Considerazioni preliminari su un approccio sistematico all'analisi semica: il caso di studio della terminologia medica
10.6092/issn.2532-8816/12621
L'analisi semica è una tecnica linguistica volta a cogliere le specificità essenziali del significato dei termini attraverso l'individuazione di unità minime di significato. Questa procedura è funzionale al raggiungimento di una comprensione approfondita della terminologia tecnica e all'acquisizione di una conoscenza concettuale specializzata. In questo articolo, ci concentriamo sull'analisi semica applicata alla terminologia medica. In particolare, discutiamo alcune considerazioni preliminari al fine di stabilire i punti di partenza per un approccio sistematico all'analisi semica. In primo luogo, proponiamo un esperimento preliminare per 1) studiare la percezione degli utenti dell'analisi semica e 2) validare l'assenza di sistematicità nelle sue prestazioni. Sulla base dei dati ottenuti, proponiamo in secondo luogo una metodologia volta a favorire la fattorizzazione sistematica dell'analisi semica. Infine, proponiamo uno studio sperimentale volto ad indagare sulla potenziale interrelazione in termini di applicabilità e produttività dei Word Embeddings rispetto all'analisi semica nel quadro dei criteri metodologici proposti.
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Preliminary Considerations on a Systematic Approach to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology
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Preliminary Considerations on a Systematic Approach to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology
https://umanisticadigitale.unibo.it/article/view/12621/13072
    Umanistica Digitale – ISSN: 2532-8816 – n. 10, 2021
F. Vezzani, G. M. Di Nunzio, V. Bonato – Preliminary Considerations on a Systematic Approach
to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology
DOI: http://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2532-8816/12621



   Preliminary Considerations on a Systematic Approach to
   Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

                 1
                  Vanessa Bonato, 2Giorgio Maria Di Nunzio, 3Federica Vezzani

                                      1,2,3
                                              University of Padua, Italy
                              1
                               vanessa.bonato@studenti.unipd.it
                               2giorgiomaria.dinunzio@unipd.it
                                  3federica.vezzani@unipd.it




        Abstract

Semic analysis is a linguistic technique aimed at capturing the essential specificities of terms
meaning through the identification of minimum semantic units. This procedure is functional
for the achievement of an in-depth comprehension of technical terminology and the acquisition
of a specialised conceptual knowledge. In this paper, we focus on semic analysis applied to
medical terminology. In particular, we discuss some preliminary considerations in order to
establish the starting points for a systematic approach to semic analysis. Firstly, we propose a
preliminary experiment to 1) study users’ perception of semic analysis and 2) validate the absence
of systematicity in its performance. Based on the resulting data, we secondly propose a
methodology aiming at increasing the systematic factorisation of semic analysis. Finally, we
propose an experimental study to investigate on the potential interrelation in terms of
applicability and productivity of Word Embeddings with respect to semic analysis in the
framework of the proposed methodological criteria.
L'analisi semica è una tecnica linguistica volta a cogliere le specificità essenziali del significato dei
termini attraverso l'individuazione di unità minime di significato. Questa procedura è funzionale
al raggiungimento di una comprensione approfondita della terminologia tecnica e
all'acquisizione di una conoscenza concettuale specializzata. In questo articolo, ci concentriamo
sull'analisi semica applicata alla terminologia medica. In particolare, discutiamo alcune
considerazioni preliminari al fine di stabilire i punti di partenza per un approccio sistematico
all'analisi semica. In primo luogo, proponiamo un esperimento preliminare per 1) studiare la
percezione degli utenti dell'analisi semica e 2) validare l'assenza di sistematicità nelle sue
prestazioni. Sulla base dei dati ottenuti, proponiamo in secondo luogo una metodologia volta a
favorire la fattorizzazione sistematica dell'analisi semica. Infine, proponiamo uno studio
sperimentale volto ad indagare sulla potenziale interrelazione in termini di applicabilità e


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produttività dei Word Embeddings rispetto all'analisi semica nel quadro dei criteri metodologici
proposti.



       1. Introduction

Terminology performs a pivotal function in the context of specialised knowledge. The study of
the relation between its linguistic and conceptual dimension is essential to accomplish its
objectives, among which term description. The relevance and usefulness of terminology notably
emerge when considering the professional contexts in which it is implicated, namely specialised
translation and interpreting, and its prominent function in the field of Information Retrieval
([15]). The employment of terminology in different domains and professional activities
emphasises the heterogeneous nature of its applications. Therefore, the necessity for different
users to productively manage terminology is determined in present-day society. The notion of
term, however, manifests to some extents a spectrum of conceptual variations according to the
peculiar theoretical paradigms respectively articulated in different theories of terminology ([20];
[21]). According to Gaussier ([11]), “[t]here is no fully operational definition of terms”. The
metalinguistic implication is the identification of the polysemic nature of the term ‘term’ within
the terminological context. We assume as a theoretical presupposition that “[a] term is a sign in
the Saussurian sense; it is the bound relationship between a word form and one meaning of that
word form” ([46]). Indeed, “[t]ogether, the signifier and the signified form the sign” ([46]).
Moreover, we consider the approach adopted by L’Homme ([21]), which “considers terms as
lexical units. This entails that they can be delimited syntagmatically and semantically”.
Concerning the lexical structure that terms can assume, it can be exemplified by way of taking
as a reference medical terminology. A medical term, for example, can assume the lexical form
either of a single element or of a multi-word unit ([8]). However, a lack of consensus in literature
can also be devised in relation to the consideration of the lexical structure of terms such as the
grammatical category that terms should pertain to. For instance, as L’Homme ([21]) expresses,
“[t]here is a larger consensus around nouns than around any other parts of speech as far as
defining terminological status is concerned”. As L’Homme ([21]) states, “[f]or some reason, it is
much more difficult to determine the terminological status of verbs and adjectives”.
Medical terminology constitutes the terminological framework of the present study. It is
inscribed in the macro-structure of special languages, also referred to as specialised languages or
LSP (Language for Special Purposes). It is peculiarly characterised by the subsistence of different
communicative needs which manifest both at the linguistic and at the conceptual level in intra-
specialist contexts and physician-patient interactions. Indeed, physicians are among the
specialists that employ this specialised language. However, the medical domain also concerns
patients who need to access medical language to communicate with physicians and comprehend
information about diagnosis and treatments. Moreover, the accessibility of medical information
to patients highly improved due to the Web ([2]). However, patients could necessitate accessing
a level of knowledge of medical concepts which differs from the specialised level of
conceptualisation possessed by specialists. Furthermore, domain technicalities doubtfully could
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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

be properly understood by non-experts. In this light, a terminological and conceptual asymmetry
between different users is determined. Medical terminology inherently features a communicative
dimension, which is also considered by León-Araúz ([19]):

         The selection of one term or another depends on different communicative and cognitive
         factors. For instance, in a doctor-patient situation, the doctor will often use easily
         understood terms when addressing the patient, whereas in a medical conference he/she will
         use more specialized standardized medical terminology.

