Counter-season cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere: an update
10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794
Le prime coltivazioni di Tuber melanosporum nell’emisfero sud sono state realizzate nella metà degli anni 80 in Nuova Zelanda e il primo ascoma è stato trovato nel 1993 a Gisborne. La coltivazione del tartufo in Australia è iniziata lo stesso anno e nel 1999 è stato trovato il primo tartufo in Tasmania (Australia). Allo stato attuale sono state realizzate più di 150 piccole tartufaie di T. melanosporum in Nuova Zelanda e circa 200-250 in Australia, generalmente di più grandi dimensioni (fino a 35 ha). Nel 2016 la produzione di tartufi neri pregiati in Australia è stata di 13 tonnellate, ma si stima che nei prossimi anni possa raggiungere le 45 tonnellate. Più recentemente la tartuficoltura è stata introdotta in con successo in Cile, Uruguay, Argentina e Sud Africa che hanno fatto registrare la prima produzione di tartufi nel 2009, 2014 e 2015 rispettivamente. L’introduzione della tartuficoltura in questi paesi ha richiesto un’attenta analisi delle caratteristiche climatiche per individuare le aree più idonee. Inoltre nella maggior parte dei casi le tartufaie sono state realizzate su terreni originariamente acidi o sub-acidi per cui è stato necessario correggere il pH mediante massicci ammendamenti calcarei. La scarsità od assenza in molte di queste aree di altre specie vegetali ectomicorriziche e la correzione del pH hanno limitato le contaminazione in campo con funghi ectomicorrizici estranei che in Europa rappresentano uno dei maggiori problemi della tartuficoltura. Anche in questi paesi vi sono, tuttavia, delle problematiche. Ad esempio in Nuova Zelanda, come d’altra parte in molti altri paesi, si lamenta una scarsa qualità delle piante micorrizate oggi in commercio. Le tecniche alternative di inoculazione recentemente sperimentate in Italia, Cina e Nuova Zelanda potrebbero limitare le contaminazioni con funghi ectomicorrizici diversi dal tartufo inoculato. Recentemente in alcuni di questi paesi (Australia e Nuova Zelanda) è stata introdotta con successo anche la coltivazione di Tuber borchii Vittad. e di Tuber aestivum Vittad.
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Alessandra Zambonelli
Italian Journal of Mycology
South Africa
Counter-season cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere: an update
Text.Serial.Journal
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Articles
2017-03-30
2017-03-29
2017-01-24
2018-10-09
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Ital J Mycol
Alessandra Zambonelli
2017/03/30
10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794
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2531-7342
South Africa
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Counter-season cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere: an update
https://italianmycology.unibo.it/article/download/6794/6583
46
I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli                 Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794




  Counter-season cultivation of truffles in the
  Southern Hemisphere: an update
  ________________________________________________________________________________

              Ian Hall1, Noel Fitzpatrick2, Paul Miros3, Alessandra Zambonelli4
  1
    Truffles & Mushrooms (Consulting) Limited, P.O. Box 268, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
  2
    The Australian Truffle Growers Association, PO Box 7426, Sutton NSW 2620, Australia.
  3
    Woodford Truffles SA (Pty) Limited, South Africa
  4
    Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Via Fanin 46, I 40127, Bologna, Italy.

  Correspondig Author e-mail: A. Zambonelli e-mail: alessandr.zambonelli@unibo.it

  Abstract

      The cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere began in New Zealand in the mid-1980s and the first
      fruiting bodies of Tuber melanosporum were harvested in Gisborne in 1993. Cultivation started in Australia
      soon after and the first truffles were found in Tasmania in 1999. Now there are more than 150 mostly small
      truffières in New Zealand, and approximatively 200-250 plantations in Australia some of which are very large.
      Most of the productive truffières have been established with Tuber melanosporum Vittad. infected plants but
      more recently fruiting bodies of Tuber borchii Vittad. and Tuber aestivum Vittad. have been harvested. Chile
      followed by Argentina and South Africa were the next to get involved and produced in 2009, 2014 and 2015
      respectively. Over the past 10 years alternative techniques have been tried in Italy, China and New Zealand in
      attempts to control contaminating ectomycorrhizal fungi in the nursery – arguably the most important problem
      facing the cultivation of truffles worldwide.

      Keywords: Truffle cultivation; New Zealand; Australia; Chile; Uruguay; Argentina; South Africa.


