Uno studio sugli strumenti di traduzione automatica automatica: un'analisi comparativa degli errori tra DeepL e Yandex per la traduzione medica russo-italiano
10.6092/issn.2532-8816/12631
La presente ricerca ha lo scopo di condurre uno studio nell’ambito della traduzione medica russo-italiana sull'attuale sviluppo di due strumenti di traduzione automatica che hanno un ruolo di primo piano nell'attuale quadro della traduzione automatica “neurale”, DeepL e Yandex. Ai fini della nostra ricerca, abbiamo selezionato articoli medici scritti in russo, in particolare: tre articoli medici altamente specializzati e tre di scienza popolare riguardanti la pandemia di coronavirus. Tale scelta è giustificata dalla volontà non solo di analizzare documenti scientifici di recente pubblicazione, ma anche di indagare le particolari implicazioni linguistiche dell'epidemia di coronavirus del 2020. Infatti, durante il periodo di pandemia sono stati introdotti e coniati nella comunicazione quotidiana tutta una serie di termini il cui uso era precedentemente limitato al linguaggio della scienza e che improvvisamente sono entrati nei confini della terminologia scientifica. Abbiamo considerato questo fenomeno linguistico esistente come una condizione adeguata per testare le prestazioni degli strumenti di traduzione automatica. In particolare, discuteremo la valutazione della traduzione automatica analizzando le caratteristiche più rilevanti dell'analisi comparativa degli errori e la metrica BLEU per DeepL e Yandex.
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A Study on Automatic Machine Translation Tools: A Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation
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A Study on Automatic Machine Translation Tools: A Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation
https://umanisticadigitale.unibo.it/article/view/12631/13138
   Umanistica Digitale – ISSN: 2532-8816 – n. 10, 2021
G. M. Di Nunzio, G. Cambedda, V. Nosilia – A Study on Machine Translation Tools: A
Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation
DOI: http://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2532-8816/12631



A Study on Machine Translation Tools: A Comparative Error
  Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian
                   Medical Translation

                1
                 Giulia Cambedda, 2Giorgio Maria Di Nunzio, 3Viviana Nosilia

                                     1,2,3
                                             Università di Padova, Italy
                             1
                              giulia.cambedda@studenti.unipd.it
                               2giorgiomaria.dinunzio@unipd.it
                                  3viviana.nosilia@unipd.it




       Abstract

The present research is aimed at conducting a study on Russian-Italian medical translation with
regard to the current development of two Machine Translation tools that feature prominently in
today’s Neural Machine Translation framework, namely DeepL and Yandex. For the purpose of
our research, we have selected three highly specialized and three popular-science articles
concerning coronavirus pandemic. Such a choice is justified by the willingness not only to analyse
recently published scientific documents but also to investigate the particular linguistic
implications of 2020’s coronavirus pandemic outbreak, which has introduced in every-day
communication a whole set of terms whose use was previously limited to the language of science,
as well as coined a group of new terms, which entered the boundaries of scientific terminology.
We have considered this existing linguistic phenomenon as a proper condition to test the
performances of Machine Translation tools. In particular, we discuss the most relevant features
of the comparative error analysis as well as the BLEU metric for both DeepL and Yandex.
La presente ricerca ha lo scopo di condurre uno studio nell’ambito della traduzione medica russo-
italiana sull'attuale sviluppo di due strumenti di traduzione automatica che hanno un ruolo di
primo piano nell'attuale quadro della traduzione automatica “neurale”, DeepL e Yandex. Ai fini
della nostra ricerca, abbiamo selezionato articoli medici scritti in russo, in particolare: tre articoli
medici altamente specializzati e tre di scienza popolare riguardanti la pandemia di coronavirus.
Tale scelta è giustificata dalla volontà non solo di analizzare documenti scientifici di recente
pubblicazione, ma anche di indagare le particolari implicazioni linguistiche dell'epidemia di
coronavirus del 2020. Infatti, durante il periodo di pandemia sono stati introdotti e coniati nella
comunicazione quotidiana tutta una serie di termini il cui uso era precedentemente limitato al
linguaggio della scienza e che improvvisamente sono entrati nei confini della terminologia
scientifica. Abbiamo considerato questo fenomeno linguistico esistente come una condizione
                                                      139
    Umanistica Digitale – ISSN: 2532-8816 – n. 10, 2021


adeguata per testare le prestazioni degli strumenti di traduzione automatica. In particolare,
discuteremo la valutazione della traduzione automatica analizzando le caratteristiche più rilevanti
dell'analisi comparativa degli errori e la metrica BLEU per DeepL e Yandex.



       1. Introduction

Over the years, Machine Translation (MT) has undergone rapid growth, mainly due to extensive
research in the field and an increasing worldwide interest in computer science. By the middle of
the previous century, several approaches have been implemented within the field of Machine
Translation, in order to obtain machine translation systems combining high-quality results and
low costs of implementation ([10]).
In this paper, we present a qualitative and quantitative analysis of two neural MT tools that
feature prominently in today’s MT panorama: DeepL and Yandex. The former was launched in
2017 by DeepL GmbHI as Neural Machine Translation system, whereas the latter, launched in
2011 by the Russian Internet company Yandex as a Statistical Machine Translation tool, shifted
from a purely statistical translation system to a hybrid translation system, consisting of both a
statistical and a neural approach, in 2017 (www.Yandex.com). In order to compare the
effectiveness and reliability of DeepL and Yandex, we perform a manual comparative error
analysis of the translations provided by the two tools. We detect the errors committed by the two
translation tools and provide a linguistic analysis. Each error is marked as belonging to one or
more of categories specifically selected according to the linguistic features of the texts and the
language pair under examination. After completing the manual error analysis, the two tools’
translation performances are evaluated by means of the BLEU metric, which calculates the
percentage of textual similarity between the machine translations under examination and a set of
reference translations ([24]). The choice of the specific language pair under examination, namely
Russian-Italian, is certainly due to the major role as vehicular language of scientific literature that
Russian played for a considerable time. Therefore, since a significant amount of Russian relevant
scientific documents still persist in the original language, an improvement in the translation
performances of Machine Translation tools would ensure the availability of a relevant scientific
research heritage outside Russian borders. Of primary interest for our research is the study of
DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances with regard to medical language. In particular,
we decided to analyse how the grammatical, syntactical, and lexical disparities between medical
highly specialized and popular-science texts affect the two translation tools’ behaviour and overall
translation performances. Therefore, for the purposes of our study, we have selected three
Russian highly specialized medical texts and three Russian popular-science medical texts
concerning the Coronavirus pandemic outbreak. The analysis and translation of the whole
documents lay outside the scope of the present research. Nonetheless, several fragments of each
document are translated into Italian and analysed. More specifically, special attention is devoted
to the specialized texts’ titles and abstracts, and the popular-science texts’ titles and first
paragraphs.


