10.6092/issn.2038-3460/17095
This paper presents an outline of science and technology studies (STS) in Croatia in both the socialist period and the transitional (or postsocialist) period. Introductory remarks delineate the social and intellectual context of Croatian STS in both observed periods. A brief sketch of early STS follows – primarily philosophical, historical and economic studies. The central section of the article is a presentation of Croatian sociological studies of science and technology from the early eighties until the present. The interdisciplinary issue of Croatian STS is discussed in the conclusions.
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Katarina Prpić
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Tecnoscienza – Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
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STS in a (Post)Socialist Context. Science and Technology Studies in Croatia
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Katarina Prpić
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STS in a (Post)Socialist Context. Science and Technology Studies in Croatia
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                                                                        Cartography

STS in a (Post)Socialist Context
Science and Technology Studies in Croatia
!
Katarina Prpić
Independent Researcher
!
     Abstract This paper presents an outline of science and technology studies
     (STS) in Croatia in both the socialist period and the transitional (or post-
     socialist) period. Introductory remarks delineate the social and intellectual
     context of Croatian STS in both observed periods. A brief sketch of early
     STS follows - primarily philosophical, historical and economic studies. The
     central section of the article is a presentation of Croatian sociological stud-
     ies of science and technology from the early eighties until the present. The
     interdisciplinary issue of Croatian STS is discussed in the conclusions.

     Keywords: Science and technology studies; Croatia; socialist period; tran-
     sitional/post-socialist period; interdisciplinarity.

     Corresponding author: Katarina Prpić, Laurenčićeva 8c, 10000 Zagreb,
     Hrvatska - Email: katarina@idi.hr



1. Introduction: Social and Intellectual Frames
    The presentation of science and technology studies (STS) in a particu-
lar country/society, rests on the presumption that this scientific field is
precisely defined, which may be questionable. Two different publications,
an older qualitative book chapter and a recent quantitative journal paper,
claim that two distinct research streams have been simultaneously grow-
ing apart in this field - qualitative and quantitative science and technology
studies (Edge 1995; Martin et al. 2012). The authors, contrary to more
exclusive views, classify both streams in the same field: science and tech-
nology studies. Moreover, Edge (1995) pronounced and observed the
beginnings of their creative reconciliation. Such a view, acknowledging
the heterogeneity of the observed field, also underpins this paper on Cro-
atian science and technology studies. The theoretical and methodological
implications of that standpoint are reflected in the coverage, range and
selection of the S&T studies analysed. Due to the author’s own profes-
sional profile and interest, sociological studies of science and technology
are the main subject of this analysis.

!
TECNOSCIENZA
Italian Journal of Science & Technology Studies
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166                                                          Tecnoscienza - 4 (1)