In addition, Dury ([7]) underlines the role played by the connotative aspects in the evolution of
the medical language. For instance, according to Dury, the presence of a connotation judged to
be insufficiently rewarding, even pejorative, can interfere with the use of a term and foster its
obsolescence.
The pragmatic usage of popular terms and bit-by-bit explanations in plain language could be
conceived as acts that realise a conceptual negotiation in knowledge exchange in physician-
patient interactions. In such way, despite the conceptual gap engendered by the missing
information, mutual comprehension is not hampered due to shared conceptual references.
Moreover, it can be observed that popular terms frequently present lexical and conceptual forms
which are characterised by relational connections such as conceptual generalisations with respect
to the corresponding specialised terms. It is the case of the technical terms carcinoma and
lymphoma that can be associated with the same popular term cancer.
In this context, semic analysis (see Section 2) is a linguistic technique which can be envisaged as
a functional strategy for the achievement of an in-depth comprehension of medical terminology.
In this paper, we perform a semic analysis based on the theoretical assumption that the term is a
linguistic sign often characterised by a complex meaning, which can be decomposed into
minimal units. We adopt two complementary perspectives on the study of medical terminology.
Specifically, in the context of semic analysis, we study terms as contextually-independent
linguistic signs. Conversely, we study terms as immersed in a contextual dimension when
adopting word embeddings algorithms. We consider that:

         […] the semasiological and onomasiological approaches are two complementary
         terminological methodologies that should be used in the construction of knowledge
         representation tools. ([37])

We discuss some preliminary considerations to establish the starting points for a systematic
approach to semic analysis of medical terminology. In particular, our objectives are
    1.     the validation of the absence of systematicity in the semic analysis procedure through
           a study based on the data contained in the terminological records of the TriMED
           resource ([44]);
    2.     the proposal of a methodology that aims to define a systematic approach for the
           performance of semic analysis;

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    3.    the investigation of a potential interrelation in terms of applicability and productivity
          of Word Embeddings with respect to semic analysis in the framework of the proposed
          methodological criteria;
    4.    the investigation of the possibility to automatically or semi-automatically perform
          semic analysis of medical terminology.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. In Section 2 we present an overview of the
background studies about medical terminology, semic analysis and word embeddings. Section 3
contains the preliminary experiment on terminological records. In Section 4, we present the
methodology for a systematic semic analysis. Section 5 presents an experimental study on Word
Embeddings and semic analysis. Finally, we give our conclusions and proposals on possible
developments of the current study in Section 6.



         2. Background

Generally, the ascription of the properties of unambiguousness, referential precision and
monosemy to medical terminology would be desirable. As L’Homme ([21]) affirms, polysemy
and synonymy should not ideally occur. It should be, however, considered that, as Gotti
underlines ([13]), monoreferentiality is to be considered as restricted to the subject area wherein
the term is featured. Notwithstanding this, it can be observed that the idealistic condition of
monoreferentiality as restricted to a single domain is partially unfulfilled in the practical usage of
medical terminology. For example, the term cervical is related to different concepts, as it refers
both to the neck and the uterine cervix. Moreover, as Kuzio observes ([17]), polysemy can be
featured at the level of both abbreviations and acronyms.
Medical terminology is also peculiarly characterised by the inclusion of both specialised and
popular terms. The categorisation that distinguishes specialised terms from popular ones partially
corresponds to the distinction between terms that are uniquely characterised by denotation and
terms which also integrate connotative traits. Denotation is the essential feature that realises the
referential function of terms: in the circumstances in which it is individually employed, the term
designates one distinct referent ([3]). Connotation, instead, expresses a subjective qualitative
conceptualisation. Moreover, connotative considerations may be influenced by personal former
experiences and are individual emotional perceptions that are associated to words ([40]).
Particularly, the exploration of connotative traits ascribed to medical terminology could
constitute a resource for physicians. Indeed, it could valuably improve physician-patient
communication and mutual comprehension.
The study of denotation and connotation of medical terminology can be realised by way of
resorting to the linguistic technique of semic analysis. The accurate identification and
representation of the concepts that are represented by medical terms can be achieved by way of
performing it. Semic analysis is devised in the domain of semantics ([14]). Specifically, it captures
the essential particularities of meaning through its methodical factorisation, with the aim of
retrieving a collection of minimal traits. As a matter of fact, the systematic fragmentation of terms
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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

meaning into semes, that is to say minimal traits of meaning ([38]), enables to comprehensively
express meaning components. By way of exemplification, the concept of the English term biopsy
can be represented by the following semic analysis ([42]):

