Music, Culture and Education in Post-Colonial Hong Kong
10.6092/issn.2039-9715/10183
Questo contributo esplora la collocazione della musica nell’educazione pubblica a Hong Kong. Negli ultimi vent’anni il sistema educativo ha subito trasformazioni, dal livello primario fino all’università. I cambiamenti sono iniziati negli anni immediatamente successivi al 1997, ovvero dal passaggio di Hong Kong a regione a statuto amministrativo speciale nella Repubblica Popolare Cinese, dopo più di 150 anni di dominio britannico. In questo contributo vengono analizzate le linee guida del Ministero per l’educazione di Hong Kong e alcune pubblicazioni che sottolineano il ruolo della musica e l’importanza della qualità della vita tra gli obiettivi dell’amministrazione scolastica. Ci si concentra in particolare sul curriculum della scuola secondaria, comparando tra loro i programmi musicali delle università di Hong Kong. Se da un lato il confronto mostra che vi sono strette connessioni tra gli studi secondari e di livello universitario in musica, dall’altro esso illustra anche alcuni divari nel sistema, specialmente nelle aree della teoria musicale e della storia della musica. 
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Brian Thompson
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Music, Culture and Education in Post-Colonial Hong Kong
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Brian Thompson
2019/12/20
10.6092/issn.2039-9715/10183
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Music, Culture and Education in Post-Colonial Hong Kong
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         Musica Docta. Rivista digitale di Pedagogia e Didattica della musica, pp. 85-95




                                  BRIAN C. THOMPSON
                                        Hong Kong

                 MUSIC, CULTURE, AND EDUCATION
                  IN POST-COLONIAL HONG KONG

      A student’s path to tertiary studies in music, whether at a university or con-
servatory, may begin in one of many ways. For some, it begins by being sent,
grudgingly, to piano or violin lessons – lessons that gradually lead to an appreci-
ation that in turn grows into a passion. For others, hearing recorded music may
touch an instinctive need to participate, be it by rapping, playing the electric
guitar, or mastering turntables. In some cases, the path begins in school, as the
result of an inspiring teacher, and a second-hand clarinet or erhu.
      In this article focusing on music education in Hong Kong, I explore the role
of the public-school system in cultivating musical talent and consider how well
the curriculum and extra-curricular music making prepare secondary school stu-
dents for what awaits them in university. These are especially interesting ques-
tions as Hong Kong’s entire education system, from P1 though university, has
been transformed in the past two decades. These educational reforms followed
on the heels of a profound political realignment, and were aimed, in part, in
smoothing the transition.1 Culture was elevated within the revamped education
system. Music was given far greater emphasis and more resources. These
changes have been the subject of several studies. The transition to a broader
music curriculum was the subject of a study by Ho and Law, focusing on atti-
tudes of students and teachers in that early stage of the change, and a wider study
published two years later.2 As the impact of the changes is still being felt and
assessed, this paper looks at the teaching of music in public schools and at the
tertiary level to consider how well the curriculum is enabling students to transi-
tion from secondary school to university.




   1  See B. MITTLER, Dangerous Tunes: The Politics of Chinese Music in Hong Kong, Taiwan,
and the People’s Republic of China Since 1949, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1997;
Policy and the Political Life of Music Education, ed. by P. Schmidt and R. Colwell, New York,
Oxford University Press, 2017.
    2 See W. C. HO - W. W. LAW, “Sociopolitical Culture and School Music Education

in Hong Kong”, British Journal of Music Education, 26/1, 2009, pp. 71-84; and W. C. HO,
School Music Education and Social Change in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, Leiden,
Brill, 2011. See also Creative Arts in Education and Culture. Perspectives from Greater China,
ed. by S. Leong and B. W. Leung, Dordrecht and Heidelberg, Springer, 2013.




