10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17058
application/pdf
2038-3460
17058
2
en
Paolo Magaudda
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/
Tecnoscienza – Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
music industry
Formatting Culture. The Mpeg group and the technoscientific innovation by digital formats
Text.Serial.Journal
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Conversations
2013-01-06
2023-05-28
2013-01-06
2023-07-14
125-146
TS
Paolo Magaudda
2012
10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17058
125
University of Padova
2038-3460
2
music industry
en
146
Formatting Culture. The Mpeg group and the technoscientific innovation by digital formats
https://tecnoscienza.unibo.it/article/download/17058/15946
3
                                                                        Conversation
Formatting Culture.
The Mpeg group and the technoscientific innovation by
digital formats1

Leonardo Chiariglione and Paolo Magaudda.


    Abstract This conversation reconstructs the process of technoscientific innova-
    tion of digital formats pursued in the ‘80s by the MPEG group led by Leonardo
    Chiariglione. Through a historical and cultural frame provided by Paolo Magaudda
    and the very words of the main character of this technoscientific story, Leonardo
    Chiariglione, the contribution gives fresh insights into the relationship between
    sociotechnical standards and the digitization of media culture.

    Keywords: digital formats, standards, innovation, MPEG group, music industry.



Chiariglione, the Mpeg group and the process of
standardization of digital formats

Paolo Magaudda


1. Chiariglione, digital standards and the Italian tradition of inno-
vation
   In this issue of “Tecnoscienza”, we host a reflection by the Italian engineer
Leonardo Chiariglione, who in 1988 founded the Moving Picture Experts Group
(MPEG), the standards committee that has created digital standard for video and
audio within the ISO (the International Standards Organization), and has since
been in charge of the international process of standardization of digital media
and formats for distributing contents. The work at Mpeg has produced some of
the most important digital standards for consuming digital culture, such as the
Mpeg standard for video and the even more famous Mp3, which ruled the spread
of digital music, initially through diffusion of file sharing and then with the tri-
umph of portable players such as the iPod. In sum, as founder and director of the
Mpeg, Leonardo Chiariglione was one of the protagonists of some of the most
delicate, yet unrecognized, process of technology transition from analogue to dig-

1
  1This conversation is an expanded and edited version of the plenary session at the 4th STS
Italia Conference "Emerging Technologies, Social Worlds" (Rovigo, 2012, June 21-23).


TECNOSCIENZA
Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
Volume 3(2) pp. 125-146 - ISSN 2038-3460
http://www.tecnoscienza.net                       © 2012 TECNOSCIENZA
126   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



      ital encoding of culture.
          It is for these reasons – the importance of the Mpeg's work, the lack of infor-
      mation about these processes, and the fact that Chiariglione represents one of the
      most important Italian innovators – that the Italian STS Society invited him to
      give a speech at the IV STS National Conference, held in Rovigo on 21 and 22
      June 2012, and titled Emerging Technologies, Social Worlds. On that occasion,
      Chiariglione explained to the audience some aspects of the Mpeg's work and the
      text that follows in this section is an adaptation from his Rovigo's speech.
          Although much of the work developed as Mpeg has been carried out at inter-
      national level and it is only marginally linked with the Italian context, neverthe-
      less Chiariglione represents the ongoing trajectory of a prestigious and important,
      even if partially forgotten, Italian tradition of innovation in the field of communi-
      cation technologies. Graduated in 1967 at the Polytechnic of Turin, after a PhD
      gained in Japan in electrical communication, Chiariglione started his career at the
      end of the sixties at the CSELT, Centro Studi e Laboratori Telecomunicazioni
      [Center for Studies, Laboratories for Telecommunication], founded in Turin in
      1964 within the STET group, the main firm involved at that time in developing
      new technical systems for telecommunications, later absorbed by the Telecom
      Italia Group (see Mossotto 2011).
          With this professional origin, Chiariglione is without doubt a representative of
      a «golden age» of the Italian innovation in telecommunications. This was mostly
      rooted in the city of Turin, where there has been a strong focus in this area of
      research and still well-established institutions are located, such as the National
      Electrotechnical Institute Galileo Ferraris (founded in 1934) and the Center for
      experimental research (founded in 1930) inside the Rai, the Italian public radio-
      tv broadcaster. Especially, we cannot overlook the fact that Turin is also the
      province where the most important Italian producer of computers had his head-
      quarters: Olivetti. Olivetti has a relevant role in early computer history, having
      created in 1965 what is often credited to be the first personal computer, the Pro-
      gramma 101 (Zane 2008; De Marco et al. 1999). Thus, the trajectory and the
      work of Chiariglione is significant not just for his involvement in the shaping of
      digital standards, but also because he represents the continuation of an important
      Italian tradition in the sector of telecommunication technologies, today unfortu-
      nately in decline from the technical point of view and often forgotten in public
      portraits of Italian cultural and industrial history.
          However, the importance of Chiariglione's profile is not just central for the
      history of Italian technology. Over the decades, he has been involved in many
      projects and activities that have been relevant for development of the digital
      technology environment, although not all of them have been successful as the
      Mpeg group did. One less fortunate case was Secure Digital Music Initiative
      (SDMI), a forum started in 1998 and sponsored by the US recording industry,
      which aimed to develop specification that would enable new ways of doing busi-
      ness with digital music and where Chiariglione was named Executive Director
      (see Chiariglione 2003). Unfortunately, as narrated by media scholar Tarleton
      Gillespie (2008, 144-154), the project failed, having been not able to find an ef-
                                                               TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)         127



