10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17261
This conversation aims at offering a transdisciplinary gaze on the phenomenon of wireless community networks: an emerging typology of local wireless infrastructures, which is built by activists as political and technological statement to face the hierarchical governance of the Internet and the issues of surveillance and control over digital networks. By a transdicliplinary gaze – emerging from the dialogue between science and technology studies (STS), legal studies, and computer science – this conversation focuses on the multi-modal ways and perspectives that can be adopted to study CNs; it also offers a reflection on challenges and opportunities arising from trasndisciplinary scientific work. In the field of STS, a growing body of literature has addressed CNs as an emblematic case study to analyse the engagement of activists and lay people in the emergence of socio-technical infrastructures and technologies. From a computer science perspective, community networks represent a challenge to develop new routing protocols, and standards to technically implement a bottom-up-approach in the building and management of innovative network architectures. Finally, from the point of view of legal studies, CNs offer the case of a still largely unregulated emerging technology, offering a novel field to test existing laws, especially under the point of view of the possible allocation of civil liability.
application/pdf
2038-3460
17261
2
en
Paolo Magaudda
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/
Tecnoscienza – Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
distributed architectures regulations
A Transdisciplinary Gaze on Wireless Community Networks
Text.Serial.Journal
https://tecnoscienza.unibo.it/
6
Conversations
2016-01-29
2023-06-19
2016-01-29
2023-08-03
113-134
TS
Paolo Magaudda
2015
10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17261
113
University of Padova
2038-3460
2
distributed architectures regulations
en
134
A Transdisciplinary Gaze on Wireless Community Networks
https://tecnoscienza.unibo.it/article/download/17261/16120
6
                                                                           Conversation

A Transdisciplinary Gaze on Wireless
Community Networks
	
  
	
  
             Stefano Crabu                               Federica Giovanella
             University of Padova                          University of Trento

           Leonardo Maccari                               Paolo Magaudda
             University of Trento                          University of Padova
	
  
	
  
       Abstract: This conversation aims at offering a transdisciplinary gaze on the
       phenomenon of wireless community networks: an emerging typology of local
       wireless infrastructures, which is built by activists as political and technologi-
       cal statement to face the hierarchical governance of the Internet and the is-
       sues of surveillance and control over digital networks. By a transdicliplinary
       gaze – emerging from the dialogue between science and technology studies
       (STS), legal studies, and computer science – this conversation focuses on the
       multi-modal ways and perspectives that can be adopted to study CNs; it also
       offers a reflection on challenges and opportunities arising from trasndiscipli-
       nary scientific work. In the field of STS, a growing body of literature has ad-
       dressed CNs as an emblematic case study to analyse the engagement of ac-
       tivists and lay people in the emergence of socio-technical infrastructures and
       technologies. From a computer science perspective, community networks
       represent a challenge to develop new routing protocols, and standards to
       technically implement a bottom-up-approach in the building and management
       of innovative network architectures. Finally, from the point of view of legal
       studies, CNs offer the case of a still largely unregulated emerging technology,
       offering a novel field to test existing laws, especially under the point of view
       of the possible allocation of civil liability.

       Keywords: wireless community networks; transdisciplinarity; media infra-
       structures; sustainable network growth; distributed architectures regula-
       tions.

       Corresponding author: Stefano Crabu, CIGA & Pa.S.T.I.S, Dep. FISPPA,
       University of Padova, Via Cesarotti, 10-12, 35200, Padova, Italy – Email:
       stefano.crabu@unipd.it.




	
  
TECNOSCIENZA
Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
6 (2) pp. 113-134 – ISSN 2038-3460
www.tecnoscienza.net                              2015
114                                                           Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

Wireless Community Networks, “Inverse Infrastructures”
and the Challenges of an “Interdisciplinary Assemblage”

Stefano Crabu and Paolo Magaudda

1. Wireless Community Networks from an STS perspective

Wireless community networks (CNs) represent a multi-dimensional phe-
nomenon that in recent years has multiplied in several parts of the world
including both the US and the EU due to the lowering of the costs of
wireless devices and tools. CNs are grassroots network infrastructures
based on a so-called “mesh” or “distributed” architecture (Flickenger
2002) and which are built and self-managed by groups or “communities”
of people, including a wide range of profiles such as hackers and geeks,
engineering students, young political activists and citizens. In many CN
experiences, groups gather at the local level to build wireless networks
from scratch. These are independent of the global Internet network, and
their construction involves an activity that is at the same time technical,
social and political, such as the set-up of hardware and software proto-
cols, the physical installation of antennas on roofs (usually upon activists’
homes), organizational work aimed at coordinating the group’s activities,
as well as a social and political effort to enrol new activists and find local
support in order to expand the network. CNs require heterogeneous
work in which material and technical practices need be constantly aligned
and held together with symbolic, political and organizational activities.
All this considered, CNs represents an exemplary environment which of-
fers the opportunity to investigate at the local level the processes of het-
erogeneous “infrastructuring” (Star and Ruhleder, 1996; Star and Bowker
2002) in the domain of digital media technologies (Parks and Starosielski
2015).
    The cultural origins of CNs, as counter-networks alternative to the
global Internet infrastructure, can be traced back to the very origins of
the Internet and to one of the first grassroots networks: the well-known
“Memory Project” established in Berkeley in 1973 (see Levy 1984). In the
’90s, several alternative (non-wireless) network projects were established
in many cities, as in the case of the Seattle Community Network Project
(Schuler 1994). These highlighted how, at least in the US, community
networks based on users’ maintenance were at that time already a relevant
phenomenon, in some case also framed within municipal and institutional
activities (Carrol and Rosson 2003). Since the early 2000s, the diffusion of
low-budget wireless technology allowed these projects to shift from an
emphasis on the “local community”, to the possibility of establishing a
fully autonomous infrastructure, potentially disconnected from the ordi-
nary cables and phone-lines of the global internet and, in so doing, envi-
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                  115
sioning an emergent way to offer a political alternative to the market- and
corporation-driven Internet global network (De Filippi and Treguer
2015).
    Several CNs were developed in Europe in the 2000s by adopting such
a political framework, as in the case of the CNs Freifunk in Germany,
Wlan Slovenija in Slovenia, Ninux.org in Italy and Guifi.net in Spain.
This last one, started in the region of Catalunia in 2004, is currently the
largest CN in Europe, being used by more 45,000 users, who are also at-
tracted by the possibility to obtaining Internet access independently of
the commercial ISPs. Other networks such as Freifunk, Wlan Slovenia
and Ninux.org did not develop primarily as competitors of traditional
commercial ISPs, but originated mainly from political activism. Conse-
quently, they focussed primarily on the importance of building decentral-
ized and autonomous networks. In these last cases, while the initial drive
was for political and ideological reasons, in their development these
communities needed to offer to possible new users suitable services in or-
der to expand away from the narrow niche of media activists and experts
(De Filippi and Treuger 2015, 6). Especially after the Snowden scandal in
2012 and the mainstream visibility gained by Anonymous’s cyber-political
actions, public concerns about internet privacy and corporate surveillance
increased, turning WCN into a strategic technological intrument in polit-
ical agenda of countercultural and social movements (Milan 2013).
    Being built and maintained by the same users, CNs clearly represent
novel emerging places for socio-technical innovation. It is prevalently in
this vein that, in these last few years, these phenomena have attracted the
interest of several STS scholars, who have identified these phenomena as
being cases for the study of the shaping of new models of innovation, and
to unfold tensions and contradictions within these emerging “technologi-
cally dense environment” (Bruni et al. 2013). Of course CNs represent a
relevant case of bottom-up processes of innovation, where the social and
technical participation of the end-users (Oudshoorn and Pinch 2003)
represent a crucial peculiarity. The growing relevance of these models of
“bottom-up” innovation, established by activists and end-users outside
the work of institutions or industries, also represent a way in which dem-
ocratic participation can become a crucial driving force in the processes
of construction of science and technology (Jasanoff 2005). CNs are, in
fact, a paradigmatic case which recognizes the active role of the user
community in the construction of infrastructure, software and services
from a collective work, most often disconnected from research centres or
public institutions.
    In this regard, a study by Van Oost, Verhaegh and Oudshoorn (2009),
based on qualitative interviews with participants in the wireless communi-
ty network of the city of Leiden in the Netherlands, has highlighted the
role of users in terms of the dynamics of innovation of these networks,
both in the design phase and during the work of maintaining and upgrad-
ing the infrastructure (see also Verhaegh and van Oost 2012). The model
116                                                           Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

