10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17398
Civic hacking movement, born at the times of Obama campaign, promotes trust in programming code as a new tool able to solve a large variety of public problems usually delegated to public services or dedicated private institutions. Based on a four-year STS-inspired ethnography of “civic hackathons” in France and Russia, the paper aims to draw a profile of a “civic hacker” and grasp the transformations of civic participation brought by this phenomenon. Beyond technoscepticism and solutionism, the author suggests to follow the actors in their work of “putting problems into code” and proposes a pragmatist approach to civic hacking. While recent studies have been critical of civic hacking as part of the broader neoliberal transformations of labor, the author argues that, in the context of distrust towards traditional political institutions and repertoires of contention, civic hacking can assist construction of public problems, and can also mean “hacking the civics”.
application/pdf
2038-3460
17398
1
en
Ksenia Ermoshina
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/
Tecnoscienza – Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
civic participation
Civic Hacking. Redefining Hackers and Civic Participation
Text.Serial.Journal
https://tecnoscienza.unibo.it/
9
Scenarios
2018-08-06
2023-06-25
2018-08-06
2023-08-28
79-101
TS
Ksenia Ermoshina
2018/08/06
10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17398
79
Citizen Lab, University of Toronto
2038-3460
1
civic participation
en
101
Civic Hacking. Redefining Hackers and Civic Participation
https://tecnoscienza.unibo.it/article/download/17398/16256
9
                                                                           Scenario

Civic Hacking
Redefining Hackers and Civic Participation

Ksenia Ermoshina
Citizen Lab, University of Toronto


     Abstract: Civic hacking movement, born at the times of Obama campaign,
     promotes trust in programming code as a new tool able to solve a large va-
     riety of public problems usually delegated to public services or dedicated
     private institutions. Based on a four-year STS-inspired ethnography of “civic
     hackathons” in France and Russia, the paper aims to draw a profile of a
     “civic hacker” and grasp the transformations of civic participation brought
     by this phenomenon. Beyond technoscepticism and solutionism, the author
     suggests to follow the actors in their work of “putting problems into code”
     and proposes a pragmatist approach to civic hacking. While recent studies
     have been critical of civic hacking as part of the broader neoliberal trans-
     formations of labor, the author argues that, in the context of distrust to-
     wards traditional political institutions and repertoires of contention, civic
     hacking can assist construction of public problems, and can also mean
     “hacking the civics”.

     Keywords: civic hacking; hackathons; civic tech; public problems; civic par-
     ticipation

     Corresponding author: Ksenia Ermoshina, Citizen Lab, 315 Bloor Street
     West, Bloor St W, Toronto, ON M5S 0A7, Canada – E-mail:
     ksenia@citizenlab.ca



1. Introduction

    The past decade saw a rise of a new hacker figure, the “civic hacker”,
the one who codes for “social good”. An unprecedented wave of events
around the world has been launched, promoting code as a ubiquitous
means to address and potentially solve a large variety of public problems
that were usually the responsibility of public services or dedicated private
institutions. These events, called “civic hackathons”, are short competi-
tions that put together heterogeneous groups of actors, from developers
and designers to political activists and NGO workers, who prototype
technical solutions in response to different challenges of contemporary
societies.

TECNOSCIENZA
Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
9 (1) pp. 79-101 – ISSN 2038-3460                 2018
www.tecnoscienza.net
80                                                           Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

    Civic hackathons do not have a lot in common with the Chaos Com-
munication Congress, SHA or other gatherings well described by ethnog-
raphers of hacker culture. “Code 4 America”, “Hack for Refugees”,
“Code for Humanity”, “Code for Climate Change”, “Hack against cor-
ruption”, “Hack for Good” - these civic hackathons are often co-
organized with the help of governments and private actors. They aim at
building bridges between a certain form of civic participation and the art
of coding.
    The controversial phenomenon of civic hacking demands a
(re)definition. Who are these new “hackers” and how does the figure of
“civic hacker” challenge existing conceptual and methodological ap-
proaches to “hacker cultures”? On the other hand, what’s the “civic”? Is
there a new form of “citizenship” coined by coders? And how does it re-
define social good, commons and political participation?
    While technoscepticism (Morozov 2013) and the recent wave of criti-
cal hackathon studies, (Gregg, Lodato and Di Salvo 2014; Gregg 2015),
suspect civic hacking to be a neoliberal appropriation of hacker cultures,
other researchers (Irani 2015; Baraniuk 2013) praise civic hackathons as
forging an “entrepreneurial citizenship” and helping countries in crisis:
“they manufacture urgency and an optimism that bursts of doing and
making can change the world. Participants in hackathons imagine them-
selves as agents of social progress through software…” (Irani 2015, 2).
However, much less attention has been paid to the technical and infra-
structural specificities of the software developed at civic hackathons, as
well as to documenting the specifics of coding practices as they happen at
civic hackathons.
    This article, driven by a 4-year STS-inspired ethnographic study of
Russian and French civic hacking groups, wants to engage in a dialogue
with both “technosceptical” and “solutionist” approaches. It aims to
draw a profile of the “civic hacker” and grasp the transformations of both
civic participation and hacking practices brought by this phenomenon. I
argue that, beyond technoscepticism and solutionism, we must follow the
actors in their work of “putting problems into code”. Civic hackathons
help observe these encounters between activists (or “problem owners”)
and hackers, as they translate public problems into codeable tasks.
    The article suggests, first, to analyze civic hacking by studying various
organizational formats and instruments used by civic hacking communi-
ties. Analyzing the networks in which civic hackers are inscribing them-
selves, I suggest to focus on mediators that try to hold “civic” and “hack-
ers” together and replicate the format of civic hackathons around the
world. I argue that, even if this international circulation of a format can
be interpreted as a form of “imported democracy”, civic hackathons can
also become an opportunity for countries in crisis where running code
could replace broken public institutions. Secondly, I focus on the defini-
tions of the “civic” as they are coined by actors and translated into tech-
nical tools – mobile and web applications. Beyond big political narratives,
Ermoshina                                                                 81
hackers’ “civic” manifests itself in a variety of very precise challenges and
local solutions. I argue that, by looking at examples of civic tech, we can
grasp some of the novel ideas brought forward by civic hacking, that
strongly refer to a more general crisis of trust in political representation
and traditional political institutions.
    My research shows that, in the context of hybrid regimes, such as the
Russian case, with its particularly vibrant IT-community and, at the same
time, its centralized style of Internet governance, civic hacking is used as
an emergency response to the crisis of democratic institutions. In France
as well, when state institutions do not provide a viable solution to a prob-
lem, grassroots collectives turn to technology in order to equip their work
and find a “workaround”. Civic hacking methods are used when public
institutions are not capable to properly respond to existing challenges, or
when these public institutions are, themselves, the challenge that needs to
be addressed. In this sense, civic hacking can also mean “hacking the civ-
ics” (Gregg, Lodato and Di Salvo 2014).