fective technical solution and a consensual outcome.
   Considering this last failure and, more in general, how complicated is to de-
velop collaborative processes within the entertainment industry, is thus even
more interesting to analyze the instances highlighted by Chiariglione about the
successful work of the MPEG working group. Hence, this Conversation repre-
sents a direct insight, highly significant for scholars in the social history of digital
media and culture.


2. The MPEG group and the standardization of digital formats
    For different reasons, it is common to recognize, among social scientists in-
volved in media history, a scarce interest on the actual technical processes behind
standards, which are often considered as transparent, mostly taken for granted
tools for communication. It is surprising to note that, despite over last ten years
the Internet has been subject to significant research on its history and social im-
plications, very few analysis has been done about the actual processes that led to
the creation of digital standards, formats and protocols. These forms of standard-
ization constitute the invisible and hidden technical bases for the evolution of the
internet and have deeply influenced the shaping of contemporary markets for
digital culture. Among these standards and protocols, the Mpeg standards for
compressed video and audio have certainly been decisive for the emergence of
digital circulation of culture in the ways we today know it.
    The standardized infrastructure of digital communication has often been seen
as the outcome of political or strategic social processes, connected with structural
powers fighting within society, as it happens in the big picture drawn by Castells
(1996) about the rising of the network society or, in different way, through the
goffmanian-inspired interpretation of the electronic media’s effects traced by
Meyrowitz (1985). In media studies we have just small niches of scholars who
have focused on the materialities and technicalities of media artefacts and infra-
structures (i.e. Sterne 2003; Gittleman 2006). This has meant that the history of
the media has often overlooked not only emerging technologies, but also the in-
terrelationship between their technical and material shape and contents, struc-
tures of power and social changes generated from the diffusion of media technol-
ogies.
    On the other side, also STS scholars have scarcely contributed on the process-
es of generation of digital standards and how they affected the shaping of digital
society. Even if STS have rightly recognized that information infrastructures and
standards are a privileged terrain on which to develop analysis of socio-material
processes and practices, STS scholars have mostly tended to focus on situations
related with production and organization, rather than on phenomena directly
intertwined with media, cultural consumption and cultural industries. As Wajc-
man and Jones have recently pointed out on this matter, “while STS has devel-
oped into a major field of social science over the last 30 years or so, media or
communication technologies have not been as central a topic for it as have bio-
128   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



      technologies, for example.” (Wajcman and Jones 2012, p. 674). This is certainly
      another part of the reason why STS have not being really proactive in the analysis
      of standardization related with video, music and other digital cultural stuff.
          This is a pity, because the study of standards of digital culture may find fruit-
      ful concepts and ideas within the STS toolbox. Looking at the role of formats
      and standards in shaping digital culture, STS potentialities can certainly draw
      from the whole theoretical framework connected with the study of infrastruc-
      tures and classifications, a major trajectory in the STS field (Star and Ruhleder
      1994; Bowker, Timmermans and Star 1995; Bowker and Star 1999). However, as
      part of the broader STS “productivistic bias”, the study of informative infrastruc-
      tures has privileged professional and productive contexts and it has just rarely
      found applications to the study of media and cultural contents (with some kind
      of exceptions, such as Christine Borgman’s book on digital libraries, 2003). With
      Chiariglione’s collaboration, the focus on the Mpeg experience could offer an
      opportunity to put in a new perspective the relationship between STS, media
      studies and the generation of standards for digital culture and consumption.
          As Tarleton Gillespie (2008, 280) has argued in his book on the relationship
      between technology, copyright and digital culture, the analysis of digital flows
      asks us to consider as crucial those processes by which digital contents are
      “closed” through algorithms, formats, standards, protection systems. These pro-
      cesses touch the heart of the debate about which culture we want to support in
      the transition and translation to the digital environment. And all this implies to
      force media analysis to consider more carefully the heterogeneous processes – at
      the same time technological and commercial, institutional and social, ethical and
      cultural – of construction of standards, protocols and algorithms that materially
      shape and set the boundaries around digital culture.