       /examination/ /tissue removed/ /from a living body/ /discover/ /presence-cause-extent/
       /disease/

where each /seme/ is surrounded by the slash “/” character.
The assumption at the root of semic analysis is that meaning should provide distinctiveness to
terms. As a matter of fact, meaning derives from oppositions ([43]), which is also required in
semic analysis. A reference theory with regard to semic analysis is the interpretative semantics
theory, formulated by François Rastier ([34]). Its main topic of study is the textual dimension.
Semic analysis is considered as a technique which fosters both the cognitive and linguistic
comprehension of linguistic units and the acquisition of semantic knowledge because of its
systematic approach. Moreover, it can be efficiently applied with respect to terminology. The
assumption of the possibility of performing it with respect to terminology could be derived from
Rastier’s interpretation of the “concept of concept”. A concept is a constructed sememe, whose
definition is determined by the norms of a discipline, in such a way its occurrences are identical
to its type ([35]). The conventional validity of these disciplinary norms enables for the translation
of concepts that consequently elude the variety of languages as well as the difference of contexts
([35]).
The study of semic analysis of medical terminology can also be carried out in the context of
Word embeddings, with a view to exploring the possibility to semi-automatically or
automatically perform it. Word embeddings are widely employed in the framework of Natural
Language Processing and can be defined as the representation of words ([22];[26]) in the form
of numerical vectors which incorporate information related both to syntax and semantics as a
vector space ([25];[26];[39]). On the basis of the notional principles of word embeddings, the
context in which a word is embedded determines the meaning of the linguistic entity itself ([47]).
However, it is relevant to mention that, as Lenci states, it is the distributional hypothesis that
realises the analogy between the similarity of distributions and the similarity at the meaning level
([18]). Former studies on the interconnection between semic analysis and word embeddings were
carried out in the context of the investigation of sememe prediction, as proposed by Xie et al.
([48]). The same issue was examined from a cross-linguistic viewpoint, such as in the study
presented by Qi et al. ([31]).



       3. A preliminary experiment on medical terminological records

With respect to semic analysis, Pottier claimed that “[w]hat is surprising is the arbitrariness of
the choice of semes as compared to the perceptible world” ([29]). Taking as a reference his
assertion, in this section we aim to: 1) ascertain that semic analysis is not an objective technique

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on the basis of a preliminary experiment, and 2) propose a methodology which could increase
systematicity in its performance.
Specifically, we perform a preliminary experiment to study users’ perception and approach to
semic analysis in the context of a study which concerned the compilation of the TriMED model
of terminological records ([44]). The terminological records were compiled by two groups of
students of the Modern Languages for the International Communication and Cooperation
Master’s Degree Course of the University of Padua. The analysed datasets concern the academic
years 2018/2019 and 2019/2020. The compilation of these records was carried out as a task
which was proposed in the context of the Computer-Assisted Translation Tools course. For the
objectives of this experiment, the examined subsections of the record concern the analysed term,
the language and all information related to the semantic domain. In particular, the focus is placed
on the selected definition of the term from a terminological perspective and, primarily, on the
semic analysis performed by the students. The articulation of the investigation process
contemplates two different approaches:
    •    Primarily, an intralinguistic approach divided into different phases is adopted. Firstly,
         we detect some cognitive operations which can be deemed as being involved in the
         selection of semes. Secondly, we analyse the lexical form of semes focusing on the
         morphological level. Lastly, we check the correspondence between the semes and the
         concept represented by the term.
    •    Contextually, an interlinguistic approach is adopted with respect to three among the
         languages in which the records are compiled, namely English, Italian and Spanish.
         The examined semic analysis respectively amount to 458 for the English language,
         343 for Italian and 101 for Spanish. The interlinguistic follow-up study is conceived
         with a view to identifying similar or different phenomena in the performance of semic
         analysis when considering three different languages.
In detail, students were asked to compile TriMED terminological records of medical terms and,
contextually, to fulfil the included section related to semic analysis. They were asked to rely on
definitions to identify semes and to express them in the form of lemmas. Moreover, students
were asked to adopt the same methodology with respect to all the three languages in which
terminological records could be compiled.
At a first stage, the analysis concerns the semes associated to English terms. The perception of
the absence of a uniformed criterion in the selection of semes primarily emerges in the
circumstance in which, for the same term, different sememes can be individuated. Some
correspondences between sememes can be detected because of the presence of shared semes. Such
occurrence suggests the hypothesised happenchance that some conceptual units are generally
shared in students’ perception. Notwithstanding the fact that a term inscribed in the framework
of special languages should be widely agreed upon in its conceptual content, we observed that: i)
different semantic elements are used to designate a term, ii) different semes are indicated in order
to indicate a single conceptual entity. For example, the term screening which refers to an
examination concerning a group of people, is expressed by the following semes:
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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

       /people/, /population/, /group/ and /large number of people/.

A subsequent comparison between the definition of a determined term selected by students and
the formulated semic analysis is performed. The comparison results in the ascertainment of the
subsistence of a close relation that is established in terms of shared terminology. In these
circumstances, it can be inferred that a manual term extraction was carried out by way of
extracting terminology from definitions. A potential criterion that can be spotted is the
application of the notion of termhood ([16]), which was applied based on the perception of the
pertinence of the term in the context of the medical domain. However, the establishment of a
total correspondence between the terms contemplated by the definition and the semes included
in the sememe is not realised in the totality of the circumstances. Consequently, the
implementation of a different criterion in the semic retrieval process is highlighted. As a matter
of fact, in numerous cases it is possible to detect the inclusion of semes which present a different
linguistic content with respect to the selected definition, hence conflating two approaches to
semic analysis. In other cases, neither a total reliance on a definition nor a partial one is adopted
as selection criteria. From a morphological viewpoint, the most representative categories are
constituted by nouns and verbs. However, even the employment of determiners, prepositions
and coordinating conjunctions can be occasionally observed. Acronyms and abbreviations are
scarcely considered as semic elements. This circumstance can be potentially attributed to the fact
that the selected definitions scarcely include these entities or that a less informative potential can
be perceived. Additionally, the application of the notion of transposition ([45]) can be
mentioned as a further criterion. This notion derives from translation studies and particularly
constitutes a translation technique. Indeed, morphological transformations involving the
terminology included in definitions can be observed, the majority of which primarily regard the
inflections of nouns and verbs. It can be confirmed, however, that in the context of the performed
semic analysis base forms constitute the main carriers of concepts.
Comprehensively, taking as a reference the 2019/2020 dataset, in a total of 198 formulations of
semic analysis compiled in English terminological records, 161 of them manifest a close
connection with the selected definitions of the terms. Specifically, we consider that a close
connection corresponds to a range which oscillates between a total terminological
correspondence to a proximity. The proximity is envisaged varying from the majority to a
minimum of half of the terms extracted from definitions. With reference to the 2018/2019
dataset, in a total of 260 semic analysis, 226 present the same interconnection. For what concerns
the mentioned interlinguistic approach, a shared pattern in terms of adopted strategies can also
be observed in semic analysis with respect to Italian and Spanish. In particular, the reference is
to the realisation of a terminological extraction from definitions to transpose terminology into
semic elements and to morphological modifications. Considering the semic analysis of Italian
terms included in the 2018/2019 dataset, 286 include terminology from definitions. Spanish
semic analysis comprised in the 2019/2020 dataset feature the same criterion in 78 cases. For
what concerns Italian semic analysis, an interesting occurrence is represented by the fact that on
some occasions, identical sememes are employed to represent the concept of different terms. For
example, a sememe uniquely composed by the seme /malattia contagiosa/, in English /contagious