    In line with the importance of the social framework of any meta-
analysis of science and with the STS theoretical and methodological cre-
do, the social and intellectual context of Croatian science and technology
studies has to be delineated, even for a well-informed reader. A more rel-
evant reason for this background is that in STS literature the specificities
of post-socialist, transitional countries are often neglected and over-
looked, in both a theoretical and an empirical sense. Theoretical models,
such as post-academic science (Ziman 1996), the new mode of knowledge
production (Gibbons et al. 1997), triple helix (Etzkowitz and Leydesdorf
1998), academic capitalism (Slaughter and Leslie 1997), and science in
the agora (Nowotny et al. 2003) have been identified in the social and
techno-scientific context of the most powerful economies, of compara-
tively huge investments in R&D and of competitive research systems.
Therefore, these models are not theoretically appropriate for S&T studies
in socio-culturally, politically, economically and techno-scientifically dif-
ferent, post-socialist societies (Prpić 2007), nor they are necessarily very
inspiring for empirical verification in those societies.
    The social context of Croatian STS should be described according to
its three most relevant features. The first is basic and refers to the domi-
nant characteristics of Croatian society in the socialist and post-socialist
periods. The second concerns the intellectual, scientific and ideological
influences on science, especially on social sciences and the humanities,
and consequently on the development of STS in Croatia. The third oper-
ates at the mezzo societal level and is connected with the characteristics of
the Croatian research system in both periods.
    The broadest social and intellectual context of Croatian studies of sci-
ence and technology in the second half of the twentieth century was to
the highest degree formed by the socialist political and economic system
in ex-Yugoslavia, which was not under Soviet control and consequently
less oppressive and more liberal (Steindorff 2006; Goldstein 2011). In
comparison with other socialist countries, the Yugoslav political and eco-
nomic system was generally much more open to the developed Western
countries and their cultural and intellectual influences, which was par-
ticularly important for the development of science and technology and
STS.
    At the same time, the specificities of the economic and socio-cultural
development of Croatia also had an important impact on its scientific and
techno-economic development. Croatia was the second economically
most developed federal state. Due to the influx of foreign tourists into the
country and the massive manpower emigration from it, Croatia had the
most intensive communication with Western countries. There were also
traditional intellectual and scientific ties with Austria, Germany and Italy,
where the Croatian intellectual elite was educated for centuries before,
but also after the establishment of Zagreb University in the seventeenth
century.
    At the beginning of the nineteen-nineties, the dominant social frame-
Prpić                                                                          167
work was radically changed as a result of the political independence of
Croatia and its social, economic and political transition towards a capital-
ist and democratic system. The transformation of Croatian society began
in worse social, economic and political conditions than in most other
post-socialist countries. It was characterised by the destruction of war,
the collapse of economic activities, socially irresponsible and problematic
privatization, and the formal democratization of the political system
(Županov 1995). The social, economic and political consequences of the-
se processes, in spite of the improvements in all spheres of life, are still
felt in Croatian society.
    The broadest socio-cultural context, especially the value orientations
of the Croatian population, also changed over that long period of time,
but it remained essentially dualistic. In spite of the differences between
the value orientations of the population as a whole and its social elite,
they show combinations of traditional and modern values (Hodžić 2002;
Labus 2005; Sekulić 2011).
    The intellectual background of Croatian social sciences (especially so-
ciology) and S&T studies has also been changing during the
(post)socialist period. One could agree with the claim that in ‘the entire
socialist period, sociology was marked by a Marxist perspective of social
philosophy and critical social theory’ (Tomić-Koludrović 2009, 154).
However, there was a significant difference between the dogmatic Marx-
ism that was characteristic for other socialist countries and the so-called
creative Marxism which included some social criticism.
    (Non)Marxist social science theories and approaches were also taught
at Croatian universities, and there was tolerance towards many empirical
studies that were inspired by such, especially narrow or middle-ranged
theories.1 Therefore one could not decisively claim that all social science
research and output was ideologically impregnated or that sociology was
just a “legitimising science”, and that empirical research was dominated
by a “positivist approach” (Tomić-Koludrović 2009, 162, 158). Naturally,
the theoretical and methodological pluralism in social sciences have been
fully promoted in the intellectually much more stimulating post-socialist
years.
    The Croatian/Yugoslav research system most certainly shared some
essential features with other socialist countries – it was not competitive, it
was dependent on public/state funding, and its industrial R&D was ra-
ther underdeveloped (Šporer 2004; Radošević 2004). It also showed some
comparatively significant differences from those systems. It was not based
on the Soviet tripartite model of science organisation, it was considerably
less funded (and consequently not as hypertrophied), less centralized and
more open to international scientific communication (Prpić 2007).
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
 An analysis of sociologists’ Ph.D. theses, for example, found that Croatian wom-
en sociologists more frequently carried out this kind of (non-ideological) research
for their doctoral theses than their male colleagues (Lažnjak 1990).
168                                                           Tecnoscienza - 4 (1)