      3. Chiariglione and the MP3 birth
         One of the rare scholarly attempts to frame the relevance of the MPEG
      group’s work for the standardization of digital culture comes from the sociologist
      of sound media Jonathan Sterne, who has dedicated to this issue part of his re-
      cent book MP3: the meaning of a format (Sterne 2012). In this volume, the author
      traces the history of the mp3 music format, from the nineteenth century ad-
      vancements in perceptual techniques to the present days, with several pages dis-
      cussing the contribution of the Mpeg group to the digital music history. Let’s see
      shortly what Sterne says on the Mpeg.
         We are back in the eighties: the Compact Disc is gaining its momentum, and
      no one thinks that digital compressed audio would revolutionize music industry.
      At that time, many big companies were working in algorithms to compress the
      audio, but no one seemed achieving a truly satisfying solution. It is in this context
      that Chiariglione founded the Mpeg group to develop a decision-making process
      for digital compressed formats by starting a completely new procedure in the his-
      tory of music industry formats, where people were used to establish new formats
                                                             TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)        129



trough strong, fierce commercial fights and aggressive commercial strategies. In
opposition to this usual pattern, the Mp3, as Sterne writes, was instead "the re-
sult of international standard and exercise, complete with rules for participation
and debate, elaborate testing systems with well-documented results." (2012, 134).
    The output of the Mpeg initiative has been a strange format, originated out-
side of the full control of music industry and consumer electronic industries, and
open to be distributed freely, even if owned by someone (the German Fraunho-
fer Institute, which gave the strongest technical contribution to the algorithm,
has owned several patents included into the format). Mp3 peculiar features de-
rived from the fact that the Mp3 standard incorporated practices and procedures
coming from at least three distinct technical standard traditions: for consumer
general devices, for broadcasting and at a lesser degree standards for computers.
Three professional sectors that have been historically very different both for the
relationships between their main actors and for what a "standard" was for them.
    As observed again by Sterne, "the MPEG standard devised approved in 1993,
“did not put to rest matters of industrial competition, nor did it ultimately settle
questions of sound quality in perceptually audio codecs. But it marked an emer-
gent, crystallized set of understandings, practices, protocols, and industrial rela-
tionships" (Sterne 2012, 146). Further details in the development of the MP3
make it clear that the process that led to the standardization of audio compres-
sion algorithms into the mp3 produced huge consequences on the shape eventu-
ally assumed by digital music.
    The originality of the work carried out at Mpeg has scored a major break with
the traditional paths of innovation in the field of music formats and, consequent-
ly, it has generated disruptive effects on the industry stability. Historically, pat-
terns of innovation in this sector have been characterized by the selection of
standard through forms of conflict between companies (or consortia of compa-
nies) in competition between them, or the so-called "war of formats" (see Millard
2005; Greenberg 2007). The different way represented by an open consensus
process embedded by the Mpeg group led to the creation of a format, the mp3,
that not only has different characteristics in terms of how it can be appropriated
and used, but that also gave rise to a real revolution in the musical industry.
    While in the course of the twentieth century, musical formats have been one
of the tools in the hands of large corporations to control markets, technical inno-
vation and cultural contents, in about ten years the Mp3 generated the loss of
control of market by established music industry. Moreover, Mp3 was also the
basis for the emergence of a new powerful actor in the music business, the Cali-
fornian computer company Apple, which, while it was not in the music business
as far as 2003, today controls 75% of the digital music sales in Us, more than one
third of the whole music sales in that country: it is much more than how a single
music company has ever controlled in recording music history. In short, when we
look at the process of standardization of mp3 and at the work performed by Chi-
ariglione's Mpeg group, we have the opportunity to see how the work of stand-
ardization has been crucial, and still remains so, in the evolution of a specific di-
mension of contemporary digital culture.
130   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



