, culturali, ambientali, economici, politici e religiosi come risultato di tali attività. RésuméL’article se compose de trois parties : la première donne une courte introduction de Gandhara du point de vue géographique, et des activités de recherche au niveau historique. La deuxième partie parle de la nécessité que la communauté soit impliquée dans l’archéologie, et de l’importance dela Gestiondes Ressources Culturelles (GRC). Enfin, la troisième partie montre un retour en termes sociaux, culturels, écologiques, économiques, politiques et religieux, comme résultat de ces activités. Zusammenfassung Der Artikel ist in drei Teile unterteilt: der erste liefert eine kurze Einführung in die geographische Lage und die Forschungstätigkeit in Gandhara unter historischen Gesichtspunkten. Der zweite Teil befasst sich mit dem Bedürfnis, die Gemeinschaft in die archäologische Tätigkeit einzubeziehen, und mit der Bedeutung des Kulturgütermanagements (GRC), während der dritte Teil die Ergebnisse dieser Tätigkeit im Hinblick auf ihre soziale, kulturelle, umwelttechnische, wirtschaftliche, politische und religiöse Auswirkung ausweist. Resumen El artículo se divide en tres partes: la primera presenta una breve introducción sobre Gandhara desde el punto de vista geográfico y de las actividades de investigación con perspectiva histórica. La segunda parte se ocupa de la necesidad de la participación de la comunidad en la arqueología y la importancia de la Gestión de los Recursos Culturales (GRC); mientras que la tercera, y última, parte demuestra el retorno en términos sociales, culturales, medioambientales, económicos, políticos y religiosos como resultado de dichas actividades. РезюмеСтатья делиться на три части. Первая содержит короткое вступление о Гандхаре с точки зрения географии и исследовательской деятельности в исторической перспективе. Вторая часть посвящена необходимости привлечения народа к археологии и важности Управления Культурными Ресурсами. В третьей части показывается как результат этой исследовательской деятельности отдача в социальном, культурном, экологическом, экономическом, политическом и религиозном плане. 摘要该文章分为三个部分：第一部分从地理位置上和历史角度的研究上简短地介绍了健驮逻国。第二部分介绍了考古学社会参与的必要性和文化资源管理(GRC)的重要性，最后第三部分强调了这些项目在社会、文化、环境、经济、政治和宗教方面存在的积极影响。
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1973-9494
4187
it
Rafiullah Khan
Conservation Science in Cultural Heritage
archaeology
The reclamation of Gandhara cultural heritage. Its uses in present-day Khyber-Pukhtunkhwa
Text.Serial.Journal
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/
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Articles
2013-12-30
2014-02-09
2013-12-30
2015-11-02
259-272
CSCH
Rafiullah Khan
2013/12/30
10.6092/issn.1973-9494/4187
259
1973-9494
archaeology
it
272
DANI A.H., 2008, History of Pakistan: Pakistan through Ages, Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications
Il recupero dei beni culturali di Gandhara. I suoi usi nell’attuale Khyber- Pukhtunkhwa
https://conservation-science.unibo.it/article/download/4187/3632
13
T    HE RECLAMATION OF GANDHARA CULTURAL
     HERITAGE. ITS USES IN PRESENT-DAY KHYBER-
     PUKHTUNKHWA



   Rafiullah Khan•
   Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations
   Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan



   Keywords: Gandhara, cultural heritage, KP, history, archaeology



   1. Introduction

   The reclamation1 of Gandhara’s cultural heritage is an issue of paramount impor-
tance. Its failure in this regard, is to be attributed, amonst other things to the different
cultural and religious experiences of the present population of Khyber-Pukhtunkhwa
(hereafter KP). To this, though reluctantly, may be added ethnic difference. It is a
known fact that from a cultural and religious perspective, the modern inhabitants of
KP are different from those belonging to the Gandhara period. Establishing associa-
tion of the ethnic groups with this heritage is a difficult task and needs in-depth study.
Pukhtuns are not considered by recent researchers as the descendants of the original




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inhabitants of Gandharan civilization. On the other hand, some other ethnic groups be-
longing to KPK, such as the Gujjar, Ajar and Torwali, etc., do have such a relationship.
However, one has to concede that, being the present inhabitants - and the dominant
ethnic group – Pukhtuns are the heirs of this civilization. The people of KP, therefore,
have moral as well as legal obligations in relation to the reclamation of Gandharan
cultural heritage2.
   The reclamation of Gandhara’s heritage is, by no means, an anachronistic ideal
or a utopian pursuit. It is, rather, a utilitarian approach to using the past in the best
interest of the present and future. This paper suggests the application of community
involvement and cultural resource management for achieving this goal. The paper also
presents the thesis that the cultural resources of KP, pertaining to the Gandhara pe-
riod, can be used to revitalize the role of melting pot and crossroads, which KP once
used to play, by assimilating and amalgamating the cultures of the East and the West.

