Breve storia del Faculty Development in Medicina negli Stati Uniti
10.13135/1971-8551/5252
Questo articolo descrive il Faculty Development in Medicina, la sua creazione ed evoluzione, approcci, strategie e contenuti principali.Il Faculty Development in Medicina, o Medical Education, è iniziato alla Buffalo University (USA) negli anni Cinquanta e l’articolo descrive l'importante ruolo giocato da George Miller, la collaborazione tra la Facoltà di Medicina e la Facoltà di Scienze dell’Educazione, i primi progetti di formazione dei docenti e le iniziali ricerche in questo campo, la creazione dei primi Centri di Medical Education negli USA e nel mondo, il ruolo di divulgazione dell'Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità.
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1971-8551
5252
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Antonella Lotti
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Medical Education
Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States
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Original articles
2020-11-05
2020-11-05
2020-11-05
2020-11-05
1
Antonella Lotti
2020/11/05
10.13135/1971-8551/5252
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia
1971-8551
1
Medical Education
Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States
https://ojs.unito.it/index.php/tutor/article/download/5252/4719
20
      Brief history of Faculty
      Development for Medical
      Education in United States.
      Breve storia del Faculty
      Development in Medicina
      negli Stati Uniti
      Antonella Lotti1
       1 Dipartimento CHI.MO.MO., Università degli studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia
       antonella.lotti@unimore.it



ABSTRACT
This paper highlights Faculty Development in Medical Education, its creation and evolution, approach-
es, main strategies and content.
Faculty Development in Medical Education started at Buffalo University (USA) in the Fifties and the
paper describes the important role of George Miller, the collaboration between School of Medicine
and School of Education, the first projects of teacher training and the first research in this domain, the
creation of first Centres of Medical Education in USA and worldwide, the disseminating role of World
Health Organization.


ABSTRACT
Questo articolo descrive il Faculty Development in Medicina, la sua creazione ed evoluzione, approcci,
strategie e contenuti principali.
Il Faculty Development in Medicina, o Medical Education, è iniziato alla Buffalo University (USA) negli
anni Cinquanta e l’articolo descrive l'importante ruolo giocato da George Miller, la collaborazione tra
la Facoltà di Medicina e la Facoltà di Scienze dell’Educazione, i primi progetti di formazione dei do-
centi e le iniziali ricerche in questo campo, la creazione dei primi Centri di Medical Education negli
USA e nel mondo, il ruolo di divulgazione dell'Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità.




                                                                                                         5
                           Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




TAKE-HOME MESSAGE
Faculty Development in Medicine, or Medical Education, started in the Fifties at Buffalo University with
the collaboration of School of Medicine and School of Education.



INTRODUCTION                                         convulsive disorders, so he had increasing-
Faculty Development (FD) is a focused                ly confined to the laboratory rather than
term that covers a range of activities de-           clinic and thus he had the opportunity to
signed to improve student learning and to            see students during the early years of their
help faculty to improve their competence             medical education. Bridge was troubled by
as teachers. (Eble & McKeachie, 1985).               what he saw:


This paper tries to answer the question              “Students come to a medical school eager
“When did Faculty Development start in               to learn, motivated strongly, and with unu-
recent history in the field of Medical Edu-          sual high average abilities as measured in
cation?” and proposes that Medical Educa-            terms of college achievement. …Within 2-
tion began its activities at Buffalo Universi-       4 weeks the large majority feels overpow-
ty in the Fifties with a small group of Fac-         ered, knows he cannot possibly absorb all
ulty Members coming from the School of               the material described in Gray’s Anatomy,
Medicine and the School of Education de-             … he is likely to fail at the very outset of a
cided to collaborate to improve medical              hoped-for career. The advisor now finds
education.                                           the student in a state of confusion, some-
                                                     times amounting to near panic, wondering
THE ROOTS OF MEDICAL EDUCATION                       what to study, how to proportion his time,
AT BUFFALO UNIVERSITY                                what is important.”
                                                                                        (Miller, 1980)
The beginning was a mild-mannered pae-
diatrician turned pharmacologist.
                                                     Such questions caused Bridge to think in-
                                  (Miller, 1980)
                                                     creasingly about the nature of medical
                                                     schools’ program and consulted dr. Lester
Edward Bridge was a clinician at the John
                                                     Evans, executive of Commonwealth Fund.
Hopkins School of medicine when, in
                                                     In 1950 Evans proposed to simply divide
1948, he joined University of Buffalo facul-
                                                     the freshman class into small groups and
ty. His professional interests were primarily
                                                     pick from any place in the faculty good
in functional disabilities of children with