    Generally, the changes of the research systems of transitional coun-
tries have been difficult because of the lack of the appropriate institutions
and instruments: primarily developed market economies and independent
scientific communities (Šporer 2004). Most of them introduced competi-
tive and decentralised systems of research funding and evaluation
(Frankel and Cave 1997). The Croatian research system was also subject-
ed to deep structural changes in the post-socialist period, but some of
them had undesirable outcomes. One of them was the devastation of in-
dustrial R&D, manifested in a drastic reduction in research personnel in
industrial institutes and units (Prpić 2002).
    Contrary to most post-socialist countries, whose research systems un-
derwent decentralisation of decision making, the Croatian system has
been centralised (Prpić 2007). As a consequence of this process, the au-
tonomy of scientific organizations, particularly public institutes, has been
decreasing. The influence of Croatian scientific community (even sugges-
tions and policy proposals) does not seem to be important in scientific
policy-making and implementation, which indicates that the real interest
of the political elite in science and technology studies, as a policy basis,
might also be weak.
    To conclude, these specificities of the Croatian social and intellectual
context compared to the other socialist countries, but also to other Yugo-
slav states, create the framework for meta-analysis and an understanding
of the character, development and scope of Croatian science and technol-
ogy studies.


2. Early STS: The Predominance of Philosophical, Histori-
cal and Economic Studies

    Though philosophical and historical studies of science have a longer
history in Croatia, the interest in science studies intensified in the nine-
teen-sixties and particularly in the nineteen-seventies. It was related to a
global interest in science following the II World War, especially interest
in the science of science, which was developing at the time in both the
Western and the Eastern world (de Solla Price 1963; Dobrov 1969).
    The early development of STS in Croatia was at the same time similar
and distinctive in comparison with global patterns. Thanks to the inten-
sive communication between Croatian natural scientists and the interna-
tional scientific community, they were the first to focus on the philosoph-
ical, historical, quantitative and policy issues of scientific development in
Croatia (Yugoslavia). The echoes of Kuhn’s famous book on scientific
revolutions were also of great interest to social scientists and humanists.
Interest in studying science was not just a reflex of the international intel-
lectual stream. It was also reinforced by the Croatian/Yugoslav social
context, especially the economic and political liberalization in the sixties,
which needed theoretical and pragmatic answers, and by the dominant
Prpić                                                                        169
(Marxist) ideology and its concept of science and technology as a driving
force of economic and social development.
    Philosophy and history of science as traditional disciplines were given
a new stimulus with the establishment of two specialized journals that had
Yugoslav character but were published in Croatia: Encyclopaedia moderna
(1966-1976) and Scientia (Yugoslavica) (1975-91). These journals were
also open to the quantitative and bibliometric aspects of science, to sci-
ence policy issues as well as popular topics of scientific and technological
progress. Apart from these thematically specialized journals, papers on
science and technology issues were also published in philosophical and
historical journals, natural science and biomedical journals, general social
science journals, as well as disciplinary (sociological, economic, political
and information science) journals. Books, of course, have always been an
esteemed form of publications in the S&T field. According to a complete
bibliography of publications about science and technology from the fifties
to 1985, almost 6000 books and papers were published in the former Yu-
goslavia (Milinković 1989). Although the bibliography includes transla-
tions of foreign authors’ books and some selected newspaper articles by
scientists, it still indicates the considerable interest of scientists in science
and technology topics and shows their publication productivity on those
topics during the socialist period.
    The sixties and seventies were a period when philosophers, historians,
political scientists, and economists were predominant among Croatian
S&T researchers. There were also some natural scientists and scientists
from other hard disciplines interested in quantitative analyses of science,
primarily in S&T indicators and the use of citation analysis as an evalua-
tive tool. Croatian sociologists began to join those specialized or occa-
sional researchers in this field more intensively in the seventies.
    Therefore, from the beginning there was parallelism between the two
basic STS orientations based on qualitative and quantitative research. The
former was preferred mostly by philosophers and historians of science
(Supek 1964, 1974; Lelas 1969, 1979; Dadić 1962, 1975). The second was
used by natural and information scientists (Maričić 1977; Ružić 1978;
Težak 1976) and economists mostly, but not exclusively, interested in
technoscientific progress and technology transfer (Mesarić 1969; Du-
bravćić 1970; Lang and Kanceljak 1975). Both orientations have contin-
ued until the present, particularly in philosophical and historical studies
of science (Lelas 1990; Paušek-Baždar 1994; Dadić 2000; Kutleša 2007)
and scientometric analyses (Šlaus 1980; Lacković et al. 1991; Trinajstić
1993; Klaić 1995). However, the foci of quantitative information and eco-
nomic studies of science have shifted towards new social challenges. In-
formation science has turned to comprehensive and long-term biblio-
metric comparisons of productivity in numerous (all) fields and whole
scientific areas (Jokić et al. 2010; Macan et al. 2012). On the other hand,
economic studies of S&T have focused on innovations (Aralica et al.
2008; Radas and Božić 2009; Radas and Anić, 2013).
170                                                             Tecnoscienza - 4 (1)