      4. Chiariglione's perspective on MPEG work
          Although it is just a perspective from a distinct protagonist of this process –
      thus carrying with it his biases on this matter – the following text of Leonardo
      Chiariglione goes through some of the points considered so far: the history of the
      MPEG working group, certain ideas that animated the group, some of the pro-
      cedures adopted. Moreover, in his text Chiariglione also describes some of the
      new areas on which the group is actually at work on, including new standards for
      broadcasting and the new standard Media Transport (MMT) for the manage-
      ment of the distribution of contents to multiple devices simultaneously.
          It is probably useful to highlight some of the most interesting points raised by
      Chiariglione. The first point he remarks at the beginning of the article is about
      the definition of what is a “standard”. First of all, a standard is a reference "that
      is established by consent" and not “by authority”. This subjective view reflects
      one of the aspects that have characterized the differences between the Mpeg
      work and the patterns of innovation that preceded it, focusing on the features of
      decision-making in establishing the standard.
          He thus writes that standards are "codified agreement between parties who
      recognise the advantage gained from the fact that the members of a group do an
      agreed number of things in the same way” and that this was useful because it al-
      lowed "to convert the traditional battle between competing solutions in the mar-
      ketplace to a battle between experts in a standards committee.” Here we can see
      some of the key argumentative tools that contributed to allow the emergence of a
      different process of standard generation: consent, collaboration and the possibil-
      ity to avoid market battles, usually cause of huge overall losses for electronic in-
      dustries.
          The report by Chiariglione around the Mpeg activities and practices could
      maybe appear a very positive and idealistic perspective, also concerning initial
      motivations and goals obtained by the group. For example he does not make ref-
      erences to conflicts and battles presumably occurred also among Mpeg members.
      However, as Sterne pointed out in his Mp3 history, even if Chiariglione “casts
      the history of computer standards in a sunnier light then probably warranted
      […] his idealism certainly is part of the reason MPEG worked at all” (Sterne
      2012, 132). But Chiariglione would certainly tell the matter differently. As he has
      commented reading these notes, even if his perspective could be referred as ide-
      alistic, it is however better to make reference to “realism”. Indeed – he com-
      mented – only by isolating Mpeg from the rest of the world it has been possible
      to overcome complexity, also highlighting that who tries to bring complexity into
      the business of standards is doomed to fail.
                                                            TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)        131



Digital Media Standardisation and Society: The MPEG
experience

Leonardo Chiariglione


1. Introduction
    We define digital media as digital representation of information primarily
used for generation and consumption by humans. The history of mankind is dot-
ted by many attempt to represent such information: for thousands of years hand-
written characters have been engraved on all sort of physical carriers; printed
characters and fonts came to the fore some 500 years ago; photographs were the
result of chemical processes, characters were represented by dashes and dots;
audio and video were carried on physical and immaterial carriers and so on. But
the digital representation of information made possible by the latest generation of
technologies has incomparable power.
    The greatest attention has been dedicated so far to digital media for eyes and
ears (audio, speech, video, still images, natural and synthetic graphics), but in-
creasingly other senses are also being served (touch, smell, taste) and possibly
even beyond that.
    Digital media is the cleanest form (so far) of disconnection between the carrier
and the information carried. To some extent that was already true of magnetic
tape and cassette, to a much lesser extent it was true of radio and to an even less
extent of vinyl. It can be said that before digital the carrier had so much analogue
influence on the information. This paper will study some of the effect of digital
standards on society and the important part of society called market.


2. About standards
   There is not a single form of digital representation of information and this,
again, was true also of the analogue world: posterity should be spared the epic
battles between PAL and SECAM, Philips and Bosch audio cassette, VHS and
Betamax, Philips/Sony and RCA Compact Disc.
   A specific information representation is called format. The history of consum-
er electronics (but not only) is littered with “format wars”. There are sufficient
examples now to state that a format war is a lost opportunity for all parties en-
gaged in the war and, primarily, the consumers, who are unwilling casualties in
the battle. A format is, in the end, a form of standard, a much abused word that it
will be of great help give a proper definition.
   We start from the Webster’s which provides not one but two definitions: “a
conspicuous object (as a banner) formerly carried at the top of a pole and used to
132   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



      mark a rallying point especially in battle or to serve as an emblem” and “some-
      thing that is established by authority, custom or general consent as a model or
      example to be followed”. These two definitions convey an important message: a
      standard is a “reference” that is established, forget by “authority”, but by “con-
      sent”.
         The Encyclopaedia Britannica uses a definition that concentrates on one of the
      benefits of a standard because it calls a standard a technical specification “that
      permits large production runs of component parts that are readily fitted to other
      parts without adjustment”.
         To remove any ambiguity I would like to make reference from now on to my
      definition of standard:

      “codified agreement between parties who recognise the advantage gained from the fact that
      the members of a group do an agreed number of things in the same way”.