  Riassunto

      Le prime coltivazioni di Tuber melanosporum nell’emisfero sud sono state realizzate nella metà degli anni 80
      in Nuova Zelanda e il primo ascoma è stato trovato nel 1993 a Gisborne. La coltivazione del tartufo in
      Australia è iniziata lo stesso anno e nel 1999 è stato trovato il primo tartufo in Tasmania (Australia). Allo stato
      attuale sono state realizzate più di 150 piccole tartufaie di T. melanosporum in Nuova Zelanda e circa 200-250
      in Australia, generalmente di più grandi dimensioni (fino a 35 ha). Nel 2016 la produzione di tartufi neri
      pregiati in Australia è stata di 13 tonnellate, ma si stima che nei prossimi anni possa raggiungere le 45
      tonnellate. Più recentemente la tartuficoltura è stata introdotta in con successo in Cile, Uruguay, Argentina e
      Sud Africa che hanno fatto registrare la prima produzione di tartufi nel 2009, 2014 e 2015 rispettivamente.
      L’introduzione della tartuficoltura in questi paesi ha richiesto un’attenta analisi delle caratteristiche climatiche
      per individuare le aree più idonee. Inoltre nella maggior parte dei casi le tartufaie sono state realizzate su terreni
      originariamente acidi o sub-acidi per cui è stato necessario correggere il pH mediante massicci ammendamenti
      calcarei.
      La scarsità od assenza in molte di queste aree di altre specie vegetali ectomicorriziche e la correzione del pH
      hanno limitato le contaminazione in campo con funghi ectomicorrizici estranei che in Europa rappresentano
      uno dei maggiori problemi della tartuficoltura. Anche in questi paesi vi sono, tuttavia, delle problematiche. Ad
                                                                                                                         21
I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli             Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



       esempio in Nuova Zelanda, come d’altra parte in molti altri paesi, si lamenta una scarsa qualità delle piante
       micorrizate oggi in commercio. Le tecniche alternative di inoculazione recentemente sperimentate in Italia,
       Cina e Nuova Zelanda potrebbero limitare le contaminazioni con funghi ectomicorrizici diversi dal tartufo
       inoculato.
       Recentemente in alcuni di questi paesi (Australia e Nuova Zelanda) è stata introdotta con successo anche la
       coltivazione di Tuber borchii Vittad. e di Tuber aestivum Vittad.

       Parole chiave: tartuficoltura; Nuova Zelanda; Australia; Cile; Uruguay; Sud Africa.

  Introduction

  This paper is an update of truffle cultivation in Australia and New Zealand (Hall et al., 2007; Zambonelli &
  Hall, 2007; Zambonelli et al., 2010; Hall & Haslam, 2012) and more recent attempts to cultivate truffles in
  other Southern Hemisphere countries.
  The cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere began in New Zealand in 1987 when the first
  truffières were established in North Otago (45˚S), in the South Island. The first fruiting bodies were
  harvested in Gisborne (39˚S) in 1993. Cultivation started in Australia soon after, first in Tasmania and
  Western Australia, but then spreading to New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, Victoria and
  more recently South Australia. (Hall et al., 2007). Most of the early truffières were established with Tuber
  melanosporum Vittad. infected plants but more recently fruiting bodies of Tuber borchii Vittad. and Tuber
  aestivum Vittad. have been cultivated (Hall, 2016; 2017). Attempts have also been made to cultivate Tuber
  magnatum Pico.
  The problems in truffle cultivation encountered in Australia and New Zealand were somewhat different from
  those in Europe. Most New Zealand’s forests contain no ectomycorrhizal species although five species of
  ectomycorrhizal Nothofagus dominate particularly in the upland areas of the South Island. In contrast,
  Australia has many ectomycorrhizal trees very different from those which dominate in Europe (Castellano &
  Bougher, 1994). In both countries, European ectomycorrhizal fungi are almost exclusively restricted to
  parks, gardens and plantations of exotic trees that were accidentally introduced on the roots of plants by early
  European settlers. The imposition of severe quarantine controls in both countries particularly over the past
  two decades (e.g. Environmental Protection Authority, 2017) has severely limited the importation of not just
  dangerous pests and pathogens but also edible and beneficial mycorrhizal mushrooms.
  The climates of Australia and New Zealand are extremely variable ranging from hot deserts of central
  Australia, to tropical and temperate rain forests of northern Australia and the western South Island of New
  Zealand but many areas have climates similar to those of many European truffle areas (Hall et al., 2016).
  The advantage that both countries have is that they produce truffles and other edible mycorrhizal mushrooms
  out-of-season to Europe.
  Initially Hall et al. (1989; 1994) superimposed a map of the July and January isotherms for France and Italy
  (Arléry, 1970; Cantù, 1977) from the multi-volume tome "Climates of the World" (Landsberg, 1970-1995)
  onto Delmas's (1978) map of the distribution of T. melanosporum in France. The ranges were then tabulated
  and compared with the climatic conditions in various New Zealand areas. Later this table was extended to
  cover many other areas around the world where various truffles had been found or cultivated (Hall et al.
  2016). Graphs of mean monthly temperatures were also plotted to compare the climate in several locations
  (Fig. 1). Areas with an annual rainfall greater than 1500 mm were assessed as unsuitable.