2. Grasping Civic Hacking: a Literature Review

    The expression “civic hacking” goes back to Barack Obama’s presi-
dential campaign. Early enough, the format of civic hackathons has been
vividly discussed by the actors themselves through a number of guides,
textbooks and “howtos” circulating on the web and in printed form, such
as “Civic apps competition hands book” (Eyler-Werve and Carlson
2012). The notion of civic hacking has been progressively institutional-
ized, with the official National Day of Civic Hacking held by Code for
America and a network of governmental partners in 2013. This event,
firstly US-only, went world-wide on its second edition in 2014. Code for
America played an important role in framing civic hacking from its early
days. Under the influence of this organization fostering civic hacking in
the US “from the top”, the early press interest to civic hacking focuses
first of all on the state-driven civic hacking efforts around elections, re-
forms, public services efficiency, public budget and so on (Sterling 2013;
Williams 2013; Lachance Shandrow 2013). In this sense, civic hacking
was first seen as a movement of technologists who help improve the gov-
ernment.
    However, early academic research on civic hacking demarcates itself
from the body of work on “government 2.0” and “e-government” as it
considers that “technology is integral to government, while [...] solutions
to public sector challenges are not technological alone” (Hebert 2013).
While first research on civic hacking was centered on the usage of open
data provided by the government (“data-oriented hackathons”), the se-
cond wave of civic hacking studies is dedicated to what we can call “is-
sue-oriented hackathons”, where groups of “problem owners” can bring
their challenges to the tech community and work together on prototyping
82                                                           Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

solutions (Lodato and Di Salvo 2015; Ermoshina 2016). Several ethno-
graphic studies of civic hacking were conducted with a focus on India
(Irani 2015), US (Lodato and Di Salvo 2015 and 2016), France and Russia
(Ermoshina 2016). This research questions the belief in political and so-
cial potential of programming code. It pays more attention to the work of
“problem owners”, or publics, and the process of “translation” of issues
(or challenges) into codeable tasks.
    The organizers of the first civic hacking event define “civic hackers”
as “technicians, engineers, designers, entrepreneurs, citizens, civil serv-
ants… everyone who wishes to collaborate with others in order to create,
build, innovate and address challenges that concern our neighborhoods,
cities, states and countries. For us a hacker is someone who uses the min-
imum of their resources and maximum of their brainpower and ingenuity,
in order to create, repair or improve something” (Code for America 2013).
    These actors’ definition of civic hacking can find its academic echo in
the branch of STS research interested in user-driven innovation and prac-
tices of “bricolage” (or tinkering). Within this interpretation, “hacking” is
understood as an epistemological position, a method to solve problems
using instruments that are “at hand”, as George Dafermos and Johan
Soderberg frame it: “In our use of the term hacking, we mean the act of
taking a preexisting system and bending it to serve a different end from
that for which it was originally intended » (Dafermos and Soderberg
2009, 55). In this sense hackers can be also perceived as “users” / “re-
users” of certain instruments, standards, programs, who take part in in-
novation by detournement and bricolage (Akrich 1998).
    This understanding of hackers also implies questioning institutional
borders and the notion of expertise, as “bricolage” describes a specific
way of sociotechnical and creative work that can be accessible not only to
tech experts but embraces amateur and non-technical actors. Civic hack-
ing thus can be interpreted as part of a broader process of “democratiza-
tion of technology”. Indeed, one of the important characteristics of civic
hackathons, as compared to technical hackathons, is the heterogeneous
expertise of the participants involved. The hackathons I have observed
included representatives of groups of neighbors, nursing mothers, pa-
tients with rare diseases or handicaps, environmental or feminist activists,
teachers’ trade unions, NGO activists and so on. These populations were
referred to by the organizers as “problem owners”, as they were the ones
proposing a social or political issue to be translated into codable set of
tasks, for which a software could be then produced. Problem owners are
defined as “political entrepreneurs who play central role in construction
of public problems, inscribing them in the agenda and fostering social
mobilization […] sometimes at the cost of operations of “translation” and
“transcoding” within hybrid forums” (Boussaguet et al. 2014). In this
sense, Harry Collins’ and Robert Evans’ research on “experience-based
expertise”, as well as Peter Galison’s concept of “trading zones” (Galison
1997), are interesting to grasp the processes of translation happening at
Ermoshina                                                                 83
civic hackathons, where heterogeneous communities meet.
    Civic hackathons bring together “non-technical” and “technical”
communities to propose solutions for a range of problems of public con-
cern, and in this sense they can be analyzed alongside other forms of par-
ticipatory and technical democracy, such as “hybrid forum” or “citizen
conference” studied by Michel Callon et al. (2001) and Loïc Blondiaux
(2008). However, while the literature studying various formats of events
that foster participatory democracy can indeed help us to conceptualize
organizational formats of hackathons, the enrolment of participants and
the specifics of “translation” occurring at these events, it is important to
understand the specifics of civic hackathons that are not part of a defined
democratic process of decision-making or political representation, unlike
citizen conferences.
    While some civic hackathons are co-organized with the help of state
actors or public institutions, the relations of hackathons with institution-
alized politics are yet to be studied. There have been a vivid debate in the
literature as for the democratic or political potential of civic hacking. The
very idea to use programming code for social good was criticized by Au-
ray and Ouardi (2014) as having a double narrative. One one hand, it can
be interpreted as part of a liberal program - “provide a better service to
the user” - but it can also be part of an emancipatory narrative as a means
to help emerging or marginalized communities.
    As Nicolas Auray describes it, the world of FLOSS is marked by a
“brutal and massive rejection of the marketization of social relations, as
the movement against proprietary software shows it. For these hackers
the organizational principle in life is not money, nor work, but passion
and desire to create together something socially meaningful” (Auray
2002). However, the values of “sharing”, “open innovation”, “collabora-
tion” and “solidarity” are also vindicated by the newborn sharing econo-
my culture, where civic hackathons are institutionally inscribed.
    The recent wave of critical research on civic hackathons argues that
they must be analyzed as a form of speculative labor, as a form of unpaid
work, and thus, as part of the neoliberal restructuring of the high-tech
market. Gregg argues that hackathons “reflect the difficulties, opportuni-
ties and compromises young workers face in the wake of the Global Fi-
nancial Crisis. They are a symptom of a broader transformation affecting
career preparation and training as stable paths for recruitment give way to
the velocity of dynamic networks” (Gregg 2015). The study conducted by
Cardullo et al. (2018) on Irish civic hacking events also describes civic
hacking within the “living labs” as a form of “civic paternalism” discon-
nected from communities: “While presented as horizontal, open, and par-
ticipative, LL [living labs] and civic hacking are rooted often in pragmatic
and paternalistic discourses and practices related to the production of a
creative economy and a technocratic version of SC [smart cities]”.
    This controversial character of civic hacking can relate to the critique
of the formats for participatory democracy in general, as described by Lo-
84                                                          Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