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disease/, is used to represent the concepts of morbillo and rosolia, known in English as measles and
rubella. From the observation of these data, it can be confirmed that, in most cases, students
employed definitions as sources of terminological and conceptual knowledge to perform semic
analysis in accordance with the guidelines. Moreover, it could be assumed that connotation is
apparently not contemplated in semic formulations. We specifically refer to connotation as the
subjective perception that is linguistically expressed in semic analysis by way of afferent semes.
Therefore, we adhere to the distinction between semes that express denotation and connotation.
In relation to this, it could be hypothesised that semes that express connotation could have been
regarded as less relevant in the framework of a domain-specific terminology with respect to its
referential purpose and less distinctive. In this light, it could be supposed that terms were
principally considered from a referential perspective resorting to denotation, excluding individual
conceptualisations. A further reason for the exclusion of connotative semes from sememes could
be attributed to a heavy reliance on the considered definitions. In fact, both the presence and the
absence of connotative semes could potentially be directly proportional to their manifestation in
definitions. Moreover, the potential consideration of terms in a specialised context could have
exerted an influence on this issue. Indeed, it can be observed that in specialised situations medical
terms are not considered from a subjective perspective, hence relying on denotation. The lack of
connotative semes could be, therefore, hypothetically related to the fact that the employment of
medical terminology in everyday language, in which terms acquire connotation ([3]), was not
considered.
Evidence from the analysed records highlights the subsistence of a subjectively biased approach
in semic analysis’ performance. As a matter of fact, the individuation of a partially shared
cognitive mode of operation in the semes’ selection is indicative of variability. This circumstance
corroborates the impression of the discrepancy that can be observed in its formulations. Indeed,
the criterion which emerges as the most considered to perform semic analysis can be itself
regarded as a cause of dissimilarities in terms of expression of the conceptual dimension of
terminology. In fact, different definitions were respectively selected by different students for the
same term, consequentially leading to the integration of different semic elements. A procedural
gap is therefore contextually detected, determining the necessity of a systematisation in the
realisation of semic analysis.



       4. Proposal of a methodology for a systematic semic analysis

Based on this preliminary study, we propose a methodology to increase the objectivity and
systematicity of semic analysis in the context of medical terminology. Our objective is to address
the semantic discrepancies with reference to definition-based semic analysis. Moreover, we aim
to attempt to moderate subjectively biased manifestations in the expression of terminological and
conceptual knowledge.
We argue that the focus of semic analysis should not be uniquely placed on the linguistic
perspective but equally on the cognitive operations that are performed in the semes’ selection

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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

phase. Specifically, for the performance of an objective and systematic semic analysis, we propose
four sequential cognitive procedural steps.
    1.   The primary phase involves the achievement of an in-depth comprehension of the
         concept. The concept should be considered as a single unit that, at this stage, is not
         factorised.
    2.   Secondly, the cognitively elaborated unitary concept is supposed to undergo a further
         mental elaboration, as the concept should be fragmented into minimal significant
         constituents. The segmented configuration and the preconceived unitary
         conceptualisation should manifest a total conceptual correspondence. The selection of
         semes could be equated with a cognitive retrieval process, as the recall capability
         should result in an exhaustive collection of semic units.
    3.   Thirdly, the conceptual elaboration should be transposed in form of a lexical and
         metalinguistic output, following the formal graphic articulation of semic analysis.
    4.   Lastly, a conceptual validation should be contemplated. It is substantially conceived as
         a screening activity aimed at ensuring the conceptual correspondence between the
         preconceived unitary concept and the originated sememe. Furthermore, the aim is to
         ensure the referential exactness with respect to the considered terminological entry.
         This step can be regarded as a follow-up operation which is excluded from the proper
         performance of semic analysis. As a matter of fact, the main objectives it realises are
         the verification of its functional effectiveness and, contextually, the ascertainment of
         the in-depth assimilation of the concept related to the term also with respect to the
         wider framework of the conceptual map of the domain.
The proposed sequential and complementary processes of conceptual construction and
decomposition of the semantic content associated to terms provide for the acquisition of an in-
depth comprehension and investigation of concepts and terminology.
Nevertheless, the identification of the exact componential structure of multi-word terms could
constitute a challenging operation due to different factors. For example, the lexical structure
itself, as terminological particles which are included in the componential structure of these
complex entities could be mistakenly regarded as juxtaposed adjectives. It is the case of superior
mesenteric vein. Moreover, the presence of coordinating conjunctions such as in basal nuclei and
thalamic region as well as graphic signs as in positron emission tomography/computed tomography
could elicit the perception of a reference to different terms, hence failing to determine the unitary
concept. The question could also be related to the postulated frequent association between words
and the concept that is inherently involved in the process of tokenisation. In this framework, we
refer to tokenisation to indicate words seen in segmented languages as single orthographic units
generally isolated by spaces. Both reasons might be conflated into a main assumption, which is
the supposed tendency to being accustomed to focus to a greater extent on the individual
elements of a multi-word term and the individual concept they represent in the given succession
and less on the unitary concept of the multi-word entity in its compositional entirety. This
reasoning hinges on the comparison between two different levels of abstraction which
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respectively differentiate the reading of single-word terms from that of multi-word ones and the
interpretation of a single concept from that of compositional concepts.