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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli                                       Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794


                                   25




                                   20




                                   15
                  Temperature °C




                                   10




                                   5




                                   0
                                        J/J     F/A     M/S     A/O     M/N      J/D   J/J     A/F     S/M     O/A     N/M      D/J
                                              Opotiki 1505 °days, 2169 ss hrs                Ashburton 896 °days, 1892 ss hrs
                                              Deloraine (568 °days, ≈ 2190 ss hrs)           Perugia 1664 °days, 2061 ss hrs
                                              Mende, Lozere 641 °days, 2100 ss hrs           Manjimup 1781 °days, 2336 ss hrs

  Fig. 1. Mean monthly temperature curves for the warmest (Perugia) and coolest (Mende, Lozère) places to produce the
  Périgord black truffle in Europe compared with the warmest and coolest places in New Zealand (Opotiki and
  Ashburton), the coolest place in Australia (Deloraine) and Manjimup, a very productive area in Western Australia.
  Fig. 1. Confronto fra le temperature medie mensili delle località fra le più calde (Perugia) e più fredde (Mende, Lozère)
  di produzione di T. melanosporum in Europa e quelle più calde in Australia (Deloraine) e più fredde in Nuova Zelanda
  (Opotiki e Ashburton).

  Truffle cultivation in New Zealand

  Production of infected seedlings
  The concept of growing truffles in New Zealand for out-of-season Northern Hemisphere markets was first
  mooted by Ian Hall in 1979 following the first production of T. melanosporum truffles in France and Italy in
  1977 (Chevalier & Dupré, 1990). Because of the dangers of importing pests and diseases it was not possible
  to import T. melanosporum infected plants from Europe and French and Italian companies were not prepared
  to part with their newly devised methods, Ian Hall had to develop his own methods. The problems were not
  just the development of an inoculation technique but also finding the essential biological materials as well as
  the risk of setting sail onto an unknown sea.
  Initially only Quercus robur L. (English oak) and Corylus avellana L. (hazelnut) were used as host plants
  because seed was readily obtainable, both species grow well throughout New Zealand and were found to
  readily form mycorrhizas with T. melanosporum using the methods developed by Ian Hall. Quercus ilex L.
  was introduced only more recently. In the 1980s commercial species of truffle were not present in Southern
  Hemisphere countries so they had to be imported from Europe. This was risky because of the dangers of
  importing contaminants such as less valuable species, for example, Tuber brumale Vittad., T. aestivum and
  Tuber indicum Cooke & Massee as well as fungal contaminants, yeasts, nematodes and insects often present
  inside truffles (Pacioni et al., 2007; Buzzini et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2007). To limit the risks all the truffles
  were certified and carefully checked at origin but they often deteriorated en route which caused problems
  getting them approved by biosecurity personnel.
  Within two years of beginning research, a few hundred T. melanosporum infected plants were produced and
  in spring 1987 two small truffières were establish in North Otago (45°S) on rendzina soils with pH 7.8 – 8.1.
  Considerable publicity surrounded these first experiments and generated a demand for T. melanosporum
  infected plants by the general public. It was therefore decided to set up a small facility to produce sufficient

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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli            Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  T. melanosporum infected plants to meet market demand. Because almost all New Zealand native plants
  form arbuscular mycorrhizas there are very large areas free of ectomycorrhizal fungi that might compete
  with T. melanosporum. Ian Hall considered it unacceptable to supply potential growers with T.
  melanosporum infected plants grossly contaminated with other ectomycorrhizal fungi on their roots. It would
  also have been negligent and exposed his employer to possible legal action through consumer protection
  legislation. A legal action in Australia that was settled out of court demonstrates that Ian Hall’s concerns
  were justified (Australian Federal Court, 2004). Until the early 2000s all the truffle mycorrhized trees were
  produced by Crop and Food Research with a success rate of around 95% (Hall & Zambonelli, 2007). Crop &
  Food Research lost Ian Hall in 2004 and two years later stopped producing plants in favour of a number of
  independent companies. These have had varying measures of success but 30 years on from those initial
  experiments contaminated plants and plants with little or no truffle on their roots are still being offered for
  sale. Clearly either the New Zealand Fair Trading Amendment Act (Parliamentary Counsel Office, 2017a) or
  the New Zealand Sale of Goods Act, in particular section 15 (Parliamentary Counsel Office, 2017b), need to
  be used. Alternatively, new legislation similar to that being considered in some Italian regions (Bagnacavalli
  et al., 2012) needs to be considered. Contaminated trees are perhaps the biggest problem facing the
  cultivation of truffles worldwide (Hall et al., 2007, Donnini et al., 2001) so as well as legislation a number
  of alternative techniques are being tried in Italy (Iotti et al., 2016), China and New Zealand (Hall pers.
  comm.) to avoid the contamination of plants at the nursery stage.
  Truffière establishment and maintenance
  Much of the North Island is covered with soils derived from acidic volcanic ash while many soils in the
  South Island are derived from low pH greywacke, argillites, schist, granites, diorites, gneiss, amphibolites,
  gabbros, basalts, andesites, dacites or loess (Wandres, 2010; Wikipedia, 2016). While New Zealand does
  have soils derived from limestone and marble, these cover a relative small part of the country compared with
  the truffle growing countries of Europe (Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences, 2008; Riddolls, 1987).
  Because of the lack of high pH soils in New Zealand, research was carried out to determine if truffles could
  be grown in New Zealand on naturally low pH soils to which lime had been added. As a rough guide
  between 1.5 and 2 tonnes of lime per hectare per 10 cm soil depth was found to raise the soil pH by 0.1, i.e.,
  in a truffière established in Nelson to raise the top 30 cm of a soil from a pH of 5.9 to 7.9 (the optimum for T.
  melanosporum) required about 90 tonnes of lime per hectare. This lime had to be worked into the soil so that
  it was spread evenly throughout the profile.
  Prior to planting, weeds were eliminated, the soils worked this time to about 150 mm using tines, and
  irrigation equipment then installed—extended periods of drought can occur almost anywhere in New
  Zealand. Fences and windbreaks were erected around the perimeter of most of the truffières to keep out stock
  and wild pigs and for protection from the desiccating effects and physical damage caused by wind, which
  can be very strong in many parts of the country (Fig. 2a). In most truffières individual plants were protected
  by 15-cm square by 60-cm high KBC tree shelters to guard against rabbits which are a big problem in New
  Zealand agricultural lands (Hall et al., 2007).
  Between 1987 and 1993 French recommendations were followed (Grente & Delmas, 1974) and around 800
  trees were planted per hectare. All of the truffières were planted with two C. avellana 2.9 m apart, alternating
  with a single Q. robur along the rows, and with the rows about 4.5 m apart. However, a planting density of
  400 per hectare is now believed by some to be better in the cooler parts of the country (Hall et al., 2001;
  2007). Pruning, tillage and general maintenance were similar to recommendations published by Sourzat
  (1989) and largely follow the Pallier method.



