10.6092/issn.2531-7342/15508
Giuseppe Bianchini trained within the Sienese School of Forensic Medicine and immediately distinguished himself for his innovative approach to the discipline, making very important use of biochemistry, haematology, histopathology, and physiology. During his long career as a scholar and professor of forensic medicine, an important part of his research was the study of the ‘biology of the corpse’, for which he was inspired by the presence of fungi on cadaveric material. Indeed, Bianchini considered the study of fungi, which was completely ignored at the time, to be of particular interest both in terms of the chemistry of the corpse and in determining the chronology of death. He was the first in Italy to attempt to identify and describe a mycological biota in the different states of decomposition of the corpse.
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Stockdale PM (1961) Nannizzia incurvata gen. nov., sp. nov., a perfect state of Microsporum gypseum (Bodin) Guiart et Grigorakis. Sabouraudia 1:41–8.
Giuseppe Bianchini (1888-1973): the father of Italian forensic mycology
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                IJM - Italian Journal of Mycology
                ISSN 2531-7342 - Vol. 51 (2022): 66-74
                Journal homepage: https://italianmycology.unibo.it/

Review

                          Giuseppe Bianchini (1888-1973):
                        the father of Italian forensic mycology

             Davide Orsini1, Simone Di Piazza2, Mirca Zotti2, Mariano Martini3
1
  University Museum System of Siena, University of Siena, Siena, Italy
2
  Laboratory of Mycology, Department of Earth Sciences Environment and Life (DISTAV), University of Genoa, Italy
3
  Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
The authors contributed equally.
Corresponding author e-mail: mirca.zotti@unige.it


Article info
Received 12/09/2022; accepted 7/10/2022
https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2531-7342/15508

Abstract
Giuseppe Bianchini trained within the Sienese School of Forensic Medicine and immediately distinguished
himself for his innovative approach to the discipline, making very important use of biochemistry, haematology,
histopathology, and physiology. During his long career as a scholar and professor of forensic medicine, an
important part of his research was the study of the ‘biology of the corpse’, for which he was inspired by the
presence of fungi on cadaveric material. Indeed, Bianchini considered the study of fungi, which was completely
ignored at the time, to be of particular interest both in terms of the chemistry of the corpse and in determining
the chronology of death. He was the first in Italy to attempt to identify and describe a mycological biota in the
different states of decomposition of the corpse.

Keywords
Fungi, moulds, thanatology, death chronology, history medicine


Introduction

Born on 20 September, 1888 near Siena, in San Quirico d’Orcia, Giuseppe Bianchini (Fig. 1A)
graduated with distinction in Medicine at the University of Siena on 8 July, 1913. During his first
five years at university, he was an internal trainee at the Institute of Anatomy and, in the academic
year 1910-1911, he also attended the Institute of Surgical Pathology. In the sixth year of his medical
course, he was called by Prof. Angelo Ruffini to assist the Chair of Histology and Embryology at the
University of Bologna. Because of family reasons, however, he remained there for only a few months.
In 1910, he took part in the campaign against cholera in Puglia, together with Prof. Achille Sclavo,
his teacher of Public Health at the University of Siena (Martini and Orsini, 2022a, 2022b; Orsini and
Martini, 2022). Cholera had again broken out in Italy, 26 years after the previous epidemic. This time,
however, the disease was fairly easily contained, thanks to the discovery of its aetiological agent and
the implementation of science-based protocols. This experience was an important one for the young
Bianchini.
   After graduating, he began a course at the School of Health in Florence in 1914. The following
year, as part of this course, he was sent to Libya as a military medical attaché and, for the whole of
1917, ran the Department of Medicine of the Military Hospital in Tripoli (Archivio Università di