         Four issues deserve some attention:
            1. The actual process (de jure or de facto) that produces the agreement is
                 irrelevant, provided it is fair to all parties concerned (otherwise it is
                 market distortion) and carried out to match the needs of users (oth-
                 erwise the result may not be very useful);
            2. The process of setting standards may be very different, even though
                 the “status” of some agreements may be “higher” than that of other
                 agreements;
            3. The means to decide whether an implementation conforms to the
                 agreement are part of the agreement;
            4. The means to enforce the agreement are not part of the agreement.

         It may also help to identify the entities in charge of defining standards for in-
      formation representation. Since about 150 years the need for standards bodies
      with the task to ratify and sometimes develop “formats” has been recognized.
      Today they exist at the international, regional or national level; designed to serve
      the needs of specific industries or, more rarely, across industries; tightly overseen
      by or largely independent of governments. Here are some examples at different
      levels:

             •    International
                   o International Telecommunication Union (ITU), with two branch-
                       es: Telecommunication (ITU-T) and Radio (ITU-R);
                   o International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO);
                   o International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
             •    Regional
                   o European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI).
             •    National
                   o Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE);
                   o American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
                                                            TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)       133




   Standards bodies typically produce standards for certain areas. This is true al-
so at the international level where ITU deals with “telecommunication stand-
ards”, IEC deals with “electro-technical standards” and ISO deals with “every-
thing else”. Also the juridical nature of standards bodies is different: ISO and
IEC are not-for-profit organisations registered in Switzerland, ITU is a Treaty
Organisation and a UN agency, ETSI is an association under French law and
IEEE is a professional organisation of electrical and electronic engineers. Before
moving to the next chapter it is useful to dig a bit more into what is and is not a
standard.




   Figure 1 – Standards and interfaces


    In general a standard addresses interfaces. System A interworks with System
D via Interface X. System D may be subdivided in two subsystems: B and C.
They are separated by interface Y. An implementation of System D may or may
not implement interface Y. In the former case the interface is exposed, in the lat-
ter case nothing is said of the internals of System D, but conformance to interfac-
es X and Z is mandatory.



3. Enter MPEG

    The MPEG idea was born toward the end of the 1980’s from the considera-
tion of the maturity of the digital audio-visual compression technology, the desir-
ability of “audio-visual information representation” standards that were applica-
tion neutral and of a global scope. Such standards would put in touch billions of
communicating people without barriers and would stimulate manufacturing of
communication equipment and services. The body that would carry out this task
should also act as a preferential channel between research and standardization.
Indeed it could only be expected that, as digital media standards were deployed,
more investment in research would create more technology suitable for standard-
isation.
134   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



         Finding a place where this grand vision could be implemented was not easy
      because the panorama of standardisation environment at that time was quite
      complex:

               •    In ITU-T2, “SG XV WP 1” dealt with transmission of speech and
                    “WP 2” with transmission of video
               •    In ITU-R, “SG 10” with broadcasting of audio and “SG 11” with
                    broadcasting of video
               •    In IEC, “SC 60 A” dealt with recording of audio, “SC 60 B” with re-
                    cording of video; “TC 84” with audio-visual equipment, and “SC
                    12A” and “G” dealt with receivers
               •    In ISO, “TC 42” dealt with Photography, “TC 36” with Cinematog-
                    raphy and “TC94/SC 2” with Character sets.

          The choice fell on the Joint ISO/IEC Technical Committee 1 (JTC 1) on In-
      formation Technology recently (1987) established by concentrating in one Tech-
      nical Committee various Information Technology related standardisation activi-
      ties of IEC and ISO, particularly “ISO TC 94 Data Processing”.
          MPEG started as an Experts Group of Working Group 8 Coding of Audio
      and Picture Information of Subcommittee 2 Character sets and information cod-
      ing.




      Figure 2 – Simplified ISO hierarchy.