of innovation resulting from this CN project has been defined in terms of
“innovation community”. This concept has been used by authors to iden-
tify the process through which an innovation emerges from the collabora-
tive work carried out by a group of people, who are usually considered
simply as the end-users of these same technologies.
    The ability of grassroots CNs to generate alternative patterns of inno-
vation has also been highlighted in research carried out by Söderberg
(2011) into the Czech CN. In fact, the collective work deployed in devel-
oping this Czech network has led the participants to create a new hard-
ware device, able to send data through a beam of red light. The research
by Söderberg reconstructed the collective work and negotiation through
which this new hardware has been developed, highlighting how its design
incorporated and reflected a particular philosophy shared among this
community, and how it is related with the use of technology. This philos-
ophy was mainly based on the idea that people with few technical skills
have to be able to assemble the tools needed to run such a network.


2. Ninux.org and the “Infrastructural Inversion” of an “In-
verse Infrastructure”

    In Italy, the most relevant example of CNs is the project Ninux.org,
that was originally started in Rome in 2001, but in the last few years has
spread to other cities such as Florence, Pisa and Bologna. Although inde-
pendent from each other, all the networks in these different cities are part
of the same wider national platform, which is a common framework for
all participants. Groups of activists directly involved in the project share a
common vision on the role of CNs in society, and on the strategies and
goals that these networks should adopt. This common view has been
formulated in a “Manifesto” available on the project’s website
(http://wiki.ninux.org/Manifesto). Major features highlighted in this
document include the adoption of a decentralised and mesh architecture;
the role played by CNs as democratizing tools and as resources to fight
digital divide; their relevance within the current debate on the freedom of
expression in the digital society, and also a wider criticism of the hierar-
chical governance of the Internet. These several instances reflect a whole
set of beliefs, motivations and political drives that sustain the discourses
and practices of the Italian CN.
    In recent years, both this ensemble of motivations, and the citizens'
participation in the Ninux.org project have been strengthened following
the relevance and visibility that the “Snowden affair” achieved in terms of
the public debate about freedom and surveillance in a “connected socie-
ty”. Snowden’s revelations about secret programs of mass surveillance of
digital communications between the United States and the European Un-
ion have brought to the centre of public discussion the complex relation-
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                   117
ship between national security policies and citizens' right to privacy, es-
pecially in relation to the growing pervasiveness of the Internet in daily
life. Following these revelations, in the public perception the Internet has
increasingly become a controversial digital space deeply interlaced with
government strategies and political power struggles, and at times risky
and unsafe when it comes to privacy. In this sense, the Snowden affair
triggered the opening of the “black box” of the Internet, highlighting the
way in which the majority of the network services (such as e-mail, social
networks and clouds) are managed centrally by a few operators who not
only monitor all data exchanged by users, but also allow governments –
both democratic (Clement 2014) and authoritarian (Wilson 2015) – to
control citizens’ behaviours. This ensemble of issues has pushed a grow-
ing number of people to engage in the construction of alternative infra-
structures, and is the basis for growing participation in the Ninux.org
wireless network.
     As previously pointed out, the increasing relevance of these projects
has attracted a great deal of attention from STS scholars, who more gen-
erally have also focussed on the concept of “inverse infrastructures”
(Egyedi and Mehos 2012) to theoretically capture the emerging typology
of infrastructures that are not owned and controlled by government or
large private firms. Conceptually speaking, these wireless infrastructures
are defined as being “inverse”, because they feature peculiar modalities of
emergence and development, which are opposed to those that character-
ize more traditional and institutional kinds of networks (such as energy
networks and railways), for instance those described by Hughes (1983) in
terms of “large-technical systems”. Indeed, via the concept of “inverse
infrastructure”, it is possible to address the process through which these
networks are developed from the ground roots, independently and out-
side of the control regimes of institutions and governments.
     Overall, inverse infrastructures, and in particular the CNs rooted in a
radical critique of contemporary governance of the Internet, bring to the
attention of STS a relevant issue pertaining to the shape of new configura-
tions of power relationships among citizens and governments, and also
regarding the asymmetries in distribution in respect to the growing perva-
siveness of digitally-mediated communication. In other words, CNs ap-
pears as alternative approaches, counteracting the pervasive practices as-
sociated with the centralized control of digital communications, therefore
shaping more autonomous and self-governed digital interaction spaces.
Therefore, CNs, through the effort to materialize specific political claims
by shaping an alternative architecture for digital communication, show
the potential to trigger a redefinition of power relations pertaining to In-
ternet governance.
     As a whole, inverse infrastructures highlight how power is a crucial
dimension in the study of technologies and their relevance to daily life,
not only because technical devices also emerge as a network of social and
power struggle, but because they are an entity that is able to produce and
118                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