Department of Agricultural and Food Science in partnership with the Italian Mycological Society (UMI).
The journal is hosted and maintained by ABIS-AlmaDL. © 2022 The Authors. This work is licensed under CC BY 4.0
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Siena). From January to June 1918, while still in Tripoli, he took over the direction of a hospital for
contagious diseases. Subsequently, he was assigned to the Italian consulates in Tunis and Algiers until
August 1919, when he returned to Italy.
    This was the beginning of his academic career. On 16 October 1919, he became a tenured assistant
to the Chair of Legal Medicine and Insurance at the University of Siena, under the guidance of Cesare
Biondi, a great exponent of the Siena School of Legal Medicine. Founded by Giacomo Barzellotti
at the beginning of the 19th century: this school counted among its members such personalities as
Gasparo Mazzi, Carlo Livi, the great criminal anthropologist Salvatore Ottolenghi, Domenico Mirto,




Fig. 1 – A) Giuseppe Bianchini at the age of 46 (Archivio dell’Università di Siena); B) Aspergillus glaucus (Bianchini,
1923); C) Aspergillus candidus (Bianchini, 1923); D) Ctenomyces serratus (Bianchini, 1923).

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Biondi and Bianchini themselves, and Mauro Barni. During the period in which he was an assistant
(1919-1926), Bianchini undertook his studies on the biology of the corpse, blood, and tumours. In
1923, on the basis of his qualifications, he was appointed as a teacher in Legal Medicine.
   Among the publications presented by Bianchini, the examining board considered the most
important subjects to be:
   - “On lesions due to multiple contusive traumas, whereby the investigator was able to establish the
histopathological alterations of the skin and subcutaneous tissues”;
   - “Cytology of red blood cells” and related publications.
   - “Platelets and the distribution of morphological haematic elements in the vessels of the corpse”;
and finally, his most recent studies on
   - “in vitro tissue culture” (Archivio Università di Siena - Examining board 1923).
   These publications, “on account of the importance of the subjects treated, the clear vision of
the most complex biological problems, and the method whereby investigations were carried out”
(Archivio Università di Siena - Examining board 1923) constituted the major contributions to legal
medicine and its related disciplines.
   On 16 March 1926, Bianchini was appointed “untenured professor” of Legal Medicine at the R.
University of Cagliari (Archivio Università di Siena - Ministry of Education 1926); he therefore
ceased to be an assistant at the University of Siena. In the same year, he moved to the University
of Bari, where he taught for a decade and actively participated in the organisation of the Institute of
Legal Medicine.

Return to Siena and the first studies on the “biology of the corpse”
In this period that the studies initiated by Bianchini when he was an assistant in Siena were structured
into the first draft of the totally original concept of “biology of the corpse” (Cazzaniga, 1944). “Other
authors would later make their own considerations and deductions regarding the issue of absolute and
relative death and the thanato-chronological implications that stem from it; but it is to him that we
must attribute the great merit of a theory that still carries great weight today” (Barni, 1993).
   In March 1936 Bianchini’s mentor, Cesare Biondi, died. Despite invitations from numerous Italian
universities, Bianchini decided to return to the University of Siena, where he took over the teaching of
Legal Medicine and Insurance, formerly Biondi’s domain. In Siena, where he had many professional
and personal relationships, he taught at the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Law until the end
of his academic career. In January 1937, as a former pupil of Biondi and a teacher of Legal Medicine,
he commemorated his mentor in a ceremony held in the Great Hall of the University of Siena in the
presence of all the teachers and students: all the lectures of that day were cancelled. However, despite
his great sense of gratitude towards Biondi, Bianchini detached himself from his former master
as regards his research interests. Indeed, being well versed in biology and histopathology, he was
particularly interested in the research carried out on the morphology of normal and pathological blood
by the pathologist Adolfo Ferrata, whom he had met in the early 1920s, when Ferrata was teaching
in Siena. Bianchini distinguished himself for his innovative interpretation of the Legal Medicine
discipline. In particular, he critically re-read the pathognomonic signs deemed essential and certain
for judicial purposes based on the most up-to-date discoveries in biochemistry, histology, physiology,
and haematology.
   Bianchini’s wide knowledge on these fields prompted him to address his scientific production
towards four specific areas. The first one of paramount importance deals with forensic thanatology,
which was flanked by asphyxology, insurance medicine and the field of occupational diseases. As
regards the last subject, Bianchini endorsed the social and humanitarian lessons of his mentor Cesare
Biondi, enriching his theses through constant direct observation.