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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli                   Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794




  Fig. 2. Aspects of truffle cultivation in New Zealand (a, b & c), Australia (d, e & f) and South Africa (g, h & i).
  Windbreaks (a); first T. borchii found in New Zealand near Christchurch under a Pinus pinea (b); flags planted in the
  locations where the truffles were indicated by the truffle dog and where the truffles will be harvested over the following
  few days (c); a T. melanosporum truffière with alternate oaks and hazels (d); truffle dogs are often not trained to
  indicate precisely where a truffle is in the ground (e & f); truffles from a T. melanosporum truffière on an extremely
  sandy soil (g); a brûlé under an oak (h); truffles damaged by slugs (i).
  Fig. 2. Alcuni aspetti della tartuficoltura Nuova Zelanda (a, b & c), Australia (d, e & f) e Sud Africa (g, h & i). Reti
  frangivento (a); il primo T. borchii trovato in Nuova Zelanda, vicino a Christchurch, sotto un Pinus pinea (b);
  bandierine piantate nei punti indicati dal cane da tartufi dove i giorni successivi verranno cercati e raccolti i tartufi senza
  cane (c); una tartufaia di T. melanosporum con querce e noccioli alternati (d); i cani da tartufi spesso non vengono fatti
  raspare il terreno e spetta al tartufaio individuarne l’esatta posizione nel suolo (e, f); tartufaia di T. melanosporum
  realizzata in un terreno estremamente sabbioso (g); una bruciata sotto una quercia (h); tartufi danneggiati da lumache
  (i).