   2. Gandhara: geography and research activity

  The word Gandhara3 is used in two different contexts. Historically speaking, Gand-
hara is the ancient name of the Peshawar valley which is bordered by the Sulaiman
Mountains on the west and by the Indus River on the east. It transcended its historical

• Corresponding author: rafi_ula@yahoo.com

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                                                            and geographical limits by extending its cultural influence towards the east and west.
                                                            For this extended area, the new term ‘Greater Gandhara’ has been coined. The limits
                                                            of ‘Greater Gandhara’ have been identified by scholars as the valleys of Eastern Af-
                                                            ghanistan in the west, the Swat valley and its adjacent areas in the north, Bannu in the
                                                            south and the Taxila valley in the east
                                                                [1-2]4. A great number of the major sites of Gandhara are found in present-day KP.
                                                            ‘Greater Gandhara’ is also known as the ‘artistic province’ because throughout this ter-
                                                            ritory we come across pieces of Gandhara art [1].
                                                                In geographical terms Gandhara forms a roundabout region. This frontier region,
                                                            which is generally considered to be a peripheral zone of the Indo-Pakistan subconti-
                                                            nent, Persia and Central Asia, is known for the influence it exerted in all the surround-
                                                            ing areas. Historically, for a long period, it played ‘the role of a crossroads and melting
                                                            pot of cultures’ [2]. Such syncretic and dialectic processes make frontiers and even
                                                            any region fluid.
                                                                The cultures and worldviews which reached Gandhara and were synthesized in this
                                                            land, belonged to the East and the West. More specifically, these cultures range from
                                                            the Persians under the Achaemenians to the Greeks under Alexander, the Indians un-
                                                            der Ashoka, the Bactrian Greeks under the Seleucid rulers, the Shaka and the Kushan,
                                                            especially of Kanishka’s era, the Sassanians and so on. The arrival of these cultures in
                                                            Gandhara is a historical fact. The resultant cultural syncretism garners special impor-
                                                            tance as it is generally considered to be the raison d’etre behind the birth and growth
                                                            of Gandhara civilization. But one should also be aware of the fact that Gandhara was
                                                            by no means a ‘no-man’s land’ [3]. ‘If a region is to become a centre to amalgamate dif-
                                                            ferent kinds of cultures or civilizations, such a place should have already accumulated
                                                            an individualistic and self-directed cultural energy of their own, well beforehand. If it
                                                            was a culturally “vacant” place, any other outside cultural influences would have simply
                                                            passed over it without leaving any traces there, no question of fusing and synthesiz-
                                                            ing them or creating something anew’ [3]. It was much later that the British turned the
R. Khan - The reclamation of gandhara cultural heritage




                                                            frontier region of Gandhara into a border area and presented it as a ‘no-man’s’ land5. It
                                                            is against the backdrop of the political milieu of the second half of the 19th century that
                                                            the origin of Gandhara art was sought in the context of foreign influences6.
                                                                However, British officials and, later, the Archaeological Survey of India contributed
                                                            much towards discovering and studying Gandhara civilization. All major centers of
                                                            Gandhara came under investigation during the British period. Reports were published
                                                            regarding the stupas and coins of Afghanistan in the 1830s and1840s. After the annex-
                                                            ation of Punjab to the British Empire a more focused antiquarian inquiry was pursued.
                                                            However, antiquarianism still dominated the scene. British officials, H. W. Bellew, H.
                                                            H. Cole and Major Deane being the most famous ones, were busy in archaeological
                                                            activities. Important archaeological sites were worked upon during the second half of
                                                            the 19th century. Dr. Saifur Rahman Dar, takes exception to the ‘loot sale’ of Gandhara
                                                            sculpture during this period [4]. By the turn of the 20th century the Ancient Monuments
                                                            Preservation Act 1904, to a great extent, guaranteed good archaeological research
                                                            and the protection of archaeological heritage. Till 1947 British and Indian archeologists
                                                            and scholars contributed in a positive way to the study of Gandhara civilization (for an
                                                            exhaustive bibliography on this subject see Dar, 1998 [5]).
                                                                After 1947, Pakistani institutes, i.e. the Department of Archaeology, University of
                                                            Peshawar, Peshawar Museum and Federal Department of Archaeology and Muse-
                                                            ums carried out excavations in Gandhara, though largely through salvage operations.


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Important archaeological sites in the Swat and Peshawar valleys were either rescued
or scientifically and comprehensively studied [5-7]. Foreign archaeological missions
also started to pour into Gandhara right in the wake of the creation of Pakistan, for
research. They included the British, Japanese and Italian missions [5, 8-12].
    Important and well-studied Gandhara sites of KP include Shah-ji-ki-Dheri (Pesha-
war), Bala Hisar and Shaikhan Dherai (Charsadda), Mekha Sanda, Chanaka Dherai,
Thareli, Jamal Garhai and Takht-i-Bahi (Mardan), Rani-Gat (Buner), Chatpat, Andhan
Dherai and Damkot (Dir), Gumbatuna, Nimogram, Amluk Dara, Tokar Dara, Aba Sa-
hib-china, Butkara, the rock art sites of Saidu, Jambil and Malam-jaba (Swat). It may
be mentioned that at present, this Gandhara cultural resource is degraded and in a
precarious condition due to the low priority given it by governments – federal and
provincial – that manage cultural assets, its poor administration by interested heritage
managers at all levels, the lack of awareness among the public about heritage preser-
vation, conservation and protection and above all, the rampant activities of illegal dig-
gers and antique dealers. As a result of these attitudes the cultural property of Pakistan
– particularly Gandhara heritage – is gravely endangered and threatened. Of course,
community involvement and cultural resource management (CRM) can go a long way
in the reclamation of this scarce resource.