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Institutional roles and acknowledgements
In 1944 Bianchini was appointed Dean of the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery of the University of
Siena, a position that was renewed in 1947 and which he held until the end of 1950. In 1955, he was
elected Rector of the University of Siena, following the expiry of the mandate of Mario Bracci, a
member of the Constituent Assembly and a judge of the Constitutional Court.
   During Bianchini’s rectorship, which ended in 1964, several structural improvements were made:
the work involved a new polyclinic; the University Building was modernised; the premises of the
Institute of Public Health were enlarged, and new facilities for the Institute of Botany, Biology and
Zoology were built. In addition, the Faculty of Sciences was instituted and plans were drawn up for
the foundation of the Faculty of Economics, which in those days was innovative.
   In June 1958, Bianchini was awarded the Order of Merit of the Republic. On 1 November of the
same year, he was assigned to the status of “fuori ruolo” (a non-institutional position as a consultant).
Five years later, on 1 November 1963, he retired, having reached the age limit. Nevertheless, he
continued to perform his duties as Rector until the natural expiry of the three-year mandate, on 31
October 1964. On 1 June 1965, the title of Emeritus Professor was conferred upon him. He died on
7 March 1973.

Forensic thanatology and the biology of the corpse

In the area of forensic thanatology, Bianchini was particularly interested in the effect of the superposition
of foreign organisms, insects, mites, and fungi on the corpse. “While insects and mites had long been
known to have a thanato-chronological meaning and a post-mortem destructive potential, equally
interesting to Bianchini was the action of moulds, which he studied with veritable passion [...]. The
coincidence between the development of the genus ‘Penicillium’ and retarded putrefaction – which
was really no coincidence – did not escape the Master’s notice” (Barni, 1993). Although the role of
fungi in the decomposition of the organic material of the corpse had already been amply studied in
the fields of agrarian chemistry and human and animal pathology, it was substantially neglected by
scholars in those days.
    Even the scientific literature on the subject was very scant (Bianchini, 1929). Indeed, Bianchini
complained that his colleagues regarded moulds as “uninfluential guests of the corpse” and gave
absolutely no importance to their “disintegrating action on the matrix that hosts them” (Bianchini,
1923). In his view, the only exception was to be found in the studies conducted by Julius Kratter (1848-
1926), an Austrian forensic pathologist and a co-founder of the German Society of Legal Medicine;
in corpses found covered in moulds two or three months after burial, Kratter attributed a destructive
action of the skin to fungi (Bianchini, 1923). For his part, Bianchini deemed the study of fungi to be
of particular interest with regard to both the chemistry of the corpse and the chronology of death.
    Referring to his own communication entitled “The fungi of the human corpse” (Bianchini, 1923),
which was delivered at the “Accademia dei Fisiocritici” in Siena on 27 July 1923, Bianchini stated:
“When I first began to study the fungi of the human corpse, I was inspired by the dual purpose of
monitoring the chemical modifications that the material of the corpse undergoes when it is subjected to
the enzymatic action of these saprophytes, which at the time were little known and scantly considered,
and of utilising this study – as far as might be possible – to tackle the issue of the chronology of
death” (Bianchini, 1925). In these studies, Bianchini clearly saw the need for an interdisciplinary
approach. This prompted him to forge bonds of research with numerous colleagues at the various
Italian schools of biology, botany, mycology, chemistry, and pathology. In this framework, he entered
a close collaboration with the Siena botanist and mycologist Arturo Nannizzi. In the botanical field,
Nannizzi is best known for his studies on Atropa belladonna L. and the possibility of using its active