ïc Blondiaux (2008). In his foundational work on the models of participa-
tory democracy, he argues that these formats can lead to a “descendant”,
or “managerial” model where citizens become “users of public services”,
and participation becomes “an instrument of depoliticization in service of
a neoliberal project” (Blondiaux 2008, 19), or, on the contrary, of an “as-
cendant” autonomous model that aims at a process of empowerment.
While the autonomous model aspires to technically equip the process of
civic empowerment and use technology to “hack the civics”, the “mana-
gerial” model can use code to optimize and improve existing bureaucratic
and administrative processes without questioning the status quo. By solv-
ing hyperlocal and material problems, it redefines citizens as “users of
public services” (or “citizens without qualities”), and civic participation
risks to be depoliticized.
     The relations between civic hacking and political participation are pe-
culiar. Civic hackathons are often framed as “not political” but rather
suggesting “concrete solutions”. The events I’ve observed were framed as
focused on “improving the everyday life of citizens” or “solving concrete
problems”, often on a hyperlocal scale. My interviews have shown that
civic hackers were seeing problems that they were treating as “very prac-
tical” and “small-scale” as opposed to “political” or “radical”. The belief
in the capacity of code to be a ubiquitous problem-solving tool producing
tangible results is coupled here with a certain mistrust in public institu-
tions. In this sense, the study of civic hackathons can shed light on “depo-
liticization” processes and on the relations between the tech community
and traditional political representation and participation.
     The tendency towards “avoiding politics” was analyzed by sociologist
Nina Eliasoph in her book on the apathy in the American public sphere.
Some of the insights of this work may be relevant to understanding the
peculiar relation between hackathons and political participation. Observ-
ing volunteer social workers, Eliasoph found that they managed to avoid
political problems and concomitant long debates by focusing on limited
and concrete tasks, at the same time thinking that they can “really change
the things” and that everyone can make a difference (Eliasoph 1998, 37).
While sharing a common idea of civic participation, they had to paradox-
ically cut short all political discussions in order to keep “faith and hope”
(Eliasoph 1998, 38).
     Confronted to questions such as gender inequality, poverty, educa-
tion, ethnic discrimination, these groups tended to define their action as
being non-political. Their meetings were focused on pragmatic activities,
technical and organizational questions. In the interviews, as Eliasoph de-
scribes it, these respondents stated they were solving issues that were
close to them, that concerned their children and relatives, and that is
“practically possible and not political”. These activists shared a common
“apolitical” culture: they focused on a limited, almost private, sphere in
order to feel themselves capable to “influence the state of the things”.
They wanted to feel their influence on the society and their activism of
Ermoshina                                                                 85
“small deeds” made it possible for them to reconstruct a “democracy” in
the spheres of life where citizens were usually alienated of political deci-
sions.
     Another research group working on this “distrust” towards politics
studied 7 groups of American volunteers (Bennett et al. 2013), and argues
that local activism in US has been inspired precisely by this feeling of
“disavowing politics”. Researchers found that volunteers refused to de-
scribe their activities as being “political” while being engaged in struggles
against environmental pollution, against corruption in municipal admin-
istrations, protection of architectural heritage and so on. The disavowing
of politics is related to the connotation of politics in American society as
being associated with “dirty” and “corrupted” activities. Politics is thus
stigmatized while local activism, centered on precise issues to be solved,
becomes a new ideal of collective action capable to produce a public
sphere free from “dirty” politicians (Aronowitz 2006). This opposition
between local activism and institutionalized politics is, according to Ben-
nett and colleagues, a strategy that aims at legitimizing political activism
as such: “a civic action can become a “good”, when it’s opposed to a po-
litical action perceived as “bad” (Bennett et al. 2013).
     I argue that, in case of civic hacking, the activism of “small deeds”
finds another meaning, as hackathon also implies “small codes”. The
format of civic hackathons, with its urgency (48 hours!) and competitive
elements, imposes a very particular way of coding: sometimes no or very
little code is produced from scratch. Instead, it is about reusing and tink-
ering with other people’s code, APIs, existing tools and software devel-
opment kits. This actually results in producing small pieces of software
that address precise challenges and promise rapid or “immediate” result.
However, these very precise challenges, sometimes as local as a pothole
on the road, can have political or critical framing when they are brought
up by “problem owners” coming from a grassroots organization, such as
trade-union, an NGO or a local activist group.
     In this sense, I argue that the sociology of public problems and the
pragmatist approach (Cefai and Terzi 2012; Cefai 2013; Emerson and
Messinger 1977) can be relevant to analyze community-based hacking as
opposed to, or complimentary to, the state-driven hacking events. When
civic hacking engages the public united around a precise experience of a
“trouble” (Emerson and Messinger 1977), hackathons can be observed as
a collaborative process of “translating a number of notions and principles
into matter” (Simondon 2016). In this sense, the tools built at the hacka-
thons can also be interpreted in a pragmatist sense “not merely as means
to reach a goal with given resources, but a creative form of mediation be-
tween problematic situations and solutions, where the two sides are trans-
formed” (Dorstewitz and Kremer 2016, 6). Indeed, I argue that hacka-
thons transform both the definition of a particular problem and the cod-
ing practices.
86                                                            Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

    In the case of community-driven hackathons with pre-constituted
publics that are able to “bring” the resulted tools back to the community
and actually inscribe the tools in an existing agenda, these pieces of soft-
ware can actually be used within a bigger political perspective. This was
the case, for instance, for the civic app “Opensalary”1: the challenge
brought by a teachers’ trade union – corruption in schools in Russia and
unequal salary rates across the country – was actually turned into a work-
ing webapp and used after the hackathon by the teachers movement as
part of a broader repertoire of action. On the contrary, when the issues
are imposed by organizers and inscribed within a broader “civic paternal-
ist” discourse (Cardullo et al. 2017), civic hacking efforts would rather be
focused on optimizing existing systems, especially if organizers include
representatives of authorities or public services. The software produced
at these state-driven hackathons is less likely to survive after the event, as
no existing user publics are ready to implement that.
    Different hackathon formats have been developed since the rise of civ-
ic hacking. The galaxy of institutionalized mediators has appeared that
inscribes civic hacking in an interesting transnational network, that lies in
the intersection of start-up, grassroots hacking groups, activists, entrepre-
neurs. In what follows I will first sketch out the geopolitics of civic hack-
ing and its circulation around the world, and also explain the role of me-
diators in standardizing this format and coining a particular vision of
what is considered as “civic”. I will then try to define the “civic” as it
manifests itself in civic hacking, and the critics of representative democ-
racy brought up by the civic hackers.