  3. Reclamation through Community Involvement and CRM

    Community archaeology and cultural resource management are relatively recent
developments in the field of archaeology. However, both are result-oriented in many
ways. As community archaeology gives partial control of archaeological resources to
local communities it creates a sense of belonging and ownership and, in turn, public
awareness about its utility in communal life. Based on collaboration and interactive
research design, this approach also gives an opportunity to local people of being heard




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in the research of archaeological resources, in the interpretation of archaeological ma-
terial and management of archaeological heritage.
    As community archaeology is sometimes considered ‘archaeology from below’ [13-
14], it is destined to play a significant role in the reclamation of the archaeological
heritage of Gandhara. It is an effort ‘in which fieldwork is rooted in the community,
open to volunteer contributions, organised in a non-exclusive, non-hierarchical way,
and dedicated to a research agenda in which material, methods and interpretation are
to interact’ [14]. This point is further explained by Faulkner as follows:

      Material (the archaeological remains recovered), methods (the way fieldwork
   is conducted) and meanings (developing interpretations) are expected to interact
   dialectically, shaping and reshaping the research programme as it moves forward.
   This means that all participants are empowered and can learn new skills within an
   organic and collective process of knowledge creation. The level of motivation and
   the quality of work done are thus exceptionally high [13].

   Such an archaeological project creates awareness about the importance and the
uses of cultural heritage of an area. It basically aims at establishing a connection
between archaeologists, local people and cultural heritage sites. Community archae-
ology develops the interest of the people and encourages their participation in field
archaeology [13]7. It serves the ‘need for more and better public education about ar-


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                                                            chaeology’ [15]. Similarly, CRM is also a useful approach in the field of preservation.
                                                            Different strategies, endeavoring at public education and preservation of archaeologi-
                                                            cal sites, are adopted for the purpose in different parts of the world. They appear of
                                                            great use in relation to Gandhara heritage. Some of these are briefly described below:

                                                               3.1. Curricula and history text books

                                                                Curricula of the educational institutions are being subjected to severe criticism
                                                            these days. Character building in the prism of national and cultural uniform identity
                                                            and in conjunction with the teachings of Islam has always been the dominant principle
                                                            in Pakistan’s education policy[16]. An inherent bias in favour of the Muslim period of
                                                            the history of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent appears in such a policy and in the text
                                                            books which have been written in conformity to it. Obviously, such an approach is
                                                            steeped in a long and much contested shared colonial period. Thus, Muslims’ ‘“grow-
                                                            ing historical consciousness” came to hinge upon “a consciousness of Islamic rather
                                                            than Indian history…”’ [17]. As a result, text books in Pakistan, which are criticized by
                                                            some writers as ‘brazenly biased’ [17], ‘distort history badly, leaving the impression that
                                                            Pakistan is co-terminus with the Islamic conquest of the subcontinent, ignoring Gand-
                                                            haran, Harappan, and other early civilizations, including Hindu and Buddhist empires
                                                            that dominated the region before the Muslims came, except to put the Hindu predeces-
                                                            sors in a negative, sometimes racist light’, writes Stephen Cohen [18]8.
                                                                However, currently, the need for reforms is widely recognized throughout the coun-
                                                            try. As the mistakes of the past, in this regard, have to be rectified, the disowned part of
                                                            the history of Pakistan awaits to be re-claimed. Instead of exclusivist philosophies the
                                                            culture of pluralism and mutual co-existence must be instilled in the new generations of
                                                            the country through vibrant curricula and sound education policy. This, without doubt,
                                                            will lead to embracing diversity and, thus, the promotion of the Gandhara heritage of
                                                            Pakistan.
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                                                               3.2. The general public

                                                               The general public, as suggested by McManamon, is to be subdivided into groups
                                                            having varying interest in archaeology [15]. Surveys in western developed countries
                                                            show encouraging results in this regard. Three categories have been found; first, the
                                                            ‘archaeologically literate’, ‘i.e., some avocational archaeologists and deeply interested
                                                            and well-read lay persons’, second, a larger number of people ‘interested enough to
                                                            read magazine articles on the topic, visit archaeological parks or excavations, perhaps
                                                            even take part in an excavation as volunteers’ and thirdly, a large portion of society
                                                            which obtains information through other popular means [15]. In Pakistan, in the first
                                                            instance, it is necessary to identify such categories with varied orientations to, and
                                                            interest in, archaeology and its activity. Subsequently, attention must be focused on
                                                            them, as McManamon further states:

                                                                  What educational and interpretative efforts archaeologists have usually en-
                                                               gaged in, have been aimed mainly at the first two categories of people. We ought
                                                               to expand our efforts toward these interested and informed people, especially in
                                                               the area of participatory experiences such as volunteer activities, open houses,
                                                               and tours… The interested and informed will take time to read material we prepare,


                                                      262
   to participate in activities we organize, and to visit interpretative sites and displays
   [15].