    The development of these disciplinary studies partially corroborates
S&T analysts’ claim that a tradition of scientometric, philosophical and
historical studies of science was present in ex-socialist countries, which
was not the case with the sociology of science or scientific knowledge
(Balázs et al. 1995). The exception was Poland, with a long tradition of
sociological studies of science. Ex-Yugoslavia and Croatia became anoth-
er exception2.


3. The Sociological Turning Point in STS: the (Post)Socialist
Decades.

    Two kinds of Croatian sociological studies of science (and technology)
appeared in the seventies – theoretical studies of scientific knowledge and
of science (Marušić 1970, 1971; Šušnjić 1973/1982) and descriptive (so-
cial) studies relating to Croatian research personnel based on empirical
investigations by the Institute for Social Research in Zagreb (Korićanćić
1972; Previšić 1975; Benc et al. 1979)3.
    The Institute was the first scientific organization in Croatia to initiate,
start and organize systematic (empirical) research in the sociology of sci-
ence and technology at the end of the seventies and the beginning of the
eighties. At first, the Institute’s engagement in the field was policy orient-
ed, that is, it focused on the empirical analyses of the financial, institu-
tional and personnel potential of science in Croatia/Yugoslavia as the
bases of public/state plans for R&D development. Social, economic and
techno-scientific development planning was obligatory in the socialist
period, with the (ideological) aim of avoiding the chaotic effects of eco-
nomic and social processes in the capitalist world.
    The Institute even became a Yugoslav focal-point for this type of ap-
plicative research in the S&T field, but by the mid-eighties it became
clear that neither exclusive policy orientation nor purely theoretical or
empiricist orientation alone could offer a deeper understanding of the
social roots, aspects and impacts of science and technology. Therefore the
Institute’s team of sociologists began to take interest in theory driven em-
pirical investigations, covering three broader STS themes: a) the social
role of science and science policy; b) the science system and scientific
potential and profession; c) technological development and innovations.
    This research agenda had its intellectual foundations in crucial con-
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2
  The most well known and productive sociologist of science in the former Yugo-
slavia was Vojin Milić, who also wrote a well-known overview of sociology of sci-
ence in co-authorship with Mulkay (Mulkay and Milić 1980).
3
  Đuro Šušnjić was already an eminent researcher in STS when he came to the
Institute for Social Research in Zagreb, where he was employed for more than a
decade. His contribution to the development of sociology of science in Croatia
was significant, especially in science system studies (Šušnjić 1988).
Prpić                                                                      171
temporary techno-scientific issues, but it was also related to the problems
of Croatian (Yugoslav) society in the late socialist period. In the late sev-
enties and early eighties, the political elite (particularly the scientific es-
tablishment) tried to solve the long-term problems of the inefficient so-
cialist economy and social development through intensification of S&T
development, especially in Croatia, whose investments in R&D were even
lower than the Yugoslav average (Petak 1991). Therefore the power elites
were prone to finance S&T studies regularly (but not generously) in order
to get some answers from them. At the same time, they were not willing
to apply the STS findings since they implied radical economic and social
changes.
    Regarding theoretical orientation, Croatian sociological studies of sci-
ence were not inspired by Merton’s approach. The theoretical frame-
works of empirical studies were, depending on their subject, derived from
the relevant sociological theories, such as the theories of technological
change, of social capital, of organizations, of professions, of brain drain,
of gender and others.
    A seminal sociological theory of science, the organizational theory of
sciences or scientific fields (Whitley 1984) or the theory of scientific or-
ganizations (Fuchs 1992) was seen as the most promising theoretical
framework. Its heuristic value for sociological studies of science was rec-
ognized in the postulated plurality and variety of the mutual dependency
of the social and intellectual organization of different sciences. The im-
pact of national science systems was presumed even before Whitley
pointed it out in the introduction to the second edition of the book
(2000) and in his recent work (Whitley 2007, 2010). The compatibility
and complementarity of this theory with other relevant theories of sci-
ence, the theory of disciplinary cultures (Becher and Trowler 2001) and
the theory of scientific field (Bourdieu 1991, 2004) was also its great ad-
vantage as a source of hypotheses in the subsequent empirical research.
    In the eighties, S&T research by the Institute’s team was focused on
the topics and issues of contemporary scientific and social relevance, both
local and broader. Since the sociological studies of S&T were a new re-
search field, there were no previous empirical insights into the local R&D
characteristics and output. In addition to science policy issues, the main
research problems arose from the late socialist social and techno-scientific
context, which was showing systemic problems in its techno-economic
and research performance and productivity.
    International comparisons of Yugoslav/Croatian science indicators,
especially of R&D funding and personnel, were crucial for establishing
the place of national research system in global trends, while analytical
overviews of science potential in Yugoslavia and its federal units had pol-
icy significance (Petak 1980, 1981). Empirical research into innovation
activities by Croatian industrial organizations was carried out in order to
understand the determinants of (unsatisfactory) technological develop-
ment based on the import of foreign technologies (Čengić et al. 1990,
172                                                           Tecnoscienza - 4 (1)

