10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794
This study investigates the Leader Member Exchange (LMX) model and job satisfaction for employees working remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research is based on 22 semi-structured interviews conducted with consultants on different career levels within a multinational corporation (MNC) in 2022. The results indicate that the shift to remote work, during the COVID-19 pandemic, has brought new considerations to the LMX model and job satisfaction. In addition, it also positively impacted economic, environmental, and social sustainability goals. The qualitative study identifies three aggregated key factors, conducted from the interview data, that contribute to job satisfaction in a remote work setting: (1) methods of collaboration, (2) performing through collaboration, and (3) identification with work and employer. These findings offer valuable insight on remote working during the COVID-19 pandemic. They also provide a foundation for further research on remote and hybrid work and collaboration models, whilst providing understanding on their alignment to economic, environmental, and social sustainability goals.
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Sustainability Goals
Remote working and team motivation: consideration for the LMX model
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Mihaela Chelaru
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Remote working and team motivation: consideration for the LMX model
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Remote working and team motivation: considerations for the LMX                                   Italian Labour Law e-Journal
model                                                                                                   Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
Nina S. Greimel                                                                                               ISSN 1561-8048
nina.greimel@hhl.de                                                            https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794
Dominik K. Kanbach
dominik.kanbach@hhl.de
Mihaela Chelaru
mihaela.chelaru@unimore.it



     Remote working and team motivation: considerations
                   for the LMX model
        Nina S. Greimel – Dominik K. Kanbach+– Mihaela Chelaru

 1. Introduction. 2. Theoretical background. 3. Methodology. 4. Results. 5. Discussion. 6.
 Conclusion.


                                                            Abstract

     This study investigates the Leader Member Exchange (LMX) model and job satisfaction for
     employees working remotely during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research is based on 22 semi-
     structured interviews conducted with consultants on different career levels within a multinational
     corporation (MNC) in 2022. The results indicate that the shift to remote work, during the
     COVID-19 pandemic, has brought new considerations to the LMX model and job satisfaction.
     In addition, it also positively impacted economic, environmental, and social sustainability goals.
     The qualitative study identifies three aggregated key factors, conducted from the interview data,
     that contribute to job satisfaction in a remote work setting: (1) methods of collaboration, (2)
     performing through collaboration, and (3) identification with work and employer. These findings
     offer valuable insight on remote working during the COVID-19 pandemic. They also provide a
     foundation for further research on remote and hybrid work and collaboration models, whilst
     providing understanding on their alignment to economic, environmental, and social sustainability
     goals.

     Keywords: Remote Working; COVID-19; LMX; Job Satisfaction; Sustainability Goals.



 1. Introduction.

    Remote working means carrying out employee duties from a location other than a central
 office operated by the employer. To communicate with the employer and colleagues, the
 employee must telecommunicate virtually. It was initiated as a working option to provide the
 employee more flexibility.1 In previous studies, the concept of remote work has been referred



 
   External doctoral candidate at the Chair of Strategic Management at HHL Leipzig Graduate School of
 Management. This essay has been submitted to a double-blind peer review.
 +
   Full Professor and Chairholder, Chair of Strategic Entrepreneurship at HHL Leipzig Graduate School of
 Management.
 
   Postdoc at DISMI. University of Modena and Reggio Emilia.
 1 Hill E., Ferris M., Märtinson V., Does it matter where you work? A comparison of how three work venues (traditional office,

 virtual office, and home office) influence aspects of work and personal/family life, in Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 2, 2003,
 220-241.
    Nina S. Greimel                                                                           Italian Labour Law e-Journal
    Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                               Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
    Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                  Section: Miscellaneous




to as ‘working from home’, ‘work at home’, ‘work from anywhere’, ‘telecommuting’, ‘virtual
work’, ‘mobile work’, or ‘flexible work’.2 In this study, we will use the terms interchangeably.
    Di Martino and Wirth define remote working as “a flexible work arrangement whereby
workers work in locations, remote from their central offices or production facilities, the
worker has no personal contact with co-workers there, but is able to communicate with them
using technology”.3 According to Leemann et al., 4 new forms of work, such as remote work,
are important for the digital transformation of companies as it enables greater flexibility,
innovation, and cost savings. Remote work is not a new concept; however, its
implementation is not an instantaneous process.
    Remote working, especially from home, has a positive impact on aspects of work and
personal life.5 The research conducted by Al-Habaibeh et al. 6 reveals a positive perspective
from the respondents towards the environmental benefits such as the elimination the daily
commute. Trapp and Kanbach argue that sustainable business models are becoming
increasingly important due to the global focus on climate change.7 Additionally, remote work
has the potential to benefit companies in terms of reduced costs for office space.8
    Remote working has been widely accepted as having a positive impact on sustainability.
Moreover, recent shifts toward remote working demonstrates substantial potential to benefit
all pillars of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social.9 From an economic
standpoint, companies embracing remote working arrangements can garner significant cost
savings by reducing physical infrastructure needs,10 thereby contributing to the economic
sustainability pillar. Additionally, the increased flexibility can enhance employee productivity,

2 Allen T.D., Golden T.D., Shockley K.M., How Effective Is Telecommuting? Assessing the Status of Our Scientific
Findings, in Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 16, 2, 2015, 40–68; Popovici V., Popovici A.L., Remote work
revolution: Current opportunities and challenges for organizations, in “Ovidius” University Annals – Economic Sciences Series,
20, 1, 2020, 468-472; ILO, Defining and measuring remote work, telework, work at home and home-based, 05 June 2020,
available at:
https://www.ilo.org/global/statistics-and-databases/publications/WCMS_747075/lang--en/index.htm ; Soga
L.R., Bolade-Ogunfodun Y., Mariani M., Nasr R., Laker B., Unmasking the other face of flexible working practices: A
systematic literature review, in Journal of Business Research, 142, 2022, 648-662.
3 Di Martino V., Wirth L., Telework: A new way of working and living, in International Labour Review, 129, 5, 1990,