re-distribute power in multi-modal ways. This considerations open up a
crucial question: how does the concept of power contribute to an analysis of
“inverse infrastructures” that may subvert the institutional governance of
digital technologies? Despite its relevance to the foundations of social sci-
ences, the concept of power has been little addressed within the STS.
Here, the theoretical and analytical attention to power has instead turned
towards the concept of politics, and related processes of the politicization
of science (Brown 2014). In this context, from a theoretical point of view,
the reflections of Foucault can be particularly useful for shaping a dia-
logue between STS and the notion of power. In fact, the French philoso-
pher analyses power, and its situated articulations, as the emerging out-
come of social relations, discursive practices and technical devices. Fol-
lowing Foucault, power must be analysed in relation to the “…strategies,
the networks, the mechanisms, all those techniques by which a decision is
accepted” (Foucault 1988, 104).
     Such reflection suggests to STS scholars the need to take into account
power relationships as constitutive elements of the mutual entanglements
between human and technology, and to consider the latter as a vector of
the production and distribution of power. In this light, CNs represent
specific “inverse infrastructures” that open to a re-organization of the po-
litical rationality of Internet governance. In other words, CNs define a
new type of alignment between the design, management and practices of
technologies, redefining the balance of power between users of digital in-
frastructures and the governance processes that normally shape these
same infrastructures. Therefore, in the study of inverse infrastructures,
the adoption of an analytical strategy that is able to capture the process by
which these alignments are shaped, becomes crucial.
     Another concept from the STS toolbox that is useful in terms of mak-
ing sense of CN is that of “infrastructural inversion” (Bowker 1994),
coined in order to emphasize a specific dimension of the “infrastructur-
ing” work through which technologies are designed and maintained.
More precisely, the idea of "infrastructural inversion" relates to an analyt-
ical sensitivity that allows us to observe infrastructures, their design and
their routine use closely. Thus, this concept helps to reveal the multiplici-
ty of discursive elements, political claims, and technical entities that are
incorporated in them. In this light, CNs represent a phenomenon that
specifically incorporates both discursive elements and technical devices
that can support the shaping of new power relationships, and which are
able to re-configure and intervene the governance of digital technologies.
     This analytical sensitivity has been adopted in this transdisciplinary
study1 of the Italian WNC Ninux.org. In particular, we have emphasized
the ways in which the Italian CN embodies specific political motivations,
and how these motivations intersect with the technical evolution of the
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
    1
        See     research      project’s                                                                                                                                                                                            website   at   the   following      link:
http://goldstein.disi.unitn.it/caritro/.
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                           119
network. In so doing, we have grounded these reflections in terms of an
“infrastructural inversion” sensitivity, which allows the study of the mu-
tual entanglement of social, the political and technological aspects in the
shaping and maintenance of these networks. This analytical strategy also
permits us to highlight how CNs’ technical issues are strictly connected
and intertwined with the political and cultural frames shared by members
of the project. Moreover, in this way, we have the chance to unfold the
particular tensions and negotiations that occur between the technological
aspects and the political claims connected to a critique of the evolution of
Internet governance.


3. CNs as an Interdisciplinary Assemblage

    This transdisciplinary research into the Italian CN has represented not
only a case study about a heterogeneous “work of infrastructuring”, but
also offers a further occasion to develop and reflect on a
trans/interdisciplinary research activity, whose this “conversation” repre-
sents a partial and work-in-progress account. Our transdisciplinary re-
search group has been constituted from the start, sociologists mainly
rooted in STS, network engineers interested primarily in morphology and
the robustness of bottom-up networks; and law scholars especially fo-
cussed on how these emerging network technologies challenge current
regulations concerning, for instance, liability, privacy and responsibility
(for a wider account of the research see: Caso and Giovanella 2015).
    As highlighted by the different and complementary perspectives pre-
sented in this “conversation”, the object of CN is not only a case where a
heterogeneous infrastructure can be studied from a STS perspective, but
also a multifaceted entity, which interrogates, in very different ways, the
diverse fields and disciplines associated with it. Therefore, this on-going
transdisciplinary investigation of the Italian CN has raised several issues
connected with the practice of trans/interdisciplinary research, inviting us
constantly to develop a reflexive understanding about the opportunities
and the constraints arising by the collaboration between different disci-
plines or “epistemic cultures” (Knorr-Cetina 1999). As Andrew Barry and
Georgina Born have recently argued when debating about the configura-
tions of inter/transdisciplinarity in today’s research:

        “Interdisciplinarity should not be thought of as a historical given,
        but as mobilising in any instance an array of programmatic state-
        ments, policy interventions, institutional forms, theoretical state-
        ments, instruments, materials and research practices – interdiscipli-
        nary assemblages that have acquired a remarkable and growing sali-
        ence” (Barry and Born 2012, 10)
120                                                         Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

    In our inter/transdisciplinary research project with regard to CNs, the
multiple presence of different disciplines has required not only to share
and interchange our distinctive starting problems and research questions,
or specific conceptual and theoretical frameworks. A further work has
been also necessary to align and harmonise other crucial dimensions of
the scientific work, including writing practices, the paper’s rhetoric, dis-
semination strategies, and so on. A phenomenon such as CN is in itself a
great invitation for STS practitioners to deploy conceptual tools aimed at
understanding innovation processes and the heterogeneous nature of so-
cio-material phenomena. However, at the same time, there is a need for a
transdisciplinary perspective that also represents a challenge to put into
play a further reflexivity about our research questions and conceptual
frameworks, and more in general about the whole set of similar scientific
practices: a contingent, processual and work-in-progress activities orient-
ed toward the construction of a specific “interdisciplinary assemblage”.



                                    ***

Sustainable Growth for Community Neworks: New
Solutions to Avoid Known	
  Pitfalls