   A crucial question arises here about establishing such contact with the public. Mc-
Manamon gives importance to the role of those involved in the media here. According
to him, archaeologists’ contacts and association with these people can disseminate the
former’s message to ‘millions of people’ [15]. Such a policy in the case of Gandhara
can prove as effective as the benefits it has reaped in other places. The efforts of Dr.
Olivieri, who is at present supervising the ACT-Field School Project in Swat, are appre-
ciable. He has involved journalists who bring the results of the ongoing archaeological
activity to the masses. News about the new discoveries is spread through print and
electronic media which attract a great number of people.

   3.3. Popularization of Gandhara’s cultural resources

   It is argued by scholars that creating awareness about archaeology and contribut-
ing to increasing its popularity serves the target of proper protection and preserva-
tion. Concerned individuals and institutions apply a range of means for the purpose.
Cultural caravans and temporary, permanent and even travelling exhibitions are often
suggested as effective tools for raising people’s awareness about the cultural heritage.
Cultural caravans, definitely, introduce the public to archaeological sites and their im-
portance. In Pakistan, this example was put forward by Prof. A. H. Dani, as he used
to organize this kind of activity on a large scale. This legacy needs to be re-activated
and continued. Similarly, exhibitions of heritage artifacts intend to share the results
of researchers with the masses which is important in relation to the preservation of
archaeological heritage (in the case of India, Khandwalla, 2004 [19]).
   To this may be added popular publications in vernacular languages. Everywhere




                                                                                                    CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
the dearth of this literature is noted by scholars as well as common folk. Some rare
but fruitful efforts have also been made by individuals and institutions in this respect.
In Pakistan and India the names of Prof. A. H. Dani and Prof. H. D. Sankalia9 may be
particularly mentioned, as they successfully tried to bring archaeology to the masses
[19-21]. In western countries a limited literature is also available [15]. Negligible indi-
vidual efforts may also be found in the Pashto language, produced long ago by some
senior archaeologists of KP. This author has come across some articles published in
Pukhto, the Journal of the Pukhto Academy, University of Peshawar10. It may also be
mentioned that in Pakistan the tradition of study is not very strong, consequently, popu-
lar publications would be of little impact. Therefore, cultural caravans and exhibitions
would serve the purpose more, in addition to TV and radio programmes.

   3.4. Teachers and students

   Teachers and students represent a dynamic section of any society. As they play
important roles in different walks of life they can be easily engaged in the archaeology
of Gandhara for the purpose of achieving its full reclamation. Teachers and students
have an intimate bond. ‘If teachers instill an appreciation of archaeology and archaeo-
logical resources in their students, our efforts to provide the necessary background to
teachers will be exponentially fruitful’ [15]. Teachers have been identified as a potential
group by archaeologists and heritage management organizations in some countries


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                                                            for public education regarding cultural heritage. Different strategies are being adopt-
                                                            ed to familiarize teachers with archaeology who, in turn, will be able to better serve
                                                            the cause of heritage protection [15]. Archaeologists of KP should also follow in the
                                                            footsteps of Prof. Sankalia by giving lectures in schools and colleges [20] in order to
                                                            achieve the desired goal of the reclamation of Gandhara.

                                                               3.5. Literary and other learned societies

                                                               Besides teachers, literary and other learned local societies and NGOs can also play
                                                            a vital role in the preservation of heritage sites. As suggested by the Indian scholar,
                                                            Kalini Khandwalla, [19] this kind of engagement should be encouraged. He observes,
                                                            ‘Small grants for community initiatives and greater opportunities of working with trained
                                                            archaeologists can facilitate locally undertaken heritage preservation’ [19]. It should be
                                                            noted that there are many such societies in every part of KP. They can easily be per-
                                                            suaded and educated about the relevance and usefulness of cultural heritage. Their
                                                            participation in archaeological fieldwork has been long-awaited and, by dint of their
                                                            historical consciousness, will be result-oriented in the reclamation programme.