529–554.
4 Leemann N., Kanbach D., Stubner S., Breaking the Paradigm of Sensing, Seizing, and Transforming - Evidence from
Axel Springer, in Journal of Business Strategies, 38, 2, 2021, 95-124.
5 Hill E., Ferris M., Märtinson V., nt. (1); Kelliher C., Anderson D., For better or for worse? An analysis of how flexible

working practices influence employees' perceptions of job quality, in The International Journal of Human Resource Management,
19, 3, 2008, 419–431.
6 Al-Habaibeh A., Watkins M., Waried K., Javareshk M.B., Challenges and Opportunities of Remotely Working from

Home during Covid-19 Pandemic, in Global Transitions, 3, 2021, 99-108.
7 Trapp C.T., Kanbach D.K., Green entrepreneurship and business models: Deriving green technology business model

archetypes, in Journal of cleaner production, 297, 126694, 2021.
8 Gelfand M., Rule makers, rule breakers: Tight and loose cultures and the secret signals that direct our lives, Scribner Book

Company, New York, 2019; Sytch M., Greer L.L., Is your organization ready for permanent WFH, in Harvard Business
Review, 18, 2020.
9 Bolisani E., Scarso E., Ipsen C., Kirchner K., Hansen J. P., Working from home during COVID-19 pandemic: lessons

learned and issues, in Management & Marketing, 15, s1, 2020, 458-476; Roberto R., Zini A., Felici B., Rao M.,
Noussan M., Potential Benefits of Remote Working on Urban Mobility and Related Environmental Impacts: Results from a
Case Study in Italy, in Applied Sciences, 13, 1, 607, 2023.
10 Bloom N., Liang J., Roberts J., Ying Z.J., Does working from home work? Evidence from a Chinese experiment, in The

Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130, 1, 2015, 165-218.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                              102
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                              Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                                  Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                     Section: Miscellaneous




further contributing to economic sustainability.11 In terms of environmental sustainability,
remote working contributes to a reduction in commuting-associated greenhouse gas
emissions, thereby mitigating environmental impact.12 Numerous investigations have
demonstrated that telework can have substantial positive effects on air quality. 13 A study
conducted by Hook et al. 14 estimates that, with a broad adoption of remote work, the annual
reduction in CO2 emissions can be significant. Social sustainability is also bolstered through
remote work arrangements by improving work-life balance and providing equal
opportunities for those in geographically disadvantaged areas.15 The increased flexibility
promotes a more inclusive work environment, serving those who may face difficulties
commuting due to disability or other constraints, while also catering to employees' varied life
needs.16
    When the COVID 19 pandemic hit, remote working was no longer an option but a
necessity.17 Due to the crisis, employers and employees have learned that including virtual
working as a hybrid working model brings more flexibility. However, it has changed how
employees relate to their jobs, and there is still a lack of guidelines and policies in most
corporations.18 Employees feel more empowered to change employment than before the
crisis and so it is getting more necessary to maintain employee satisfaction.19 According to
Fonner and Roloff's,20 empirical investigation, teleworking is linked to greater job
satisfaction, owing to its ability to mitigate organisational politics, work-life conflict, and
work-related stress. These can arise from prolonged meetings, interruptions, and distractions
in traditional office settings. Additionally, the authors contend that, despite the prevalent
perception that teleworking induces social isolation, it instead facilitates enhanced
information exchange between teleworkers and their colleagues, due to sustained



11   Choudhury P., Our Work-from-Anywhere Future, in Harvard Business Review, November-December, 2020,
available at https://hbr.org/2020/11/our-work-from-anywhere-future.
12 Hook A., Sovacool B.K., Sorrell S., A systematic review of the energy and climate impacts of teleworking, in Environmental

Research Letters, 15, 9, 093003, 2020.
13 Brown L., Barnes J., Hayes E., Traffic-related air pollution reduction at UK schools during the Covid-19 lockdown, in

Science of the Total Environment, 780, 146651, 2021; Eregowda T., Chatterjee P., Pawar D.S., Impact of lockdown
associated with COVID19 on air quality and emissions from transportation sector: case study in selected Indian metropolitan
cities, in Environment Systems and Decisions, 41, 2021, 401-412; Giovanis E., The relationship between teleworking, traffic
and air pollution, in Atmospheric Pollution Research, 9, 1, 2018, 1-14.
14 Hook A., Sovacool B.K., Sorrell S., nt. (12).
15 Golden T.D., Gajendran R. S., Unpacking the role of a telecommuter’s job in their performance: Examining job complexity,

problem solving, interdependence, and social support, in Journal of Business and Psychology, 34, 1, 2019, 55-69.
16 Lautsch B.A., Kossek E.E., & Eaton S.C., Supervisory approaches and paradoxes in managing telecommuting

implementation, in Human Relations, 62, 6, 2009, 795-827.
17 Bouziri H., Smith D., Descatha A., Dab W., Jean K., Working from home in the time of COVID-19: How to best

preserve occupational health?, in Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 77, 7, 2020, 509-510; Prin M., Bartels K.,
Social distancing: Implications for the operating room in the face of COVID-19, in Canadian Journal of Anaesthesia, 67, 7,
2020, 789-797.
18 Fealy L., Feinsod R., How can a rebalance of power help re-energize your workforce?, September 12th, 2023, available

at https://www.ey.com/en_ph/workforce/work-reimagined-survey
19 Fealy L., Feinsod R., ibidem.
20 Fonner K.L., Roloff M.E., Why teleworkers are more satisfied with their jobs than are office-based workers: When less

contact is beneficial, in Journal of Applied Communication Research, 38, 4, 2010, 336-361.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                             103
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                             Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                                 Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                    Section: Miscellaneous




connectivity. According to Korherr et al., 21 management has a key role in implementing new
ways of working, particularly those related to analytics-based decision making. Leadership
can do this by creating a supportive organisational culture, providing resources, and training,
and leading by example.
   Moving forwards, the remote working conditions during the crisis constitute a promising
basis to study employee satisfaction factors. These can be used as guidance for motivating a
team.
   The results from Slavković's study indicated that distractions from the home environment
and loneliness were significant predictors of outcomes such as job performance and work
engagement. According to Salmony et al., 22 the COVID-19 crisis and the resulting shift to
remote working has increased the risk of psychological distress and decreased psychological
well-being for entrepreneurs. The results also revealed that the use of ICT (information and
communication technology)23 solutions for establishing social support can provide benefits.
However, it is not a perfect substitute for social support received through face-to-face
interactions.24
   Some studies have found that remote workers exhibit a more supportive approach to
work requirements, as evidenced by their reduced perception of time pressure;25 enhanced
quality of work-related relationships, and greater prospects for professional growth.26
   To gain an understanding of job satisfaction while remote working over an extended
period of time, semi-structured expert interviews were conducted in a multinational
cooperation (MNC) within the consulting industry. The communication and relationship
model LMX is a framework to examine the quality of relationships in a work environment
and has been developed at a time were working together in an office for most professions
was the predominant way of interaction.27 LMX and job satisfaction interact also in a remote
working setup.28 To learn more about the relationship between LMX and job satisfaction in