3. Civic Hacking: Transnational Movement or “Imported
Democracy”?

    The analysis of a “movement” was never a starting point for my re-
search. Instead, my curiosity for civic hacking was driven by very concrete
and material products of their activity, precisely, pieces of software
named “civic apps”. Civic apps are applications for web and mobile that
tend to respond to, and sometimes solve, a wide scale of political, social,
civic challenges – from corruption, police violence and electoral fraud, to
optimization of urban infrastructures and improvement of life quality in
big cities.
    However, during years of fieldwork I analyzed 11 hackathons in Rus-
sia and France and unveiled the motivations of organizers of civic hacka-
thons and developers to inscribe their events and activities in an interna-
tional, almost global, framework. Analyzing funding and organizational
resources behind these events, one can identify an international network
of institutions and communities, that participates in a transnational circu-
lation of the format of hackathon. The hackathon itself, just like “hybrid
Ermoshina                                                                        87
forums”, “citizen conferences”, or other forms of participatory democra-
cy, can be deployed anywhere, as a festival camp or a fair, reaching a bal-
ance, in a peculiar fashion, between hyperlocal problems and globalized
grammars of programming languages and related tools.
    Observations of different events related to civic hacking – hackathons,
barcamps, conferences on social innovation - have shown a common ref-
erential or even a mythology behind the movement. Thus, French and
Russians refer to this movement as being born in the United States. Just
like in the field of participatory democracy where France was inspired by
Danish experiments, French actors of the social innovation scene refer to
international techniques. The event such as “Code 4 Paris”, for example,
was directly inspired by “Code 4 America”2, as organizers say. According
to them, France is “far behind” the US in terms of digital economy and
collaboration between coders and the government:

In the United States it is easier to articulate connections between governments,
citizens and innovation while in France we are still in search for a way to make
possible fructuous collaborations between coders and civil society, to give coders
a voice. I think we need to take formats that already function, and inspire from
Code4America. The beauty of the digital and opensource is precisely its ability to
be reproduced and bootstrapped. (Field recording, workshop Au code, citoyens,
13.06.2013, Le 104, Paris)

   Just like in free software where the code is openly available on the re-
positories, so the recipes for organizing these events are available online.
They have been progressively standardized and circulated in form of
guides and handbooks like the Civic apps competition handbook (Eyler-
Werve and Carlsson 2012) and the Open Government Guide.3
   Russian organizers of civic hackathons also refer to the American ex-
perience. Alexey Sidorenko, CEO of the most important Russian NGO
specialized in social innovations, “Greenhouse for Social Technologies”4,
notes it:

We have initially based ourselves on an existent experience. Hackathons have be-
gun in early 2000s, isn’t it? And I think when the Greenhouse was created, in
2012, there have already been years of international experience in the area. (Inter-
view with Alexey Sidorenko, CEO, Greenhouse for Social Technologies)

    The first civic hackathon in Russia was a bi-national one, co-organized
by the State Department of United States of America and Russian tech gi-
ant Yandex in 2012, under the name “Code for Country”. As one of the
organizers, Emily Parker, says in the interview, this hackathon was “part
of the digital diplomacy initiative”. In this sense, civic hackathons can be
seen as yet another tool for the “export of democracy”, and thus, an in-
teresting tool of technical and social governance. However, civic hacka-
thons can also become places where coders and activists question the sta-
tus quo, discuss on most urgent social and political challenges, and proto-
88                                                            Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

type not only apps but also “possible worlds”, by sketching out possible
ways to translate public problems into code, find novel approaches to ad-
dress issues that are not solved by existing political actors. The outputs of
these events depend on their organizers, but also on participants, context
and country where they take place. In Russia for instance, with public in-
stitutions in crisis, civic hackathons can forge real solutions for local chal-
lenges and even become “public spaces” that foster empowerment and
build connections between technical actors and civil society.
    Civic hacking is therefore happening somewhere between the realm of
start-up, and the Free Libre Open Source Software movement, between
modern coworking spaces equipped with “hype” high-tech objects, and
underground hackerspaces where meetings of coders and activists take
place off the record. This ambiguity was already well captured by Nicolas
Auray and Samira Ouardi (2014) who underline the “double effect” of
this new belief in “revolutionary potential of the code”. On the one hand,
the apology of code as instrument of social change has given birth to the
start-up culture that promotes social innovation while searching for ways
to monetize the “social good”. On the other hand, a galaxy of libertarian,
anarchist, grassroots projects pops up and seeks to mobilize digital tech-
nologies as tools for social critique.
    The operation of translation of public problems into code, in the case
of civic hackathons, demands mediation, an “entrepreneurial” activity. A
galaxy of mediators, not strictly coders neither activists, try to regulate the
vibrant civic hackers communities in-the-making and foster collaboration
between the technical world and the world of social work or civic partici-
pation. They are developing a form of expertise that I would call, using
Harry Collins’ notion, “interactional expertise”, the main function of
which is to facilitate “translation” between two languages (Collins and
Evans 2002). These organizations help organize events such as hacka-
thons or barcamps, workshops and seminars, but also engage in longer-
term projects. In my fieldwork I have come across two organizations of
that kind, that can serve as case-studies or illustrations of the governance
of civic hacking ecosystems.
    The Greenhouse of Social Technologies (Teplitsa Socialnih
Tehnologiy) is a non-governmental organization that was financed, until
31 May 2013 by the US AID program. However, after the adoption of
“Law on foreign agents”5, Teplitsa’s source of funding has changed to
“private western institutions”. Teplitsa organizes both online and offline
events – webinars, online courses, tutorials, hackathons, meetups) with a
mission to “create innovative applications and solutions for civic partici-
pation, improve technical competences of NGO workers, improve quality
and efficiency of services, facilitate creation of community of tech special-
ists sensitive to civic problems”.
    Teplitsa proposes to help developing new tools where no technical solu-
tion exists. One of the formats that serve this purpose is the civic hackathon.
Daria, ex-manager at Teplitsa, describes the idea of hackathons in this way:
Ermoshina                                                                         89


Sometimes NGOs or activists have fresh and exciting projects but no existing
technical means. For that we organize hackathons, or “test camps”, it is sort of a
laboratory I would say where people meet and develop ideas together, it means
that in two days we have prototypes of the apps, and after it Teplitsa finances se-
lected projects to have a finalized working product. (Interview, Daria)

    Teplitsa not only finances and frames hackathons but also helps find
interested developers. However, organizers speak of a certain “reluc-
tance” of the coding community, of the lack of engagement of developers
in civic projects, and of a “mutual misunderstanding”. Alexey Sidorenko,
CEO, describes problematic relationship between the two communities
as a problem of language that needs framing and translation:

We do a lot of work in this direction because these two groups are so far one from
another that, in order for them to understand each other, there needs to be a
long-term engagement because they speak different languages. It is a complex
question, as it’s about different languages and visions of the world. (Interview, Si-
dorenko)

    Teplitsa, in this sense, can be perceived as a social entrepreneur, de-
fined by Madeleine Akrich, Bruno Latour and Michel Callon as a “media-
tor, a translator in its pure sense, the one who puts two worlds in relation,
worlds with different logics and horizons, two separate worlds who could
not live without one another”. (Akrich, Callon and Latour 2002). This
“bridge-building” between developers and activists is happening with the
help of several instruments, including the website of Teplitsa6. Their web-
site is also a tool for enrolment, as it publishes calls for participation for
different events organized by Teplitsa. On the other side, their website
acts as a media that publishes articles on various civic apps cases around
the world. With the help of this website and offline events, Teplitsa aims
at “creating a community of civic coders”:

People who build things in their free time and are not afraid to do that… these
people, we need to look for them. And as soon as we find them, we try to contact
them, to invite them at our hackathons or ask them to consult NGOs […] Be-
cause there’s a problem – a lot of hackers are introverts, they can not come by
themselves at an event… That’s why it is important for us to reach out to them
and show them – guys, you’re great, we should do things together. (Interview, Si-
dorenko)

    Teplitsa is involved with the international civic hacking organization
Random Hack of Kindness7, that operates in more than 30 countries and
counts 5500 developers and 300 partners, from small start-ups to Net gi-
ants such as Google, Microsoft or Yahoo. They’ve organized 7 interna-
tional hackathons under the “Hack for Humanity” label and supported
hackathons organized by Transparency International and World Bank,
90                                                               Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

concerning a wide spectrum of social challenges, from water crisis in Af-
rica to equal access to politics for women in Asia. With the help of RhoK
and Transparency International, Teplitsa co-organized an international
hackathon “Hack Against Corruption”, that took place in 2012 in 6 coun-
tries around the world including Russia.
    The “scene” of civic hackers, therefore, does not function by itself.
Mediators, facilitators, are engaged in the process of “interessement”
(Callon 1986) to create more stabilized networks and a more stabilized
definition of a civic hacker. They also introduce new parameters of evalu-
ation of coders by including the “social importance” of a software as a
factor that determines success or failure of a project. These actors have
enough resources and influence to coin and maintain a certain vision of
“civic” that impacts both civic hackers and activists.