1991). The most relevant characteristics of science organization and po-
tential in Croatia were analysed in the studies of the professional differen-
tiation in science, of the recruiting and renewal of research personnel, of
researchers' professional and other activities (time budget), and in the
studies of scientists’ migration abroad - the brain drain (Prpić 1989, 1990;
Golub 1985, 1988).
    With the political and social transformation of post-Yugoslav federal
units which started at the beginning of the nineties, the relevant research
issues shifted towards the problems of a transitional social and techno-
scientific system. Deep political, economic and social changes transferred
the stress to the transforming of pseudo-egalitarian, non-selective and
inefficient science and techno-economic systems towards competitive,
productive and efficient (sub)systems. Unfortunately, a limiting factor for
STS in this challenging “social experiment situation” was the extremely
low level of funding, resulting in very restricted possibilities for empirical
investigations.
    S&T policy studies turned to a comparative analysis of the main mod-
els of financing scientific research and experimental development, in or-
der to establish a new Croatian funding system (Petak 1991). Research
into technological development was primarily oriented to the process of
privatization as an essential precondition of techno-economic develop-
ment in a post-socialist society, and to the technological modernization of
Croatian enterprises (Čengić 1996, 2000). The third line of research was
focused on the real and potential actors of Croatian scientific and techno-
logical development. Therefore scientists’ performance, including their
productivity predictors, was studied, as well as their professional ethics, at
both a value and a conduct level (Prpić 1994, 1996, 1998). Empirical in-
vestigations also dealt with the real and potential drain of scientists
abroad and the social reproduction of the scientific elite (Golub 1996,
1998), and with the characteristics and values of the managerial elite
(Krištofić 1999; Čengić 2000).
    Relatively recent sociological studies of S&T show continuity in the
new millennium, but they have also included new STS topics. The re-
search continuity of STS is a stable orientation of these studies, at least at
the Institute. Its scientific and social roots are related to the nature of
social phenomena and the cognitive advantages of accumulating a com-
parative dataset from various investigations in order to study S&T chang-
es and their trends. On the other hand, new topics and issues in Croatian
S&T research have been inspired by the most interesting STS mainstream
themes and by new or unsolved problems of national R&D development,
especially those connected with evaluation system and the relationship
between science and society.
    As a result of this orientation to the continuity and novelty of research
topics, in the last decade sociological studies of S&T have continued to
investigate the deeper and wider aspects of scientists’ ethics, the brain
drain and waste, women scientists and young researchers, and the science
Prpić                                                                     173
system and research personnel development (Golub 2005, 2010; Prpić
2002a, 2002b, 2005; Golub and Šuljok 2005; Brajdić Vuković 2012). At
the same time, new research themes have dealt with a comparison of
knowledge production in the natural and social sciences and a special
accent has been on social science output (Prpić 2009; Prpić and Petrović
2011). A new research topic has also focused on perceptions of science by
the Croatian public and the social elite - politicians, top managers and
scientists (Golub 2009; Prpić 2011) and the media presentations of sci-
ence (Šuljok 2011; Šuljok and Brajdić Vuković, 2013).
     Although the Institute for Social Research was for a long time the only
scientific organization in Croatia to continuously develop systematic (em-
pirical) research into S&T, studies of S&T have also been undertaken by
a few sociologists from other scientific institutions. Some of these studies
have dealt with mainstream philosophical and sociological topics, such as
genetic technology and eugenics (Polšek and Pavelić 1999; Polšek 2004)
or science wars (Polšek 2009; Matić 2001) and SSK - sociology of scien-
tific knowledge (Matić 1997). Other studies have been focused on the
Croatian science and higher education system, the innovation system and
the knowledge society (Polšek 1998, 2003; Švarc et al. 2004; Afrić et al.
2011).
     Most studies of the latter type have been carried out at the Institute of
Social Sciences Ivo Pilar, which is becoming the second institutional cen-
tre in Croatia for sociological studies of S&T, especially for innovation
studies focused on the national innovation system and policy within the
Croatian socio-economic environment (Švarc 2009, 2006; Švarc et al.
2009; Lažnjak et al. 2011; Bečić and Švarc, 2012).
     Whatever their topics and theoretical approach and wherever it is
conducted, the most valuable common trait of Croatian sociological stud-
ies of science and technology is that they have been trying to develop and
preserve a critical approach to the social context of science and technolo-
gy in both the socio-historical systems of Croatian society – the socialist
and the transitional, post-socialist context.