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Volume 20, numero 1



young teachers who could be interested in       Bridge introduced resource persons drawn
meeting with these groups of freshmen           from other university divisions, experts
students once every two weeks.                  who were professionally qualified to speak
                                                authoritatively about such matters as stu-
1. Introduction to Medicine                     dent selections, student evaluation, stu-
Bridge accepted Evans’s suggestion and          dent study habits, the nature of learning
found 15 young faculty members who              and the use and abuse of laboratory teach-
proposed an elective to theirs students         ing. These contributors included professor
with two objectives: 1) to provide oppor-       of education, psychology, sociology and
tunities for the students to talk without in-   English. Great care was exercised to main-
hibitions regarding themselves, their inter-    tain the focus of the seminar on the real
ests and the medical curriculum; 2) to ex-      educational problems they faced in order
pose students to a variety of experiences       to avoid any suspicion that it was a pre-
illustrating the human and social aspects       planned course of instruction. The bi-
of disease. Among these Young Turks             monthly meetings were held in Dean’s of-
there was George E. Miller.                     fice conference room
The student/tutor groups were scheduled         On the other side students asked a closer
to meet for about two hours every other         relationship with the profession for which
week. On the alternate weeks Bridge pro-        they were preparing for and they had the
posed that the tutors came together to          opportunity for encounters with patients
discuss their observations and to consider      and practitioners, visits to hospitals and
methods of applying modern principles of        physicians’ offices, observation of surgical
education to their own instructional prob-      and obstetrical procedures.
lems. In this way the Seminar on Medical        All the project was published in a paper
Education began and it continued without        entitled Bedside teaching for first year
interruption for five academic years with       students (Miller, 1954).
the formal title of Introduction to Medicine    Bridge also found time to continue his ex-
(Miller, 1980).                                 ploration of new ideas and potential
Since the first year, the entire project was    sources of stimulus outside the university
successful: at first tutors struggled to find   of Buffalo and during a trip he spent some
appropriate content and format for the          time with Benjamin Bloom at the university
meetings and asked for help.                    of Chicago who suggested the kind of col-




                                                                                           7
                         Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




laborative study between professionals in         better teachers, and consequently they
education and those in medicine.                  were ready to develop a more elaborate
                                                  training program for medical teachers, that
2. Adventure in Pedagogy                          will be defined “the first known example
Bridge proposed to Nathaniel Cantor,              of faculty development in medical educa-
chairman of the Department of Sociology           tion” by Hilliard Jason (Guilbert, 2007).
and Anthropology, to lead the group of tu-
tors a step further in the field of adult ed-     3. Project in Medical Education
ucation and to plan ten 2-hour seminars at        George Miller writes that they planned “a
weekly intervals. The purposed text was           year-long faculty fellowship, a work-study
Cantor’s book The Teaching Learning Pro-          program designed to provide the philo-
cess (Cantor, 1953) but the real text was         sophic base, the cognitive structure and
tutors’ own experience as teachers and            the technical skills that should characterize
learners examined under Cantor’s master-          a professional faculty member” (Miller,
ful leadership.                                   1980).
Cantor had been much influenced by the            Five broad areas seemed appropriate for
work of Carl Rogers and he proposed an            study in sufficient depth to assure perspec-
unforgettable learning experience to all the      tive and understanding: teaching-learning
participants who defined it as “Experience        process, the nature of medical student,
of such pivotal importance in further evolu-      materials and methods of instruction, eval-
tion of the Buffalo program …” that is im-        uation, general background of higher edu-
possible to synthetize it. They learned that      cation.
people learn what they want to learn and          Although the initiative came from the
the role of motivation; that learning and         School of Medicine, the program was
knowledge are different: significant learn-       mounted with the active participation of
ing is an emotional as well as an intellec-       the School of Education. In 1954 a com-
tual experience; that true learning implies       mittee was created to plan in detail the
change and, finally, that true learning re-       project that was presented to some Funds
quires freedom. (Miller, 1956).                   to be financed and was accepted by the
                                                  Commonwealth Fund where Lester Evans
At the end of Cantor’s seminar, the group         was really encouraging.
was aware that the sciences of education          The project had, among others, these
could give an important help to become            goals: 1) to determine the importance to