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86                                   Brian C. Thompson




The Context
      The former colony of Hong Kong became a special administrative region
of the People’s Republic of China in 1997, after 157 years of British rule. At the
time of the return of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty, the territory was by
far China’s most prosperous city and it remains affluent, albeit with a wide dis-
parity between rich and poor. As in many Western societies, the birth rate is low,
and over the past twenty years the population has grown from about 6,7 to 7,1
million as a result of immigration primarily from Mainland China administered
by the central government. The local government and civil service have largely
retained the structures created by the British administration. The territory’s of-
ficial languages were and remain Chinese and English. In addition to Cantonese,
both English and Mandarin Chinese are widely spoken. Culture and language are
closely linked and politically sensitive issues for many Hongkongers and for the
local government which must balance the needs of the Hong Kong people with
the political reality of being part of the Peoples’ Republic of China.3
      To some extent, music may be seen as common ground. The government’s
Home Affairs Bureau oversees cultural policy. Its stated vision on culture is that:
“Hong Kong becomes an international cultural metropolis with a distinct iden-
tity grounded in Chinese traditions and enriched by different cultures, where life
is celebrated through cultural pursuit; and creativity is a constant driver of pro-
gress in the community”.4 Further, it provides a list of five objectives (see Table
1), and a list of basic principles, the first of which is “to encourage citizens to fulfil
their needs for cultural pursuit and to realize their potential in the arts”. If not
stated directly in government publications, there appears to be an intended synergy
between the wider cultural policies and the place of the arts in the public schools.




     3As I work on this essay, in the summer of 2019, large and sometimes violent
demonstrations have been taking place in Hong Kong in response to the government’s
proposed introduction of an extradition law, and subsequent attacks on demonstrators
by gangs of criminals hired by supporters of the government.
    4   HONG KONG HOME AFFAIRS BUREAU, Cultural Policy, 2018,
https://www.hab.gov.hk/en/policy_responsibilities/arts_culture_recreation_and_sport/t_arts.htm
(last accessed, 20.01.2019).




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            The Stated Objectives of the Hong Kong Government’s Cultural Policy
                        (Hong Kong Home Affairs Bureau)
           https://www.hab.gov.hk/en/policy_responsibilities/arts_culture_recrea-
                                 tion_and_sport/t_arts.htm

 •   To provide opportunities for wide participation in culture and the arts
 •   To provide opportunities for those with potentials to develop their artistic tal-
     ents
 •   To create an environment conducive to the diversified and balanced develop-
     ment of culture and the arts
 •   To support the preservation and promotion of our traditional cultures while
     encouraging artistic creation and innovation
 •   To develop Hong Kong into a prominent hub of cultural exchanges

Table 1 – The Stated Objectives of the Hong Kong Government’s Cultural Policy.

      As colonial administrators, the British established an education system in
Hong Kong modelled after the one in place in the United Kingdom. After six
years of primary education, students completed five years of study leading to
the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination (HKCEE) – the equiv-
alent of Britain’s General Certificate of Education (GCE Ordinary-levels). Af-
ter this, those who chose to continue their course of studies at university would
first complete two more years of study, leading to the Hong Kong Advanced
Level Examination (HKALE) – the equivalent of Britain’s GCE Advanced Lev-
els (A-Levels). Most bachelor’s degrees were completed in three years. Between
2009 and 2012, this system was replaced with what became known as the “New
Academic Structure,” or “3-3-4” – with primary school followed by three years
of compulsory junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary, and
four-year bachelor’s degrees. The secondary school leaving exams are now
known as the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education Examination
(HKDSE). In addition to core subjects – Chinese, English, mathematics, and lib-
eral studies – students are required to complete two or three electives from five
learning areas (see Table 2). The music examination is offered by many schools,
but not all, as it requires both trained music teachers and adequate facilities.




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     Elective Options for Students Completing the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education
        (Hong Kong Education and Assessment Authority, Introduction of NAS)
                      https://334.edb.hkedcity.net/new/en/introduction.php)

                LEARNING AREA                SUBJECTS
 Senior
 Secondary      1. Personal, social and      Chinese history, economics, ethics and reli-
 Subjects       humanities education         gious studies, history, tourism and hospital-
                                             ity studies

                2. Science education         Biology, chemistry, physics, science (inte-
                                             grated, combined)
                3. Technology educa-         Design and Applied Technology, Health
                tion (5 areas including)     management and social care

                4. Arts education            Music, Visual arts

                5. Physical education

 Applied learning                            Creative Studies; Services; Media and Com-
                                             munication; Applied Science; Business,
                                             Management and Law; Engineering and
                                             Production
 Other languages                             French, German, Hindi, Japanese, Spanish,
                                             Urdu
Table 2 – Elective Options for Students Completing the Hong Kong Diploma of Sec-
ondary Education.