  Some farmers have not followed best practice such as not pruning sufficiently or irrigating too little
  or too much which may have been the cause of crop failure. In some areas of the North Island with
  a subtropical climate and where the soil has not been tilled, immature superficial truffles have been
  produced. In other truffières the soil has been worked too deep which has drastically decreased
  production.
  The most widespread problem encountered was a very large fall in available iron, boron, copper, manganese
  and/or zinc concentrations as the pH was raised leading to plant deficiencies particularly in Q. robur. This
  was generally easy to reverse by the application of relatively small quantities of compounds containing these
  elements. That T. melanosporum was able to survive and proliferate in the modified New Zealand soils with
  subsequent trace element deficiencies corrected, has been key to the scale and distribution of plantations in
  the other Southern Hemisphere countries.
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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli            Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  The only pests and pathogens encountered in New Zealand have been powdery mildew and wood wasps, but
  generally these did not require treatment. A concern has been the possible long term impact of Phytophthora
  kernoviae Brasier, Beales & S.A. Kirk, a potentially serious pathogen on Q. ilex and Q. robur (Brasier, 2008;
  DEFRA, 2017; Gardiner et al., 2015; Ormsby, 2017). This has been present in soils in both indigenous and
  exotic forests in several regions of the North Island as early as the 1950s but strangely no diseased plants
  other than Annona cherimola (custard apple) have ever been recorded (Ramsfield et al., 2007).
  The contamination of Tuber infected plants in the field was very low in all the truffières. When Alessandra
  Zambonelli inspected root samples from different truffières in the 1990s she was very surprised to find
  virtually no contamination with other ectomycorrhizal fungi. In contrast in Italy it is common to find many
  other ectomycorrhizal morphotypes (Zambonelli et al., 2005; Donnini et al., 2001). In New Zealand the
  most common contaminants were Scleroderma sp. and Hebeloma sp. but only when the trees were planted
  into areas where these contaminants were already present. Overall Q. robur was more prone to
  contamination by these fungi than C. avellana.
  The efforts to exclude contamination by Tuber species, was only partially successful. In the first productive
  Southern Hemisphere T. melanosporum truffière located near Gisborne on the east coast of the North Island
  (39°S) Tuber maculatum Vittad., probably from a nearby willow tree, invaded the truffière and appeared to
  replace T. melanosporum. However, after a modified management regime was put in place, T. melanosporum
  production began. T. maculatum mycorrhizas were also found in other truffières located near poplar or
  willow trees (Zambonelli, unpublished data). It has since been found that T. maculatum is widespread in
  New Zealand (Guerin-Laguette et al., 2012) and was probably accidentally introduced on plants imported by
  early European settlers and was not an unlikely contaminant of T. melanosporum inocula, which appears to
  be suggested by Guerin-Laguette et al. (2012).
  T. brumale has also been identified in some New Zealand truffières (Guerin-Laguette et al., 2010). Generally
  contamination has been minor but in some truffières T. brumale totally dominates suggesting either a
  significant failure in the nursery or that the soil and/or climatic conditions favoured it over T. melanosporum.
  In contrast, despite imported truffle at times containing much more T. indicum sensu lato than T. brumale
  (Hall pers. comm.), Guerin-Laguette et al. (2010, 2012) did not detect any T. indicum mycorrhizas in New
  Zealand’s truffières. For most truffières it is assumed that minor T. brumale contamination originated from
  small pieces of T. brumale trapped inside cracks on the surfaces of T. melanosporum truffles. Less likely is
  that T. brumale was accidentally introduced by early European settlers in a manner similar to T. maculatum
  and was widespread before the introduction of T. melanosporum. Had this been the case, collections of T.
  brumale would surely have joined T. maculatum in Landcare Research’s herbarium (2017).
  Yields
  The first Southern Hemisphere T. melanosporum truffles were found on 29 July 1993 (Ian Hall’s birthday),
  exactly five years after planting, in his brother’s truffière near Gisborne on the east coast of the North Island
  (39°S) (fig.3). Of the 11 Périgord black truffières that had been established up to 1990, 8 produced with
  yields ranging from about 20 kg/ha to 350 kg/ha 10 years after planting. All of these are situated north of
  Christchurch and between the latitudes 38°S to 43°S and most were established on naturally acidic soils.
  The highest New Zealand yield has been from a small truffière near Ohiwa in the Bay of Plenty (38°S) that
  had been established in 1988 on a volcanic ash soil with a natural pH of 6.2, a site that would have been
  treated as very unlikely in France (Fig.4).
  T. aestivum truffières were also established in New Zealand and the first produced in the late 1990s in North
  Otago (Hall, 2017) but it was not until 2012 that commercial quantities were found in North Canterbury
  (Turner, 2012). However, generally this truffle has been overlooked in New Zealand in favour of the


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DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  Périgord black truffle and bianchetto truffles. However, its long fruiting period from early autumn to the
  start of the Périgord black truffle harvest makes it a worthwhile species.
  The first T. borchii was found under Pinus pinea L. near Christchurch in July 2006, only 3 years after
  planting (fig. 2b). Commercial quantities were found the following year in a nearby Q. robur and C.
  avellana truffière only four years after planting (Hall, 2016). New Zealand’s most southerly productive
  truffière also produced T. borchii after 3 years. It is situated just north of Invercargill where the climate is a
  little warmer than north of Edinburgh, Scotland, where T. borchii is found growing naturally (Hall et al.,
  2016).




  Fig. 3. Alan Hall's Gisborne truffière through the years: a. Year 0. Before planting showing the willow in the back left-
  hand corner thought to be the source of Tuber maculatum that invaded the truffière a few years after planting. T.
  maculatum is common on willows and poplars in New Zealand. b) Year 1. Strong brûlés developed on almost every
  tree 8 months after planting. c) Year 4. Additional lime was applied to readjust the pH which fell because of the
  decomposition of grass clippings left in situ. Note the very rapid growth of the common oak (Quercus robur). d) Year 8.
  Alan Hall with Alessandra Zambonelli who had just found the first truffle of the first commercial harvest in the
  Southern Hemisphere. e) Year 9. The brûlés spread rapidly and covered all the truffière from about the fifth year. f)
  Year 17. The common oaks grew about 1 metre a year and soon overtopped the hazels (Corylus avellana). The power
  pole on the right is 8 metres high.
  Fig. 3. Evoluzione della tartufaia di Alan Hall negli anni: a) Anno 0 prima della piantagione. Si può notare un salice,
  nell’angolo dietro a sinistra, che è stato la fonte della contaminazione con Tuber maculatum che ha invaso la tartufaia
  pochi anni dopo l’impianto. T. maculatum in Nuova Zealnda è comune sotto pioppi e salici. b) Anno 1. Già otto mesi
  dopo l’impianto si sono sviluppate evidenti bruciate sotto le piantine. c) Anno 4. Calcitazione effettuata per correggere
  il pH che si era alzato causa la decomposizione delle piante erbacee lasciate sul posto. Si può notare la crescita rapida
  delle querce (Quercus robur). d) Anno 8. Alan Hall e Alessandra Zambonelli che hanno appena trovato il primo tartufo
  coltivato commerciale dell’Emisfero sud. e) Anno 9. Le bruciate fin dal quinto anno coprono tutta la tartufaia. f) Anno
  17. Le querce sono crescite un metro all’anno e hanno sovrastato i noccioli (Corylus avellana). Il palo della luce sulla
  destra è alto 8 metri.