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The paper is organized as follows: in Section 2, we provide literature review of Machine
Translation Evaluation approaches; in Section 3, we present our experimental setting and our
qualitative and quantitative analysis. In Section 4, we draw our conclusions and provide final
remarks.

       1.1 Background in Neural MT
A turning point in Machine Translation development is undoubtedly represented by the
emergence, in 2014, of the first Neural Machine Translation systems. Neural Machine
Translation (NMT) was initially used as a supplement of Statistical Machine Translation systems
and subsequently developed its own techniques and systems. NMT systems’ most innovative
aspect, which undoubtedly separates them from the other MT systems, is the central role of
distributional semantics and word embeddings in the translation process. The most significant
contribution of the distributional semantics to the linguistic theory in general and the research
in the field of machine translation is the idea that the meaning of words needs to be investigated
in a contextual framework ([13]). One of the most popular NMT architectures consists of three
core elements, namely: an encoder, a decoder, and an attention model. The encoder is a
Bidirectional Recurrent Neural Network (BRNN) ([35]), which, using an n-gram model,
analyzes the input sentence from right to left and vice versa and extracts a fixed-length vector
representation of the source sentence. Afterward, the decoder, starting from the vector
representation, creates a variable-length sequence, i.e., the target sentence ([34]). The attention
model is a Multilayer Perception Neural Network and that aligns the source sentence words with
the corresponding target sentence words. As mentioned above, an RNN may be particularly
effective in performing translation tasks. Nonetheless, this kind of neural network is not able to
link pieces of information that are distributed over long distances. Therefore, when contextual
information is scattered over a long source text, NMT systems based on RNN cannot by their
nature provide reliable translations. In order to overcome RNN’s limitations, the more
sophisticated Long Short Term Memory (LSTM) neural networks have been implemented.
Unlike RNN, which consists of one only layer, LSTM neural networks have four layers and can
solve long-distance problems and properly convey contextual meaning ([37]).



       2. Machine Translation Evaluation: An Open Question

Translation Quality Assessment (TQA) has always constituted a key issue in Translation Studies
and its relevance has significantly increased with the emergence of Machine Translation and the
growth of the translation industry. Reaching an adequate understanding of how to properly
evaluate Machine Translation systems is vital to the development of Machine Translation
research. A good evaluation method can indeed shed light on a specific MT system’s strengths
and weaknesses and consequently suggest the necessary modifications and the appropriate line
to be taken in the future. Moreover, it represents an essential tool for Machine Translation
professionals to monitor the increasingly rapid progress of their systems and for users to sensibly
choose the MT programs that best suit their needs ([25]). Nonetheless, since the beginning of
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Machine Translation growth, its evaluation has always been an extremely controversial issue, and
still nowadays represents an open question. Generally speaking, when assessing a translation, be
it performed by humans or computer programs, we need to start from the assumption that, given
a source sentence, or text, there is not only one “perfect” translation, as well as there may be
several “acceptable” translations. Moreover, with regard to Machine Translation evaluation, a
core concept is introduced in the following sentence by Papineni et al. ([25]): “The closer a
machine translation is to a professional human translation, the better it is”. Hence, in order to
undertake quality assessment for MT systems’ output, a machine translation is usually judged on
the basis of a numerical metric that measures its closeness to a set of reference professional human
translations, and its fluency, adequacy, comprehensibility and readability are assessed ([4]). In
particular, accuracy and usability constitute two major properties that are taken into
consideration when assessing professional translation ([30]). Accuracy can be defined as “How
much of the meaning expressed in the gold standard translation or the source is also expressed in
the target translation” ([19]), while usability concerns the degree of possibility for a translation
to be useful to its users in order to accomplish a set of intended tasks within a certain context of
use ([4]). Moreover, translation evaluation, be it human or automatic, is strictly related to the
textual type and the language pair under examination, which define some of the parameters
according to which the translation itself needs to be assessed. The evaluation of specialized texts’
translation, such as medical texts, implies a set of specific parameters that depend on the main
characteristics of medical language and the translation’s final use. This requires the translator a
certain degree of expertise not only in the source and target language but also in medical language
and the specific topic covered by the medical text under examination ([23]). Medical language
can be defined as the “occupational register of physicians and it is largely opaque outside the
medical community” ([18]). It is one of the so-called Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP), i.e.
those specific registers adopted by professionals to exchange information and knowledge in
professional contexts. The medical language shares some features with the other LSP and has
developed over time a set of specific characteristics. A high degree of impersonality aimed at
maintaining distance and objectivity undoubtedly stands out in medical texts and treatises. It
usually comes along with a marked tendency towards the nominalization of verbs and adjectives,
which leads to extensive use of extended nominal groups. Moreover, medical language is prone
to passivize active verbs and includes highly technical phrases, which constitute the medical
jargon. As for lexis, the historical origins of medical language are responsible for the persistence,
within the medical vocabulary, of Greek and Latin terms in their original form, as well as the
formation of new words starting from Greek and Latin suffixes and prefixes ([7]). The Russian
medical language shares some features with the other technical languages and developed its own
ones. Objectivity and impersonality, represented by impersonal phrases and constructions, and
reflexive verbs, constitute the two main features of the Russian medical language. Moreover,
nouns are more widely used than verbs and a marked tendency to formulate grammatically
relatively easy sentences has been observed. However, the existence of concatenations of genitives
along with widespread use of gerunds and participles certainly contributes to complicating the
overall grammatical structure. The Russian language of medicine is likewise characterized by a
widespread presence of synonyms, which attests that close contact between Russian and
international terminology took place. Although in medical terminology, international synonyms
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  Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation

are usually preferred for reasons of systematization, translatability, ease of international
communication, and spread of medical knowledge, the Russian medical language displays the
coexistence of international terms and their Russian equivalents ([26]). As mentioned above,
specialized translation evaluation is required to specifically consider the final use of the
translation under examination. Since its aim is related to the transfer of knowledge, its clarity
and the absence of ambiguity needs to be taken into consideration ([23]). Moreover, the correct
identification of the target user is a major aspect. For this reason, a distinction has to be made
when evaluating the translation of medical highly specialized texts from popular-science texts’
one. Machine translation evaluation can be performed by means of automated, semi-automated,
and human techniques. It must be said that a clear distinction between the mentioned categories
cannot be considered obvious, as their boundaries are quite blurry, and a juxtaposition is not
difficult to occur. Automated Machine Translation evaluation refers to those assessing methods
that do not involve human judgment or rather in which human intellect is confined to a number
of side activities, such as data collection, preparation of the reference translations, or annotation.
On the contrary, non-automated or human Machine Translation evaluation includes all those
approaches that directly or not involve human judgment ([5]). Both evaluation approaches suffer
from substantial shortcomings. On the one hand, human evaluation of Machine Translation has
been strongly criticized for depending on a specific linguistic knowledge and subjective opinion
of an evaluator or group of evaluators, and it is undoubtedly slower and more costly when
compared to automatic evaluation metrics. Moreover, human Machine Translation evaluation
implies not only a significantly costly and time-consuming implementation (Papineni et al.,
2002) but also the impossibility of reproducing the same patterns an indefinite number of times
and the risk of being too subjective, as human beings may be biased by a set of different factors,
related to the external environment, as well as the evaluator’s previous knowledge and physical
or psychological conditions ([20]). However, the scholars who support the human evaluation of
Machine Translation pointedly remark the idea that a human assessment of Machine Translation
is needed firstly because the output of an MT system is meant to be received, understood, and
used by human beings. Secondly, only human perception of the world can efficiently detect the
errors made by MT systems and assess their severity. Thirdly, professional human evaluators
master the linguistic knowledge necessary to deeply analyze a translation and integrating such a
piece of knowledge into an automatic evaluation system undoubtedly would not only be difficult
but also costly and suitable for just a limited number of language pairs. Extensive research has
been conducted over the decades to measure and improve the effectiveness of human assessment
as an evaluation method applicable to the output produced by Machine Translation systems. In
doing so, special attention has been devoted not only to estimating human beings’ ease, speed,
and consistency in performing the evaluation tasks but also to determining the most favourable
conditions under which a proper human assessment can be performed. On the other hand,
automatic evaluation metrics tend to equally weigh all the words, or n-grams contained in the
translation, regardless of the degree of informativeness of their content. Hence, the substitution
of articles or interjections risks being equalized by the system to one of highly informative parts
of speech, such as nouns and verbs. This kind of evaluation is indeed responsible for penalizing
those candidate translations that, although correct, present a low degree of similarity with the
golden translations and being unable to properly detect long-distance linguistic relationships to
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provide a corpus-level quality assessment ([5]). In addition, by comparing MT systems’ output
against a corpus of human reference translations, automatic Machine Translation evaluation
metrics necessarily include in the evaluation process a subjective human element and limit the
scope and accuracy of the assessment itself. Indeed, for a given source sentence, there are a great
number of reliable translation variants, undoubtedly more than the ones that can be contained
in a limited, although exhaustive corpus. However, not only automated translation evaluation
certainly constitutes a fast and low-cost evaluation method but is also able to provide a degree of
consistency that cannot be reached by human beings alone. In addition, the recent increasing
development of Neural Machine Translation has posed new technical challenges to machine
translation evaluation metrics, be them human or automated, as a higher degree of precision is
demanded. In fact, for the evaluation techniques to comply with the newly implemented Neural
Machine Translation systems and constitute a useful tool for their development, they need to
present a deeper sensitivity to linguistic nuances, be able to perform extensive analysis at the
document level and be specifically designed to focus on specific linguistic features ([5]). As a
consequence, a universal and commonly accepted Machine Translation evaluation method has
not been implemented yet, and MTE remains an open question ([4]). For the purposes of our
research, we will apply both a human evaluation method, namely the error analysis and an
automatic evaluation method, namely the BLEU metric. By combining the two methods, namely
the comparative error analysis, which relies on a human assessment of the translation
performance, and the BLEU metric, which provides an objective and numeric machine
translation evaluation, we wish to achieve a comprehensive analysis of the strengths and
weaknesses of the two machine translation tools under examination, as well as an actual
comparison of their translation performances.

       2.1 Error analysis
The error analysis constitutes a human evaluation method consisting of assessing machine
translation quality by annotating each error and marking it with an error-tag. The annotator or
the group of annotators is usually provided with additional reference material, such as the source
text or a set of reference human translations, or both, and asked to classify the errors encountered
throughout the translation according to a number of previously agreed error categories. In order
to be comprehensive, error analysis needs careful planning. Firstly, it is necessary to consider the
knowledge and background of an annotator or the group of annotators, in case the evaluation is
performed by a group of evaluators, to increase inter-annotator agreement by organizing a
specific training devoted to clarifying the scope and purposes of the analysis ([27]). Secondly, the
choice of error classes requires special attention. In fact, a great amount of error categories
undoubtedly contributes to providing an exhaustive error analysis. Nonetheless, in this case, since
the boundaries between the different categories are relatively blurry, it may be difficult to
properly assign each error to its corresponding category. Moreover, error classes are to be carefully
chosen according to the type of analysis that has to be conducted, on which depends the
importance given to each error, and the relevant linguistic features of the text under examination.
Finally, not only the number and type of error classes have to be considered, but also an exact


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  Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation

and unambiguous definition of each error class needs to be provided. In this way, correct
classification is easier to perform by the evaluator or the group of evaluators ([15]).