Leonardo Maccari

1. My Engagement with Community Networks

    In the first half of the year 2000s in the ICT research community (to
which I belong) there was a high attention for distributed systems and for
the so-called mesh and ad-hoc networks. These networks are wireless dis-
tributed networks built with a non-planned approach. A mesh network
may start with as few as two persons climbing up to the roof of their
houses to mount wire-less antennas to communicate with each other.
Then, a third person joins the network connecting his own antenna to
one of the existing ones. Then a fourth, a fifth, and so on. At the time,
Wi-Fi consumer devices were starting to be affordable and a little of an-
tenna-hacking allowed to cover distances of several hundreds of meters or
even kilometers, which made this vision possible.
    In the same period public administrations were supporting the de-
ployment of broadband connections in cities, and were facing hard times
trying to imagine how to bring them also to rural areas. Matching the two
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                  121
concepts was intuitive. Many scientific papers imagined a world in which
“last mile” connection was not going to be provided by a cable, but by a
mesh network. Many speculations were made on how in a few years mesh
technology would have defeated the digital divide. Irrespective of the op-
timism of many authors, mesh networks never really become a mass phe-
nomenon, even if they maintained their importance in certain niches.
    It was 2012 when I found myself in an Italian hacker-camp, the
MOCA camp in Pescara, and discovered the existence of Ninux.org, a
wireless community network set-up by a lively group of people in Rome.
These people, together with other European communities, were able to
set-up mesh networks made of hundreds, and in some cases thousands of
nodes. At the time I used network simulators (as many ICT researchers
do) to study mesh networks that could scale up to tens of nodes, and I
realized that there were in-production infrastructures made of thousands
of nodes. Not only, many of these networks were present in densely in-
habited areas where both home and mobile broadband connections were
available. Those CNs, that were relegated to the role of “last mile re-
placement” by ICT researchers, had been silently growing as alternative
networks up to a scale than my network simulator never allowed.
    From that day I dedicated most of my time researching on this theme.
Quickly enough, though, I understood that CNs are not just like all other
networks, plus “distributed”. They are distributed networks because they
could not be anything else. The communities that run them (albeit differ-
ent one from the other) consider a CN not much a network that connects
people but primarily a community that builds a network. And since tech-
nology does not force them to build a hierarchical network infrastructure,
they also try to maintain a horizontal social infrastructure. This in turn
produces a feedback to their technical choices, meaning that some solu-
tions that are applied to other contexts cannot be used in a CN. Not be-
cause they are technologically incompatible, but because the community
would not accept them. Technology influences the community, and the
community gives constraints on the technology.
    At that point it was clear that research that wants to help CNs to grow
must be trans-disciplinary, and thus started the cooperation with the oth-
er authors of this “Discussion” space.


2. Technical Research on Community Networks: Back-
ground and Motivations

   Communication and information management are central to modern
sociey but they remain anchored to traditional, centralized and market-
based models. CNs instead are participatory, co-operatively governed,
commons-based initiatives, that represent a successful alternative ap-
proach to traditional networks. CNs are blooming in many European
122                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

countries, the most prominent example being the Spanish network
www.guifi.net with currently about 30.000 nodes.
    Some CNs are connected to the Internet, thus giving Internet access
to the participants at a generally lower price than purely commercial initi-
atives, therefore, the initial scientific interest for CNs in the early 2000s
was driven by their potential as a tool to overcome the digital divide (Jain
2003). Still today, CNs are a key component for the ICT4Dev (ICT for
development) research community (Saldana et al. 2015).
    But CNs are more than just a replacement for last-mile Internet con-
nectivity. A CN acts as a small-scale local Internet populated with com-
munity-managed services (telephony, cloud-based services, peer-to-peer
exchanges etc.) and managed with a peer-to-peer (P2P) technological and
social approach. This original approach gained importance in the light of
recent events that showed how the Internet, and networking in general, is
a key instrument both in the hands of those that want to defend democ-
racy, and in the hands of their adversaries. A key example is provided by
the already mentioned “Datagate” scandal, which revealed that a single
agency, cooperating with a very restricted group of network operators
and service providers uses the Internet as a mass-surveillance instrument.
The progressive centralization of networking infrastructures (in the hands
of a few network providers) and of cloud-based services (in the hands of a
few giant companies) contributed to make this scenario possible. A se-
cond example is the acknowledged importance that networking has
played in many countries where people are fighting for democracy: net-
works act as an amplifier of the outer visibility of the protest, and as an
internal system of organization of the protests themselves (Howard and
Muzammil 2013). It is no surprise that regimes actively monitor, filter,
control and disconnect personal communication platforms in order to
turn them against their opponents (Morozov 2012). CNs use a decentral-
ized approach both in the technical and social layer which reduces the
number of single points of failure and makes it hard to filter, censor, or to
shut down the whole network. Under this lens, the existence of inde-
pendent, community-owned, locally managed networks that offer some
protection against intrusion, disconnection, and commercial influence is
an important novelty in the ICT panorama.
    For this reason CNs recently re-attracted the attention of the research
community. In the last few years, dedicated scientific workshops have
been realized, special issues on relevant scientific journals have been pub-
lished (both in the ICT and in the social science field2), and Dagstuhl
seminars have been organized in order to reunite the diverse scientific
communities active in this field (Crowcroft et al. 2015). At the same time,
CNs have become an attractive topic even for funding agencies. The Eu-
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
     See the forthcoming “Special Issue on Community Networks” in the Elsevier
                     2

Computer Networks Journal, and the “Special Issue on Alternative Internets” in
the Journal of Peer Production.
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                                                                                                                                                                              123
ropean Union has financed various research projects focused or at least
related to CNs (such as the CONFINE, CLOMMUNITY, P2PValue,
and netCommons ICT projects accounting for more than 12M€ in the last
4 years) and some of them use an inter-disciplinary approach.
    One theme in which technical research itself cannot cope with the
complexity of this subject is given by the challenges of a sustainable
growth for CNs, that is the core of this contribution. To introduce this
theme, it is worth to quote a discussion I had with a well-known professor
in the networking field, active in the P2P community. We were both
watching a presentation from a Ph.D. student that was trying to justify his
research on P2P systems, “because centralized systems cannot scale easi-
ly, while instead, P2P systems naturally scale with the number of users”.
This was an assumption that was easy to find in many technical research
papers in the 2000s, and today we can say that it was groundless in many
cases. In 2013 Facebook opened a new datacenter in Luleå, Sweden3,
claimed to contain the equivalent of four soccer fields filled up with serv-
ers. Servers that are powered only by renewable energy sources, and
cooled by the “fresh air” of Northern Sweden. Such data center operates
with an efficiency level that any distributed system can not even dream to
reach. We changed the motivation of the Ph.D. to “we do P2P systems,
because we don’t like centralized ones”. The reason why we don’t like
them can not be only technological, and CNs are an exciting experimen-
tation field to understand it.