4. The Superheroes of Code: Hackers and Civic Duty

    In 2013, Teplitsa launched a project aimed at facilitating the “encoun-
ter” between developers and activists under the code name “IT-volunte-
er”8. IT volunteer is a quasi-institutionalized response to the growing de-
mand for technical help from Russian NGOs in crisis. In the context of
openly authoritarian tendencies within Russian inner politics after 2012,
existing institutions could not provide necessary support for non-
governmental organizations seeking for assistance with websites, mobile
applications, hosting and other technical tasks. IT-volunteer has become
a platform that matches the needs of NGOs with the skills of developers:

It is a marketplace of social ideas… Say, a person asks help to build a website for
an NGO that cares for deaf children, they can open up a ticket on this plaftorm
and describe their project. The goal is to help them find a developer who can real-
ize this project, and then they work directly with each other. (Interview with A.,
developer of IT-volunteer, CEO Progress engine)

    This form of civic hacking should be understood not as a promise of
“disintermediation”, but as an attempt of re-intermediation, where “fail-
ing” public institutions are partly or fully replaced by digital platforms
that help to match or “translate” needs of the civil society in a set of mi-
crotasks. This echoes with the technical optimism behind early block-
chain-based social projects that share the idea of “crisis of traditional in-
stitutions” and propose to redistribute responsibilities and resources by
the means of code.
    In order to engage coders in this form of collaboration, Teplitsa in-
troduces elements of gamification such as rating of IT-volunteers, with
the most active members being “starred” in a dedicated article praising
their work and contributions. Teplitsa promotes a specific vision of a civ-
ic hacker as a “superhero”. The following images were produced by Tep-
litsa for promotion of IT-volunteers:
Ermoshina                                                                    91




        Fig. 1 – “Discover which great deed can you commit today?” Source:
          https://te-st.ru/2015/04/24/it-volunteer-results-of-week-24/




            Fig. 2 – “Superhero, we need a superhero!” Source: https://te-
                    st.ru/2014/12/12/it-volunteer-results-of-week-9/




Fig. 3 – “Our team of IT-heroes has a task to do: volunteer right now!” Source:
          https://te-st.ru/2015/03/06/it-volunteer-results-of-week-18/
92                                                                Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

    The reference to the “geek culture” helps build the image of a coder
as an “ordinary hero”. Usually invisible behind their computers, coders
get a chance to “do social good” and become known for their social con-
tributions. Civic hacking therefore introduces new parameters for the
evaluation of coding work that go beyond peer recognition (usual in
technical communities) and strictly technical “beauty” or efficiency of
code. Coding obtains a “social” meaning, or “usefulness”.
    A similar operation of “enrolment” has been deployed by a French
organization, MakeSense, created to promote “encounters and collabora-
tion between social entrepreneurs and developers, designers, all these
people who have superpowers necessary to build great projects”, as
Christian, the founder of MakeSense, explains it. According to him the
technical “superpowers” of developers, applied to a social or political
cause, can help “make sense” and create value, both social and economic.
These “superpowerful” tech workers are called “gangsters” - this terms
helps build and maintain an international community, different from both
traditional social entrepreneurship and the tech world:

We want to engage with people who are proactive, who do not ask permission to
do something and that’s why we need to create a universe different from a tradi-
tional social entrepreneur world. That’s why we call them gangsters, gangsters of
social innovation. It is also a provocation: in the social innovation world every-
thing is nice and beautiful, but social innovation gangsters are intriguing. (Inter-
view, Christian)

    Just like the word “hackers”, the word “gangsters” is inserted in a new
context and associated with “social good”. The enrolment of new “gang-
sters” happens at a particular event called “hold-up”. These events are
brainstorms, proto-hackathons, where ideas are suggested but nothing is
really coded. “We have mobilized 10 000 people in 44 cities around the
world around 200 projects in 2013, just with this community of gangsters,
and this feeling of “belonging” (appartenance) that they have for the
community” [Christian]. MakeSense co-organized and participated in a
number of civic hackathons such as Hack The Future Now, Code4Paris,
Hackathon Futures en Seine and others.
    For the organizers of Hack4Good, one of the civic hackathons that I
observed, it is important to change the connotations of the word “hack-
er”, and “redirect” public opinion towards another definition of it:

Another reason why we wanted to call it Hack4Good is because so many people
see the concept of a hacker as such a negative thing, there are so many groups
causing harm using their skills. But it does not mean that anyone who does it
causes harm. So I think that we want to redefine the vision of hacker. And for me
to hack things means to rapidly put something together any way you can. Hack
4Good and the idea of a hacker for us is that they try to solve a problem any way
they can do it... hacking is more about utilizing whatever resources you have to
make things work and solve the problems. And in our case the problems are so-
Ermoshina                                                                        93
cial problems. (Interview with Reuben Katz, CEO of GeekList , organizer of
                                                                    9

Hack4Good hackathon)

    Hack4Good and GeekList launched, in 2013, a project that aims at
institutionalizing and maintaining the ephemeral community of civic
hackers involved in building social technologies. The project called
“GeekList Corps of Developers” is a database of coders who can be mo-
bilized in case of a humanitarian or political emergency where their skills
could be needed. The word “corps” refers to “army corps”, “marine
corps” or administrative “corps” of highly ranked civil servants, with an
idea being a member of an elitist community of peers. This membership
implies not only privilege, but also a duty.
    While the National Day of Civic Hacking takes its inspiration from
American patriotism, international networks, such as Geeklist Corps of
Developers, are mobilizing the “citizen of the world” cosmopolitan and
global vision. In his introductory speech at the Hack4Good opening cer-
emony, Reuben Katz, the CEO of GeekList, presented the Geeklist
Corps of Developers as an important tool to maintain the global civic
hacking community:
The goal of GeekList is to develop a social network to keep together social-
minded developers. We are a distributed team and we've formed the Geeklist
Corps of Developers, to promote technology-focused civic action organization.
You are not hacking for a prize or presenting your start-up, you wanna spend this
time of your week-end doing something good for the world and that's awesome.
So, we know that when you do that you become part of the Corps of Developers...
a group of people that we can call at any time when there's an emergency, a hu-
manitarian need, other events that occur around the world that need some sort of
a relief, we can count on you to help […] If there's another catastrophe like in Ja-
pan... you need help and people to get around very quickly, from all over the
world. (Field recording, Hack4Good, October 4, 2013)