       4.1 Domain-specific corpus-based semic analysis
A domain-oriented corpus-based data-driven semic analysis of terminology is proposed as the
first criterion for the realisation of an objective and systematic semic analysis. Specifically, the
recollection of different definitions for the considered terms to select and identify semes hence
constituting a specialised corpus of definitions would precede the applicative phase of semic
analysis, which is performed by way of a terminological extraction. This methodological
approach was formerly adopted by Elezi ([9]) in an investigation on political and economic
terminology. The exploration of definitions as a methodological approach which would
contribute identifying the semes linked to determined emotions was adopted by Baider and
Constantinou ([1]). In the framework of this study, however, the domain-oriented perspective
in the context of terminology is not the only standpoint. As a matter of fact, this methodology
is principally targeted as the baseline for the realisation of a systematic recollection of all the
semic elements related to a term. The underlying conception is also represented by the
consideration of this methodology as a valuable source of knowledge and a strategy to develop
greater awareness of the conceptual dimension of terms. Therefore, an accurate usage of
terminology would be fostered. A qualitative perspective is adopted with respect to the corpus,
rather than a quantitative one. This is because the comprehensive retrieval of all semic units is
advocated as an essential function of the adoption of this methodology. Subjectively biased
manifestation would not be entirely excluded because a selection concerning the terminological,
lexical, and conceptual extraction would still be performed. Notwithstanding this, the data-
driven mode of operation would increase the objectivity and systematicity of semic analysis due
to the adoption of a criterion for the selection which would expand knowledge.
As a matter of fact, an opportunity which could be derived from the application of this
methodology is the possibility to transcend personal knowledge, whose specificity could vary
among individuals. In this light, the potentiality for lay people to include terminological units as
semic elements hence conveying fine-grained conceptual particularities related to specialised
terms which are inherently characterised by advanced conceptualisations could be amplified.
Moreover, semic analysis itself could be enhanced in its quality, representing a tool which would
provide an improved comprehension of the conceptual contents which are embedded in a
specialised domain. Moreover, semic analysis can also be conceived as a learning strategy. Indeed,
it would subsequently bridge the gap from a cognitional viewpoint between the previous
conceptual knowledge and the advanced conceptual elaboration engrained in technical terms.
The concept of relying on different domain-oriented definitions, hence constituting a specialised
corpus of definitions, derives from the following consideration: the reliance on a single definition
would fixedly relate the conceptual knowledge represented by semic elements to the
circumscribed conceptual or semantic content included in the determined definition. For
instance, supposing that three different people would respectively rely on three different
definitions and a term extraction would be performed, the resulting extraction could potentially

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be dissimilar. The respective exploration of all three definitions performed by a single person,
instead, can possibly result in a more accurate extraction.
A further aspect to be considered is that this approach could lead to a more exhaustive and
accurate representation of the conceptual content of terminology, including in this respect a
variety of conceptual elements. The reasoning further concerns the selection of a suitable type of
definition. As Roche stated, while descriptive characteristics are linked to descriptions, essential
characteristics are related to definitions ([36]) and are advocated as indispensable for the
definition of concepts as well as for the differentiation between different concepts ([36]). From
the consideration of these statements, it derives that definitions are further confirmed as
fundamental references to convey conceptualisations. In particular, intensional definitions can
be proposed and addressed as the appropriate typology of reference lexicographic sources.
According to Roche ([36]), “[i]ntensional definition […] comprises the superordinate concept
immediately above followed by one or several delimiting characteristics”. The inclusion of
hypernyms can be regarded as valuable to instantiate the terminological unit in the wider
conceptual dimension, in this sense hierarchically gradually progressing from the superordinate
conceptual elements which are meant to contextualise from a conceptual viewpoint the semes
related to the specific term. In detail, in the circumstances in which the proposed methodology
is exemplified with reference to the English language, excluding the signalled exceptions, the
consulted sources for semes’ extraction are the Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary ([24]) and
the TheFreeDictionary’s Medical Dictionary ([41]). For what concerns Spanish language,
valuable sources that can be indicated are the Diccionario médico from the Clínica Universidad
de Navarra (CUN) ([5]) and the Diccionario de cáncer del NCI – Instituto Nacional del Cáncer
([4]). With reference to the Italian language, reliable dictionaries are the Enciclopedia Salute
from the Ministero della Salute ([10]) and the Dizionario di Medicina Treccani ([6]).
It should also be considered that the key objective of semic analysis is the accurate and
unequivocal determination of the concepts that are represented by terms and, therefore, the
adoption of a qualitative perspective. The quantitative minimisation of semic elements is not
accounted as an aim contemplated by this technique. As asserted by Rastier ([32]) economy in
the number of semes is not ascribed to semic analysis, nonetheless it can be performed and it
represents a valuable technique, whose potential is increased when contextually applied.
Moreover, the achievement of a conceptual and terminological systematisation could be fostered
by way of contemplating the inclusion of mesogeneric semes. Mesogeneric semes are generic
semes that correspond to the domains, that is to say to the “spheres of human activity” ([14]).
Their individuation can be considered as strategically fundamental with a view to reducing the
occurrence of polysemy. In this sense, semic analysis emerges as a valuable linguistic technique
that possesses an expressive quality up to the extent that ambiguity could be significantly or
partially minimised. For this reason, provided the fact that the reference terminological domain
is medical terminology, the mesogeneric seme /medicine/ is selected.
A strategy that can be proposed to heighten the potentiality offered by semic analysis to
distinctively designate a term from a differential viewpoint is the realisation of a parallel
terminological analysis. The parallel terminological analysis would be carried out with respect to
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other terminological elements which could be characterised by a proximity as for their
conceptualisations in the interconnected conceptual map of the domain. By way of
exemplification, the particularities which characterise the conceptual content represented by the
term rosaceiform dermatitis could be comprehended by way of recurring to the contemplation of
other types of dermatitis as well as the concept of dermatitis.