3. An Open Research Theme: Sustainable Growth for CNs

    The definition of a suitable concept of sustainability that can be suc-
cessfully applied to CNs is an open research theme. The sustainability of a
commercial ISP, for instance, can be split into technical sustainability and
economical sustainability. The first is given by a technical design that al-
lows to scale-up the network and deliver good services when the user-
base grows. The second is given by a positive economic balance. While
some CN do have a business model, the cost of the infrastructure is gen-
erally crowd-shared by the community. A CN indeed offers a social mod-
el, thus, a CN needs to achieve technical sustainability together with so-
cial sustainability.
    At the network layer, CNs face scalability problems that commercial
net-works do not have to face. Commercial networks are organized with a
top-down network design. Given the market demand in a certain area the
net-work is organized in a hierarchical infrastructure implemented using
differ-ent technologies. The Internet Service Providers (ISP) network

	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
    3
        See:     http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/25/facebook-
datacentre -lulea-sweden-node-pole
124                                                           Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

generally starts in our own houses with a wireless router that we rent from
the ISP. A copper/fiber/wireless connection covers the “last mile” to a
first switching center, connected to a larger switching center, and so on.
Every level of this hierarchy operates with different hardware, different
network protocols, and requires distinct expertise to be managed. Their
management is hierarchical, meaning that the technical choices that are
taken on top of the pyramid are then propagated down to the base. This
kind of organization is cost-efficient, it is widely used and the market of-
fers many professionals that can be hired to manage one of the network
layers. It is also one of the reasons why it was possible for the NSA to set-
up a mass surveillance system. If a few high-level technologists and man-
agers handle the data of billions of people, it is easy to force them to share
such data in a stealthy way.
    CNs instead enlarge when a new person joins the community. The
growth of the network is spontaneous and unpredictable so it is extreme-
ly hard to apply any state-of-the-art planning strategy used for other kinds
of networks. Moreover, a wireless mesh network is in itself a flat architec-
ture. There is no specific technical provision to make a certain node more
important than any other, and any person could be the owner of a very
important node (a node in a strategic position of the network). This is a
key feature of a CN.
    Under a technical point of view, this is extremely challenging. CNs
tend to grow with a flat architecture, and push their network protocols to
their scalability limit, but the most interesting research is not technologi-
cal only. CNs have a social goal, that is to re-empower the users with the
control on their communications and use a decentralized organization to
avoid the concentration of power: since the technology allows to have a
flat infrastructure, there is no need to build a hierarchical social infra-
structure. Experience has shown that having a non-hierarchical technical
and social organization does not allow to justify the assumption that the
network is less controllable, less fragile and more fairly managed than any
other kind of network (Goh et al. 2001). Many different kind of net-
works, spontaneously evolve towards a network topology in which very
few nodes are extremely important, and the large majority of nodes are
irrelevant. We have shown in the past that CNs are no exception, that
even in networks made of hundreds of nodes as few as five nodes route
more than the 90% of the traffic, and if a few key nodes are removed, the
network is badly partitioned in tens of disconnected islands (Maccari
2013; Maccari and Lo Cigno 2015). The reason for this evolution is intui-
tive, even if people genuinely attempt to build decentralized networks, a
centralized system is simply easier to reproduce. Consider for instance the
typical initial situation of a CN: when activists create the first nodes the
network is composed by only a few disconnected links. Then, it may hap-
pen that a new person installs a node on a geographically dominating po-
sition (i.e. on top of a hill) and suddenly allows to connect all the discon-
nected stubs. That node becomes important, and the community starts to
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                    125
invest in it. New people that want to join will help with its configuration
and will finance the installation of new antennas to cover a wider section
of the city. This will make it more likely that new people will join the
network connecting to that node, which will make it even more im-
portant. This kind of growth reflects the Preferential Attachment algo-
rithm introduced by Barabasi and Albert (1999). The B-A algorithm cre-
ates so-called scale-free networks, which are pervasive in our world and
have a distinctive feature: a few nodes are critical for the life of the net-
work and a large majority of other nodes are unimportant. This trend
shows that the natural tendency of a CN is to go towards a centralized
network topology, hidden behind the idea of a decentralized one.
    Something similar happens with the social organization of CNs. It is
not sufficient to claim to have a horizontal organization in order to have a
well-balanced community. It is not sufficient to use a mailing list as the
principal communication means to claim that the community is horizontal
(Lovink 2004). Again, CNs are no exception, in previous works we have
analyzed how the group of people behind a large Italian CN is actually
led by a very small number of individuals that own the majority of the
critical nodes and influence the discussions in the CN mailing list
(Crowcroft et al. 2015).
    A distributed socio-technical network that relies on a very small num-
ber of nodes, owned by an even smaller number of people that also influ-
ence the decisions of the community is not a P2P organization, and will
collapse when this small group of people will leave the network or start to
misbehave for any reason.


4. Network Metrics: the Pulse of the CN

    One way to help the development of CNs is to define “sustainability
metrics” that represent the state of the network and guide its growth.
Those metrics will represent the “pulse” of the CN with respect to the
founding political motivations and will guide future decisions.
    This first step to design such metrics is to analyze qualitatively the
founding principles of the CN. CNs are all different, there are some that
have a strong political motivation and other ones that behave like co-
operative ISPs. Qualitative research is needed to understand what are the
founding values of each community, and to set-up instruments to self-
assess the level of satisfaction that the community has reached, related to
those funding values. This phase of the work is extremely important be-
cause it is necessary to capture those values and translate them in suitable
metrics that can be analytically and automatically computed.
    The second step is to analyze the network. The primary source of in-
formation is the network graph enriched with information about the
ownership of the nodes and the services available on the nodes. A second
source of information is the graph of interactions of the community
126                                                          Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

members acquired via the analysis of social networking instruments (mail-
ing lists, forums, bug-trackers, Q&A systems and so on). Using this ap-
proach, known metrics can be applied to the graph in order to determine
the cliques of nodes and persons that achieve an excessive control on the
CN. Social scientists have defined several metrics to determine the im-
portance of a node, or a group of nodes in a social graph, such as centrali-
ty metrics (Freeman 1977). These can represent a base on which to build
suitable socio-technical metrics to periodically analyze the state of the
network.
    Finally, these metrics can be integrated in the on-line instruments that
the communities use to manage the CN (Kos et al. 2015). These instru-
ments are used to visualize, organize and debug the network, and are vital
for the CN. With enriched metrics, they can be used to take important
decisions on the life of the network. For instance, the community can de-
cide on the creation of a new link, or a new node in order to reduce the
centrality (and thus the degree of control) that a single person has on the
network. Also the management of existing key nodes, or key social func-
tions in the community organization can be split among people in a way
the keeps a low concentration of control and enforces a rotation of re-
sponsibilities.
    The final goal of this research is to produce information that will
guide the community to grow in a way that is respectful of the founding
principles they have set for themselves, and avoid known pitfalls. We
have to remember that even if the Internet has been going through a cen-
tralization process, at its very beginning it was imagined to be a decentral-
ized network, and CNs should not follow the same path.