      2
          ITU-T and ITU-R stand respectively for the “T” Branch and “R” branch of ITU.
                                                                     TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)           135



    Having a body that was sufficiently neutral vis-à-vis the various industries with
a stake in digital audio and video was essential to achieve the goal of making dif-
ferent competences add and different agendas mutually neutralize. Moreover, as
digital audio and video were largely based on software it was possible to convert
the traditional battle between competing solutions in the marketplace to a battle
between experts in a standards committee. A fight between technologies is less
expensive than a fight between assembly lines and the result is also better in
terms of technology cost, functionality and performance.
    The current position of MPEG in the ISO hierarchy is given in Fig. 2.
    Before moving on it is important to note that decisions in MPEG are not tak-
en by the force of numbers, but by the force of technical arguments based on
which “consensus” is reached on a decision. This means that participants come
to meetings with a background of intense home work to be used to fight for their
arguments. Sometimes that is sufficient, but rarely there is a need to make (im-
pose) a decision. Here is the ISO definition of consensus:

«Consensus: General agreement, characterised by the absence of sustained opposition to sub-
stantial issues by any important part of the concerned interests and by a process that involves
seeking to take into account the views of all parties concerned and to reconcile any conflicting
arguments.». (NOTE: Consensus need not imply unanimity).


4. How MPEG works
   The MPEG philosophy can be summarized by the following list:
      • develop standards for converging media;
      • integrate the required technologies using research results from multi-
         ple sources;
      • act as a bridge between academia/research and industry;
      • develop software implementations of the standards as a platform for
         peer review and optimisation;
      • verify the performance of the standard.

   This philosophy is executed by a body with some remarkable figures:

        •    meeting frequency: 4 meetings/year;
        •    number of meetings: 102 until October 2012;
        •    attendance: ~500 experts;
        •    countries actively represented: ~25;
        •    industries represented:
              o Academia;
              o Broadcasting;
              o Computers;
              o Consumer Electronics;
              o Content;
136   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



                o   Research;
                o   Services;
                o   Telecom;
                o   …

         It is interesting to study the workflow through which MPEG develops its
      standards:
              • Identify the need for a new standard:
                  o Identify the need for a standard;
                  o Approval of a new standard project.
              • Explore the field:
                  o Seek Industry experts;
                  o Open seminars;
                  o Search for required technology.
                  o Develop requirements:
                  o Establish scope of work;
                  o Call for Proposals.
              • Competitive phase:
                  o Study response to Calls for Proposals;
                  o Initial technology selection.
                  o Collaborative phase:
                  o Core Experiments;
                  o Working Drafts.
              • Approval:
                  o Committee Draft;
                  o Draft International Standard;
                  o Final Draft International Standard;
                  o International Standard.
              • Assessment of performance:
              • Verification Tests.
                  o Maintenance:
                  o Corrigenda;
                  o Amendments;
                  o Withdrawal.

         MPEG standards have changed the landscape of media, as this brief summary
      shows:
             • MPEG-1, -2, -4 are used in hundreds of million devices;
             • Video CD players;
             • MP3 players;
             • Digital TV set top boxes;
             • DVD players;
             • Photo cameras;
             • Mobile handsets;
             • Movie players.
                                                           TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)       137




5. An overview of some MPEG standards
    MPEG-1 started from expected promising markets: interactive video on CD
and Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB). The product drivers were: Compact Disc
Interactive (CD-i), Digital Compact Cassette (DCC) and Digital Audio Broad-
casting (DAB). However, the result were quite discomforting: CD-i is dead, DCC
is dead and DAB is (almost) dead.
    By relying on the wisdom of product departments MPEG thought that:

       1. Compact disc interactive would be the product. Instead CD-i failed
          but Video CD (VCD) thrived. Lesson to learn is the “Keep It Simple,
          Stupid” (KISS) principle.
       2. Digital Audio Broadcasting would be the service but what actually
          happened is “mixed results”. Lesson to learn is that it is hard fighting
          against the good enough (FM radio).
       3. Digital Compact Cassette would be the product, but DCC failed. Les-
          son to learn is that it is hard to sell new wine in old barrels.

   Still it would be hard to say that MPEG-1 is a failure, because Video CD
thrives because it is a “better” VHS with hundreds of million players and billions
of titles sold, admittedly as a result of industrial policy of some governments;
MP3 thrives because it provides new ways of experiencing music and billions of
MP3 files have about the same quality of CD.
   From the technical level one could also add that, although MPEG-1 is com-
posed of 3 parts (Systems – Video – Audio), the parts can be used independently,
because it is good to give a single package as a solution, but some users may only
need one or two parts. Moreover, MPEG standards only define syntax and se-
mantics that can apply to any value (picture resolution, frame frequency, audio
sampling frequency etc.) but products need “maximum parameter values”. So
MPEG-1 defined the Video “Constrained Parameter Set”. Also, not everybody
needs the same amount of technology, so MPEG-1 defines audio “layers” where
to a higher layer number corresponds more performance (and complexity).
   Focusing on audio, MPEG-1 teaches a few more lessons. Some thought that
high compression digital music (layer III) was too complex and would never fly,
but what actually happened is that MP3 is all over the place. The lessons to learn
are:

       1. The power of software that allowed thousands of people to develop
          their own software encoders and decoders, but also the power of sili-
          con to make inexpensive devices.
       2. It is very hard to stop a technology that tears down walls, particularly
          when the result is a cheap substitute of the original.