  There are about 150 truffières in New Zealand but most are relatively small compared with many in other
  Southern Hemisphere countries so the total number of trees planted probably does not exceed 40,000. This
  is a reflection of the failure of big business to take a role in the industry and, compared with Australia and
  Chile, a lack of government participation, and a withdrawal of research funding at a critical stage in the mid-


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DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  1990s. Finding the truffles with dogs is offered by companies which increases the cost of the harvesting.
  Harvesting by independent harvesters is also infrequent so many truffles can rot in the soil (fig. 2c).




  Fig. 4. Chantal Dupré and Gerard Chevalier look on in disbelief as the first truffle of the day is sniffed out by Juliet,
  Brian Bassett's stand-in for a truffle dog. This is one of the world’s most productive truffières and was established on a
  deep volcanic ash soil with a natural pH of 6.4.
  Fig. 4. Chantal Dupré e Gerard Chevalier osservano increduli il primo tartufo del giorno trovato da Juliet Brian Bassett
  che si è sostituita al cane da tartufi. Questa è una delle tartufaie più produttive al mondo ed è stata realizzata su un suolo
  profondo vulcanico con pH originale di 6,4.


  Prices for New Zealand produced T. melanosporum truffles
  Because New Zealand growers are producing truffles counter season to France, Italy and Spain and sell
  directly to the consumer, they receive around €2000/kg for premium quality T. melanosporum truffles-about
  the same price as preserved truffles retail in Australia. Most of these truffles have been consumed in New
  Zealand although small quantities have been exported to Australia, eastern Asia and North America.

  Truffle cultivation in Australia

  New Zealand’s success in the early 1990s did not escape the attention of those in other Southern Hemisphere
  countries particularly Australia followed by Chile, South Africa, Argentina and more recently Brazil and
  Uruguay. The first questions they asked were the same as those pondered by the New Zealanders: do we
  have areas with the right climates and if we don't have the right soils how do we make them suitable? Using
  the two methods used in New Zealand (Hall et al. 2016; Fig. 1) climatic data could be easily compared.
  Truffle cultivation in Australia was introduced about 6 years later than in New Zealand initially by Peter
  Cooper and Duncan Garvey in Tasmania. The first T. melanosporum mycorrhized C. avellana were planted
  in northern Tasmania in 1993, the same year that New Zealand produced its first truffles. The first
  Tasmanian T. melanosporum truffles were produced six years later on 18 June 1999 (Tasmanian Truffles
  2017). Since these first positive results steady development of plantations followed in other regions so by
  2005 truffle production was occurring in Western Australia (WA), Victoria (VIC), New South Wales (NSW)
  and Tasmania (TAS). There are now between 200 and 250 plantations containing around 250,000 trees
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  covering approximately 600 ha (Fig. 2d). Most plantations cover between 1 and 5 ha with the largest
  covering 35 ha in Western Australia (Fig. 5).




  Fig. 5. A small section of Al Blakers' truffière (Pancia, 2016) near Manjimup, Western Australia.
  Fig. 5. La tartufaia Al Blakers (Pancia, 2016) situata vicino a Manjimup, Australia occidentale-

  Acidic soils have also been used in Australia and the establishment of the truffières has required dramatic pH
  adjustment. Tree spacing can vary greatly depending on orientation and local climate. However it is common
  to plant rows with an 8 m spacing and the trees 3 m apart within the rows to give about 400 plants/ha – a
  density half that in the early New Zealand truffières. Host trees at first were mainly Corylus sp. but in more
  recent times most plantings are combinations of Q. ilex, Q. robur and/or Quercus suber L. The utilization of
  Q. suber for truffle cultivation is quite surprising because it is known to prefer acidic soil whereas most
  truffles require soils having a pH ranging between 7.5 to 8 (Zambonelli & Branzanti, 1989).
  Similar to New Zealand most commercial plantations have fully automated irrigation systems installed and
  have fences and tree shelters to guard against damage from wild animals. T. melanosporum is the primary
  species planted by Australian growers representing 95% of all plantings. Other species being trailed are T.
  borchii, T. aestivum and T. magnatum.
  The worst problem encountered in Australia has been truffle rot caused by bacteria and fungi found in the
  soil and initially inexperience in truffle harvesting using trained dogs like in New Zealand (fig. 2e).
  Agronomic practices, like soil tillage, are now used in attempts to control truffle rot. In 2016 Australia
  produced 13 tonnes of Périgord black truffles and if all of the current plantings begin fruiting production is
  expected to reach 45 tonnes (fig. 2 f) (Stahle pers. comm.).