    Apart from the announced humanitarian and social mission,
Hack4Good hackathons become an efficient and quite innovative in-
strument to promote GeekList and its services, as all the Hack4Good
events rely on GeekList infrastructure (code repository and event man-
agement platform that coders have to use in order to participate). By its
organizational design, Hack4Good means hundreds of new users for the
GeekList platform.
    The link between “civic hackers” and “civic duty” or “civil service”
was drafted already at the first “National Day of Civic Hackers”: “The
‘Rosie the Riveter’ image advertising the National Day of Civic Hacking
in 2013 is a clear instance of recruitment strategies drawing on ideals of
civic service, patriotism and duty. The title’s red, white and blue etching
positions hackers as inheritors of a tradition of patriotic service required
in times of war” (Gregg 2015).
94                                                                Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

5. Civic Beyond Political: a Specific Vision of “Social Good”

At civic hackathons, civics are too-often seen as untapped markets for opportunis-
tic entrepreneurs. These projects sate the neoliberal status quo, and push ever-
more toward private, profit-driven public life.
(http://thomaslodato.info/writing/three-positions-on-civic-hacking/)

    What is the sense of “civic” in “civic hacking”? What do the actors
themselves understand by “civic duty”, “social good” or “common good”
in the name of which they code? Is there a definition of this “good”
common for all civic hackers? Based on my ethnographic observations of
hackathons, and on interviews with organizers and participants, I will try
to sketch the main lines that define the contours of this “good”:
    All the interviews show that civic hackers tend to separate themselves
from a traditional “repertoire of contention” (McAdam et al. 2001) such
as street actions strikes or demonstrations. They criticize the very idea of
a rally as being inefficient compared to what they call “concrete solu-
tions”. It’s an extension of a popular critique that opposes politicians as
“people of speech” and declarations, to the “people of action” that are
focused on meticulous work. Political representation and associated
forms of action, such as demonstrations, strikes, elections, are questioned,
and substituted by an idea of “direct participation”, production of mean-
ing and objects that could help create a better world, or improve life con-
ditions of people in the nearest future. Many interviewed developers op-
pose the apps that they build to the traditional repertoire of contention.
    This opposition phrased by actors themselves is important because it
gives us crucial elements of a possible definition of this “citizenship”
forged by coding. Applications, and even prototypes, are valued as some-
thing “concrete” capable of producing “tangible” or “visible” results. A.
P., developer of several civic applications, explains:

I do not believe in demonstrations and rallies that much. I go there rarely, howev-
er I try to support the movement by doing concrete actions. For example when
we started having first massive rallies [winter 2011 – K. E.], we made this project,
“HelpWall”… I made a webpage with a widget, a hotline number and a hashtag
on twitter. So when you send an SMS to this number or you post on Twitter say-
ing “Help me, I am arrested” and you use this hashtag… we can monitor every-
thing, and we had 80 people with us – lawyers, people with cars, doctors, nurses
and so on... (Interview A. P.)

    In the case of Russia, civic hacking projects heavily rely on law that
becomes somewhat a continuation of programming code. Russian civic
hacking scene has produced several popular apps that use legal docu-
ments as part of the apps initial design. They are developed based on
Administrative, Technical and Penal code, and all exploit a vulnerability
of Russian administration itself, namely, its extreme hierarchical, vertical
structure and the coercive functions of specific institutions. Among these
Ermoshina                                                                         95
civic applications that count hundreds of thousands of users: RosYama10,
the app that helps document and map potholes on the roads and send
complaints to the main Road Inspection of the region; RosZKH11, the app
that helps generate complaints on a wide range of problems related to the
utilities, the house and the closest neighborhood; WebNabludatel, the
app that helps document cases of electoral falsifications and facilitates the
work of electoral observers; Zalivaet,12 the app that helps victims of inun-
dations caused by leaking roofs to write a complaint to the City Hall;
Krasiviy Peterburg,13 the app that helps document cases of urban infra-
structure degradation and file complaints to the City Hall.
    In Russian context the civic hacking movement is not a “revolution”:
civic apps are acting within the legal field and do not aim at challenging
l’état de droit. On the contrary, civic apps are technical means to opti-
mize and facilitate the application of the rule of law for everyone in the
context where, because of corruption and deep structural crisis, the legit-
imacy of existing public institutions is undermined. In a technical meta-
phor, the “engineering mindset” (inzhenerniy um) becomes the last hope
to “fix” the broken mechanism of legitimacy, by introducing technical –
and thus, “objective” - elements in a corrupted administrative machine:

First of all, we can not call it a “revolution”. I would rather call it an attempt to
bring all forces in balance. Programmers try to fix the whole system, to repair it,
to restore or even to clean, because now administrative resources… actually, all
resources… are not distributed in a legitimate way. (A. P., CEO Progress Engine,
developer of the civic app “WebNabludatel” for observation of elections)

    Restraining from radical or revolutionary vision of “civic participa-
tion”, civic hackers focus on building solutions for very precise, and
sometimes tiny, problems related to ordinary life, such as potholes or
leaking roofs. In the context of distrust, civic engagement is shifted (or re-
focused) towards “little things”, material objects from the immediate ur-
ban or natural environment. The “crack”, the failure, the breakdown of
urban infrastructure, even as tiny as a pothole, can solicit citizens’ atten-
tion (Bidet et al. 2015) and create a “public” (Dewey 1927) – even if some-
what ephemeral or elusive – better than any ideology or a political party.
    The Russian case is particularly valid here, as recent studies show that
civic participation in Russia is shifting towards local and urban groups
organized around challenges of particular neighborhoods, districts,
towns, and are related to urban planning (Alyukov et al. 2014; Zhuravlev
et al. 2014). Thus, in the context of authoritarian or hybrid regimes where
civil society and public institutions fail to respond to basic civic needs,
civic hacking is not merely a neoliberal trend, but has a potential to be-
come a tool of social critique or counter-democracy (Rosanvallon 2006).
    The “social good” that hackers work for is rather vague: while it is
certainly not situated in the scope of contentious activism, it is neither a
mere improvement of the quality of everyday life.
96                                                                   Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

Good means social good... but I think people understand what means “4 good”…
It means helping humanity in the ways to make people’s and animals’ lives better.
Solving first world problems for first world people is less interesting for me... I
think the correct problems to be solved are those that really make a change for
people’s lives. Not necessarily how do I get to the bus faster or is it going to rain
today? People can argue, no if I know if it is going to rain than I will not get wet
and it will make my life better because I will not get wet ; but... ah... that’s not re-
ally the idea. It’s not making lives of people that have what they need more con-
fortable, it’s about making lives of people that don’t have what they need, better.
And animals that don’t have resources, people who might be defenseless, situa-
tions with famine, food, refugees, disabilities... (Reuben Katz, CEO GeekList, or-
ganizer of Hack4Good)