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principle in the treatment of encephalic parkinsonism (Nannizzi, 1938; Mazzarello, 2010, 2013). As
far as mycology is concerned, Nannizzi played a key role in Italian medical mycology, especially for
his fundamental contribution to the taxonomy of dermatophytes (Nannizzi, 1926; Nannizzi, 1927;
Nannizzi, 1930). In his honor, the genus Nannizzia was established (Stockdale, 1961; Dukik, 2020).
    With Gino Pollacci (1872-1963), director of the Botanical Institute of the University of Siena,
Nannizzi was co-author of a work of fundamental importance in the field of Mycology: “I Miceti
patogeni dell’uomo e degli animali, descritti, delineati e preparati per l’osservazione al microscopio,
con notizie sopra i rimedi per combatterli” (Pollacci and Nannizzi, 1922-1930), published in ten
issues, from 1922 to 1930. Each volumes contains ten different fungi including a sample of the
actual species and a loose-leafed illustrated text describing each fungus, also often including the
fungus’ pathological effect on humans and/or on cattle or other mammals. A total of 100 microfungal
species are described, accompanied by about 400 illustrations, made by Nannizzi and 100 slides for
microscopic observation. On Nannizzi’s contribution to the work Pollacci wrote in the preface to
the first issue: “For this publication I have procured the collaboration of the Technician Mr. Arturo
Nannizzi who is also a renowned draughtsman and excellent preparer and it is by his work that each
species is accompanied by different drawings [...], and its microscopic preparation” (Pollacci and
Nannizzi, 1922-1930).
    Thus, the scope of Bianchini’s studies on the chemistry of the corpse and the chronology of death
appears even more evident at a time when contemporary mycologists showed little interest in these
micro-organisms present on corpses, or only a morphological and botanical interest. In the above-
mentioned presentation (Bianchini, 1923) at the Accademia dei Fisiocritici in 1923, Bianchini claimed
that the only person to have dealt with this subject, with particular reference to Legal Medicine,
had been the French doctor Frédéric-Louis Heim de Balsac (1869-1962), a professor of Industrial
Hygiene (from 1905 to 1937) and of Agriculture and Production of materials (from 1923 to 1937) at
the University of Paris. The basic concept from which Heim started out was the following: “according
to the state of decomposition of the corpse, the flora that inhabits it must change, just as the bacterial
species do during the various successive stages of putrefaction” (Cazzaniga, 1944). This happens
because both fungi and bacterial species, by means of the chemical reactions that they carry out,
determine the constitution of the nutritional medium in which they live. The metabolic products
possibly released by fungal organisms into the culture medium (viz. corpses) where they develop can
induce or inhibit the growth of other organisms, including fungi (Heim, 1893). Indeed, according to
Bianchini, “Each flora is what it is according to the nutritional medium in which it develops, and,
consequently, according to the time that has elapsed since death” (Bianchini, 1923). Based on this
idea, Bianchini proposed that all the fungal species present in corpses should be collected and that
the circumstances in which they develop, and the state of the corpse should be accurately recorded.
    The fungi were examined both directly on fresh preparations on glass slides and after isolation in
pure culture. For the cadaver isolation he used a specially developed agar-meat medium, which was
named ‘Pollacci medium’ in honour of the then director of the Institute of Botany Prof. Gino Pollacci.
The peculiar formulation of this culture medium is as follows: “to 500 g of well-ground beef pulp add
1000 g of distilled water, boil, filter and add: Witte peptone 10 g, sodium chloride 5 g, agar-agar 15
g. Boil and filter while hot, neutralise, boil again for half an hour, filter again if necessary and add 70
g glucose. This mixture, poured into containers, is sterilised fractionally three times in a Koch pot”.
Fresh cadaveric material, exhumed one to ten years after burial, was used for research purposes and a
few corpses were left expressly ‘out’ on the ground, in a laboratory room, or in the open countryside.
Old bones were taken from cemetery ossuary or ancient burials. Some anatomical parts were taken at
various distances from death and placed in special warm-humid chambers.