  Truffle cultivation in South Africa

  The southern tip of South Africa is about 35°S so low lying areas on the south coast are much too warm for
  truffle cultivation. For example, Cape Town at 34°S has a mean monthly temperature in June and July of
  13°C. However, like in Italy, Greece and other southern European counties, cooler winter temperatures can

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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli               Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  be found at higher elevations. Assuming a lapse rate of 0.65°C per 100 metres mid-winter temperatures
  similar to Opotiki in New Zealand (9°C) should be found at an altitude of 600 metres close to the south coast
  but higher further north. For example, George at a latitude of 34°S and an elevation of 195 m
  (dateandtime.info, 2017) has a mean July temperature of 13°C (Wikipedia, 2017) so land 400 metres higher
  should have acceptable mid-winter temperatures while summer temperatures would still be within the range
  of those in Europe (Fig. 9).
  The first truffle plantations were established primarily with Q. robur and to a lesser extent C. avellana. The
  most recent plantation was established with Q. ilex which seems to be more suited to the local climatic
  conditions. The soils where the truffières are located originally had acidic soils with a pH ranging between
  4.5 and 6.5 but were corrected to pH 7.9 (in water) by liming. Many South African soils are very sandy and
  towards the lower left corner of the soil textural graph (Fig. 6). At least two truffières have been established
  on these.




  Fig. 6. The central area shaded blue are soils that are suited to the cultivation of the Périgord black truffle (Tuber
  melanosporum). After Delmas, 1978.
  Fig. 6. Nell’area centrale sono indicati in azzurro i suoli idonei alla coltivazione del tartufo nero pregiato (Delmas,
  1978)-

  In 2015 the first black truffle was reported in South Africa from a plantation near Dullstroom in
  Mpumalanga nine years after planting. The same year another truffle was found in a 5 year old truffière
  located in Western Cape, Villiersdorp, established by Woodford Truffles (Fig. 2h). In 2016 a further two
  truffières also established by Woodford Truffles, near George in Western Cape Province and near Kokstad in
  KwaZulu-Natal Province, also began producing. Some truffles were damaged by local soil fauna and
  research on these is being conducted to try and limit damage (fig. 2i). It remains to be seen if production
  from Q. ilex will be as high as those achieved by a mixture of Q. robur and C. avellana as used in New
  Zealand and some parts of Australia.

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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli               Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794




  Truffle cultivation in South America




  Fig. 7. Locations (black lettering) of some productive truffières in Chile and Argentina and some potentially suitable
  locations in Uruguay and Brazil (underlying map from Wikipedia 2015).
  Fig. 7. Località (in nero) di alcune tartufaie produttive in Cile, e Argentina e località situate in aree potenzialmente
  idonee alla tartuficoltura in Uruguay e Brasile.

  Chile

  Chile, which spans latitudes 17°S to 57°S, has climates ranging from warm desert, warm and temperate
  Mediterranean to tundra, was an obvious country to look at the cultivation of truffles. The initiative was led
  by Ricardo Ramírez in the Department of Forest Sciences at the Universidad Católica del Maule starting in
  the early 2000s. There has also been a significant input by Santiago Reyna at the Polytécnica de Valencia in
  Spain (Ramírez et al., 2011). The whole project was part of the Chilean government’s aim at diversifying the
  agricultural sector and producing high value crops for international markets (Programa Fondef- Fondo de
  Fomento al Desarrollo Científico y Technológico, 2017). The first truffière was established in 2003 and over
  the following 4 years 70 hectares were planted in Metropolitan, O´Higgins, del Maule, Bío-Bío, Araucanía y
  Los Ríos, Los Ríos y del Maule (Duao) and Panguipulli (Región de Los Ríos) with a large part of the
  funding supplied by the Chilean Ministry of Agriculture. Some climatic data for these areas are shown in
  Fig. 8. Sensibly, molecular techniques were developed for controlling the quality of plants (Cordero et al.,
  2011) so that now Agro Bio Truf can guarantee its plants are mycorrhized with T. melanosporum.