4. Interdisciplinarity in Croatian STS: A Feasible Perspec-
   tive or an Illusion?

    Different disciplinary approaches in Croatian STS have not led to in-
terdisciplinary research into S&T. There was an attempt in the second
half of the eighties (1986-1990) to connect research into science (and
technology) and researchers from various disciplines and institutions in a
mega-project on science, called Bases of long-term R&D development (Pe-
tak 2004). Yet it did not result in true interdisciplinary studies, but was
rather a mechanical agglomerate of various scientific investigations or
sub-projects. Some of them focused on the philosophy and history of sci-
ence (in Croatia), some were preoccupied by scientometric and biblio-
174                                                              Tecnoscienza - 4 (1)

metric analyses of biomedicine and/or natural disciplines, some dealt with
the economic aspects of technological change and development, while
others were interested in sociological studies of S&T.
     Although it is not my intention to analyse the (inter)disciplinarity of
the Croatian STS, fragmentation, as observed by Martin and co-authors
(2012), also seems to be an appropriate description of the Croatian case.
Contrary to the thesis that local orientation generates interdisciplinarity
while international orientation stimulates disciplinary orientation (Søren-
sen 2012), in Croatian case both orientations seem to produce the same
outcome – disciplinary fragmentation. The (inter)national orientation
differs across the main STS disciplines. In the philosophy and history of
science it is more local than in scientometric and bibliometric studies, and
especially in the sociology of science and technology. Its roots, in my
opinion, are the different disciplinary research foci in the Croatian scien-
tific community. It is a small community and, consequently, a much
smaller number of scientists study science and technology within each
discipline. They can barely cover disciplinary priorities, which leaves al-
most no space for dealing with problems that could be of inter- or trans-
disciplinary relevance.
     Croatian sociological studies of science and technology seem to have
been productive in the last forty years, but they show a sort of cognitive
self-sufficiency that is not very promising. Though not interdisciplinary in
a strict sense of the term, innovation studies also included a few econo-
mists from the eighties onward. This indicates that interdisciplinarity in
STS could become a productive perspective if and when it is the result
and not just the mechanical application of various disciplinary approach-
es to different subtopics of a broader STS theme. It is to be hoped that
inter-, multi- and trans-discplinarity could also be the (albeit distant) fu-
ture of Croatian STS.


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Prpić                                                                             175
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