Music in the Curriculum – The Transition from Secondary to University
      The place of music in Hong Kong’s public-school system began to expand
after 2000, at a time when the first students who would complete the HKDSE
were entering the school system. In 2003, the Education Bureau’s Curriculum
Development Council published a Music Curriculum Guide (Primary 1-Secondary 3)
for teachers of primary and junior secondary school students. These materials
provide the foundation for much of the teaching of music in the early years. The
philosophy behind them might be summarized by the Guide’s reference to four
learning targets: “[1] developing creativity and imagination, [2] developing music
skills and processes, [3] cultivating critical responses in music, and [4] under-
standing music in context, through integrative activities of creating, performing




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(singing and instrumental playing) and listening”.5 This document was followed
in 2007 by the publication of Music: Curriculum and Assessment Guide (Secondary 4-
6), which provided teachers with additional resources and guidelines on contin-
uing instruction in music in the last three years of secondary school. At the same
time, the government began an initiative that increased opportunities for stu-
dents to learn instruments. Whereas music had largely been taught in schools
through singing, the Education Bureau provided funds for schools to purchase
instruments (primarily percussion, wind instruments, and strings). The availabil-
ity of instruments was also intended to enable schools to fulfil a wider mission,
through the programs known as “One Life, One Sport, One Art” and “Other
Learning Experiences,” to place increased emphasis on whole-person develop-
ment.6
     The increased presence of musical instruments in the schools and of music
making more generally also made it possible for students to consider taking mu-
sic as an elective subject in the HKDSE. The music examination consists of
three compulsory parts: Listening (40%), Performing (20%), and Creating
(20%), and an elective section (20%) from which students may choose perfor-
mance, composition, or an extended essay.7 The first half of the two-part Lis-
tening exam tests knowledge of music in the Western classical tradition (20% of
the overall grade). The second half tests knowledge of Chinese instrumental mu-
sic (8%), Cantonese operatic music (6%), and both local and Western popular
musics (6%). For the Performing section of the examination, students play two
or more contrasting pieces with a combined duration of 10-15 minutes in an
instrumental or vocal ensemble (15%), followed by a 3-5-minute viva voce in
which they explain their understanding and interpretation of the music per-
formed (3%), and a short sight-singing test (2%).8 For the Creating section of
the examination, students submit two or more compositions (16%) and a reflec-
tive report (4%) of about 500 words.9
     We now arrive at a crucial question: how well does the HKDSE prepare
students to study music in university? Each year, roughly one hundred secondary
school graduates enrol in BA programmes in music in Hong Kong. Three

   5 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL, Arts Education Key Learning Area. Music

Curriculum Guide (Primary 1 – Secondary 3), Hong Kong, Government Logistics Depart-
ment, 2003, p. 6.
   6 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL, Secondary Education Curriculum Guide,

Draft (May 2017), Booklet 7: Life-wide Learning and Experiential Learning, Hong Kong,
Education Bureau, 2017, p. 20, https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/en/curriculum-develop-
ment/renewal/guides/secg%20booklet%207_20170531.pdf (last accessed, 20.01.2019).
   7 The extended essay, called a Special Project, should be an analytical essay of 3,000-

5,000 words.
   8 In the sight-singing test, students are asked to sing a tonal melody of 8 to 12 bars.
   9 The total duration of the pieces should range from 6 to 15 minutes, and at least

one composition must be scored for an ensemble.