21 Korherr P., Kanbach D.K., Kraus S., Jones P., The role of management in fostering analytics: the shift from intuition to
analytics-based decision-making, in Journal of Decision Systems, 2022, 1-17.
22 Salmony F., Kanbach D., Stubner S., Entrepreneurs in times of crisis: Effects of personality on business outcomes and

psychological well-being, in Traumatology, 28, 3, 336, 2021.
23 Eurostat, Glossary:Information and communication technology (ICT), available at

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Information_and_communication_technology_(ICT)#:~:text=Informati
on%20and%20communication%20technology%2C%20abbreviated,handle%20information%20and%20aid%
20communication.
24 Slavković M., Sretenović S., Bugarčić M., Remote working for sustainability of organization during the covid-19 pandemic:

The mediator-moderator role of social support, in Sustainability, 14, 1, 2022.
25 Darouei M., Pluut H., Work from home today for a better tomorrow! How working from home influences work-family conflict

and employees' start of the next workday, in Stress and Health, 37, 5, 2021, 986-999.
26 Davidescu A.A., Apostu S.A., Paul A., Casuneanu I., Work flexibility, job satisfaction, and job performance among
Romanian employees—Implications for sustainable human resource management, in Sustainability, 12, 15, 6086, 2020.
27 Liden R., Sparrowe R., Wayne S., Leader-member exchange theory: The past and potential for the future, in Research in

Personnel and Human Resources Management, 15, 1997, 47–119.
28 Ariani D., Leader-Member Exchanges as a Mediator of the Effect of Job Satisfaction on Affective Organizational

Commitment: An Empirical Test, in International Journal of Management, 29, 2012, 46-56; Golden T.D., Veiga J., The
impact of superior–subordinate relationships on the commitment, job satisfaction, and performance of virtual workers, in The
Leadership Quarterly, 19, 1, 2008, 77-88.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                            104
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                              Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                                  Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                     Section: Miscellaneous




a remote working setup, we needed to gain a better understanding about which satisfaction
factors dependent on the LMX will motivate a team in a remote working setup.


2. Theoretical background.

   Building on the outlined discussion and relevance of the topic, the following section
provides the theoretical background of the LMX model and job satisfaction. It describes the
development of both factors in a remote working environment to create a basis for the
empirical study.

   LMX Model and Job Satisfaction
   The LMX framework illustrates the quality of relationships between leaders and group
members. It has evolved from a hypothesis in the 1970s to become a mature theory for
leadership.29 It focuses on leaders building strong and trustful relationships with a portion of
the team members.30 While other leadership theories, e.g. transformational leadership, focus
on the effect of leadership behavior on their followers, the LMX model analyzes its two-
sided relationship to understand the impact of leadership behaviour on members, teams, and
organisations.31 A strong manager-employee relationship strengthens managerial trust, which
boosts employee empowerment.32
   The relationship between leaders and their subordinates can be formal (out group),
informal or extended (in group).33 Out group relationships focus solely on work related
topics. Due to factors such as trust, a relationship develops with the subordinate, and they
can become part of the ‘in group’.34 An ‘in group’ relationship can strengthen formal
relationships and vice versa. In group relationships tend to have higher quality and last
longer.35
   Leaders influence followers’ attitudes and behaviors towards work.36 Job satisfaction
describes the well-being of an employee at work.37 The intersection of LMX and job
satisfaction is broadly discussed in the literature.38 LMX can be positively related to job

29 Bauer T.N., Erdogan B., The Oxford Handbook of Leader-Member Exchange, Oxford University Press, Oxford,
2015.
30 Bauer T.N., Erdogan B., ibidem. See also Ansari M., Hung D., Aafaqi R., Leader-Member Exchange and Attitudinal

Outcomes: Role of Procedural Justice Climate, in Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 28, 2007, 690–709.
31 Bauer T.N., Erdogan B., nt. (29).
32 Gomez C., Rosen B., The leader–member exchange as a link between managerial trust and employee empowerment, in

Group and Organization Management, 26, 1, 2001, 53–69.
33 Malik M., Wan D., Ahmad M., Naseem M., The role of LMX in employees job motivation, satisfaction, empowerment,

stress and turnover: Cross country analysis, in Journal of Applied Business Research (JABR), 5, 2015, 1897-2000.
34 Malik M., Wan D., Ahmad M., Naseem M., ibidem.
35 Malik M., Wan D., Ahmad M., Naseem M., ibidem.
36 Fisk G.M., Friesen J.P., Perceptions of leader emotion regulation and LMX as predictors of followers’ job satisfaction and

organizational citizenship behaviors, in The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 1, 2012, 1-12.
37 Ariani D., nt. (28).
38 Ariani D., ibidem. See also Loi R., Chan K.W., Lam L., Leader–member exchange, organizational identification, and job

satisfaction: A social identity perspective, in Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 87, 1, 2014, 42–61;
Michael D., Supportive supervisor communication as an intervening influence in the relationship between LMX and employee job

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                             105
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                                  Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                                      Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                         Section: Miscellaneous




satisfaction and negatively related to turnover intentions.39 During the last two decades
research shows that employees’ mindsets have changed; they have lost trust in
organisations.40 Fewer direct interactions in a modern workplace can enhance the effect.41 In
an ever-changing work environment, leadership influence on team motivation is essential.42
To avoid turnover, it is important to keep employees satisfied. High quality in group
relationships is positively correlated with job satisfaction.43 The reverse effect is also true.
For example, low quality, out group relationships go hand in hand with low levels of job
satisfaction.44