    The “good” seems to be clear, even if in a tacit way, for hackathon or-
ganizers (“people understand what means ‘for good’”) and they put it
aside from radical politics on the one hand and from “first world prob-
lems” on the other. Target groups as defined by Reuben are “humans in
need” who can not respond to their problems by themselves, or animals
and nature, also incapable, according to him, to solve their problems.
Civic hackers intervene to invent solutions where no institutional actors
are efficient, or to improve the work of existing institutions (as in case of
apps that should assist the work of emergency brigades during natural
disasters).
    In the manifesto of the IT volunteer project we find another definition
of “social good” that is constructed somewhere in the junction between
code and social work: “We believe that citizens have a big potential to
create the collective good (kollektivnoye blago). We know that, equipped
with proper tools, citizens can realize their potential and benefit from it
mutually”. This definition of “collective good” places the “proper tools”
at the center: it is based on a technocentric idea that it is possible to
“translate” human will to “do good” into an adequate technological solu-
tion. The “good” of civic hackers is a “good” that is properly equipped.
    It seems that, one of the conditions of success of the civic hacking
movement is to have no common definition for what the “good” is, but
rather illustrate it by defining precise challenges. The idea of the collec-
tive good becomes much more concrete if we look at the list of the 41
topics that are accepted by the project “IT-benevole”14. The projects that
can be supported by the platform must focus on one or more following
topics:
    - help to the citizens without social care or people in difficult situa-
        tion;
    - improvement of life quality of people with disabilities, or suffering
        from rare, severe or incurable diseases, or elderly people;
    - improvement of the urban space, protection of nature and animals;
    - adoption, education and socialization of orphans;
    - promotion and development of charity and volunteer social work;
    The social good as framed by IT-volunteer is a “good” that can be re-
Ermoshina                                                                  97
duced to specific issues. Analyzing projects proposed by IT-volunteer one
can see very precise tasks that already contain a certain technical task in
order to be “translatable” in code: “develop a chat and a mobile app for
psychological consultation for teenagers and children”, “help to imple-
ment a Wordpress plug-in for an NGO specialized in child adoption in
Moscow”, “help automatize geolocation for an ecological project to pro-
mote recycling in Novosibirsk”, and so on.
     Even working on challenges related to global political problems (ine-
quality, corruption, unemployment, crisis of representative democracy,
natural disasters, ecological controversies…), civic hackers tend to take
their distance from the institutionalized politics (Lodato and Di Salvo
2016). The manifesto of “IT-volunteer” clearly states that no project pro-
posed by a political organization or a political party is accepted.15
     Civic hackers, while they tend to distinguish their activities from poli-
tics, are not hostile but rather complementary to the work of NGOs or
public institutions. They insist they do not want to assimilate their activi-
ties with political sphere but they are however collaborating with actors
embedded in institutionalized politics, by developing civic applications.
Moreover, as we see it on Russian example, they are relying a lot on the
inner functioning of pre-existent administrative institutions and are actu-
ally reusing their weak points or flaws, as they would exploit a vulnerabil-
ity in a computer network.
     Civic applications are located in this grey area beyond traditional po-
litical activism, and related to this “ordinary citizenship”, to the life of a
community, but cannot be simply resumed to an activity of “making eve-
ryday activities simpler”. As Emily Shaw (2014) says, the “social good”
that is produced by the civic tech does not respond to “civic wants” but
rather to “civic needs”.


6. Conclusions

    Civic hacking has nothing of a “natural” phenomenon: the meeting
between the world of NGOs and the world of coders demands number of
adjustments and compromises, difficult and not always efficient, that are
realized by mediators, facilitator, entrepreneurs who create spaces and
tools to facilitate collaboration between these two universes. Online and
offline instruments, such as the web platform for Geeklist Corps of De-
velopers, or meet-ups, hackathons, hold-ups, are used to try to create
long-term connections between developers and activists. These mediators
define and maintain criteria for evaluation of civic hackers’ work, that go
beyond merely technical efficiency but include a new dimension – the
“civic” usefulness of a piece of software, its capacity to solve a problem of
a public concern.
    This “social good” is multiple and is defined ad hoc via precise pro-
98                                                            Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

jects and tools that are used to realize them. However, the question stays
whether the “civic hacking” can actually have a counter-democratic po-
tential? While civic hackers tend to apply novel technical solutions within
a political status quo, could there be a form of civic hacking that would
question the power relations within the field of technology, and largely, in
politics, and challenge the ways our institutions are organized? As Lodato
puts it: “These hacked civics rethink the state; they cobble together vari-
ous citizenries; they break and reassemble civic life; they don’t agree that
the answer is technology; and, most of all, they don’t agree on civics. At
civic hackathons, I want to see this civic hacking. I want to see civic hack-
ing that hacks civics”16.
    A grounded answer to that question requires a more thorough analysis
of technologies and practices used and produced at civic hackathons: the
usage of free software by coders themselves as opposed to proprietary
programs, the choice of centralized or decentralized architectures, the
choice of hosting providers, and even the choice of standards and librar-
ies to build on. We need to look at the framing of problems and the relat-
ed infrastructural choices: who are the problem owners? What are the
tech solutions proposed by the actors? How is the public involved in
framing the issue and developing the solution? Who owns the data pro-
duced by civic applications?
    Civic hacking can have both critical and reformist potential, and this
will depend strongly on the way publics or problem owners are involved
in the process of framing, design and development of the software. It will
depend on the organizers of the event as well, and their engagement with
public institutions. It will depend, finally, on the political context of the
country hosting civic hackathons: in countries like Russia, where civic
participation is weak or inefficient, and the trust in political representa-
tion is especially eroded, civic hacking can represent, indeed, a solution
for the civil society to construct public problems and engage with com-
munities.


Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank the Center for Sociology of Innovation and espe-
cially Prof Cécile Méadel for guidance throughout this research.