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universities offer a Bachelor of Arts (BA) in music: the University of Hong Kong
(known as HKU), the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), and the
Hong Kong Baptist University (HKBU).10 I will focus on the BA program at the
Chinese University of Hong Kong, where I teach.
      CUHK was established in 1963, as the colony’s second university, with the
aim of providing instruction in Chinese (as English was and continues to be the
medium of instruction at HKU). The CUHK Department of Music was founded
in 1965 and offers a BA in music as well as graduate degrees.11 The Department
currently admits thirty full-time students to the BA program each year, and usu-
ally five to eight music minors. Most years, all undergraduates entering the BA
program in music are local applicants, due largely to CUHK’s language require-
ments, and to the mix of Chinese and English used in the classroom. Courses in
Western music history and ethnomusicology are among the few that are taught
exclusively in English.
      The current publicity information for CUHK’s BA program in music high-
lights the “well-balanced” curriculum, with equal emphasis on practical and ac-
ademic studies. Students are required to complete 123 credits to earn a BA in
Music. This number includes a minimum of 39 credits of general education
courses (University Core), and a minimum of 72 credits in music courses. Re-
quirements within the 72 credits include applied music and choir (12), ear train-
ing, theory, and analysis (14), ethnomusicology and Chinese music (6), and West-
ern music history (6).12 There is some concentration in the final year, when stu-
dents select a capstone area from a choice of composition, pedagogy, perfor-
mance, or research. Most prefer to opt for performance but admission is com-
petitive. This preference for performance is not surprising; playing and singing
would be the usual musical activities throughout secondary school. Still, other
aspects of the HKDSE mirror the CUHK curriculum in a number of ways. Lis-
tening to and writing about music are the main activities in history and ethno-
musicology. Creating should prepare students for composition. There is also a



    10 The Faculties of Education at HKU and CUHK offer education degrees and di-

plomas with a concentration in music. The Education University of Hong Kong offers
a BA in Creative Arts and Culture, with an emphasis in either music or visual arts, and
a BEd in music. The Hong Kong Academy for the Performing Arts offers diplomas as
well as the B.Mus and Master’s de-grees.
      11 CUHK offers graduate degrees in composition (MMUS and DMUS), and re-

search degrees in musicology, ethnomusicology, and theory (MPhil and Ph.D), as well
as an MA earned through course work.
    12 The six credits in ethnomusicology and Chinese music include two required

courses (Music, Culture and Society, and Foundations of Chinese Music), and an elec-
tive. The six credits in Western music history include a two-semester survey and at least
one elective course.




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link in that engaging with a mix of Western classical music and traditional Chi-
nese musics is required in both the HKDSE and the CUHK curriculum.13
      Apart from these general connections, secondary education and university
curriculum diverge in several fundamental ways. We find evidence of this in the
instruments on which students hope to pursue their university studies. Table 3
illustrates the primary instrument of applicants to the CUHK music program
who were invited to an audition/interview in the past three years (2017-2019;14
further data concerning this Table in the Appendix).

          Primary Instrument of Applicants Invited to CUHK Music Programme
           Admissions AuditionInterviews in the Past three Years (2017-2019)
  INSTRUMENT / GROUP               NUMBER OF APPLICANTS                   PERCENTAGE
                                                                              OF TOTAL
 Voice                                           27                            7.8%
 Woodwinds                                       36                            10.4%
                                 Bassoon (2), clarinet (12), flute (6),
                                oboe (8), recorder (1), saxophone (7)
 Brass                                           16                            4.6%
                               Euphonium (2), horn (3), trombone (3),
                                        trumpet (4), tuba (4)
 Harmonica                                            1                        0.3%
 Percussion                                          12                        3.5%
 Bowed strings                                       62                        18%
                                       Cello (7), double bass (2),
                                          viola (6), violin (47)
 Plucked strings                                      7                         2%
                                          Guitar (2), harp (5)
 Piano                                              150                        43.5%
 Organ                                                2                        0.6%
 Chinese instruments                                 32                        9.3%
                                Erhu (8), guzheng (1), liuqin (4), pipa
                               (2), ruan (5), sheng (2), suona (2), zheng
                                             (6), yangqin (2)
 Total                                              345                        100%
Table 3 – Primary Instrument of Applicants Invited to CUHK Music Programme
(2017-2019).