   Remote Working, LMX and Job Satisfaction
   Formal and informal team interaction is affected by the medium of communication.45 A
remote work environment, makes a team reliant on technological solutions to communicate
effectively with their colleagues.46
   For the sake of this analysis, virtual communication means communication solely through
a technological medium and hybrid communication can include a variety of face-to face
contact.47 During the COVID-19 pandemic, informal meetings between colleagues mainly
took place virtually. Remote formal and informal communication requires a variety of
Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) forms. Collaboration tools are not limited to

satisfaction, turnover intentions, and performance, in Journal of Behavioral Studies in Business, 4, 2011, 1-28; Nikolić M.,
Vukonjanski J., Nedeljković M., Hadžić O., Terek E., The impact of internal communication satisfaction dimensions on
job satisfaction dimensions and the moderating role of LMX, in Public Relations Review, 39, 5, 2013, 563-565; Pellegrini
E., Scandura T., Leader–member exchange (LMX), paternalism, and delegation in the Turkish business culture: An empirical
investigation, in Journal of international business studies, 37, 2, 2006, 264-279; Volmer J., Niessen C., Spurk D., Linz
A., Abele A., Reciprocal relationships between leader–member exchange (LMX) and job satisfaction: A cross‐lagged analysis,
in Applied Psychology, 60, 4, 2011, 522-545.
39 Bhatti G.A., Islam T., Mirza H.H., Ali F.H., The relationships between LMX, job satisfaction and turnover intention,

in Science International, 27, 2, 2015, 118-127 ; Michael D., nt. (38).
40 Malik M., Wan D., Ahmad M., Naseem M., nt. (33).
41 Chernyak-Hai L., Rabenu E., The New Era Workplace Relationships: Is Social Exchange Theory Still Relevant?, in
Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 11, 3, 2018, 456-481.
42 Barbuto J., Gifford G., Motivation and Leader-Member Exchange: Evidence Counter to Similarity Attraction Theory, in

International Journal of Leadership Studies, 7, 1, 2012, 18-28; Humphreys H., Walter O., Leadership and Temperament
Congruence: Extending the Expectancy Model of Work Motivation, in Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 10, 4,
2004, 58-79.
43 Scandura T., Graen G., Moderating effects of initial leader–member exchange status on the effects of a leadership intervention,

in Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 3, 1984, 428-436; Sparrowe R., Empowerment in the hospitality industry: An
exploration of antecedents and outcomes, in Hospitality Research Journal, 17, 3, 1994, 51-73; Volmer J., Niessen C., Spurk
D., Linz A., Abele A., nt. (38).
44 Cogliser C., Schriesheim T., Scandura A., Gardner W., Balance in leader and follower perceptions of leader–member

exchange: Relationships with performance and work attitudes, in The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 3, 2009, 452–465; Le Blanc
P., González-Roma V., A team level investigation of the relationship between Leader–Member Exchange (LMX)
differentiation, and commitment and performance, in The Leadership Quarterly, 23, 3, 2012, 534–544; Schyns B., Wolfram
H., The relationship between leader-member exchange and outcomes as rated by leaders and followers, in Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, 29, 7, 2008, 631-646.
45 Balthazard P., Waldman D., Warren J., Predictors of the Emergence of Transformational Leadership in Virtual Decision

Teams, in The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 5, 2009, 651-663.
46 Jarvempaa S., Tanriverdi H., Leading virtual Knowledge Networks, in Organizational Dynamics, 31, 4, 2003, 403-

412.
47 Hambley L., O’Neill T., Kline T., Virtual team leadership: The effects of leadership style and communication medium on

team interaction style and outcomes, in Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process, 103, 1, 2007, 1-20.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                                  106
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                          Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                              Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                 Section: Miscellaneous




one form of communication, meaning one tool can entail different forms and provide a
richness of communication that is simultaneous, or time shifted.48 A variety of CMC forms
exist and are constantly evolving. They can be categorized and distinguished by the richness
of communication. For example, videoconferencing, or teleconferencing, is a richer form of
communication than chat-based interaction.49 According to Kraus et al., 50 the metaverse
offers a richer and more immersive communication tool compared to videoconferencing.
The need for easy-to-use communication tools and the development of digital technologies,
e.g., videoconferencing, facilitate the development of better collaboration tools. For example,
these can be highly interactive video conferencing technology, networking platforms and
social media.51 Therefore, collaboration tools can enable a range of communication forms
and are constantly developing towards further possibilities for interaction in a remote world.
However, they still need to be clearly distinguished from face-to-face contact.
    LMX, remote working and job satisfaction interact.52 In their recent study, Greimel et al.
claim that a virtual workspace is central to envisioning a sustainable future.53 In addition they
state that the application of transformational leadership attributes and skills has consistently
been recognised as an effective strategy for team motivation. The sharing of virtual
communication is a decisive factor for a team and has an impact on all aspects of work and
LMX relationships.54 In an extensively virtual mode, levels of job satisfaction increase with
the quality of relationships.55 The importance of building and maintaining high quality in
group relationships that build trust is more challenging due to the physical distance in a
remote working environment.56 It is important to identify satisfaction factors that help to
sustain relationships by motivating a team.
    We must take into account that any research carried out during the pandemic brings more
variables into the discussion. Virtual working alone has an impact on relationships, but
variables, like satisfaction with remote working and ability to cope with the situation, need
to be considered.57 To answer the research question ‘what satisfaction factors dependent on
the LMX motivate a team in a remote working setup’ this train of thought is crucial to delimit
satisfaction factors that can also be transferred into the post-COVID-19 situation. The
unprecedented number of remote workers during the COVID-19 pandemic provides a new

48 Hambley L., O’Neill T., Kline T., ibidem.
49 Hambley L., O’Neill T., Kline T., ibidem. See also Cascio W., Shurygailo S., E-Leadership and Virtual Teams, in
Organizational Dynamics, 31, 4, 2003, 362–376.
50 Kraus S., Kanbach D.K., Krysta P.M., Steinhoff M.M., Tomini N., Facebook and the creation of the metaverse:

radical business model innovation or incremental transformation?, in International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior &
Research, 28, 9, 2022, 52-77.
51 Byrnes K., Kiely P., Dunne C., McDermott K., Coffey J., Communication, collaboration and contagion:

"Virtualisation" of anatomy during COVID‐19, in Clinical Anatomy, 34, 1, 2021, 82-89.
52 Golden T.D., Veiga J., nt. (28); Mouriño-Ruiz E., Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) The Impact of Leader-Employee

Relationships in the 21st Century Workplace, in Business Journal of Hispanic Research, 4, 1, 2010.
53 Greimel N.S., Kanbach D.K., Chelaru M., Virtual teams and transformational leadership: An integrative literature
review and avenues for further research, in Journal of Innovation & Knowledge, 8, 2, 100351, 2023.
54 Golden T.D., Veiga J., nt. (28); Mouriño-Ruiz E., nt.(52).
55 Golden T.D., Veiga J., nt. (28).
56 Malik M., Wan D., Ahmad M., Naseem M., nt. (33).
57 Toscano F., Zappalà S., Galanti T., Is a good boss always a plus? LMX, family-work conflict, and remote working

satisfaction during the Covid-19 pandemic, in Social Sciences, 11, 6, 2022, 248.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                         107
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                     Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                         Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                            Section: Miscellaneous




research field for virtual communication, relationships, and satisfaction factors. Since most
of the research measures the quantitative relationship between the variables, this study sheds
light on factors that satisfy employees in the context of LMX and remote working.


3. Methodology.

   The subsequent methodological section provides the research context for a qualitative
study as well as a description of the data collection and analysis process.

    Research Context
    A lot of existing research on LMX and job satisfaction58 and remote working is based on
quantitative studies to measure the impact of the variables with each other.59 Since working
remotely for a long period is a new phenomenon, a qualitative approach helps to create a
more detailed picture of the research field. Being in an initial, exploratory phase of a solely
virtual working environment, the research approach was set up inductively.

   Data Collection
   Based on an inductive, qualitative research approach, the following section provides an
overview about the data collection process. With the first draft of the semi-structured
interview questionnaire, asking about the working experience during the indispensable virtual
working setup, we conducted two interview dry runs in the consulting industry. We learned
that having thematic fields in the interview guide provided the flexibility to react to the
interviewee’s answers. Also, the customized interview setup helped the interviewee to
underpin their personal experience with examples.
   After formulating thematic fields about the phenomenon of interest, 22 expert interviews
with consultants on different career levels in a MNC in the consulting industry were
conducted (see Table 1). We had a 70% response rate on our interview requests. The 22
interviews had an average interview duration of between 30-45 minutes and took place
between January and March 2022.
   T o gain a broad view on a leader-member relationship from different perspectives and
hierarchy levels, consultants with different positions of consulting experience (see Table 1)
were interviewed. Having different years of consulting experience (see Table 1), more than
70% of our interviewees had experience with consulting work before the pandemic and
therefore working in geographically dispersed and diverse teams.




58 Ariani D., nt. (28); Loi R., Chan K.W., Lam L., nt. (38); Michael D., nt. (38); Nikolić M., Vukonjanski J.,
Nedeljković M., Hadžić O., Terek E., nt. (38); Pellegrini E., Scandura T., nt. (38); Volmer J., Niessen C., Spurk
D., Linz A., Abele A., nt. (38).
59 Golden T.D., Veiga J., nt. (28); Mouriño-Ruiz E., nt. (52).



https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                    108
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                           Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                               Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                  Section: Miscellaneous




      TABLE 1
      Hierarchy Level Conversion Table and Conducted Interviews

        Level            Average         Example of Main Absolut                                Relative Number of
                      Years        of Responsibilities     Number                        of Interviews
                      Experience                           Interviews
        Analyst          ~2              Collaboration in 3                                    ~ 14 %
                                      the
                                         project teams
        Consultant        ~3-5           Specialisation in 7                                   ~ 32 %
                                      one      field    of
                                      expertise
        Manager           ~5-8           Project               3                               ~ 14 %
                                      management
        Senior                           responsibility
     Manager              ~ 8 - 12       Sales                 8                               ~ 36 %
        / Principal                   responsibility
        Director          ~ 12           Leadership,           1                               ~ 4%
        Managing                      business
     Director                         development       &
                                      sales

   To conduct the research on virtual communication, 22 “personal communication” virtual
interviews took place in the English language using the collaboration tool Microsoft Teams.
The interviews were recorded and simultaneously using the video function to be able to see
and interpret the gestures and facial expressions of the interviewee.

   Data Analysis
   Afterwards, the interviews were transcribed utilising a transcribing software. With the help
of the qualitative data evaluation software, MAXQDA, the interviews were evaluated with
the grounded theory method of Gioia et al.60 Gioia et al. is a valuable inductive approach to
concept theory from data using the labeling methods of “1st-order categories”, “2nd-order
themes” and “aggregate dimensions”.61
   Starting with the first step of the evaluation approach, we identified 112 “1st- order
categories” that describe satisfaction with the remote working situation. In a next step, we
decided to cluster all levels of intensity of satisfaction with the remote situation to 9 “2 nd–
order themes” (see Figure 1). This natural evaluation provided us with the possibility of
different intensities of satisfaction in one framework. Afterwards, the 9 “2nd– order themes
were clustered into 3 aggregated dimensions (see Figure 1). Having a closer look at the “2nd–

60 Gioia D., Corley K., Hamilton A., Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research, in Organizational Research Methods,
16, 1, 2013, 15-31.
61 Gioia D., Corley K., Hamilton A., ibidem.



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 Nina S. Greimel                                                         Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                             Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                Section: Miscellaneous




order themes”, we identified that the satisfaction factors could motivate a team in a virtual
or hybrid work setup. To evaluate our findings from the consulting perspective, and ensure
generalisability and trustworthiness, we evaluated our findings with two industry experts
from the Healthcare and Financial Services industry.


4. Results.

   The following section provides the “2nd-order themes” within the “aggregated
dimensions” as satisfaction factors of the collected and analysed data. Within each “2nd-order
theme” we provide examples of different intensity of satisfaction based on the “1 st - order
categories” (see Figure 1 below).

FIGURE 1
  Satisfaction Factors after Gioia et al. 2013




   Ways of Collaboration
   An indispensable virtual working atmosphere can infuse work and relationship patterns
that in turn influence the ways of collaboration. The aggregated dimension ways of
collaboration focus on different intensities with satisfaction of collaboration in a virtual work
environment.