   Speaking of cheap substitutes, some thought pay music will never fly, but
138   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



      what actually happened is that a company that used to be on a drip has become
      the most valuable company in the world. Such is the power of packaging and the
      power of the faithful. The recording industry was taken by surprise by the MP3
      phenomenon because, with MP3, people can find and play any song any time
      anywhere on any device over and beyond the “vinyl/CD straightjacket”. Unfor-
      tunately, instead of giving their customers more of what they wanted, they
      brought them to court... The result? Today the recording industry is worth one
      half of what was worth in 2000.
          MPEG-2 is a proof that, if you try hard, devil and holy water can live togeth-
      er.
          MPEG-2 is also largely a 3-part standard:

          1. For Systems, some wanted it ATM-friendly (ATM was a telco-sponsored
             broadband technology that was superseded by the Internet), some want-
             ed it interfaced with physical channels and some wanted it storage-
             friendly.
          2. For Video, European broadcasters and telcos wanted scalable video,
             American broadcasters wanted non-scalable and high definition video
             and Japanese broadcasters wanted non-scalable and standard definition
             video.
          3. For Audio, some wanted it backward compatible with MPEG-1 and
             some wanted it independent of MPEG-1.

         MPEG managed the challenges: Profiles allowed different groupings of tech-
      nology serving different purposes, and Levels allowed the definition of sets of
      application-driven parameter values.
         It is fair to say that MPEG has provided the means for the television business
      on air, cable and satellite to migrate from the analogue to the digital age and to-
      day there is virtually no broadcasting system that is not based, at least partially,
      on MPEG standards. MPEG has achieved this through a collective effort where
      representatives from the entire spectrum of the broadcasting world provided
      their requirements.
         We should not underestimate the creation of packages of patent licenses (de-
      veloped outside of MPEG, because MPEG only deals with technology, not li-
      censing). These gave the means to anybody to legally use MPEG standards
      through open and non-discriminatory royalties.
         The MPEG-7 standard is about description of audio, video and multimedia. It
      was a new type of coding for MPEG: not coding of assets, but coding of its de-
      scriptions. The standard has not encountered the success of MPEG-1, -2 and -4,
      because there is too much conservatism in incumbents. Even today few, if any,
      textual metadata accompany television programs, while metadata is the enabling
      technology for doing business with digital media.
         The MPEG-21 standardisation project was born in October 1999 with the
      “goal to enable diffuse trading of content where every human is potentially an
      element of a network involving billions of content providers, value adders, pack-
                                                             TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)    139



agers, service providers, resellers, consumers ...”. The basic elements are:

    •   Digital Item: a structured digital object with a standard representation,
        identification and metadata.
    •   User: a Creator, an End User or an Intermediary interacting in the
        MPEG-21 environment or making use of Digital Items.




   Figure 3 – The MPEG-21 elements




    Unified Speech and Audio Coding was developed with the goal to achieve a
single coding technology that could encode mixed content (Speech, Music and
Speech mixed with Music) while being consistently as good as the best of: AMR-
WB+ (state of the art speech coder) and HE-AAC V2 (state of the art music cod-
er) in the range of 24 kb/s stereo to 12 kb/s mono.




6. Looking to the future
   So far MPEG standards have addressed the problem of defining syntax and
semantic of bitstreams that represent a given source of information (audio and
video), like depicted in the figure 4 in the next page:
140   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA




         Figure 4 – Transmission of encoded video stream


         The next stage in the development of technology lies in defining syntax and
      semantic of the algorithm used to compress the signal.




            Figure 5 – Transmission of decoder description



        Some of the more recent efforts are directed at extending the user experience.
      For instance in the figure in the next page:
                                                           TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)       141




   Figure 6 – Multimedia in broadcasting systems


   The left hand side represents what can be achieved with today’s broadcasting
technology, where the delivery of a multimedia package is rather primitive, while
the right hand side represents the ability to send real multimedia information of-
fered by the emerging MPEG Media Transport (MMT) standard.