   13  In an average year, three or four students will be admitted to CUHK’s BA program
in music after having completed the International Baccalaureate or A-Levels, but most
will have completed the HKDSE, including the Music examination.
    14 After pre-selection, based mostly on grades, and a test of applicants’ aural skills

and knowledge of Western music theory, roughly one hundred students are short-listed
for an audition/interview.




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      These numbers vary from year to year but are generally consistent with
those of previous years. As we see, pianists (43.5%) form, by far, the largest
group, compared with 44.3% for all of the voice, winds, strings and percussion
students combined. While instruction in singing and in wind and percussion in-
struments is offered by most secondary schools, and many others now offer
training in string instruments, very few schools provide piano lessons. Those
who apply must therefore be studying outside of school. The other striking sta-
tistic in the table is the number of applicants who are majoring on Chinese in-
struments – thirty-two, or 9.3% of the 345 students interviewed. Although
schools have increasingly offered instruction in Chinese music and it is part of
the HKDSE in music, the university attracts relatively few students who wish to
focus on Chinese music at university. We will reconsider this in more detail be-
low, but it is clear that although Chinese music has always had a prominent place
in the curriculum at CUHK, the majority of classes are concerned with the West-
ern Classical tradition.
      Before reflecting further on that point, we will consider how well secondary
schools are preparing students in two aspects of Western Classical music: theory
and history. Extensive knowledge in both areas is generally recognized as a re-
quirement for developing a well-rounded musician, and hence they are central
to music curricula in BA programs internationally as they are at CUHK. In 2017,
I surveyed our current students on how well they believed that their schools had
prepared them for university, specifically in the areas of theory and history.
Nearly half (49.5%) claimed that their schools provided no assistance in theory.
The results were similar if not quite as extreme in students’ perception of what
they had learned about music history in schools, where 44.9% believed their
schools did nothing to prepare them for university.15 We should be cautious in
drawing conclusions from these results, especially as follow-up interviews were
not conducted, and individual teachers will undoubtedly take different ap-
proaches in the secondary school classroom, but looking to assessment guide-
lines for the HKDSE it is clear that emphasis has not been placed on either
theoretical or historical knowledge.
      Students applying to university will have acquired knowledge of Western
music theory and history from a variety of sources but primarily through prepa-
ration for external examinations. Almost without exception, the students admit-
ted to the BA program at CUHK will have completed the practical examinations
of the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM) or Trinity




    15 B. C. THOMPSON, Adapting the Survey for a Changing Environment, in The Norton Guide

to Teaching Music History, ed. by C. M. Balensuela, New York, W.W. Norton & Company,
2019, pp. 235-246: 238-241.




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College London (TCL) on at least one instrument.16 The practical examinations
do not place very much emphasis on historical information, beyond interpretive
considerations, but they do require some preparation in theory. Why so many
students choose to pursue studies in Western classical music is beyond the scope
of this article but the cultural capital associated with Western classical music is
undoubtedly a factor, as parents are willing to invest heavily in their children’s
musical training outside of school. Despite the Hong Kong government’s efforts
to be inclusive in its approach to music in the public-school system, Western
classical music is likely to retain a privileged place. As a recent comparative study
of music assessment methods in schools across East Asia has shown, “Music
curricula in Asian countries grow more international by the year”.17

Conclusions
     The changes in Hong Kong’s education system were initiated in the wake
of the territory’s return to Chinese sovereignty. In that time of uncertainty, and
over the past decade, Hong Kong’s Education Bureau has endeavoured to strike
a balance between Western and Chinese musical traditions while generally in-
creasing opportunities for students to make music a part of their lives. On the
other hand, evidence suggests that the changes to the curriculum have been only
modestly successful in providing the foundations students require if they wish
to continue their studies in music at the tertiary level. While the HKDSE music
examination conforms partially to the curriculum at the university level, it fails
to provide foundations in either the history or theory of Western classical music,
even though that is the tradition that most students choose to focus on in uni-
versity. To be adequately prepared for university, students attend lessons outside
of school and complete external examinations – usually those administered by
the Associated Board of the Royal Schools of Music. This is undoubtedly a leg-
acy of the colonial era and one that remains as vigorous as ever. Its value must
be reconciled with the fact that its cost and its emphasis on Western classical
repertoire will present barriers to students from financially disadvantaged back-
grounds, limiting the likelihood that they will consider music to be a viable op-
tion for higher-level study.
     The transition from secondary- to tertiary-level music education remains a
topic requiring careful, transnational study. Hong Kong’s recent history and
unique characteristics – from its bi-cultural traditions, to its role as a financial
centre, and its reputation as a free-market city – highlight some of the competing