                                    ***

Community Networks under the Lenses of Private
Law

Federica Giovanella

1. A New Instance of an Old Problem. Namely, “Law vs.
Technology”

    Community networks represent a new instance of an old problem:
when dealing with a new technology, law needs to evolve and adapt. As it
often happens with the advent of new technologies, the birth and devel-
opment of CNs has come as an unexpected event for lawmakers. Some of
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                                                                                                                                                                              127
the peculiarities of CNs are especially thorny, because they challenge ex-
isting laws. CNs go even further: they challenge the very same rationale
behind some of the current regulations, a rationale that is the result of
century-long theories and of their application.
    Many aspects of CNs call for the attention of law and legal scholars. A
first peculiarity of CNs is their “distribution”. Distributed networks have
been analyzed by legal scholars for many years (Elkin-Koren 2006), but
they have gained much more attention in the last years due to their in-
creasing application in different spheres of the information and commu-
nication tech-nology realm. Famous phenomena like BitTorrent or
Bitcoin rely on distributed structures; but distributed technologies have
been applied to many other kinds of services, such as data storage, micro-
blogging, social networking. In distributed architectures both contents
and actions can be distributed, with great impact on some rules, like
those regulating liability, as I shall later explain.
    Another aspect of CNs is their attention to anonymity. Even if each
node has its own Internet Protocol (IP) address, users can choose their
own IP address and change it at any time. Furthermore, contrary to what
happens in the Internet environment, there are no databases in which
these IP addresses are registered. There are no obligations to retain these
data. Since a single IP address can be used only by a single user, users
usually have a prospect in which they publicly display the IP address they
self-assigned to their node. But this prospect is far from reliable, since it
can be changed very easily by any member of the community. This feature
of CNs, coupled with the use of anonymizing software or encryption
techniques, greatly impairs the applicability of liability rules, since the
possibilities to identify the person behind the screen decrease dramatically.
    In the meantime, anonymity represents also an effective tool to en-
hance freedom of expression and to protect users’ privacy. Under this
point of view, CNs pose legal scholars some enduring questions: should
users’ privacy prevail or should other rights prevail and obtain enforce-
ment? Should anonymity be preserved at any price? Such questions can-
not obviously be answered in a vacuum; rather, they need to be placed
within a concrete case.
    Another aspect that characterizes many CNs is the absence of norms
for their internal organization. More precisely, within a community net-
work there are neither written norms to regulate relations among users,
nor rules that attribute special powers to a possible central authority.
Normally, there is a list of principles to which users have to agree (such as
the “Pico Peering Agreement”)4. These principles only reflect the behav-
ior of users taking part to CNs. People who join the network are typically
motivated and, most importantly, they share the common principles of
community participation and knowledge diffusion. It is up to other
	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
   4
      See http://www.picopeer.net/PPA-en.shtml (retrieved on November 7,
2015).
128                                                          Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

members of the community to decide whether to accept the newcomers
or not. There is no formal board or authority, even if some people can be
seen as representing the heart of the community; these people can decide
whether new users can join the network or not. An another aspect peculi-
ar to many CNs is that, once a person joins the community, if she infring-
es its (more or less informal) rules, the community can take technical
measures with the aim of excluding her. For instance, if a node moves its
antenna to point in another direction, this can cut off some of the con-
nected nodes, namely the nodes of those who are not ac-cepted by the
community anymore.
    Given these peculiarities, CNs probably constitute a case of system
governed by social norms, meant as informal standards and rules applied
within a given group, which that group perceives as binding. Hence, for
legal schol-ars the internal governance of CNs can constitute a fascinating
field of re-search.
    Legal implications of CNs are not limited to those mentioned so far;
for instance, CNs could also potentially be used for illicit purposes of dif-
ferent kind, such as sharing data protected by intellectual property or or-
ganizing cyber- or terroristic attacks. This short paper will focus only on
the issue of civil liability and the hurdles posed by CNs to the structure of
civil wrongs as we have known it for centuries.


2. Wrongful Actions and Damages without Liability? The
Challenge posed by CNs to the Law of Extra-contractual
Obligations

In this section I focus on what I believe is one of the main challenges
posed by CNs to private law, namely: the apparent impossibility to en-
force “extra-contractual obligations”. Extra-contractual obligations are
those arising outside the realm of contracts, and that typically require a
person to pay for the damages caused. The distributed structure of CNs
implies the fragmentation of conducts, so that it becomes difficult, if not
impossible, to define who committed a specific action. The object of the
illicit action might be allocated to a high number of different users’ ma-
chines, which makes it not only technically, but also legally very problem-
atic to define who contributed to the violation of a right (Dulong de Ros-
nay 2015).
     The issue becomes even more problematic if one considers that the IP
addresses of the people taking part to these networks are usually unde-
tectable or, at least, are very hard to match with real identities. When
anonymization software or encryption techniques are applied, the situa-
tion worsens.
     To explain which kind of obstacles the structure of CNs poses to the
enforcement of law, I shall make an example. Let us suppose that a net-
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                                                                                                                                                                              129
work’s user – and owner of a node – acts in a way that defames a subject
either within or outside the network. In a “classical” case of defamation,
the person causing the damage would be identified, sued and eventually
condemned to pay damages. In the realm of Internet the wrongdoer
would be identifiable through her IP address: with the collaboration of
the Internet access provider, the damaged person would obtain the real
identity of the user and then sue her5. In some specific instances, in ac-
cordance with European Directive 2000/31 on Electronic Commerce6,
also an Internet service provider could be held liable (Julià-Barceló and
Koelman 2000; Baistrocchi 2003; Verbiest et al. 2007).
    Transposing this example into CNs world, one could imagine the fol-
lowing liability situations: the first involves the user-wrongdoer; the se-
cond concerns the provider, for the case the wrongful action destination
is placed outside the CN; the last one implicates the CN itself. In addi-
tion, another user – different from the wrongdoer – could also be held
liable for the case she shares her Internet connection with other nodes,
acting as a so-called “gateway node”.
    With regard to user’s liability, as mentioned, the first step would con-
sist of identifying the person behind the screen, meaning the owner of the
node from which the wrongful content came. Here comes the first “wall”
that CNs erect against law enforcement: given the above-illustrated im-
possibility to identify users behind screens, technology could not be use-
ful in finding the possible infringer and the damaged person could not
reach its goal of obtaining justice. This represents a first “failure” for ex-
tra-contractual obligations enforcement.
    Whenever the illicit action is made through the gateway node, a nar-
row space for action could remain. The gateway node can be identified
since it has public IP address. However, at least in the Italian framework,
the gateway node owner would not be held liable, as there are rules in-
troducing this kind of third-party liability (Giannone Codiglione 2013,
123-135). A possibility would be to consider the owner of the gateway as
concurring in the wrongdoing (for example under art. 2055 of the Italian
civil code). This technique might be a solution to find a way for the victim
to obtain redress for her damages; however, under the point of view of
the sustainability of the network, such a solution would be a deterrent for
a node’s owner in sharing her Internet connection with other users and,
ultimately, with the community.