                                                               3.6. Cultural tourism

                                                                The use of heritage sites as tourist destinations for the economic development of
                                                            the people is rightly being questioned. It is despised by academics as being detrimen-
                                                            tal to the original state of the heritage sites. Simultaneously, the use, importance and
                                                            need of cultural tourism cannot be overestimated (for details see Jansen-Verbeke &
                                                            Russo, 2008 [22]). It is a source of income generation both at local and national level.
                                                            Community archaeology carried out in the framework of collaboration between poor
                                                            local communities and professionals from western developed countries largely serves
                                                            this purpose in some countries [14]. Besides being a source of income generation,
R. Khan - The reclamation of gandhara cultural heritage




                                                            cultural tourism, for countries like Pakistan, can contribute to the process of positive
                                                            image building and cultural projection [23]. It is also considered necessary for the man-
                                                            agement and maintenance of the sites as it ‘communicate[s] their cultural importance
                                                            to domestic and international tourists as well as international institutions that promote
                                                            world heritage’ [19]. Furthermore, earnings from this sector are to be used for the
                                                            ‘protection and preservation of heritage sites’ [23]. Cultural tourism also creates aware-
                                                            ness and serves the need of public education which is highly required in the context
                                                            of Gandhara civilization. But in countries like Pakistan ‘the desirable infrastructure [for
                                                            cultural tourism] is lacking, and one of the goals of international aid should be to pro-
                                                            vide it’ [24]. Again, the ACT-Field School Project has recently launched a campaign to
                                                            promote archaeological tourism through its support to an association of guides created
                                                            within the local communities. The association is molded on the model of the alpine
                                                            guides, operative in Europe and Nepal, and more recently, also in Baltistan (Pakistan)
                                                            and Badakhshan (Afghanistan) (Personal communication with Olivieri).

                                                               3.7. The role of museums

                                                               Andrew Christenson states that cultural resources can be preserved in two ways;
                                                            the primary context and the secondary context. The former means leaving the heritage
                                                            sites undisturbed while the latter denotes their material collections in museums [25].


                                                      264
One may give credence to the primary context from an ethical point of view but ‘the
logical conclusion is’, as observes Christenson, ‘that an ever-growing proportion of our
extant cultural resources will be preserved in the secondary context; in other words, in
museums and storage facilities’ [25]. Museums are built for ‘education, research, and
preservation’ [25] and this aim is achieved when the excavated archaeological materi-
als are systemically stored and arranged.
   The importance of museums in the preservation of cultural heritage is self-evident.
The role of museums is also stressed when considering public education. However, all
these targets must be preceded by a good distribution plan of the museums. On-site
museums are given priority as they attract and engage local people as well as keeping
the exhibit close to their original environment. Unequal distribution between rural and
urban areas does not serve the purpose (for Indian example see Khandwalla, 2004
[19]). In Gandhara, attention must be paid to the development and proper distribu-
tion of museums. A reference again may be made to the ACT-Field School Project in
Swat which envisages, in addition to the reconstruction of the central Swat Museum,
the construction of connected “Information Centres” in archaeological site areas such
as Barikot, Udegram, Saidu Sharif I (personal communication with Olivieri). It is to be
hoped that the envisaged goals will be achieved within the time-scale of this project.

   3.8. Archaeological artefacts viewed as treasure

    It is unfortunate that the common perception about archaeological heritage in KP re-
volves round the obsession with treasure; hence the immense, untiring and persistent
clandestine activities surrounding it. Nearly every site is supposed to have a khazana
or treasure and there is no dearth of associated treasure-tales (personal observation).
The people know about so-called signs and clues which they appreciate as indicators
of the hidden relics. It is due to this obsession that almost all sites more often than not




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suffer from illegal digging (for such destruction see Ali & Coningham, 1998 [26]).
    This view of archaeology as a treasure trove, can easily be rectified with the help
of the strategies suggested here for reclamation. It can, thus, safely be said that once
this perception is changed the threat and danger to Gandhara heritage will, at least, be
considerably mitigated.

   3.9. Employment of local population in field work

   Involvement of the community in the field has complementary dimensions. It offers
economic opportunities to the local people on the one hand and enhances archaeolo-
gists’ knowledge about the area and its archaeology on the other. The Indian archae-
ologist, Kalini P. Khandwalla, describes his fruitful experience. He worked in Gujarat in
collaboration with an NGO. The latter’s employees were trained in archaeological field
work and were engaged in surveys. Khandwalla writes:

      This sort of survey had several benefits such as safety in boarding, lodging
   and interacting with local people. It also saved time due to the increase in the size
   of the fieldwork crew and helped me vibe well with the locals whose fields were
   located on or near the archaeological sites. It aided conversation on local myths
   about sites, utilisation of land, medicinal plants and artefacts, cultivation processes,
   changes in site landscape and destruction through digging. Local villagers were
   also forthcoming in showing artefacts they had collected. There was an overall

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                                                               increase in data recovery and, consequently, artefact diversity. The knowledge of
                                                               the local NGO volunteers about their heritage was also enriched, leading them to
                                                               share it better with other villagers [19]

                                                               In KP such an approach to Gandhara archaeology is precisely what is needed. The
                                                            ACT-Field School Project in Swat is designed along these lines and according to Dr.
                                                            Olivieri, ‘it generated nearly 300 job opportunities for the local community’ (Bureau
                                                            Report, The Daily News, April 15, 2011)11. These initiatives will, no doubt, prove of
                                                            greater value in the future both in the context of public education and its returns in the
                                                            study of the material.