       4.2 Termhood to address the diastratic and diaphasic dimensions
A second criterion meant to improve the methodology is the application of the property of
termhood ([16]) combined with the consideration of the diastratic and the diaphasic dimensions
of language. This criterion is oriented to the contemplation of the communicational perspective.
Indeed, the aforementioned principles would not properly differentiate specialised terms from
popular ones. According to Rastier ([33]), by way of exemplification, when analysing medical
discourse, it would seem necessary to define ‘patient’ and ‘sick person’, to prevent a synonymic
relationship between these sememes. As a matter of fact, they are not found in the same contexts:
the first occurs in the words employed by physicians towards their assisted patients; the second,
in the words that physicians exchange with each other ([33]). The interconnection of the
principles of termhood, diastratic and diaphasic dimensions would improve the specificity which
could characterise the representation of terminology from a conceptual viewpoint. Indeed, the
domain-contextual knowledge would be captured fostering the adequate achievement of a
distinction between medical technical and non-technical terms. In other words, semic analysis
of specialised terms would feature specialised terminology while popular terms would be
represented by way of adopting non-specialised terms. Consequently, the diverging levels of
specificity that can be observed in their contextual usage would be transmitted. Indeed, “popular
terms” can be devised as entities that express concepts which stem from the realisation of a
semantic adaptation strategy for pragmatic purposes, hence differentiating them from specialised
terms. This scheme, aimed at fostering mutual comprehension and simplification, can be equated
with a communication-oriented “translation” process, specifically moving from the specialised
source concept to the target one.
As it can be observed, the presented methodology for an objective semic analysis focuses on the
context-independent inherent semes. Therefore, we delineate a research perspective which could
focus on the expression of connotation in semic analysis and its investigation. Moreover, it could
focus on the potentiality to objectively capture semantic information conveyed by connotative
traits. The cognitive elaboration of the particularities of concepts acquired through semic analysis
could prove to be fundamental in the context of specialised translation. Specifically, the former
comparison between sememes of term candidates to individuate conceptual variations could
constitute the baseline for the selection of the appropriate term for a target text, resulting in a
quality translation. Furthermore, semic analysis could also prove to be useful when comparatively
applied in the framework of an interlinguistic investigation. As a matter of fact, conceptual
discrepancies or similarities could be detected in the case in which an identical concept is
supposed to be represented by terms in different languages.



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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

          5. Word Embeddings and Semic Analysis: An Experimental
          Study

In this section, we perform an experimental study to explore the potential subsistence of an
interrelation between word embeddings and semic analysis. Specifically, we investigate on the
capability of word embeddings to retrieve semic elements in the context of medical terminology
hence from a determined terminological perspective. Moreover, we challenge the possibility to
perform a (semi-)automatic semic analysis of medical terms as theorised in the methodology.
Furthermore, this experiment is conceived as an opportunity to illustrate the implementation of
the mentioned criteria to the practical performance of semic analysis.

          5.1 Experimental setting
The present experimental study features a peculiar dual analysis. Specifically, the dataset presents
two sources of data:
     1.    the semic analysis of five medical terms – screening, measles, asthma, malformation and
           dermatitis – and
     2.    a set of lists including 50 lexical units each deriving from the application of the
           technique of word embeddings with relation to the same terms.
We chose these medical terms to compare broader concepts (screening and malformation) with
narrower concepts (measles, asthma, dermatitis).
The two reference models for word embeddings are Word2Vec, proposed by Mikolov et al.
([26]), and GloVe, developed by Pennington, Socher and Manning ([27]). We used the pre-
trained word embeddings glove-wiki-gigaword-300, for GloVe, based on Wikipedia ([28]), and
two Word2Vec models pre-trained on the Google News dataset ([12]) and PubMed ([30]). With
reference to the term dermatitis, Word2Vec is the only considered model. We used the Gensim
open-source Python library for the pretrained models. 1, 2

          5.2 A comparative analysis of sememes and word embeddings
The first approach to the investigation features a comparative perspective. The focal issue is
individuated in the questioning of the existence of a terminological and conceptual equivalence
between the semic units composing the sememe of reference terms and the related lexical units
retrieved by way of word embeddings. Contextually, the comparison is also conceived as a means
to challenge the recall capability of semic analysis with respect to the computational data.
Moreover, from an overturned perspective, it is conceived as a way to assess the potential that
word embeddings might possess to capture semic units. The 50 semantically proximal lexical



1
    https://radimrehurek.com/gensim/
2
    https://github.com/RaRe-Technologies/gensim-data

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units are specifically ranked according to correlated numerical values representing vector’s
proximity computed as a cosine distance among vectors. 3
An exemplification of the procedural steps involved in this approach can be proposed by taking
as a reference the term screening. Let us consider the following semic analysis manually performed
by a linguistic expert:

        /medicine/ /examination/ /exam/ /test/ /testing/ /group/ /individuals/ /population/
        /people/ /asymptomatic/ /detect/ /identify/ /likelihood/ /probability/ /disease/ /condition/
        /diagnostic test/ /process/ /organ/ /tissue/ /prevention/

The semic elements are subsequently compared with the lexical units which are retrieved by way
of the application of word embeddings. We list these units in the Table 1 in the Appendix.
Specifically, the following semes feature as terms in the list obtained through the application of
the GloVe model:

        /testing/, /examination/, /exam/, /test/, and /detect/.

Moreover, the inflected forms of some semes can be detected, as in the case of the terms tests and
examinations. With respect to the list stemming from the training of Word2Vec on PubMed,
the seme /testing/ features as a term in the list. Furthermore, also in this circumstance the presence
of inflected forms of semes can be observed with specific reference to the terms exams, detecting
and identifying. An absence of correspondence between the semic elements and the entities
included in the list obtained by way of Word2Vec trained on the Google News dataset can be
observed.
We identified some common phenomena which can be detected in this comparative analysis:
    •     the presence in the lists of semantically-proximal terminology of inflected forms of
          lexical elements representing semes of reference terms;
    •     the absence of correspondence between the semes comprised in a determined sememe
          and the units included in a list generated from the application of a model;
    •     in two circumstances, the elements included in the lists are multi-word terms whose
          constituents can be reconnected at the lexical level to the terminological aggregation
          of terms constituting semes.
An example can be mentioned in relation to the reference term asthma, as two of its semes
/airway/ and /constriction/ feature in the list obtained from the application of Word2Vec trained
on the Google News dataset as the multi-word term airway constriction. In several cases, a single
lexical unit comprised in the semic analysis constitutes a lexical unit of a semantically-related
multi-word term. For example, the seme /defect/ included in the semic analysis of the reference
term malformation features as a constituent of multi-word terms in the lists such as in ventricular