	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
                     5
      This is a simplistic description of a scenario that can actually be much more
complicated. For the sake of clarity let us assume that it works this way. More
generally, the description made in this paper is necessarily limited, for a deeper
analysis see Giovanella (2015).
    6
      Directive 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8
June 2000 on certain legal aspects of information society services, in particular
electronic commerce, in the Internal Market.
130                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

    In the last case illustrated, namely: if the wrongful actions are commit-
ted through a gateway, the provider supplying the Internet connection to
the gateway user may be considered as a possible defendant. These pro-
viders enjoy the liability limitations introduced by Dir. 2000/31 under art.
12. Put it simply, they cannot be held liable if they do not take part in or
somehow affect the transmission of illicit content made by users. In addi-
tion, very often contracts between users and access provider include a li-
ability limitation clause and expressly forbid the customer to share the
connection. The user sharing her connection would therefore breach the
contract and be liable for that; in addition, the user might also be asked
to act as a warrant for damages suffered by the provider as a consequence
of the illicit conduct committed through the gateway (Giannone Codi-
glione 2013, 107; Mac Síthigh 2009, 366-369; Robert et al. 2008, 217 ff.).
    Finally, in case the wrongful action takes place entirely within the CN,
one could wonder whether the network itself could be liable. As earlier
highlighted, CNs originate spontaneously within communities. These
communities are self-organized and without a central authority. Contrary
to what happens to a provider, they are not incorporated as companies.
CNs do not have a person in charge that could be held liable for cases of
wrongful actions. As a matter of fact, in the majority of cases CNs do not
have legal personality and it would not be possible to sue them as entities.
The only possibility would be to sue them as a community, i.e. to sue all
the people within the CN. However, the same consideration made above
for users’ and gateway nodes’ liability applies here.
    A different conclusion could be reached in case the CN organizes it-
self as an association or takes another form, such as a foundation7. In this
event, specific norms, which already exist, would apply.
    It follows from what has been told so far that the structure and func-
tioning of CNs pose a number of hurdles to the enforcement of liability
rules. Normally, acting directly against the final users would be the most
straightforward solution. It would also be the correct one, given the gen-
eral rule that each person is liable only for her own actions. However,
from a technological point of view this solution tends to be impossible.


3. The Interplay between Different Sciences as a Tool to
Overcome Current Hurdles

  The described scenario provides an idea of the challenges that law
must face when a new technology arises. Lawmakers should consider
whether to adopt specific laws for CNs and, if so, what regulation would

	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  	
  
                     7
      This is for example the case of the Barcelona network ‘guifi.net’, which is
part of a foundation; see http://fundacio.guifi.net/index.php/Fundaci%C3%B3
(retrieved on November 7, 2015).
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                     131
be the most effective. It would be fundamental to implement solutions
that balance CNs’ needs with right holders’ ones, in order to discourage
wrongful actions while allowing CNs to further develop and prosper (Du-
long de Rosnay 2015; Giovanella 2015). However, regardless ofthe possi-
ble solutions that law-and policy-makers could (or should) apply to fill
the existing gaps and overcome the illustrated difficulties, there might be
solutions that CNs themselves could im-plement.
    As emerges from the previous paragraphs, CNs are currently in a vac-
uum as for civil law enforcement. However, it might not be distant the
time in which things will change. As CNs are growing both in number of
people involved and in popularity, the possibilities that wrongful actions
occur and that someone seeks redress are also growing.
    In this perspective, the interaction between different sciences might
play a key role. There might be technical tools that the network could
implement taking into account existing laws and possible infringements.
The enactment of specific technical measures – such as filters or detectors
– might be both a deterrent for infringing conducts and a possible de-
fence in case of lawsuits. In this situation, lawyers and engineers could
work one with another with the aim of strengthening CNs: both could
detect the weaknesses under their own point of view and try to help the
network in gaining a stronger structure. While this would aid the “physi-
cal” aspect of the network, a similar approach could be taken for the “in-
tangible” aspects of the community. This could be possible through the
study of the internal relationships between the community’s members, as
well as of the role of some specific users. This task clearly reminds of so-
ciological research. The study of the dynamics among users could reveal
whether there are some users that de facto represent the network or man-
age it. Since these users could be more easily the subject of legal claims,
such a study would help again strengthening CNs.
    All in all, transdisciplinary research proves to be not only fruitful, but
also necessary for legal scholars to confront new and emerging technolo-
gies and to understand both their effects on law and, in turn, the effects
of law on these technologies.


Acknowdledgments
    Federica Giovanella and Leonardo Maccari wish to thank the University of
Trento that supported this work under the project “Wireless Community Net-
works: A Novel Techno-Legal Approach” – Research Projects 2014.
    In compliance with Italian academic folkways, Stefano Crabu and Paolo Ma-
gaudda acknowledge that the former wrote paragraph 2 and the latter wrote par-
agraphs 1 and 3.
132                                                                 Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