   16 For a discussion of Hong Kong’s preoccupation with graded music exams, see L.
POON, The Piano as Cultural Capital in Hong Kong, Ph.D diss., University of Hong Kong,
2012.
   17 See H.-F. CHEN, Curriculum-Based Music Assessment Policies: Asian Perspectives, in The

Oxford Handbook of Assessment Policy and Practice in Music Education, vol. 1, ed. by T. S.
Brophy, New York, Oxford University Press, 2019, pp. 119-143: 139.




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94                              Brian C. Thompson




interests in education and culture. Given the resources that the Hong Kong gov-
ernment has allocated to music in the schools, the commissioning of a more
extensive study, examining the music curriculum in all of the territory’s tertiary
institutions, and the relative ease with which students transition to those pro-
grams, is overdue. Such a study should be of much more than local interest.
Despite its distinctive situation, Hong Kong is not alone in its need to seek a
new way forward. As it grapples with its identity and future, Hong Kong may
have much to offer and to learn from other post-colonial societies.
                                                             thompson@cuhk.edu.hk




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                                                 APPENDIX
                           Year-by-Year Breakdown of the Data Presented in Table 3
  (*A total of less or more than 100% results from rounding off the percentage at one decimal point)
INSTRUMENT                   2017                           2018                             2019
/ GROUP
                  Number of       Percentage Number of            Percentage Number of Percentage
                  applicants      of total      applicants        of total        applicants    of total
Voice                   12            9%                8         7.1%                  7       6.9%
Woodwinds               14          10.5%              14         12.6%                 8       7.9%
                  Bassoon (2)                       Clarinet (4)                   Clarinet (3)
                   clarinet (5)                      flute (4)                        sax (1)
                     flute (1)                       oboe (3)                        flute (1)
                    oboe (3)                          sax (3)                        oboe (2)
                 saxophone (3)                                                     recorder (1)


Brass                  9               6.8%              3           2.7%                  4         4%
                 Euphonium (1)                        Horn (1)                         Euph. (1)
                    horn (1)                       trombone (1)                        horn (1)
                 trombone (2)                       trumpet (1)                         tuba (2)
                  trumpet (3)
                    tuba (2)
Harmonica               0                                 1          0.9%                   0        0
Percussion              5             3.8%                5          4.5%                   2        2%
Bowed strings          27             20.3%              19          17.1%                 16        15.8%
                    Cello (4)                         Cello (2)                         Cello (1)
                 double bass (1)                   double bass (1)                     violin (14)
                    viola (2)                         viola (3)                         viola (1)
                   violin (20)                       violin (13)

Plucked                2               1.5%              4           3.6%                  1         1%
strings            Guitar (1)                        Guitar (1)                        Harp (1)
                   harp (1)                          harp (3)
Piano                  54             40.6%              47          42.3%                 49        48.5%
Organ                   1             0.8%                1          0.9%                   0        0
Chinese in-             9             6.8%                9          8.1%                  14        13.9%
struments          Erhu (3)                          Erhu (3)                       Erhu (2)
                   liuqin (1)                        liuqin (1)                    guzheng (1)
                   piapa (1)                          pipa (1)                      liuqin (2)
                    ruan (1)                          ruan (3)                       ruan (1)
                   suona (1)                         zheng (1)                      sheng (2)
                   zheng (2)                                                        suona (1)
                                                                                   yangqin (2)
                                                                                    zheng (3)


Total                 133            100.1%*            111          99.8%*               101        100%




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