References
Akrich, M. (1998) Les utilisateurs, acteurs de l’innovation, in “Education
   permanente”, 134, pp. 78-89.
Akrich, M., Callon, M. and Latour, B. (2002) The key to success in innovation:
   Part 1: The art of interessement, in “International Journal of Innovation
   Management”, 6 (2), pp. 187–206.
Ermoshina                                                                     99
Alyukov, M. et al. (2014) Politika Apolitichnyh: Grazhdanskiye Dvijeniya v Rossii
   2011-2013 godov [Politics of the Apolitical. Civic Movements in Russia in
   2011-2013], Moscow, Novoye Literaturnoye Obozreniye.
Aronowitz, S. (2006) Left Turn: Forging a New Political Future, New York,
   Routledge.
Auray, N. (2012) De l’éthique à la politique: l’institution d'une cité libre, in
   “Multitudes”, 1 (8), pp. 171-180.
Auray, N. and Ouardi, S. (2014) Numérique et émancipation: De la politique du
   code au renouvellement des élites, in “Mouvements”, 79 (3), pp. 13-27.
Baraniuk, C. (2013) Civic hackers reshape your government, in “New Scientist”,
   218 (2923), pp. 36- 39.
Bennett, E. A. et al. (2013) Disavowing politics: Civic engagement in an era of
   political skepticism, in “The American Journal of Sociology”, 119 (2), pp.
   518–548.
Bidet, A. et al. (2015) Publicité, sollicitation, intervention, in “SociologieS”,
   http://sociologies.revues.org/4941 (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Blondiaux, L. (2008) Nouvel esprit de la démocratie, Paris, Le Seuil.
Boussaguet, L., Jacquot, S. and Ravinet, P. (2014) Dictionnaire des politiques
   publiques, 3rd ed., Paris, Presses de Sciences Po.
Callon, M., Barthe, Y., and Lascoumes, P. (2001) Agir dans un monde incertain.
    Essai sur la démocratie technique, Paris, Le Seuil.
Cardullo, P. et al. (2018) Living labs and vacancy in the neoliberal city, in
   “Cities”, 73, pp. 44-50.
Cefaï D. and Terzi C. (2012) L’expérience des problèmes publics, Paris, Éditions
   de l’EHESS.
Cefai, D. (2013) L’expérience des publics : institution et réflexivité, in Sur la
   sociologie             des          problèmes          publics            1/2,
   https://www.espacestemps.net/articles/lexperience-des-publics-institution-et-
   reflexivite/ (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Code      for    America     (2013).  What     is   a      civic    hacker?,
   http://www.codeforamerica.org/blog/2013/05/06/what-is-a-civic-hacker/
   (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Collins, H. M. and Evans, R. (2002) The Third Wave of Science Studies of
   Expertise and Experience, in “Social Studies of Science”, 32 (2), pp. 235–296.
Dafermos, G. and Soderberg, J., (2009) The hacker movement as a continuation
   of a labour struggle, in “Capital & Class”, 33 (1), pp. 53-73.
Dewey, J (1927) The Public and Its Problems, Athens, OH: Swallow Press Books.
DiSalvo, C., Gregg. M. and Lodato, T. (2014) Building Belonging, in
   “Interactions”, 21 (4), pp. 58-61.
100                                                               Tecnoscienza – 9 (1)

Dorstewitz, P. and Kremer, A. (2016) Pragmatist Perspectives on Science and
   Technology and Contemporary Dewey Studies, in “Pragmatism Today”, 7 (1),
   http://www.pragmatismtoday.eu/summer2016/Pragmatist-Perspectives-on-
   Science-and-Technology-and-Contemporary-Dewey-Studies-Philipp-
   Dorstewitz-Alexander-Kremer.pdf (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Eliasoph, N. (1998) Avoiding politics: How Americans produce apathy in
    everyday life, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Ermoshina, K. (2016) Is there an app for everything? Potentials and limits of civic
   hacking, in “Observatorio”, 10, pp. 116-140.
Eyler-Werve K. and Carlson V. (2012) Civic Apps Competition Handbook,
    Chicago, O'Reilly Media.
Galison, P. (1997) Image & logic: A material culture of microphysics,
   Chicago,The University of Chicago Press.
Gregg, M. (2015) Hack for Good: Speculative Labour, App Development and the
   Burden of Austerity, in “The Fibreculture Journal”, 25, pp. 183-201.
Hébert, M. K. (2013) “E-government is so 1990s”: Why smart civic innovators
   drop the “E-“, in “ACM 2013 International Conference Proceedings”, pp.
   287-288.
Irani, L. (2015) Hackathons and the making of entrepreneurial citizenship, in
    “Science, Technology & Human Values”, 40 (5), pp. 799-824.
Lachance Shandrow, K. (2013) Inside the Civic Hacking Movement,
   http://www.govtech.com/applications/Inside-the-Civic-Hacking-
   Movement.html (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Lodato, T. (2016) Ethnography of Civic Participation: The Difficulty of Showing
   Up Even when You Are There, https://www.epicpeople.org/ethnography-of-
   civic-participation/#_ednref7 (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Lodato, T., DiSalvo, C. (2015) Issue-Oriented Hackathons as Ad-Hoc Design
   Events,
   https://urbaninnovation.gatech.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/Issue-
   Oriented%20Hackathons%20as%20Ad-hoc%20Design%20Events.pdf
   (retrieved June 20, 2018)
McAdam, D., Tarrow, S. and Tilly, C. (2001) Dynamics of Contention,
  Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Morozov, E. (2013) To Save Everything, Click Here: The Folly of Technological
  Solutionism, New York, PublicAffairs.
Rosanvallon, P (2006) La Contre-Démocratie. La politique à l'âge de la défiance.
   Paris, Seuil
Shaw,     E.     (2014)     Civic     wants, civic    needs,    civic    tech,
   https://sunlightfoundation.com/blog/2014/09/29/civic-wants-civic-needs-
   civic-tech/ (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Ermoshina                                                                         101
Simondon, G. (2016) On the Mode of Existence of Technical Objects,
   Minneapolis, Univocal Publishing
Sterling, B. (2013) Why civic hacking is good for the cities?, in “Wired”,
    https://www.wired.com/2013/05/why-civic-hacking-is-good-for-cities/
    (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Williams, A. (2013) Civic hacking and ingenuity ease election technology
   challenges: As the nation prepares for this year’s elections, the state of election
   IT           is         being          shaped             by           volunteers,
   https://statetechmagazine.com/article/2013/10/civic-hacking-and-ingenuity-
   ease-election-technology-challenges (retrieved June 20, 2018)
Zhuravlev, O. et al. (2014). Apoliticism and Solidarity: Local Activism in Russia,
   http://www.criticatac.ro/lefteast/apoliticism-and-solidarity-local-activism-in-
   russia/ (retrieved June 20, 2018)


    1
      https://opensalary.ru/ - Open Salary was developed during a civic hackathon
in Moscow in 2012.
    2
      Code for America is an organization found in 2009 to “help governments de-
liver better services to the public by using tools and practices from the digital
sphere” (https://www.codeforamerica.org/)
    3
      http://www.opengovguide.com/
    4
       The Greenhouse for Social Technologies is a Russian non-governmental or-
ganization created in 2012. Its mission is, as defined on their website, “to build
bridges between NGOs and experts in programming”. (https://te-st.ru)
    5
       Federal law of Russian Federation 121FZ obliges all NGOs that receive
funding from abroad and exercise political activities, to declare as being “foreign
agents”.
    6
      http://te-st.ru
    7
      http://www.rhok.org/about
    8
      https://itv.te-st.ru/
    9
       Geek List is a social network for developers. Geek List was the organizer of
the series of international civic hackathons Hack4Good https://geekli.st/home
    10
       https://rosyama.ru/ - mobile and web application built by the team of Rus-
sian opposition leader Alexey Navalny between 2010 and 2012. It counts more
than 117000 potholes declared since the creation of the app.
    11
       https://roszkh.ru/ - web application built by the team of Alexey Navalny in
2012. Counts more than 500 000 complaints sent through the app.
    12
        http://zalivaet.spb.ru/ - web application built by Fedor Gorozhanko in
2010. Counts more than 5000 complaints and around 2500 users.
    13
       http://www.красивыйпетербург.рф - web and mobile application built by
the network of “Observers of Saint-Petersburg” in 2012 that counts 54000 users
and more than 120000 complaints sent through the app.
    14
       https://itv.te-st.ru/about/.
    15
       https://itv.te-st.ru/about/
    16
       http://thomaslodato.info/writing/three-positions-on-civic-hacking/