                                                               3.10. Cultural Resource Management in the context of Gandhara

                                                               The use and relevance of cultural resource management (CRM) is still a hotly de-
                                                            bated issue. Hard-core archaeologists, who are more interested in academic research
                                                            and are extremely occupied in finding solutions to historical problems, firmly hold their
                                                            ground in front of the sweeping wave of CRM, especially in the west. However, it is
                                                            nowadays widely practiced throughout the world.
                                                               Cultural resource management, in the context of archaeology, may simply be defined
                                                            as investigating and ascertaining the potentials of heritage sites and their preservation
                                                            and protection both in terms of tangible and intangible records [27]. It is considered as
                                                            ‘synonymous with, or subsumed, historic preservation’ [27]. ‘Society will require it to do
                                                            work,’ writes Ruthann Knudson, ‘to provide information usable in directing social, physi-
                                                            cal and natural resource management to meet goals of sustainability… To complement
                                                            this, CRM will require technical support systems that are time- and cost-effective as well
                                                            as providing reliable and valid information, and make more use of heritage resources
                                                            themselves and their derived information for recreation and tourism and for understand-
                                                            ing past human adaptations to environmental change’ [28]. CRM is a ‘multi-disciplinary
R. Khan - The reclamation of gandhara cultural heritage




                                                            activity’ and ‘can involve interrelationships among lawyers, bureaucrats, field archaeolo-
                                                            gists, laboratory scientists, local jurisdiction papers, and ethnic communities’ [28].
                                                               In the USA CRM has its own context. It works within the framework of an elaborate
                                                            administrative and legal system as well as codes of ethics and practice [27-29]. Keep-
                                                            ing in view its successes and popularity, CRM can better be used in the field of Gan-
                                                            dhara archaeology. The current need is to take practical steps in this direction. One
                                                            may raise a timely question here. Is it possible for a poor and technologically backward
                                                            country like Pakistan to make use of CRM which involves enormous funding and high
                                                            technology? The answer ought not to totally dismiss this possibility. As suggested by
                                                            Khandwalla in the case of India, in Pakistan too, NGOs and other trusts have to play
                                                            a role in ‘bring[ing] together dynamic professionals from various fields to preserve the
                                                            rich and diverse heritage and sensitize the public to it’ [19].

                                                               3.11. Promulgation and implementation of cultural heritage laws

                                                              KP is far behind the Punjab and Sindh governments in legislation vis-à-vis cultural
                                                            heritage [23]. Even the protected sites of KP are extremely threatened by extinction
                                                            and a large number of these has already been either encroached upon or completely
                                                            destroyed. At present some sites only exist on paper; several important sites like Mu-
                                                            hammad Nari and Ghaz Dherai in Charsadda in fact no longer exist. They have been


                                                      266
replaced by modern villages (personal communication with Dr. M. Ashraf Khan). A
sound legal system is needed in this respect especially in the wake of the devolution
of archaeology at federal level.

   4. The use and relevance of Gandhara heritage to KP

     The ‘reclamation’ of Gandhara heritage is used here as a comprehensive concept.
If it implies creating a sense of ownership and preservation and protection on the one
hand, it extends its boundaries in pursuit of its utility in the present, on the other. There
arises an important question. What use can be made of the heritage of Gandhara?
This apparently unimportant question forms part of the long-debated and ever elusive
question about the significance and application of the past to the present. That his-
tory gives us insight is favoured here, by keeping in view the notion that there is ‘an
unending dialogue between the present and the past’ [30]. The well-known historian,
archaeologist and philosopher, R. G. Collingwood, observes that ‘history is “for human
self-knowledge’. He uses this concept in the three senses of knowing yourself as being
a person, of being the kind of person you are and being the person that distinguishes
you from others [31]. He further writes that ‘Knowing yourself means knowing what
you can do; and since nobody knows what he can do until he tries, the only clue to
what man can do is what man has done. The value of history, then, is that it teaches us
what man has done and thus what man is’ [31]. It is this definition of history that makes
the past meaningful. Again, it is such an approach to history that invalidates an Indian
Professor’s verdict12 that ‘Gandhara is nothing but an “episode”’ [3].
     Gandhara is nothing but the story of one civilizational development. It ought to be
investigated and every new investigation and new approach should be determined by
the unfolding realities that are met through time. Its study in the colonial period was
driven forward by different postulates and interests. The concepts of Gandhara being a