       2.2 The BLEU metric
The Bilingual Evaluation Understudy (BLEU) ([24]) metric undoubtedly represents one of the
most popular precision and recall metrics as well as the benchmark to judge other automatic
Machine Translation evaluation systems ([5]). Precision and recall metrics evaluate the quality
of a Machine Translation output according to the measure of textual similarities between an MT
system’s output and a set of human reference translations. In particular, precision refers to the
ratio of n-grams in the translation under examination that occur in any of the reference
translations to the total number of n-grams contained in the translation under examination. The
recall is defined by calculating the ratio of n-grams in the translation under examination that
occur in any of the reference translations to the total number of n-grams of the reference
translations ([5]). BLEU metric’s algorithm is composed of two main constituent parts, a
numerical metric designed to measure the closeness between the candidate machine translation
and the reference translations, and a corpus containing a number of reliable human reference
translations. In evaluating the candidate translation, the BLEU metric considers three core
factors, namely word choice, word order, and length. A score is indeed assigned to each n-gram
of the candidate translation on the basis of its similarity with the reference translations.
Afterward, all the scores are averaged over the entire corpus. In this way, a comprehensive corpus-
based evaluation indicating the candidate translation’s overall quality is provided. The score
given to each n-gram is calculated according to a precision measure: the words contained in the
n-gram under examination that occur also in any reference translation are counted and their total
number is then divided by the number of words contained in the n-gram ([5]). However, since
MT systems tend to generate a greater number of words when compared to any reference
translation, in order to achieve a reliable evaluation, a modified unigram precision measure is
adopted. The modified precision measure takes into account not only whether a candidate
translation n-gram appears in any reference translation, but also its maximum number of times
of occurrence in any of the reference translations, which is afterward divided by the number of
times the same n-gram appears in the candidate translation itself. The size of the n-grams used
as units of comparison has a strong effect on the overall evaluation. Shorter n-grams, such as
unigrams, i.e. consisting of a single word, are proven to be useful to assess the adequacy, whereas
longer n-grams are better in determining the fluency of the candidate translation ([25]). As
mentioned above, for the candidate translation to be given a high score, it should correlate well
with the reference translations also in terms of length. Moreover, the candidate translation is
expected to contain just one of the synonymic words that appear in the different reference
translations as variants of the same potential source word. In this case, a candidate sentence could
indeed be given a high score as it contains many words that occur also in the reference
translations, without being a reliable translation, nor having, in many cases, full meaning. In
order to include the length factor in the evaluation process and try to overcome the recall
problem, a brevity penalty is introduced. The reference translation that better reflects the
candidate translation’s length is selected and the same procedure is performed at the sentence

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level. Afterward, all the length best matches are summed and compared to the total length of the
machine translation output under examination. BLEU metric’s scores range from a minimum of
0 and a maximum of 1, which would be assigned to a candidate translation proven to be identical
to one of the reference translations contained in the corpus ([3]).



        3. A comparative error analysis between DeepL and Yandex

In order to compare the effectiveness and reliability of DeepL and Yandex, we perform a manual
comparative error analysis of the translations provided by the two Machine Translation tools.
We detect the errors committed by the two translation tools and provide a brief linguistic
analysis. Moreover, each error is marked as belonging to one or more of the error categories that
are listed above. A universal approach to the problem of properly setting error analysis has not
been implemented yet and different scholars proposed their own error typology. A significant
step towards error analysis standardization has been carried out with the implementation of the
Multidimensional Quality Metrics (MQM) by the German Research Centre for Artificial
Intelligence (DFKI) from 2012 to 2014 ([15]). When setting the comparative error analysis
discussed in the present paper, we decided to refer to MQM with regard to its tree structure, as
well as some of its specific error categories. Indeed, we have selected a number of error categories
of the MQM model and developed other specific ones according to the linguistic features of the
texts and the language pair under examination. In particular, we added Theme-rheme pattern 1
category, as well as Untranslated elements 2 and Transliteration 3 subcategories. Moreover, some


1   Theme-rheme pattern category refers to the incorrect rendering of the theme-rheme pattern of the
    source document and its corresponding original communicative function. See an example with its
    corresponding analysis in Section 3.2.6.
2   Unlike Omission subcategory, which refers to those fragments of the source text that are not rendered
    in the target text, Untranslated elements subcategory refers to those fragments of the original text that
    are not affected by a translation process and maintained in the source language in the target text. See
    the following fragment from the popular-science article Ведение детей с заболеванием,
    вызванным новой коронавирусной инфекцией (SARS-CoV-2) ([1]) and the corresponding
    translation by Yandex:
    С целью обеспечения детского населения эффективной медицинской помощью в
    условиях пандемии новой коронавирусной инфекции Минздравом России совместно
    с профессиональными ассоциациями и экспертами в области педиатрии,
    инфекционных болезней и реанимации.
    Con l'obiettivo di garantire alla popolazione pediatrica efficace aiuto medico in condizioni di
    pandemia di nuova коронавирусной infezione dal ministero della salute Russia in collaborazione
    con le associazioni professionali e di esperti nel campo della pediatria, malattie infettive e
    rianimazione.
3   Transliteration subcategory refers to the violation of the rules of scientific transliteration of Cyrillic
    alphabet. See the following example from the popular-science text Смертность от COVID 19 -
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primary error categories branch into one or more subcategories, which constitute more specific
types of issues that fall within a certain error category.
•      Grammar
               o Syntax
               o Use of the articles
•      Lexis
•      Acronym
•      Terminology
               o Domain-specific terms
•      Culture-specific references
•      Theme-rheme pattern
•      Accuracy
               o Omission
               o Untranslated elements
•      Consistency
•      Orthography
               o Spelling
               o Capitalization
               o Transliteration
•      Format

           3.1 Dataset
For the purposes of our research, we have selected and translated from Russian into Italian three
highly specialized and three popular-science medical texts. The titles of the selected texts, along
with the number of translated words for each text, are listed below:
      1.    Биологическая терапия в эру COVID-19 (97 words) ([21]) 4