3
    https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-6170-8_141

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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

septal defect, birth defect and neural tube defect. In addition, morphological differences between
semic elements and the terms comprised in the lists can be in some instances detected. It is the
case of the seme /abnormal/ which is employed in the semic analysis of malformation and the
listed terms abnormality and abnormalities.
Comprehensively, two considerations can be potentially deducted from the observation of these
results. Firstly, it can be validated that semic analysis represents a technique which manifests a
conceptual retrieval capability which also manages to comprise elements regarded as contextually
semantically-proximal. Therefore, a potential interrelation between semic analysis and word
embeddings is established. On the other hand, word embeddings manage in some circumstances
to capture some lexical units which represent semic elements in the sememes of reference terms.
In this connection, the possibility to selectively consider lexical units deriving from the
application of word embeddings as semic elements can be conceived, with a view to further
improving the performance of semic analysis. Specifically, the elements characterised by a
morphological relationship or related in terms of inflections with respect to the semes included
in the sememes can be estimated as suitable for the conceptual representation because of the
subsistence of a high semantic proximity.

        5.3 Semic analysis of word embeddings
The second step consists in the consideration of a subset of the most semantically-proximal
entities with respect to the reference terms, amounting to 10 consecutive terms for each list. This
approach is specifically conceived to further challenge and explore the subsistence of an actual
conceptual connection with respect to the reference terms. A systematic semic analysis of these
units based on the proposed methodology is performed, with a view to investigating this
circumstance. Moreover, the aim is to identify the concepts represented by these lexical units to
evaluate the possibility for these units to constitute semes of the respective reference terms.
For instance, taking as a reference the term screening, a semic analysis of the terms with respect
to which a relation of semantic proximity is individuated in the context of word embeddings is
carried out. Terminology which belongs to the medical domain is exclusively considered. For
exemplification purposes, we propose the semic analysis of three terms which are retrieved by
way of the application of word embeddings:
    •    screened:
    /medicine/ /separate/ /undiagnosed/ /disease/ /defect/ /pathologic/ /condition/ /risk/ /tests/
    /examinations/ /procedures/ /examine/ /evaluate/ /infection/ /test/ /population/
    •    mammography:
    /medicine/ /x-ray/ /examination/ /breasts/ /detection/ /cancer/ /study/ /test/ /mammogram/
    /screening/ /breast/ /diagnostic/ /evaluation/ /abnormalities/ /patients/ /abnormality/
    /follow-up/ /breast cancer/ /lumpectomy/ /radiological/ /screen/ /evaluate/ /tumors/
    /abnormalities/ /procedure/ /imaging/ /diagnosis/
    •    diagnostic:
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    /medicine/ /diagnosis/ /identify/ /disease/ /medical/ /symptom/ /technique/ /instrument/
    /signs/ /symptoms/ /methods/ /act/
As it emerges from the analysis of the semic formulation of the term mammography, the reference
term screening features among its semic elements. This highlights the subsistence of a conceptual
relation between the two terms. Nonetheless, the evaluation of a potential compatibility in the
specific form of a conceptual integration is guided by the adoption of a conception of concepts
as determined by the comprehensive consideration of all the semic elements included in the
sememes. Moreover, provided the selection of the intensional definition for the determination
of concepts, hyponyms are consequentially excluded as potential semes. As Löbner ([23])
affirmed,

        an expression A is a hyponym of an expression B iff the meaning of B is part of the meaning
        of A and A is subordinated of B. In addition to the meaning of B, the meaning of A must
        contain further specifications, rendering the meaning of A, the hyponym, more specific
        than the meaning of B.

Provided this standpoint, the hypernym concurs to compose the concept of the hyponym.
However, the hyponym includes other conceptual specificities, therefore determining an
asymmetry and the subsistence of a related but diverse concept.
Considering this line of reasoning, the terms screened and diagnostic are regarded as suitable in
order to compose the sememe of the reference term screening. The term mammography is
consequentially excluded from the collection of semic elements which represent the conceptual
content of the reference term. Furthermore, with reference to the term screened, a morphological
relationship with respect to the term screening can be observed. In this circumstance, the
interrelation that is established between the two terms does not uniquely concern a conceptual
connection. This signals the subsistence of a synergy which manifests at the linguistic level
between semic analysis and word embeddings specifically from a morphological perspective.
The targeted aim of this approach is also identified in the investigation of the possibility to
retrieve a superset of semes. The superset of semes is conceived as a collection of semic units
which would co-occur in the sememes of both the reference terms and the semantically-proximal
terminology, determining a partial recall of conceptual particularities. By way of considering this
perspective, the recall capability of word embeddings with respect to the conceptual elements
embedded in the concept of reference terms is challenged. Contextually, the potentiality to
capture semic elements in the context of semic analysis and the possibility to automatically
perform it with respect to medical terminology in the context of the proposed methodology are
questioned.
Some considerations can also be proposed as for this different approach to the investigation of
the topic:
    -     Firstly, the subsistence of lexical units which are not related to the medical domain
          can be detected in the context of the application of the GloVe model. Therefore, this
          indicates the potential occurrence of noise.
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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

    -    Secondly, the semic analysis of the semantically-proximal terms respectively feature
         reference terms as semic elements only in a few circumstances.
    -    Thirdly, many semantically-proximal terms only manifest a partial semantic
         interrelation with respect to the reference terms which can be individuated in a shared
         semantic field.
Provided the limited but not sufficient relatedness of some proximal terms with respect to
reference ones in terms of shared semes, a potential outcome can be constituted by the
ascertainment of the fact that: 1) semantically-related terms should not be comprised in the
sememes of reference terms, 2) the impossibility to detect a superset of semes with the exception
of the mesogeneric seme. Consequently, an automatic performance of semic analysis would not
enable the retrieval of all the semes which are conversely detected in the context of the application
of the proposed methodological criteria. Indeed, many of the semic particles of reference terms
cannot be captured by way of the application of word embeddings. Nevertheless, a relevant
finding is constituted by the identification of a connection between the two techniques. This
connection can also be productively applied in the context of the proposed methodology to
improve it in its conceptual recall capability and its lexical exhaustiveness. The application would
specifically consist in the introduction in the sememe of additional conceptually related semic
elements which would contribute to comprehensively represent the conceptual dimension of
terminology. As a matter of fact, determined terms can be potentially deemed as adequate to
represent the concepts of the respective reference terms hence constituting semes of the latter.
This is due to the establishment of an interrelation realised by way of a conceptual connection
and a morphological relationship also in terms of inflections between the reference terms, their
semes and the listed lexical entities.