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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli                Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
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  The first Chilean T. melanosporum truffles were harvested in May 2009 in a 5 year old truffière at
  Panguipulli, Región de Los Ríos (40°S, elevation 268 m) (Extra Noticias.cl, 2010). The following year
  truffles were found under Q. ilex at Duao (36°S, 163 m elevation), about 12 km southwest of Talca (35°S).
  In 2011 truffles were also harvested near Quepe and Chufquen, Traiguén (38°S, elevation 120 m) 4-5 years
  after planting (Andean Truffles, 2011). According to Agro Bio Truf (2017) the total investment by the
  Chilean Government and private investors over the past 14 years in establishing nearly 400 hectares of
  truffières containing more than 155,000 trees was US$800,000 (Agro Bio Truf, 2017; Ramírez, 2015). As
  with any new venture there are issues that need to be studied. For example, there is still a need to determine
  what host plants best suit particular soils and climates and how yields per hectare might be increased beyond
  10 kg/ha and closer to those achieved in New Zealand and Australia (Ramírez, 2015).

  Argentina

  Like Chile, Argentina spans a wide range of latitudes between 22°S and 55°S and has areas that have
  temperature ranges that should suit the cultivation of truffles. These are found in the central southern part of
  the country, especially to the south of Buenos Aires. The first truffles were found in August 2014 in Lobería
  in the Buenos Aires province (Mercosur 2016). The mean monthly temperatures there are similar to where
  Périgord black truffles have been found elsewhere in the world (Fig. 8; Meteoblue, 2017).




  Fig. 8. Mean monthly temperature curves for three meteorological stations adjacent to productive truffières in Chile
  (Gualleco - 8 km from Batuco, Talca and Panguipulli) and a productive truffière in Argentina (Lobería) compared with
  those for the warmest (Perugia) and coolest (Lozère) places to produce the Périgord black truffle in Europe.
  Fig. 8. Confronto fra le temperature medie mensili di tre stazioni metereologiche adiacenti le tartufaie produttive del
  Cile (Gualleco - 8 km da Batuco, Talca e Panguipulli), la tartufaia produttiva in Argentina (Loberia) e quelle produttive
  in Europa più calde (Perugia) e più fredde (Mende, Lozère).

  Brazil

  Most of Brazil is far too hot both in winter and summer for the cultivation of truffles. However, the climate
  in the most southern part of the country (Fig. 9) is considerably cooler particularly in upland areas. A talk on
  the possibility of growing truffles in this part of Brazil was given by Ian Hall at a conference in Manaus-

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I. Hall, N. Fitzpatrick, P. Miros, A. Zambonelli                                       Italian Journal of Mycology vol. 46 (2017) ISSN 2531-7342
DOI: https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/6794



  Amazonas (Hall 2013). In this paper he showed that the mean monthly temperatures in Säo Joaquim and
  Bom Jesus were very similar to those in Manjimup, Australia and Opotiki, New Zealand, respectively.

                                25.0




                                20.0




                                15.0
                  Temperature




                                10.0




                                 5.0




                                 0.0
                                       J/J    F/A     M/S     A/O     M/N        J/D   J/J    A/F     S/M     O/A     N/M     D/J
                                         Opotiki 1505° days, 2169 ss hrs                 Manjimup 1781° days, 2555 ss hrs
                                         Perugia 1664 °days, 2061 ss hrs                 Paso De Los Toros 2708 °days, 2461 ss hrs
                                         George +400 m 1386 °days, 2547 ss hrs           Bom Jesus 1686 °days, c.2000 ss hrs
                                         Säo Joaquim 1197 °days, c.1737 ss hrs

  Fig. 9. Mean monthly temperature curves for Paso De Los Toros (Uruguay), Säo Joaquim and Bom Jesus (Brazil), and
  calculated temperatures on a site 400 metres higher than George, South Africa, compared with the meteorological
  stations near productive truffières at Opotiki, New Zealand, and Manjimup, Western Australia, and Perugia, Italy.
  Fig. 9. Confronto fra le temperature medie mensili di Paso De Los Toros (Uruguay), Säo Joaquim e Bom Jesus
  (Brasile), le temperature calcolate ad una altitudine superiore di 400 m rispetto a George (Sud Africa) e quelle delle
  stazioni metereologiche vicine alle tartufaie produttive di Opotiki in Nuova Zealanda, Manjimupin Australia
  occidentale e Perugia in Italia.

  Uruguay

  Paso De Los Toros in the centre of Uruguay is at 35°S (Fig. 9) and has a mean daily temperature of 9.8°C in
  July, only 0.5°C warmer in July than Manjimup, Western Australia, whilst the mean January temperature is
  only 0.5°C warmer than Perugia. It would seem that providing suitable soils can be found in these areas
  production of the Périgord black truffle is feasible.

  Conclusion

  The successful cultivation of truffles in the Southern Hemisphere, in a completely different context to
  Europe, has provided insights that are of great value to trufficulture in Europe such as the demonstration that
  it is possible to modify an acidic soil to make it suitable for several species of truffle.
  Despite the significant initial problems encountered particularly in New Zealand, significant industries have
  now been established based on the cultivation of truffles and other edible mycorrhizal mushrooms for
  consumers in the Southern Hemisphere and for off-season markets in the Northern Hemisphere. For
  example, Périgord black truffle production in Australia in 2016 was about 13 tonnes and projected
  production is estimated to reach 45 tonnes in a few short years.

  References

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