                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
‘no-man’s land’ and a ‘periphery’ may be termed as imperial perception and construc-
tion. Such construction needs to be rectified by the Pakistani writers themselves who
more than two decades back were declared by Prof. M. Naeem Qureshi as ‘unable
to discard the distorted images of their own past received from Western Orientalists’.
The Japanese scholar, Konishi, makes a timely redefinition of Gandhara. According to
him, ‘“periphery” is synonymous with “centre” and are interchangeable if the viewpoint
is set aside. “Periphery” may often tell a better story in a holistic sphere or the entire
history we are concerned with’. Such an approach to the study of Gandhara in the past
should cure the all-encompassing malaises of Gandhara in the present. E. H. Carr
aptly states: ‘To enable man to understand the society of the past and to increase his
mastery over the society of the present is the dual function of history’ [30].
     Gandhara can give guidance in economic, environmental, social, cultural, political,
and religious walks of life. In addition to the benefits of cultural tourism, research into
the economy of Gandhara would no doubt give input to the policy makers of KP. Cultural
tourism will obviously bring money to the common people and will provide an opportunity
for cultural development as the result of constant interaction with outsiders. Visitors will
also avail themselves of the opportunity to learn about the local culture and the local
people’s way of life.
     Similarly, it can help to revitalize the historical pluralistic vision of KP. In this way
social problems such as exclusivism and xenophobia, which have strongly affected
society, would be successfully addressed.


                                                                                                 267
                                                                Gandhara is also to be observed for gaining insight into saving the decadent pres-
                                                            ent-day ecosystem. It can better help us in the management of both natural and cultur-
                                                            al resources. A multitude of studies have appeared in recent decades, primarily in the
                                                            west, but also in India and Sri Lanka which deal with the environment of past societies.
                                                            Population growth, urbanization, land and water management, flora and fauna and
                                                            so on, are the subjects covered by these studies [32-34]. In the context of Gandhara,
                                                            reference is to be made to the work of Italian archaeologists in Swat and Ruth Young’s
                                                            research in the Peshawar valley. These studies give an insight into the environmental
                                                            archaeology of KP [35].
                                                                The significance of this work cannot be overestimated. Cultural and social change
                                                            are studied in a historical perspective. The management of resources such as the use
                                                            of land, hydraulic systems, cultivation, the role of routs, etc.have been extensively in-
                                                            vestigated. Archaeology also studies the exploitation and overexploitation of resources
                                                            by past societies. It enlightens us about how the misuse of resources has caused en-
                                                            vironmental degradation and contributed to the economic crisis and hence, social and
                                                            political imbalances13.

                                                               5. Conclusion

                                                               The past is a living reality, of course. It is needed by human beings. And it is the
                                                            work of historians and archaeologists to explore the pages of history while constantly
                                                            asking ‘the question, Why?, [and] the question, Whether?’ [30]. The abuse of history
                                                            under political or other such expediencies is against the ethics of scholarship and
                                                            professionalism; however, its use for the benefit of humanity cannot be questioned.
                                                            Like history, archaeology too, to quote a well-known archaeologist, Bruce Trigger, ‘may
                                                            serve as an increasingly effective guide for future development, not by providing tech-
                                                            nocratic knowledge to social planners but by helping citizens to make more informed
                                                            choices with respect to public policy. In a world that, as a result of increasingly powerful
R. Khan - The reclamation of gandhara cultural heritage




                                                            technologies, has become too dangerous and is changing too quickly for humanity to
                                                            rely to any considerable extent on trial and error, knowledge derived from archaeology
                                                            may be important for human survival’ [36].
                                                               In the light of the above discussion concerning the use and relevance of history and
                                                            archaeology to contemporary societies, one can easily recognize what role the Gandha-
                                                            ra of the past can play, particularly in relation to KP and in the context of Pakistan in gen-
                                                            eral. It is under this rigorous need that Gandhara awaits to be re-owned and reclaimed.
                                                               Let us conclude this essay with a quote from Prof. A. H. Dani’s inaugural address,
                                                            presented, in September 1997, before the Pak-Japan Colloquium on the Significance
                                                            of Gandhara to Human History. He states that ‘Gandhara has the potential of reviving
                                                            the dead channels of history... Let the Gandhara of the past stand as a solid foundation
                                                            for a better Gandhara of the future’ [37-38]

                                                            Acknowledgements

                                                               The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr. Saifur Rahman Dar, Professor
                                                            M. Ashraf Khan, Dr. Luca M. Olivieri and Dr. Sultan-i-Rome for their assistance in the
                                                            writing of this paper and their fruitful comments on certain points. I am also thankful to
                                                            Ms. Ifqut Shaheen for her help during this research.