     Взгляд демографа на статистику причин смерти в России и мире (Timonin, 2020) and
     the corresponding DeepL’s translation.
     Какие два типа статистических данных должны разрабатываться в условиях
     эпидемии — на эти и многие другие вопросы отвечают демографы Сергей Тимонин
     и Анатолий Вишневский.
     Quali due tipi di statistiche dovrebbero essere sviluppate nel contesto di un'epidemia - a queste e a
     molte altre domande rispondono i demografi Sergei Timonin e Anatoly Vishnevsky.
4    The biological therapy in the COVID-19 era.
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     2.    Ведение детей с заболеванием, вызванным новой коронавирусной
           инфекцией (SARS-CoV-2) (133 words) ([1]) 5
     3.    Коронавирус SARS-Cov 2: сложности патогенеза, поиски вакцин и
           будущие пандемии (197 words) ([38]) 6

Moreover, the following three Russian popular-science texts have been selected:
     1.    Коронавирус завозили в Россию не менее 67 раз (149 words) ([16]) 7
     2.    Неизвестная летальность - Почему мы не знаем истинных масштабов
           COVID-19 (173 words) ([28]) 8
     3.    Смертность от COVID 19 - Взгляд демографа на статистику причин
           смерти в России и мире (150 words) ([32]) 9

          3.2 Qualitative analysis of the results
Once we marked all the errors, two tables have been compiled to provide a visual overview of the
quality of the translations provided by the two translation tools. For the mentioned table to be
easily readable and understandable to the intended readers, it has been divided according to the
translation tool and the text type that is displayed. Therefore, a total of four tables has been
inserted. Each table shows how the erroneous fragments are displayed in the source document,
in the provided translations, and a specifically made human translation, used as reference
translation. Each erroneous fragment has been further associated with one or more of the above-
mentioned error categories and then summed according to the error category within which it
falls. A number of example relevant translation errors along with their corresponding error
categories have been listed and briefly commented in the following lines, with the aim of
providing a deeper understanding of the methods of our comparative error analysis as well as
DeepL’s and Yandex’s strengths and weaknesses. For a better understanding of the contextual
information, the fragments of the original text containing the translation errors under
examination have been inserted at the beginning of each subsection, and the portion of text
analysed highlighted in bold and reported in the corresponding table.




5   Clinical management of children with a disease caused by the new coronavirus infection (SARS-CoV-
    2).
6   Coronavirus SARS-Cov 2: complexities of the pathogenesis, search for the vaccines, and future
    pandemics.
7   Coronavirus was imported into Russia at least 67 times.
8   Unknown lethality - Why we do not know the true extent of COVID-19.
9   COVID-19 mortality rate - A demographer's perspective on statistics of causes of death in Russia and
    worldwide.

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3.2.1 Grammar - Syntax

       При сравнении этих данных со статистикой по другим странам обращает на
       себя внимание и вызывает неизбежные вопросы исключительно низкий
       уровень летальности от коронавируса в России ([32]).


 Original document                Yandex’s translation             Human translation


 обращает    на     себя          richiama     l'attenzione    e   attira l'attenzione e solleva
 внимание и вызывает              solleva questioni inevitabili    inevitabili domande il tasso
 неизбежные     вопросы           eccezionalmente basso tasso      di mortalità estremamente
 исключительно низкий             di mortalità da coronavirus in   basso da coronavirus in
 уровень летальности от           Russia.                          Russia.
 коронавируса в России.

The sentence under examination provides an interesting starting point for discussion as Yandex’s
version does not result in compliance with Italian grammatical rules, especially with regard to its
erroneous word order. Indeed, the main verb of the sentence and its subject are not only
displayed in an order that does not respect Italian grammatical rules, according to which the
verb, except for in some special cases, usually follows the corresponding subject, but they are also
completely disconnected from one another (Treccani, 2020). This undoubtedly contributes to
distorting the meaning of the whole translation variant and preventing it from being acceptable.
3.2.2 Grammar - Use of the articles

       Актуальность. Вакцина против коронавируса SARS-Cov-2 рассматривается
       как наиболее перспективное средство для укрощения вызванной им
       нынешней пандемии и воспрепятствования возникновению новой ([38]).


 Original document                Yandex’s translation             Human translation


 Вакцина против                   Il vaccino contro il             Un vaccino contro il
 коронавируса                     coronavirus                      coronavirus

The Russian term Вакцина and consequently its Italian equivalent vaccino denote a non-specific
and still theoretical entity. In other words, since a vaccine against coronavirus had not been
developed yet when the article under examination was written, the name describing it refers to a
general concept, i.e. the fact that only a vaccine may restrain the existing pandemic to exacerbate
and prevent the emergence of a new one. As a result, an indefinite article would more
appropriately contribute to conveying the original grade of definiteness meaning ([14]).



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3.2.3 Lexis


       Ведение детей с заболеванием, вызванным новой коронавирусной
       инфекцией (SARS-CoV-2) ([1]).


 Original document                 DeepL’s translation              Human translation


 Ведение детей                     Conduzione di bambini            Gestione dei bambini

The Russian term ведение is translated with the Italian noun conduzione. Although it can be
considered as a possible translation variant for the Russian term under examination
(academic.ru), gestione more frequently comes in association with the Italian term bambini
(Tiberii, 2018), i.e., the proper translation of the Russian term детей, and perfectly suits the
specific context of the source text. This example undoubtedly confirms that the ability of a
Machine Translation Tool in properly rendering contextual information plays a major role in
the assessment of the quality of the translation tool itself.
3.2.4 Acronyms

       В обзоре отражены последние рекомендации международных
       ассоциаций/консенсусов и наблюдения врачей различных специальностей
       по вопросу прерывания/продолжения терапии ГИБП с оценкой
       последствий в случае прерывания биологической терапии ([21]).