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Conclusion

His studies led him to write: “The fungi found in corpses, and which were the subject of my research,
can roughly be grouped into three categories. The first comprises strains that develop in the corpse
during processes of transformation (colouring, gaseous, colliquative period); the second comprises
strains that develop on residues of desiccated or fatty soft tissues (about one year after death); the
third comprises strains that develop on bones that still exude fat or are covered by organic residues
(10 years after death). As will readily be understood, these groups do not have an absolute value, as it




     Fig. 2 - A) Arachniotus aureus (Bianchini, 1923); B) Monosporium acuminatum (Bianchini, 1923); C)
     Glenospora graphii (Bianchini, 1923); D) Acremonium apiculatum (Bianchini, 1923).

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has been observed, albeit rarely, that there may be some interference between the first group and the
second and between the second and the third” (Bianchini, 1923). The fungi described by Bianchini in
three different categories are shown in Table 1 and in the figures 1B-D and 2A-C.
   Bianchini therefore deserves the great credit for having been the first Italian researcher to pave the
way for forensic mycology, whose studies were later continued by another great Italian mycologist,
Raffaele Ciferri (Ciferri et al., 1943) in the 1940s. Bianchini proposed the methods for establishing
which fungi may be present and at what times in the various stages of the process of corpse
transformation are still important topics in the field of forensic mycology. The observations enabled
Bianchini to define a minimum time limit below which death could not have occurred (Bianchini,
1925). Furthermore, the first list of species provided by Bianchini (Table 1) represents a very important
starting base with which to compare achievements in this area.


Table 1 - List of the different species of fungi reported by Bianchini in three stages of corpse decomposition in the first
column and the corresponding current names in the second column (from Bianchini, 1923).

 Bianchini’s species                                                    Current name
 First category
 Aspergillus glaucus (L.) Link                                          =
 Penicillium digitatum (Pers.) Sacc.                                    =
 Mucor racemosus Fresen.                                                =
 Oospora rivaltae Sacc. & P. Syd.                                       Oidium inaequale Rivolta
 Oospora peniccillioides (Rivolta) Sacc.                                Oidium penicillioides Rivolta


 Second category
 Aspergillus candidus (Pers.) Link                            =
 Oospora sulphurea (Preuss) Sacc. & Voglino                   Torula sulphurea Preuss
 Ctenomyces serratus Eidam                                    =
 Stemphylium macrosporoideum (B. et Br.) Sacc. var. quercinum Monodictys castaneae (Wallr.) S. Hughes
 Sacc.
 Eurotium herbariorum (Wigg.) Link                            =


 Third category
 Arachniotus aureus (Eidam) J.Schröt                         Amauroascus aureus (Eidam) Arx
 Monosporium acuminatum Bon. var. terrestre Sacc.            =
 *Dactylium fusarioides Bianchini (nuova specie) = (in 1927) Fusarium chlamydosporum Wollenw. &
 Dactylium fusarioides Gonz. Frag. & Cif.                    Reinking
 Verticillium candelabrum Bonord                             Clonostachys candelabrum (Bonord.) Schroers
 Glenospora graphii (Harz & Bezold) Vuill.                   =
 *Acremonium apiculatum Bianchini (sp. nov.)                 Probably never correctly published
*Both of Bianchini’s descriptions of ‘new species’ were not considered valid. Shortly after, D. fusarioides was validly
redescribed by Ciferri and Gonzales-Fragoso (1927) as Dactylium fusarioides Gonz. Frag. & Cif, (now Fusarium
chlamydosporum Wollenw. & Reinking). While it is more difficult to understand how and whether Acremonium apiculatum
was validly described.




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Acknowledgements
Funding sources: this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public,
commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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