   Flexibility for the Individuum
   The remote working setup led to more time in meetings and an increase in working hours
for many consultants: “Each day, it's pretty crowded with meetings…in the past two years.”
(Consultant, personal communication, February 2, 2022). “Your day starts two hours earlier



https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                        110
 Nina S. Greimel                                                      Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                          Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                             Section: Miscellaneous




on a Monday morning and lasts longer at nighttime.” (Senior Manager, personal
communication, February 17, 2022).
    Having more working hours and working virtually from home resulted in less clear
separation between work and private life: “It appears that sometimes I continue working in
the evenings after dinner, and on the weekend...” (Consultant, personal communication,
January 26, 2022).
    To react to a 24h availability culture teams need to find new and changing working
routines. The routines can offer flexibility for the individual while ensuring there is enough
collaboration time working with the team. Therefore, the work routines should be flexible
so that they can be adjusted to new circumstances and team setups: “I would like to keep the
situation where I can combine home office and client side.” (Managing Director, personal
communication, February 25, 2022). Moreover, each employee should have more flexibility
to create their own rhythms and combinations of collaboration: “When it makes sense to
come together for team building, that will be plannable, and would give me a majority of
freedom.” (Senior Manager, personal communication, February 17, 2022).

   Connection in an Informal Atmosphere
   Having scheduled virtual meetings with work related agenda in a 24h culture leads to less
non-work-related conversations: “…virtual environment nails that down to work related
stuff, only leaving out the interpersonal relationship.”           (Senior Manager, personal
communication, February 17, 2022).
   Moreover, working remotely offers less accidental or spontaneous interactions between
colleagues in an informal atmosphere. There are fewer conversations about private
circumstances of an employee. Knowing less about colleagues’ private lives contributes to
missing interpersonal relationships.
   To counteract the lack of performance through collaboration in a virtual setup, there
should be room and space for informal collaboration time. Informal collaboration time could
be in a remote or onsite place. For example, this could be meeting onsite as a team on a
regular basis “A project team should meet, because that intensifies the collaboration, and
people get to know each other better.” (Managing Director, personal communication,
February 25, 2022). Besides professional collaboration, an employer should provide space
and time for informal conversations. An office space, where everyone feels comfortable, can
offer more time for coffee chats during the day, which makes it easier to reach out to
colleagues: “…going for dinners after work having not only work-related topics, but also
connecting on a personal level.” (Manager, personal communication, January 25, 2022).
Furthermore, we could learn from the working arrangements before COVID-19, but with
more space for individual flexibility. “I had more time to get to know people on an individual
basis. We had informal conversations without planning them. When you're on a project
together, you can go for lunch, and for a coffee break.” (Managing Director, personal
communication, February 25, 2022).

   Rhythms and Structure of Working


https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                     111
 Nina S. Greimel                                                         Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                             Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                Section: Miscellaneous




    Due to a high meeting culture and less connection in an informal atmosphere, it seems
more complicated to reach out and address important topics. For example, an employee
needs to overcome the hurdle to just call a colleague or block a meeting in an already full
calendar of a superior. This makes it sometimes more difficult to address problems: “It's way
more difficult to call someone and say here, we have problem x.” (Consultant, personal
communication, February 2, 2022). It seems easier to address complicated topics personally
than reaching out in person. This is because there seems to be a higher burden to reach out
to people virtually.
    Moreover, it appears to be more time consuming to reach out remotely to the team: “We
wanted to make sure that due to the complexity and the criticality of the project, we as a
team are sitting in one room and having the ability to collaborate closer than in a virtual setup
where you need to have a call for every task.”(Senior Manager, personal communication,
February 17, 2022).
    To incorporate hybrid working formats, new rhythms of working are needed for teams
and individuals. There should be time set aside for collaboration and times for thinking and
brainstorming. Within a team, there should be slots for conversations about the project, but
where informal topics can be discussed: “I would like to keep the cadence in the office, and
certain freedom to work from home...” (Managing Director, personal communication,
February 25, 2022).
    New rhythms of working can also mean dividing the virtual and onsite time tasks. For
example, the preparation for onsite workshops could be virtual: “I love to make the pre work
virtual but when it's about defining the vision statement of a program, that’s where I would
like to be onsite.” (Manager, personal communication, January 27, 2022).

   Performing through Collaboration
   Since it is not only important how we cooperate, the second aggregated dimension
describes the performance through collaboration in a virtual setup. A positive remote
working atmosphere can stimulate work and relationship patterns that influence
performance through collaboration.

   Learning from Each Other
   In a virtual work setup, there is less opportunity to watch another person working or
leading a meeting. This means there are fewer opportunities to learn from observation.
“Work shadowing” naturally happens when you are sitting in one room as a natural bystander
and it is hard to replicate this in a remote working environment: “I would sit with people in
one room, and I would have difficult client conversations, because the client dropped by,
and everyone would have had the chance to listen in. If my client calls me now, no way I can
say, well hold on a second, let me pull in my 40 members via Teams...” (Principal, personal
communication, January 31, 2022).
   To counter the lack of learning from each other, there could be new kinds of meeting
rules to help in a virtual work setup to learn from your peers and seniors. Furthermore, the
learning and support from peers and a natural mentoring structure can evolve in a work
setting. Employees, who have more experience or have spent longer on a project, can explain

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                        112
 Nina S. Greimel                                                         Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                             Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                Section: Miscellaneous




a task to more junior colleagues: “I got very good inspirations for my peers…there were like,
naturally mentors evolving...” (Manager, personal communication, January 25, 2022).