                                                      268
    Notes

1
    The word ‘reclamation’ as used in this paper means owning, preserving and using
    Gandharan heritage.
2
    ‘Cultural heritage should be legally recognized as the dual possession of the de-
    scendants of the people who created it and of all humanity, to whose cultural diver-
    sity and creativity it attests’ (Trigger, 1989 [2010]).
3
    Gandhara is a composite word, consisting of gand/Qand and har/hara, which is,
    traditionally, defined as land and fragrance respectively. Thus, Gandhara means
    the land of fragrance – a proposition also substantiated by XuánZàng’s observation
    that it ‘produces a variety of flowers and fruits’ (Beal, ii, 1906). However, accord-
    ing to Prof. Abdur Rahman, Gand or Qand is a compound noun ‘comprising Kam
    (meaning “water”) and dhā (meaning a “cloud or ocean”)’ (Rahman, 2011). He gives
    further argument and evidence in favour of his postulation and finally comes to the
    conclusion that ‘Gandhara’ means ‘Land of the Lake’ (ibid.).
4
    Besides the above named scholars, others have also explained their views on this
    issue. For example, Kurt Behrendt opines that ‘“Greater Gandhara”… includes the
    Peshawar basin, Taxila, Swāt, Afghanistan, and Kashmir’ (Behrendt 2003). In a re-
    cent article, Saifur Rahman Dar has proposed the extension of the eastern bound-
    ary of Gandhara to the Jhelum valley. He has made this suggestion on account of
    some new Gandhara sculptures that have been obtained from that area (Dar, 2007).
5
    For an anthropological analysis of this phenomenon see Banerjee, 2003.
6
    Though, some other reasons may also be considered for the peculiar approaches
    of the earliest scholars of Gandhara art (for a detailed analysis see Dar, 1990, 1998
    and Behrendt, 2003).
7
    ‘There is, however, a need to empower indigenous groups to guard and protect
    their cultural heritage, especially as the theft and illegal trade of antiquities increase




                                                                                                       CONSERVATION SCIENCE IN CULTURAL HERITAGE
    around the world… Such empowerment must include training indigenous people to
    become fully qualified professional archaeologists and providing impoverished in-
    digenous groups with the necessary economic resources to conserve their heritage’
    (Trigger, 1989 [2010]).
8
    However, S. R. Dar has raised an interesting point as follows: ‘The curricula for our
    text books certainly need to be rewritten. But, when one looks beyond the text books,
    it is evident that this cultural bias for things Islamic has never advanced beyond lip
    sympathy as far as Islamic tangible heritage in Pakistan is concerned. How much has
    been done in Islamic period archaeology? How many Islamic period sites have been
    excavated? How many specialists in Islamic period archaeology, art, archaeology and
    epigraphy have we produced? How many new Muslim monuments have been dis-
    covered and protected since 1947? Answers to these questions must be sought and
    then compared with quantitative as well as qualitative answers in response to similar
    questions asked in respect of pre-Muslim civilizations – Harappan, Gandharan, Hindu
    and in particular Sikh civilizations. In fact Islamic period archaeology and hence, tan-
    gible Muslim heritage is the most neglected subject in the field of Cultural reclamation.
    These questions and their expected answers are only suggested here. It is for you to
    decide as to how to elaborate them’ (personal communication). See also Dar, 1996).
9
    ‘He was the only archaeologist who was well-known even in villages because of
    the popular articles he wrote not only in English but in Hindi, Gajarati and Marathi’
    (Dhavalikar, 1990).


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                                                            10
                                                                  These are: Shah Nazar. (1979) Gandhara Art (Aug.–Sep.): 105–108; idem. (1982)
                                                                  Da Shahbaz-garhe da Tarikh Zaarha Arhkhuna (Oct.): 15–21; idem. (1984) Sangao
                                                                  (Feb.): 81–83; Sahibzada Hamidullah. (1979) Pakhwanai Sikkey (Aug.–Sep.): 109–
                                                                  121; Abdur Rahman & Sardar Muhammad. (1984) Da Hund na tar laasa shavey
                                                                  Tarikhi Kathbey (Oct.): 43–49.
                                                            11
                                                                  ‘3-year Swat heritage management project launched’, retrieved: November 23,
                                                                  2012,      http://www.thenews.com.pk/Todays-News-7-41795-3-year-Swat-heritage-
                                                                  management-project-launched
                                                                  To give an idea of the impact of a long-lasting archaeological project, it is worth
                                                                  mentioning again the ACT-Field School Project. Only in the site of Barikot, every
                                                                  year it trains and employs up to 100 local workers (roughly corresponding to 90
                                                                  households) for 6 months, involving up to 800 indirect beneficiaries, with a total all-
                                                                  included yearly salary expense of about 8 million rupees (personal communication
                                                                  with Olivieri).
                                                            12
                                                                  Unfortunately, Konishi does not give the name of this Professor.
                                                            13
                                                                  ‘Archaeology also shows us how people in the past maintained, increased, or pro-
                                                                  tected plant resources resulting in long-term, sustainable harvest and the creation
                                                                  of patches of certain species, fire-adapted forests, or grasslands and other open
                                                                  habitats… We are beginning to see how human maintenance over generations
                                                                  has created ecosystems that will disappear or deteriorate without continued care’
                                                                  (Hayashida, 2005).

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                                                              Biographical notes

                                                               Rafiullah Khan is a Lecturer, as well as a PhD scholar at the Taxila Institute of Asian
                                                            Civilizations, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. He is pursuing his PhD re-
                                                            search in the field of history of archaeology and his topic is ‘Beginning of archaeology
                                                            in Malakand-Swat (1896–1926): protagonist, fieldwork and the legal framework’.
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