 8
Volume 20, numero 1



the education of medical students of an in-     study and seminar discussion of the se-
creased awareness among medical teach-          lected educational topics. (Miller, 1980).
ers of fundamental educational principles;      The Commonwealth Fund’s response was
2) to determine the feasibility of a continu-   positive because they found that this pro-
ing cooperative effort between a school of      ject was unique and something quite dif-
medicine and other university divisions in      ferent from anything in the field of medical
the development of more effective teach-        education. They appreciated the interdisci-
ers in medicine; 3) to assess the effect of     plinary contributions from education, soci-
changes in mode of instruction that may         ology and psychology; the focus on the
result from this teacher training program       learning process and the quality of people
upon medical student learning .                 involved. They allocated $131,400 to
In the Project in Medical Education a mini-     support the Project from December 1955
mum of four University of Buffalo School of     to August 1958.
Medicine faculty members and four visiting      Once the support was assured, the plan-
faculty from comparable departments had         ning committee started the main tasks:
to take part in a work/study program. All       preparation of seminar content and lead-
were selected on the basis of their interest    ers; recruitment of participants, and devel-
in teaching. At the end of the year each        opment of an evaluation system for the en-
Faculty would have returned to their regu-      tire project.
lar activities. Faculty fellows had to devote   For seminar content and leaders, it was
themselves fully to a year long work/study      decided to have a joint couple of leaders:
program which was planned to begin two          1. The teaching-learning process: Nathaniel
weeks before the regular academic year.         Cantor, chairman of the Department of So-
During the first week an introductory sem-      ciology and Anthropology and Phillip Wels,
inar on one of the five proposed topics         instructor in Surgery.
would be held in the afternoon. The sec-        2. The nature of the medical student: Ira
ond week would have been devoted to an          Cohen head of psychology clinic and Har-
intensive consideration of the teaching         old Graser, instructor of psychiatry in the
learning process in a two-hour seminar          school of medicine.
each morning and afternoon. For the re-         3. Evaluation: Stephen Abrahamson, asso-
mainder of the year one half of each day        ciate professor of education and Director
would be given to regular departmental          of the educational research centre in the
activities, the other half to independent


                                                                                             9
                        Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




college of education, and Ivan Bunnell, as-      toward a doctoral degree in education: Hil-
sistant professor of Physiology.                 liard Jason.
4. Communication, including techniques of        The evaluation system was planned by
instruction: Robert Harnack, associate pro-      Stephen Abrahamson who wanted to test
fessor of education and specialist in cur-       the hypothesis that an increased aware-
riculum and instruction, and George Miller,      ness of educational principles would lead
assistant professor of Medicine, and direc-      to changes in the attitudes of medical
tor of house staff education at Buffalo          teachers toward the process of medical
General Hospital and coordinator of the          education and in their instructional prac-
Project in Medical Education.                    tices.   He detailed the sub-objectives of
5. The evolution of higher education:            the research and identified methods and
Lester Anderson, vice chancellor for educa-      tools: interviews, daily log and diary, peri-
tional affairs and professor of higher edu-      odic observations of participants, anecdo-
cation and Edward Bridge, professor of           tal records. An Abrahamson’s young grad-
pharmacology.                                    uate student, Edwin Rosinski, had the re-
Miller says that the worth of joint medical      sponsibility for study the attitude change
and nonmedical seminar leadership was            and Hilliard Jason carried similar responsi-
demonstrated again and again during all          bility for the study of teaching practices.
the year: many of the pairs of leaders           Rosinski created an attitude inventory of
spent long hours together observing med-         120 statements distributed among six are-
ical school lectures, laboratory exercises,      as and Jason created a comprehensive list
ward and clinic teaching. They visited oth-      of teaching characteristics derived from a
er universities such as Cornell, New York        review of literature.
University, Columbia and Rochester.              In 1956 after Labor Day the visiting facul-
There were also monthly meetings of the          ty members arrived and the program start-
entire group during which individual semi-       ed. By June a vast quantity of information
nar planning became a shared experience.         about the program had been accumulated
The recruitment brought eight medical            from participants and seminar leaders and
teachers coming from bacteriology, obstet-       all led to the same conclusion: it had been
rics and gynaecology, pharmacology and           a remarkably successful undertaking.
surgery and one third-year medical student       The good news spread fast and very quali-
who had decided to work simultaneously           fied persons valued the Buffalo experience.
                                                 Former secretary of AAMC said that Buffa-