   Creativity and Inspiration from Working Together
   Working virtually can lead to less time to be creative. It requires time windows that are
blocked out especially for creative activities. Additionally, it needs to be ensured that
everyone on a creative remote call is focused on participating and not be distracted by
anything else: “I find it…takes a long time to brainstorm ideas and come up with new
concepts over Teams.” (Senior Manager, personal communication, January 25, 2022).
   While there are many tools to ensure the collaboration in a virtual setup, there is a different
atmosphere and energy than compared to an onsite workshop: “…every time I'm in the
larger workshop with the client, I feel more ideas evolving more creativity onsite...”
(Manager, personal communication, January 25, 2022).
   Workshops should be planned when everyone is focused on the creative process and
there are no distractions from other meetings. This can be easily ensured when you work
together in one room. Moreover, the visualisation of new ideas and content creation is
sometimes easier in an onsite collaboration. Nevertheless, the setup of an onsite workshop
can also be initiated with new rhythms and rules from a virtual or hybrid environment: “It’s
more helpful to have…consolidated time together, where you have workshops, where you
actually work on something from a content perspective.”                   (Consultant, personal
communication, February 2, 2022).
   Nevertheless, for a client relationship it is important to create a setup utilising workshop
formats to help, build and sustain relationships: “…I would love to be once a month really
present with the client side designing those programs but then doing the workshops on site.”
(Manager, personal communication, January 27, 2022).

   Getting Inspired by Different Environments
   Since virtual working requires less traveling and being in different places, coming out of
your familiar environment and getting inspired is often missing. During remote working,
employees often stay in their well-known environment. Getting new ideas and being creative
can be inspired by changing environments.
   It would be inspirational to find new locations to meet and places that motivate the team
and the individual. The place to meet doesn’t need to be the regular office space, but it could
also involve working from a different location. It could also open the door to cooperation
with other organizations: “…I would love to have different locations where we meet not
only in the office, but sometimes outside and then having things like excursions…”
(Manager, personal communication, January 25, 2022).

   Identification with Work and Employer
   In addition to collaborating and performing in a working setup, the third aggregated
dimension focuses on the identification between work and the employer. A positive remote
working atmosphere can create work and relationship patterns that influence the
identification between work and the employer.

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                        113
 Nina S. Greimel                                                         Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                             Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                Section: Miscellaneous




   Awareness and Wellbeing
   Virtual work influences our ways of communicating. There is a higher likelihood of
misinterpreting the behaviour of colleagues if you only see them on an electronic device: “I
noticed within my team that people felt misunderstood, like the way one of my team
members behaved, was enforced via camera and took a while until the others started to
understand what does it mean...” (Senior Manager, personal communication, February 17,
2022).
   Feeling misunderstood and isolated can be reinforced in a remote working setup. If there
are factors that lead an employee to higher levels of stress, in a remote setting, it can lead to
sickness: “I think as a culmination of lots of things, but including being isolated in a home
office, I actually experienced a burnout last year.” (Senior Manager, personal communication,
January 21, 2022).
   Moreover, there should be a sense of awareness of wellbeing for the individual in a
company. This can include different kinds of activities for the employee to feel more
balanced: “…I feel a much more balanced person…as a consequence of introducing hybrid
working into my life.” (Consultant, personal communication, January 20, 2022). This could
be physical activities like doing yoga. It could also be mental activities like reflection.

   Sense of Belonging
   Working remotely in front of an electrical device can create a feeling of isolation: “You
are on your own laptop and once you stop the call you are sitting there alone in your own
room.” (Consultant, personal communication, January 18, 2022).
   The emotional state can have an impact on feeling connected to colleagues and superiors.
Less physical connection can lead to feeling more distant and detached from your work. To
counteract the effect, a trustful environment should be created where everyone can speak
up: “I think if teams can really choose the way they work more flexibly, then their team
dynamics should evolve quicker…and they should build trust more easily because they feel
comfortable…that should increase team collaboration.” (Managing Director, personal
communication, February 25, 2022).
   In a hybrid setup an atmosphere should be established where everyone feels included
even when some colleagues are working from home and others collaborate onsite together.
In an onsite working environment for example when a meeting is over the team goes together
to the coffee corner. In a virtual setup the work breaks are shaped alone. In an informal
break atmosphere less work-related topics but also debriefs of the meeting can be discussed.
This short reflection can help content wise but also to feel integrated and be part of a team
and feel not alone with work-related topics: “In a hybrid working model you have to have
an eye on those who are at home that they don't feel excluded from the team.” (Consultant,
personal communication, February 2, 2022).

   Individual Career Development
   Working more isolated and communicating more distant, can shift thinking from a
collective one to a more self-centered mindset. Meaning, less figuring out your team needs
and more focusing on topics that are related to your personal needs. Also, the fact that you

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                        114
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                            Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                                Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                   Section: Miscellaneous




cannot see your team and their needs physically can lead to a more fade out of their concerns
and towards a more self-centered thinking and behavior: “I think it is for me the case that
I’m thinking more: “What do I need to do?”…the thinking pattern shifts from thinking about
all the people that are around you to just yourself.” (Consultant, personal communication,
January 18, 2022).
    Besides the team spirit that could be improved by informal meetings and team building
events in a remote and or onsite work setup, there should be also more focus on the
employee and the individual career development: “If you have people who are willing to
meet other people, I think for those people, it's much easier to get the team spirit and to be
included in a team.” (Manager, personal communication, February 15, 2022).
    To countervail the effect, there should also be more focus and trust in an individual's
career development. Which could include new ways of working from different places: “I
think once the leadership has the trust in you that it doesn't matter if you work from your
home, or if you work from Spain, where you deliver your work.” (Consultant, personal
communication, January 21, 2022).


5. Discussion.

    After having outlined our findings in detail, we will reflect them in the light of existing
literature and discuss similarities and differences.
    First, research during the pandemic brings into play additional variables e.g., satisfaction
with remote working and ability to cope.62 We discover similarities within our findings e.g.,
the satisfaction with remote working and the 24h culture. In addition, the ability to cope with
the pandemic is a factor to consider , for example, many struggled with feelings of loneliness
in the remote home office setup.
    The existing literature focuses on the correlation and intensity of variables. From our
results we concluded that we should challenge the variables. The variables describing job
satisfaction cover more aspects than the employees’ well-being at work. Moreover, the
context of remote working also needs to be challenged. Onsite collaboration is often an
argumentation within all three aggregated dimensions of our results, simply going back to
the same ways of working onsite do not seem to be the correct solution. However, there are
elements of a virtual working setup and an onsite working setup that can provide more
flexibility for collaboration between individuals. More flexibility also has an impact on
sustainability. Studies indicate that the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in noteworthy
progress in sustainability outcomes, specifically in the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions63 and the improvement of air quality.64