   Figure 7 – Multimedia in broadcasting systems
142   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



         The figure above depicts the possibilities open to the definition, on the broad-
      caster’s side, of how content is best presented on multiple screens.
         Television has undergone several stages: in the 1950s analogue, backward
      compatible colour TV was introduced; in the 1990s Digital TV and the transition
      from SD to HD required a new infrastructure ; in the 2010s it is expected that
      3D Television will have a mass deployment.
         The underlying 3D Video technology is rather complex. The MPEG plans can
      be described by the figure 8.
         At the source the information from a limited number of cameras is com-
      pressed, transmitted and reconstructed at the receiving side to provide left/right
      images for stereoscopic displays or an arbitrary number of views for auto-
      stereoscopic displays.
         Another area for standardization is the definition of a package of information
      that includes, in addition to the usual audio and video in different forms, also
      olfactory and various other tactile and positioning information.




      Figure 8 – 3D Video modes.
                                                            TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)       143




Figure 9 – Transmissions of other sense information



7. The role of software
   Most MPEG standards are expressed with a combination of a human lan-
guage (English) and a computer language (pseudo C-code). Most MPEG stand-
ards were developed using software and most MPEG standards have reference
software. The MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 development process (ca. 1990) followed a
rather simple (but at that time very innovative) process. MPEG members collab-
orated to produce the text of the standard and active members translated the
standard into their own version of the software used to develop the standard.
   The originators of technology proposals were requested to translate the rele-
vant portions of their software back to text and “donate” the relevant portions of
their software for the ISO reference software. But with MPEG-4 (ca. 1995) a new
world took shape because software was no longer just a tool to develop the
standards but also a tool to make conforming products.
   Priorities changed: there was still a need for standards in textual form (we are
humans), but the “real” reference was expressed in a programming language with
the same normative status as the textual part. The reference software was devel-
oped collaboratively (because it is easier to compare results), improve quality of
the standard (because there were two different manifestations of the standard)
and accelerate adoption (because there was an implementation already available).
   Looking more in detail into the process one can see that the rules of the
MPEG-4 reference software are comparable (with some notable differences) with
those of the “Open Source Software”:

        1. Each component of the standard is to be implemented in software:
            o Normative (decoder);
            o Informative (encoder).
        2. A code manager is appointed for each portion of the standard;
        3. for each accepted proposal software must be provided;
        4. discussions on software happen on open email reflectors;
        5. only MPEG members can decide;
        6. copyright of reference software is assigned to ISO;
        7. ISO grants licence of the copyright of the code for products that con-
144   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA



                form to the standard;
             8. Those donating code need not donate patents that may be required in
                an implementation.


      8. We need more than digital media technology
         Digital Media in Italia (dmin.it) is an interdisciplinary, open, not-for-profit
      group established in November 2005 whose members are professionals and rep-
      resentatives of companies, institutions and associations. The goal is to explore
      and identify opportunities for Italy to play a primary role in the exploitation of the
      global “digital media” phenomenon.
         How can we get there? By maximising the profitable flow of digital media.
         The lever to achieve that acts on the offer of/access to content; broadband
      network; payment/cashing services, while balancing the requirements of the dif-
      ferent parties:

             •   Author: “I want to be able to offer my works”.
             •   Intermediary: “I want to be able to choose and play my role”.
             •   Consumer: “I want to be able to find, access and use the content I
                 need”.

      Dmin.it has concentrated on three legs:

             •   iDrm: to manage and protect digital media (technology was selected
                 and several demo applications were developed).
             •   iNet: to access broadband digital networks (relevant IETF standards
                 to achieve this were identified).
             •   iPay: to pay and cash micro amount effectively (specification and ref-
                 erence software were developed).


      9. Conclusions
          Media is what enriches human life. Digital media, because of its flexibility, is
      what comes closest today to human perception and processing, and its impact on
      society has already been proven. Standardisation plays a unique role for an order-
      ly introduction of more effective communication means and its ties with society
      should be strengthened.
                                                            TECNOSCIENZA – 3(2)        145



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146   CHIARIGLIONE & MAGAUDDA




         Leonardo Chiariglione MPEG Group
         CEDEO.net
         Via Borgionera, 103 -10040, Villar Dora (TO), Italy
         Email: leonardo@chiariglione.org

         Paolo Magaudda University of Padova
         PaSTIS - Department FISPPA - Section of Sociology
         Via M. Cesarotti, 10/12 – 35123, Padova, Italy.
         Email: paolo.magaudda@unipd.it