 Original document                 Yandex’s translation             Human translation


 ГИБП                              GIBP                             della terapia dei preparati
                                                                    biologici geneticamente
                                                                    modificati

The Russian acronym ГИБП, which stands for генно-инженерные биологические
препараты ([11]), and can be translated into English as genetically engineered biological
products, is translated with its transliteration, namely GIBP. Although it does adhere to the
transliteration rules, since no equivalents can be found neither in Italian nor in English scientific
literature, it cannot be considered a correct translation equivalent. A good variant could be
instead the translation into Italian of all the words that constitute the Russian acronym.
3.2.5 Culture-specific references

       Исследовательская группа из Высшей школы экономики и Сколтеха,
       совместно со специалистами НИИ гриппа им. А.А. Смородинцева в Санкт

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       Петербурге и ИППИ им. А.А. Харкевича РАН установили, что коронавирус
       SARS-CoV 2 независимо проникал на территорию России не менее 67 раз,
       главным образом в конце февраля и начале марта 2020 года ([16]).




 Original document                DeepL’s translation              Human translation


 ИППИ им. А.А.                    dell'A.A. Kharkevich IPPI        dell’Istituto delle questioni
 Харкевича РАН                    RAS                              di trasmissione
                                                                   dell’informazione A.A.
                                                                   Harkevič Rossijskaja
                                                                   Akademija Nauk

The translation tool totally fails in properly rendering the Russian acronyms ИППИ and РАН,
which stand for Институт Проблем Передачи Информации and Российская
Академия Наук. Indeed, neither Italian nor English equivalents for DeepL’s translation
version can be found. In this case, the English noun that appears on the institute’s website
(iitp.ru/en/about) as well as a translation into Italian of each word constituting the acronyms
may represent good translation options. Moreover, in the translation versions, not only the
acronyms but also the Russian proper noun Харкевича are inappropriately transliterated.
Indeed, in this case a transcription has been performed and, although a universal rule does not
exist, being the document under consideration a scientific paper, the scientific transliteration
would undoubtedly be more appropriate.
3.2.6 Theme-rheme pattern

       Проблема: Многие в России считают, что переболели COVID-19 ещё в
       декабре 2019 года или в январе 2020. Можно ли узнать, когда действительно
       в России началась эпидемия коронавируса и откуда его к нам завезли?
       Ответ дала биоинформатика ([16])


 Original document                DeepL’s translation              Human translation


 Ответ дала                       La bioinformatica ha dato la     La risposta è stata data dalla
 биоинформатика.                  risposta.                        bioinformatica

In the original document, denoting the Russian term биоинформатика a new piece of
information, it is located at the end of the last sentence and consequently brought into sharper
focus than the other terms. The same does not apply to the translated text, which, although
lexically correct, does not reflect the original theme-rheme pattern and consequently fails in fully
conveying the source meaning.

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       3.3 Quantitative analysis of the results
In the present section, the obtained results have been analysed, with regard to specialized texts
and popular-science texts, as well as overall translation quality. Afterward, the total number of
translation errors has been counted and shown by means of several graphs in order to provide a
visual and direct understanding of the data displayed in the previous section. More specifically,
before delving into the actual comparison between DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation
performances, careful attention has been devoted to analysing the results obtained for each
translation tool with regard to the two text types under examination, namely specialized and
popular-science texts. The graphs display the translation errors occurring in each error category
separately, in descending order of number of translation errors. Subsequently, the two translation
tools’ performances have been compared on the basis of the number of errors occurring in the
translations of the three specialized texts, the three popular-science texts, and in all texts,
considered as a whole. Two different coloured columns have indeed been used to represent the
two translation tools, where translation errors have been shown according to the error category
to which they belong.




                             Figure 1: DeepL's translation performance


3.3.1 Analysis of DeepL translation
With a total of 113 errors, DeepL displays an undoubtedly non-uniform error distribution.
Indeed, starting from the left side of the graph, three error categories, namely Lexis, Syntax, and

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Article Usage clearly stand out for their high number of translation errors, followed by Omission,
Grammar, Terminology, Transliteration, and Acronym. On the contrary, while Culture-Specific
References, Theme-Rheme Pattern, Orthography, Consistency, and Format seem to display a
minor, even negligible amount of translation errors, no translation errors are marked as belonging
to the Untranslated Elements category. When considering the language pair at stake, consisting
of two highly different natural languages, both in terms of syntactical structure and article usage,
it does not come as a surprise that the majority of the errors committed by DeepL fall in these
two error categories. This may rather mean, generally speaking, that the translation tool under
examination still encounters considerable difficulties in properly rendering two of the most
challenging aspects of Russian-Italian translation. As for lexis, we will see later on in the present
section, when considering DeepL’s translation performances with regard to specialized texts and
popular-science ones separately, that the highly-specialized terms displayed in the specialized
articles are proven to make a major contribution to these results.




      Figure 2: A comparison between DeepL's translations of specialized and popular-science texts


When comparing DeepL’s translation performances with regard to specialized and popular-
science texts, with a total of 72 and 41 errors, respectively, we can easily notice that it performs
significantly better in translating popular-science-texts. It indeed commits a higher number of
translation errors with regard to specialized texts in nine out of fourteen selected error categories,
except for Theme-Rheme Pattern, Untranslated Elements, Consistency, Orthography, and
Format. However, those last categories display a small overall number of translation errors.
Moreover, other error categories, namely Grammar, Article Use, Culture-Specific References,
and Transliteration feature a narrow gap between the two text types under examination. On the
contrary, Syntax, Lexis, Acronym, Terminology, Omission visibly stand out as a significant

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disparity can be observed in the renderings of specialized and popular-science texts. When
analysing Acronym and Terminology categories, we need to consider that, since the total number
of occurrences of these elements throughout specialized and popular-science texts may
significantly differ, the results are likely to be biased accordingly. As for Syntax, Lexis, and
Omission, we may assume that the translation tool encounters considerable difficulties in
rendering the significantly more elaborate syntactical structure and the specific lexis and
terminology characterizing Russian specialized medical articles when compared to popular-
science ones.