62  Toscano F., Zappalà S., Galanti T., nt. (57).
63 Liu Z., Ciais P., Deng Z., Lei R., Davis S.J., Feng S., et al., Near-real-time monitoring of global CO2 emissions
reveals the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, in Nature Communications, 11, 1, 5172, 2020.
64 Brown L., Barnes J., Hayes E., nt. (13).



https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                           115
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                           Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                               Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                                  Section: Miscellaneous




    Various institutions, including the OECD, have emphasised the need to integrate
telework and hybrid work practices into business operations and governmental planning.65
This presents an opportunity to contribute to the accomplishment of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs).66 From an environmental perspective, remote working reduces
the need to commute, resulting in decreased carbon emissions and pollution. As a result,
fewer cars on the road translate to cleaner air and a smaller ecological footprint. Additionally,
reduced energy consumption in office spaces leads to lower greenhouse gas emissions,
contributing to mitigating against climate change.
    The study of Lodovici et al. 67 demonstrates that a reduction in carbon footprint could be
achieved by minimising office space, curtailing energy, and water consumption, limiting road
renovation, and reducing paper consumption and heating, among other measures.
Furthermore, the report highlights the potential of remote work in diminishing the emissions
of harmful substances and alleviating environmental pollution, thereby aligning with the
trajectory of sustainable development in the field of environmental health.68 From a social
sustainability standpoint, remote work promotes work-life balance and inclusivity.
Furthermore, the flexibility of remote work allows employees to spend more time with their
families. Thus, improving overall well-being and mental health.
    In summary, the integration of telework and hybrid working practices presents a valuable
opportunity to address environmental, ecological, and social sustainability goals. By
embracing remote working, businesses and governments can contribute to the achievement
of SDGs, reduce carbon emissions, promote ecological sustainability through digitalisation,
and foster social inclusivity and work-life balance. It is imperative that organisations
recognise the long-term benefits of these practices and actively incorporate them into their
strategies, working collectively towards a sustainable and resilient future.


6. Conclusion.

    This study contributes to the existing body of research because it focuses on an emerging
field in the area of LMX; remote working and job satisfaction. Moreover, the qualitative
study helped to identify and get a deep understanding of satisfaction factors. This can provide
a basis for further research in this field. The defined satisfaction factors can help quantitative
research to measure the correlation and impact with other variables.


65 OECD, Productivity gains from teleworking in the post COVID-19 era: how can public policies make it happen?, OECD
Publishing, Washington D.C., 2020.
66 Beck M.J., Hensher D.A., Wei E., Slowly coming out of COVID-19 restrictions in Australia: Implications for working

from home and commuting trips by car and public transport, in Journal of Transport Geography, 88, 102846, 2020; Moglia
M., Hopkins J., Bardoel A., Telework, hybrid work and the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals: towards policy
coherence, in Sustainability, 13, 16, 9222, 2021.
67 Lodovici M.S., Ferrari E., Paladino E., Pesce F., Frecassetti P., Aram E., The impact of teleworking and digital

work on workers and society – Special focus on surveillance and monitoring, as well as on mental health of workers, Study
Requested by the European Parliament's committee on Employment and Social Affairs, 2021, available at
https://www.aceb.cat/images/The_impact_of_teleworking.pdf .
68 Lodovici M.S., Ferrari E., Paladino E., Pesce F., Frecassetti P., Aram E., ibidem.



https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                          116
 Nina S. Greimel                                                         Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                             Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                Section: Miscellaneous




    The study highlights managerial implications. Since the pre-COVID-19 labour market
provides empowered employees with new opportunities,69 it will be a great challenge for
companies to keep employees satisfied to prevent a high turnover. A managerial implication
is to learn from motivational drivers to maintain and draw new talent tothe company. It has
emerged that remote working can bring several advantages. These include a reduced impact
on climate change, enhanced air quality and minimized associated health risks, improved
work-life balance and flexibility, and alleviated road congestion and reduced public
expenditure on the roads.
    Despite the contributions of this study to the current literature, there are also limitations.
We have identified the satisfaction factors but have not quantified the impact of the driving
satisfaction factors on the LMX. We have also not measured the intensity of remote working.
Since the data relates solely to the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, other factors like
worrying about the family, being in a lock-down, suffering from the virus could also have
had an impact on the overall mood and satisfaction with work. Collaboration tools are
continually evolving, and we can only measure the effects with the technical status quo.
    Therefore, a promising avenue for further research is to verify the satisfaction factors with
a larger sample size and data after the COVID-19 pandemic. This study motivates one to
focus on multiple satisfaction factors and measure their impact with a quantitative study.
Furthermore, satisfaction factors could also be distinguished depending on the form of
remote communication.
    Through the COVID-19 pandemic, employees experienced the positive and negative
aspects of working remotely. The option of more flexibility in a work setup will empower
employees to demand new ways of working. The war for talent within the labour market will
motivate companies to keep existing and new employees satisfied. By enabling employees to
work from home or other remote locations, remote work can decrease the carbon footprint
associated with daily commuting, lower air pollution levels, and mitigate greenhouse gas
emissions.
    Additionally, remote work can reduce office space requirements, thereby decreasing
energy consumption and minimising supply needs such as water. Remote work also offers
opportunities to adopt eco-friendly practices. For example, utilising digital communication
tools, cloud-based document sharing and storage, and virtual meetings, reduces the need for
physical travel and minimises carbon emissions. Overall, remote work is an important and
effective means of promoting environmental sustainability, and its continued adoption can
contribute significantly to the achievement of the United Nations SDGs.




69   Fealy L., Feinsod R., nt. (18).

https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                        117
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                    Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                       Section: Miscellaneous




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 Nina S. Greimel                                                                  Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                      Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                         Section: Miscellaneous




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 Nina S. Greimel                                                                    Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                        Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                           Section: Miscellaneous




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https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                   120
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                  Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                      Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                         Section: Miscellaneous




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https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                 121
 Nina S. Greimel                                                                 Italian Labour Law e-Journal
 Dominik K. Kanbach                                                                     Issue 2, Vol. 16 (2023)
 Mihaela Chelaru                                                                        Section: Miscellaneous




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https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.1561-8048/17794                                                                122