        6. Conclusions

In this paper, we proposed a methodology for an objective and systematic semic analysis starting
from a preliminary experiment on medical terminological records aimed at the study of users’
perception and approach to semic analysis. We focused on the identification of discrepancies
both in terms of mode of operations and generated outputs with respect to the performance of
semic analysis. On the basis of the observations of the first analysis, we proposed a methodology
aimed at reducing the manifestation of subjectively-biased phenomena in the performance of
semic analysis. In the context of the proposed methodological criteria for an objective semic
analysis, we investigated on the subsistence of a potential interrelation of Word Embeddings
with respect to semic analysis of medical terminology. The experimental study led to the
successful identification of a connection at the linguistic level between the two techniques. This
connection was also envisaged in the framework of the presented methodology as a valuable
integration with a view to improving its productivity and conceptual recall capability.
The study also demonstrated that semic analysis as performed in the framework of the theorised
methodology effectively manages to capture lexical units which are conceived as semantically-

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proximal to reference medical terms. By adopting different approaches to the study of the topic,
however, the capability of Word Embeddings to capture semantic information was called into
question. The experimental study further provides the foundations to call into question the
capability of word embeddings to capture the semantic dimension. As a matter of fact, with
respect to medical terminology in the framework of the present investigation, it can be considered
as limited. Indeed, the interrelation between word embeddings and semic analysis as performed
in the context of the proposed methodology only concerns the morphosyntactic and syntactic
dimension. Furthermore, some listed lexical entities do not present a semantic relation with
respect to the reference ones, signalling the strong influential faculty exerted by contextual
elements on the analysed word embeddings. An additional observation that can be proposed
concerns the consideration of the fact that, as semes can be regarded as the fundamental intrinsic
components of concepts, the limited semantic similarity which can be observed further calls into
question the actual subsistence of a semantic dimension that could be ascribed to word
embeddings. Moreover, it should be considered that medical terminology presents a high
conceptual specificity which should be accordingly reflected with respect to word embeddings as
for the semantic relatedness and proximity. Further investigation on a more extended dataset
would however be required to examine the issue. For the aforementioned reasons, we are actually
planning a further experimental analysis with a wider set of terms in order to study an interactive
threshold on the value of similarity between the term and the embeddings in order to help the
expert in the choice of semes during the semic analysis.
As future work, we propose to study a methodology to capture the semantic information
expressed by way of connotative semes in the context of the performance of semic analysis. In
particular, taking into consideration users’ native language, in order to observe if variations in its
performance occur according to whether the user is performing it in his/her native language or
in a foreign language. We also propose to study the extent to which the proposed methodology
improves the semic analysis of terms compared to the results obtained in the preliminary
experiment conducted by the students.



       Appendix

 Glove (Wikipedia)                 Word2Vec (Google News)            Word2Vec (PubMed)
 screenings                        Screening                         screenings
 screened                          screenings                        testing
 mammography                       view Puyol leaped                 screen
 procedures                        screened                          diagnostic
 testing                           Screenings                        mammography
 checks                            prescreening                      routine


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                                    to Semic Analysis: The Case Study of Medical Terminology

tests                          rescreening                      screens
diagnostic                     Newborn Hearing                  colposcopy
detection                      Backtesting portfolio            surveillance
baggage                        Puyol leaped                     evaluation
routine                        screeing                         diagnostics
detectors                      Doc Soup                         assessment
examination                    General Cholesterol Glucose      counseling
rigorous                       screeners                        retesting
diagnosis                      Flexi Scope                      chlamydia
examinations                   RICHFIELD              SPRINGS   counselling
                               Breast
undergo                        abusers Deron                    work-up
evaluation                     rectal exams                     unscreened
mammogram                      screener                         point-of-care
screeners                      Universal Pictures Bruno         workup
scans                          multiphasic blood                identifying
check                          design ChemAxon focuses          identification
tsa                            PAP smears                       detecting
checked                        fingerprinting                   triage
stringent                      detect precancerous growths      colonoscopy
applicants                     mammograms pap tests             diagnosis
surveillance                   prostate exam                    opt-out
procedure                      test FOBT                        clinic-based
prenatal                       colorectal cancer screening      mammogram
screen                         Tennessee Outlive                prioritization
mammograms                     digital rectal exams             screened
treatment                      Hearing Screenings               diagnosing
ultrasound                     optical colonoscopy              exams
scanners                       USPSTF recommends                confirmation

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 exam                              screening colonoscopy              phenotyping
 treatments                        Bone density                       biennial
 guidelines                        AFI Film Festival                  programme
 scanning                          PAP smear                          programmes
 imaging                           immunochemical                     validation
 patients                          urine dipstick                     high-risk
 detecting                         colonoscopy                        cost-effective
 polygraph                         colorectal screenings              at-risk
 colonoscopy                       mammography                        checkup
 scan                              protege Bernard Kerik              check-up
 test                              mammograms                         smear
 identification                    Nuclear Tipping Point              high-throughput
 detect                            Dr. Domenico Corrado               evaluations
 stricter                          mammography screening              detection
 monitoring                        Samuel A. Bozzette                 mammograms
 required                          AGO Jackman                        dipstick
Table 1: Lists of the 50 most semantically-proximal word embeddings to the reference term "screening"
with respect to the GloVe model trained on the Wikipedia dataset and the Word2Vec model trained on
the Google News and PubMed datasets.



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