                             Figure 3: Yandex's translation performance


3.3.2 Analysis of Yandex translation
Yandex seems to distribute its total 184 errors quite uniformly, except for three error categories,
namely Lexis, Syntax, and Article Usage, which display a significantly higher number of
translation errors when compared to the other error categories. As mentioned with regard to
DeepL’s translation performance, Syntax’s and Articles’ great amount of translation errors may
be explained by the profound difference in syntactical structure and article usage between Russian
and Italian. On the contrary, Lexis constitutes the error category displaying the greatest amount
of translation errors and further analysis is needed, in this case, to determine whether this is due
to a particular type of text or to the fact that the translation tool under examination encounters
serious difficulties in properly rendering Italian lexis, independently of the text type. Apart from
that, the other error categories do not seem to feature a great number of translation errors.
Moving left to right across the graph, we can indeed easily notice that Grammar, Format,
Culture-Specific References, Acronym, and Consistency, although collocated immediately after
the Article Usage category, are divided from it by a huge gap, whereas they are clearly closer, by

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the number of translation errors, to the error categories occupying the right side of the graph,
namely Omission, Orthography, Terminology, Untranslated Elements, and Transliteration,
which display a small number of translation errors. Finally, no errors are marked as belonging to
the Theme-Rheme Pattern category.




     Figure 4: A comparison between Yandex's translations of specialized and popular-science texts


With a total of 100 errors in specialized texts’ translations and 84 in popular science's ones,
Yandex seems to provide a better translation performance with regard to popular-science texts.
Nonetheless, it follows a significantly different pattern when compared to DeepL’s translation
performances. A small gap is indeed observed in each error category, except for Article Usage,
which displays 20 errors in specialized texts and just 9 in popular-science ones. As for the other
error categories, a better translation performance with regard to popular-science texts can be
observed in Lexis, Acronym, Terminology, Untranslated Elements, and Consistency. On the
other hand, Syntax, Omission, and Theme-Rheme display the same amount of translation errors,
whereas Yandex seems to better render specialized texts’ Grammar, Culture Specific References,
Orthography, Transliteration, and Format. Starting from saying that the results obtained in
Acronym, Terminology, Culture-Specific References, and Transliteration may be biased by the
actual number of times that these elements occur throughout the texts under examination, the
ones related to Grammar, Article Usage, Untranslated Elements, Consistency, Orthography, and
Format undoubtedly constitute a good starting point for a more detailed analysis of Yandex’s
behaviour and patterns in translating Russian-Italian specialized and popular-science medical
texts.




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   Figure 5: A comparison between DeepL and Yandex regarding the overall translation performance


3.3.3 A Side-by-Side Comparison
When comparing the two translation tools under examination on the basis of their overall
translation performances, it can be observed that they both collect a significant amount of
translation errors in three error categories, namely Lexis, Syntax, and Article Usage, in order of
the number of translation errors. However, these categories, first and foremost Lexis, display a
wide gap between DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances. We can easily say that,
although Syntax and Article Usage clearly constitute two of the major weakness of both
translation tools, in all probabilities because of the profound difference between Russian and
Italian syntactical structure and article usage, DeepL seems to be able to better render into Italian
the Russian syntactical structure and is proven to remain more compliant with Italian
grammatical rules when it comes to properly insert the Italian articles, non-existent in Russian
grammar. As for Lexis, DeepL, once again, provides a better translation performance, however,
further analysis is needed to detect whether Yandex’s high amount of translation errors are related
to a specific text type.
Moreover, Yandex seems to perform better with regard to Terminology, Omission, and
Transliteration, whereas DeepL is observed to commit a smaller number of translation errors in
Grammar, Acronym, Culture-Specific References, Untranslated Elements, Consistency,
Orthography, and Format, even though the gap in these categories is not comparable to the one
observed in Lexis, Syntax, and Article Usage.


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Generally speaking, a more comprehensive evaluation of DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation
performances can be made by comparing the two translation tools’ behavior concerning
specialized and popular-science texts separately.




       Figure 6: A comparison between DeepL and Yandex regarding specialized texts' translation


When comparing DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances with regard to specialized
texts, with a total of 72 and 100 translation errors, respectively, DeepL seems to perform better
when compared to Yandex. Indeed, the latter collects a higher number of translation errors in
the majority of error categories, except for Grammar, Terminology, Theme-Rheme Pattern,
Omission, and Transliteration. On the one hand, Lexis and Article Usage error categories
undoubtedly stand out, as not only they display a significantly higher amount of translation
errors with regard to both translation tools, when compared to the other error categories but also
a great gap can be observed between DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances. On the
other hand, Yandex is proven to give a better translation performance when compared to DeepL
in Terminology, Omission, and Transliteration, even though the gap is not comparable to the
one observed in Lexis and Article Usage.




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    Figure 7: A comparison between DeepL and Yandex regarding popular-science texts' translation


With a total of 41 translation errors committed by DeepL and 84 by Yandex, both translation
tools are proven to perform better in translating popular-science texts than specialized texts.
Moreover, the gap between DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances is observed to
increase from specialized texts to popular-science ones. On the one hand, DeepL seems to
perform better in all error categories, except for Terminology, Theme-Rheme Pattern, and
Omission, where Yandex collects a smaller amount of translation errors, even though the gap
between the translation performances under examination is quite narrow. On the other hand,
Transliteration and Untranslated Elements are characterized by equal translation performances.
Worth noting undoubtedly are Lexis and Syntax, which display a considerable gap between
Yandex’s and DeepL’s translation performances. The two error categories, which constitute the
major weaknesses of Yandex performance, do not represent an issue in DeepL’s one. Moreover,
we can easily notice that the two translation tools’ performances do not follow the same pattern
as with regard to specialized texts. In fact, while Lexis is characterized by a considerable gap for
both text types, the same does not hold for Syntax, which displays similar translation
performances in translating specialized texts and significantly different amounts of translation
errors with regard to popular-science ones, and Article Usage, which presents a wide gap with
regard to specialized texts and a narrow one when popular-science texts are considered.