References

Baistrocchi, P. (2003) Liability of Intermediary Service Providers in the EU Di-
    rective on Electronic Commerce, in “Santa Clara Computer & High Technolo-
    gy Law Journal”, 19 (1), 111–130.
Barabási, A.L. and Albert, R. (1999) Emergence of scaling in random networks, in
    “Science”, 286 (5439), pp. 509–512.
Barry, A. and Born, G. (2013) Interdisciplinarity: reconfigurations of the social and
    natural sciences, London, Routledge.
Bowker, G.C. (1994) Science on the run: Information management and industrial
    geophysics at Schlumberger, 1920–1940, Cambridge, MIT Press.
Brown, M.B. (2014) Politicizing science: Conceptions of politics in science and tech-
    nology studies, in “Social Studies of Science”, 45 (1), pp. 3–30.
Bruni, A., Pinch, T. and Schubert, C. (2013) Technologically Dense Environments:
    What For? What Next?, in “Tecnoscienza: Italian Journal of Science & Tech-
    nology Studies”, 4 (2), pp. 51-72.
Carroll, J.M. and Rosson, M.B. (2003) A trajectory for community networks, in
    “The Information Society”, 19 (5), pp. 381–393.
Caso, R. and Giovanella, F. (eds.) (2015) Reti di libertà. Wireless Community
    Networks: un'analisi interdisciplinare, Napoli, Editoriale Scientifica.
Clement, A. (2014) NSA Surveillance: Exploring the Geographies of Internet Inter-
    ception, in “iConference 2014 Proceedings”, pp. 412–425.
Crowcroft, J., Wolisz, A. and Sathiaseelan, A. (2105 ) Towards an Affordable In-
    ternet Access for Everyone: The Quest for Enabling Universal Service Commit-
    ment (Dagstuhl Seminar 14471), in “Dagstuhl Reports”, 4 (11), pp. 78–1377.
De Filippi, P. and Treguer, F. (2015) Expanding the Internet Commons: The Sub-
    versive Potential of Wireless Community Networks, in “Journal of Peer Pro-
    duction”, 6, pp. 1–11.
Dulong de Rosnay, M. (2015) Peer-to-peer as a Design Principle for Law: Distribute
    the Law, in “Journal of Peer Production”, 6, pp. 1–9.
Egyedi, T.M. and Mehos D.C. (2012) Inverse Infrastructures: Disrupting Networks
    from Below, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing.
Elkin-Koren, N. (2006) Making Technology Visible: Liability of Internet Service
    Providers for Peer-To-Peer Traffic, in “N.Y.U. Journal of Legislation & Public
    Policy”, 9, 15–73.
Flickenger, R. (2002) Building wireless community networks, O'Reilly, Sebastopol,
    CA.
Foucault, M. (1988) On power, in L. D. Kritzman (Ed.), Politics, philosophy, cul-
    ture: Interviews and other writings 1977–84, New York: Routledge, pp. 96–
    109.
Freeman, L.C. (1977) A Set of Measures of Centrality Based on Betweenness, in
    “Sociometry”, 40 (1), pp. 35–41.
Giannone Codiglione, G. (2013) Indirizzo IP, Reti Wi-Fi e responsabilità per
    illeciti commessi da terzi, in “Diritto dell'Informazione e dell'Informatica”, 1,
    107–143.
Crabu, Giovanella, Maccari & Magaudda                                            133
Giovanella, F. (2015) Liability Issues in Wireless Community Networks, in “Jour-
    nal of European Tort Law”, 6 (1), 49–68.
Goh, K.I., Kahng, B. and Kim, D. (2001) Universal behavior of load distribution in
    scale-free networks, in “Physical Review Letters”, 87 (27). doi:
    10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.278701
Howard, P.N. and Muzammil, H.M. (2013) Democracy's Fourth Wave? Digital
    Media and the Arab Spring, Oxford, Oxford Press.
Hughes, T.P. (1983) Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society 1880-
    1930, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kos, J., Milutinović, M. and Čehovin, L. (2015) Nodewatcher: A substrate for
    growing your own community network, in “Computer Networks”.
    doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2015.09.021
Jain, S. and Agrawal, D. (2003) Wireless community networks, in “Computer”, 36
    (8), pp. 90–92.
Jasanoff, S. (2005) Designs on Nature: Science and Democracy in Europe and the
    United States, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Julià-Barceló, R. and Koelman, K.J. (2000) Intermediary Liability: Intermediary
    Liability in the E-Commerce Directive: so far so good, but it’s not enough, in
    “Computer Law & Security Review”, 16 (4), 231–239.
Knorr-Cetina, K. (2009) Epistemic cultures: How the sciences make knowledge,
    Harvard, Harvard University Press.
Levy, S. (1984) Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, O'Reilly, Sebastopol,
    CA.
Lovink, G. (2004) My First Recession: Critical Internet Culture in Transition, Rot-
    terdam, NAi Publishers/V2-Organization.
Mac Síthigh, D. (2009) Law In The Last Mile: Sharing Internet Access Through
    Wifi, in “SCRIPTed”, 6 (2), 366–369.
Maccari, L. (2013) An analysis of the Ninux wireless community network, in “Con-
    ference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communica-
    tions (WiMob), 2013 IEEE 9th International”, Lyon, pp. 1–7. doi:
    10.1109/WiMOB.2013.6673332
Maccari, L. and Lo Cigno, R. (2015) A week in the life of three large wireless
    community networks, in “Ad Hoc Networks”, 24 (Part B), pp. 175–190.
Milan, S. (2013) Social movements and their technologies: Wiring social change.
    Palgrave, Macmillan.
Morozov, E. (2012) The net delusion: The dark side of Internet freedom, New
    York, PublicAffais.
Oudshoorn, N. and Pinch, T. (2003) How users matter: the co-construction of us-
    ers and technology (inside technology), Cambridge, Cambridge University
    Press.
Parks, L., and Starosielski, N. (Eds.) (2015) Signal Traffic: Critical Studies of Me-
    dia Infrastructures, Champaign, University of Illinois Press.
Robert, R., Manulis, M., De Villenfagne, F., Leroy, D., Jost, J., Koeune, F., Ker,
    C., Dinant, J.M., Poullet, Y., Bonaventure, O. and Quisquater, J.J. (2008)
134                                                                Tecnoscienza - 6 (2)

    WiFi Roaming: Legal Implications and Security Constraints, in “International
    Journal of Law and Information Technology”, 16 (3), 215–241.
Saldana, J. Arcia-Moret, E.A., Braem, B., Pietrosemoli, E., Sathiaseelan, A. and
    Zennaro, M. (2015) Alternative network deployments. taxonomy, characteriza-
    tion, technologies and architectures. Version 01, Informational RFC Draft, in
    https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-irtf-gaia-alternative-network-deployments-00
    (retrieved 9.10.2015).
Schuler, D. (1994) Community networks: building a new participatory medium, in
    “Communications of the ACM”, 37 (1), pp. 38–51.
Söderberg, J. (2011) Free Space Optics in the Czech Wireless Community: Shedding
    Some Light on the Role of Normativity for User-Initiated Innovations, in “Sci-
    ence, Technology & Human Values”, 36 (4), 423–450.
Star, S. L. and Bowker, G.C. (2002) How to Infrastructure, in L.A. Lievrouw and
    S.L. Livingstone (Eds.), Handbook of the New Media, London, Sage, pp. 230–
    245.
Star, S.L. and Ruhleder, K. (1996) Steps toward an ecology of infrastructure: Design
    and access for large information spaces, in “Information Systems Research”, 7
    (1), 111–134.
Van Oost, E., Verhaegh, S. and Oudshoorn, N. (2009) From innovation communi-
    ty to community innovation: User-initiated innovation in wireless Leiden, in
    “Science, technology & human values” 34 (2), pp. 182–205.
Verbiest, T., Spindler, G., Riccio, G.M. and Van der Perre, A. (2007) Study on the
    Liability of Internet Intermediaries, in http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/e-
    commerce/docs/study/liability/final_report_en.pdf (retrieved on November
    7, 2015).
Verhaegh, S. and Van Oost, S. (2012) Who Cares? The Maintenance of a Wi-Fi
    Community Infrastructure, in T.M. Egyedi and Mehos D.C. (Eds.), Inverse In-
    frastructures: Disrupting Networks from Below, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar
    Publishing, pp. 141–160.
Wilson, S. (2015) How to control the Internet: Comparative political implications of
    the Internet's engineering, in “First Monday”, 20, 2.