       3.3.4 BLEU Metric Evaluation
In order to provide a comprehensive evaluation of DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation
performances, we hereby conduct an automatic evaluation of the provided translations using the
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  Comparative Error Analysis Between DeepL and Yandex for Russian-Italian Medical Translation

BLEU metric. BLEU, which stands for Bilingual Evaluation Understudy, is a popular and widely
used automatic evaluation metric (see Section 2.2), which assesses machine translation quality
on the basis of its textual similarity with a number of human reference translations, also called
golden translations. More specifically, it is an easily accessible platform where the users may
upload the original document, the translations performed by the two machine translation
systems under examination, and the corresponding reference translation, which serves as a
benchmark to judge the quality of the machine translations. While the original document is
optional, the other three texts are mandatory, and their absence may prevent the evaluation
metric from properly completing the evaluation process. Once uploaded all the documents, a
percentage, defining the quality of each translation, is released by the BLEU metric.

                                                                    DeepL’s        Yandex’s
                                                                    percentage     percentage
                                                                    of textual     of textual
                                                                    similarity     similarity


 Биологическая терапия в эру COVID-19 (The biological 50.31                        49.60
 therapy in the COVID-19 era)

 Ведение детей с заболеванием, вызванным новой 55.12                               43.46
 коронавирусной инфекцией (SARS-CoV-2) (Clinical
 management of children with a disease caused by the new
 coronavirus infection (SARS-CoV-2))

 Коронавирус SARS-Cov 2: сложности патогенеза, 45.14                               51.18
 поиски вакцин и будущие пандемии (Coronavirus
 SARS-Cov 2: complexities of the pathogenesis, search for the
 vaccines, and future pandemics)

 Коронавирус завозили в Россию не менее 67 раз 36.66                               52.88
 (Coronavirus was imported into Russia at least 67 times)

 Неизвестная летальность - Почему мы не знаем 71.58                                45.34
 истинных масштабов COVID-19 (Unknown lethality -
 Why we do not know the true extent of COVID-19)

 Смертность от COVID 19 - Взгляд демографа на 76.73                                52.31
 статистику причин смерти в России и мире (COVID-
 19 mortality rate - A demographer's perspective on statistics of
 causes of death in Russia and worldwide)
Table 1: BLEU metric's evaluation



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As shown in the table, the BLEU evaluation metric provides an automatic evaluation of DeepL’s
and Yandex’s translation performances by means of a percentage, representing the textual
similarity of each analysed text with a specifically made human translation, used as reference
translation. This undoubtedly constitutes an interesting starting point for our discussion. Indeed,
on the one hand, having provided, in the previous sections, a manual error analysis, an automatic
evaluation process is hereby displayed. On the other hand, assessing the BLEU metric the
provided translations’ quality at the article level, DeepL’s and Yandex’s translation performances
with regard to each specific text can be observed. Generally speaking, the BLEU evaluation
metric’s results seem to reflect the ones shown by our comparative error analysis. In fact, not
only popular-science articles display a higher percentage of textual similarity when compared to
specialized ones but also DeepL’s translations are observed to reflect human reference
translations’ features more accurately. Moreover, while a significantly wide gap can be noticed
between the percentages of textual similarity assigned to DeepL’s and Yandex’s translations of
popular-science texts, a minor difference is observed with regard to highly specialized texts. This
perfectly applies to the first two highly specialized and the last two popular-science articles. An
exception is undoubtedly constituted by the third specialized and the first popular-science
articles. Indeed, by showing a higher percentage of textual similarity with regard to Yandex’s
translation variants and a significantly wide gap when compared to the other articles belonging
to the same text types, they do not follow the pattern established in our previous analysis. In
particular, an interesting case is represented by the first popular-science article, Коронавирус
завозили в Россию не менее 67 раз (Lvovič, 2020), whose translation performed by DeepL
is assigned a rather low percentage of textual similarity when compared not only to the one given
to Yadex’s translation performance concerning the same article but also the ones achieved by
DeepL in the translation of the other highly specialized as well as popular-science texts.
Investigating the reasons behind such a low percentage of textual similarity, and the
inconsistency, in this specific case, between the manual error analysis and the BLEU metric
evaluation of the text under examination undoubtedly represent a necessary starting point for
further research in the field of automatic Machine Translation Evaluation itself, as well as
regarding the possible combination of human and automatic Machine Translation Evaluation
methods.



       4. Conclusion

The research hereby conducted undoubtedly reflects the development that neural machine
translation systems have experienced over the last decades, reaching ever-increasingly quality
standards with regard to Russian-Italian medical translation. However, the results of the
comparative error analysis, as well as the BLEU metric evaluation, clearly shed light on the
disparities, in terms of translation performance, of the two translation tools under examination,
namely DeepL and Yandex. While DeepL provided a generally better overall translation
performance, especially evident in its rendering of the context and the syntactical structure of the
text at the sentence level, Yandex proved better in transliteration and was able to suggest

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undoubtedly more accurate cultural-specific equivalents. One hypothesis is that this may be due
to the peculiarities of the architectures used in each tool. On the one hand, the purely neural
system, by analysing the source sentences as a whole, and consequently considering the overall
context, is able to provide significantly human-like and reliable translations, on the other hand,
a hybrid Machine Translation tool seems to benefit from the quality potential of the statistical
approach, which is better at translating words and word combinations that rarely occur in the
training data. Moreover, both translation tools present a number of weaknesses, especially related
to the fields of syntax, lexis, and article usage, that, generally speaking, still prevent machine
translation systems from providing natural sounding and accurate Russian-Italian medical
translations. By investigating and applying non-automatic and automatic machine translation
evaluation methods, the role of the continuous evaluation of machine translation systems’
performances has been remarked as crucial to assure their growth and enhancement. Further
research in the field undoubtedly is highly needed. Starting from the results obtained in the
present research, a possible direction to be taken in the future may regard an in-depth linguistic
study of the error categories adopted in these pages as the main criteria to judge machine
translation quality, aimed at determining the relevance of each one of them against the
background of Russian-Italian medical translation. By doing so, a distinction between major and
minor translation errors can be properly made and immediate and effective corrective measures
can consequently be proposed in order to enhance machine translation systems performances.



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Last access: 8th June 2021.




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