10
Volume 20, numero 1



lo was clearly exploring new territory in          new phase aimed to develop seminars and
medical education and the dean of Yale             workshops in education for larger numbers
University school of Medicine noted :              of interested faculty from other schools
“Based on the experience gained in this            and to develop reference materials and
experiment at Buffalo, I can see great value       workbooks. AAMC joined in sponsoring
in the development of a syllabus or outline        the University of Buffalo Summer Institute
for a series of bi-weekly conferences over         on Medical teaching, a two-weeks retreat
an academic year for new faculty members           dedicated to medical education for 25 fac-
at any medical school”.                            ulty members coming from 21 universities.
Although the first round had been very             George Miller edited the book Teaching
successful, the second year was more diffi-        and Learning in Medical School (Miller,
cult. Nathaniel Cantor died after a short ill-     1961).
ness and the new six participants were             Ironically by the time Teaching and Learn-
more aloof and never succeeded in estab-           ing in Medical School was published the
lishing a group identity.                          program that was spawned it was mori-
Rosinski conducted a one-year follow-up            bund, because Dean Kimball died         and
on twelve of the thirteen participants, their      none of the deans who succeeded were
department heads, a random sample of               very supportive; many implicated persons
teaching   colleagues       and   the   medical    were invited to disseminate their experi-
school dean. He found that the project ex-         ence in other universities, ready to start
perience has resulted in discernible, signif-      the first centres for faculty development in
icant and persistent change in performance         Medicine.
as faculty member. More rapid maturation,
greater confidence, willingness to test al-        4. Colonization
ternatives and to accept differences, en-          In 1959 Commonwealth Fund financed a
couragement of students to discover what           new study to determine the impact of an
they needed rather than to absorb what             educational   consultant   on   a   medical
they were told, a more questioning and             school. The research proposal had four ob-
less dogmatic approach to educational              jectives: to prepare a professional educator
planning    and   implementation.       (Miller,   in the field of medicine; to do a match be-
1980)                                              tween a school and the educator; to im-
At the end of the Project, Commonwealth            plement through seminars and consulta-
Fund offered an extra two-year grant for a         tions and, finally, to evaluate its impact.


                                                                                             11
                         Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




Commonwealth Fund decided to pay the              as associate program director an educa-
subsidy for an educational consultant-in-         tionalist, Lawrence Fisher, trained by Ralph
residence and the choice was Edwin Rosin-         Tyler (one of the top-ranking professionals
ski for the Medical College of Virginia,          in curriculum and evaluation) and Christine
where he went and worked for seven                McGuire.
years.                                            Commonwealth Fund provided financial
Stephen Abrahamson established the sec-           assistance to establish the OMERAD at
ond colony in 1959 at Stanford University,        Michigan State University and dean Hunt
which was engaged in a major curriculum           chose Hilliard Jason as first director of the
revision. Here Abrahamson introduced in-          unit. OMERAD was planned as a vital part
dividualized   educational    program     and     of the faculty, both functionally and organ-
worked collaboratively with Andrew Hunt,          izationally: a faculty member from each ac-
a paediatrician who moved later to be-            ademic department was part of it. “Insinua-
come the founding dean of the Michigan            tion of this unfamiliar resource into all
State University School of Human Medi-            planning, implementation and evaluation
cine, where firstly he established the Office     was assured” (Miller, 1980). OMERAD was
of Medical Education Research and Devel-          also represented in all major educational
opment (OMERAD).                                  policy committee. The Office developed
Abrahamson returned to Buffalo after a            degree and non degree programs for
year and then he moved to University of           those anticipating careers in medical edu-
Southern California for the rest of his life,     cation. Hilliard Jason worked hard in a very
where he directed one of the most promi-          open-minded endeavour and he could in-
nent medical education unit in USA; at USC        troduce new ideas as simulated (standard-
he created the first simulations and stand-       ized) patients and video recordings for
ardized patients, together with Howard            first year students.
Barrows, the world famous father of Prob-         This very stimulating new medical program
lem Based Learning.                               attracted visitors from abroad and among
George Miller went to University of Illinois      them a mention is dedicated to Harmen
College of Medicine to lead a research pro-       Tiddens, founding Dean of Maastricht uni-
ject and the establishment of a permanent         versity and Vic Neufeld from McMaster
centre: the Office of Research in Medical         University.
Education (ORME). He decided to create a          In his experience at MSU, Hilliard Jason
very interdisciplinary endeavour and took         understood        how      important       cross-


12
Volume 20, numero 1



fertilization among members of the group        around U.S., workshops for faculty and
was: they used weekly meetings in which         produced a large collection of resources
everyone took turns presenting their work,      for use in faculty development including
their vision, their successes and their chal-   booklets, instructional videos and self-
lenges in an non-judgmental atmosphere.         study documents. They also pursued a
After some years, in 1974, AAMC invited         large federally funded 5-year faculty de-
Hilliard Jason to become Director of the        velopment project involving faculty and
Division of Curriculum, and he accepted         residents of all 9 family medicine residency
with one condition: the elevation of the        programs in Florida (Jason and Westberg,
faculty members who design and imple-           1984).
ment curricula. They agreed and converted
their Division of Curriculum into the Divi-     5. The disseminating role of World Health
sion of Faculty Development.       Jason re-    Organization
members: “As far as I know, that was the        In the same years World Health Organiza-
first time the phrase “faculty development”     tion had been dealing with the problem of
was used in a medical education context. I      teacher-training and in 1952 its Expert
felt it marked the beginning of a needed        Committee on Professional and Technical
transformation in the thinking of some of       education of medical and auxiliary person-
our country’s medical education leaders,        nel made specific reference to formal ped-
toward accepting faculty development as a       agogic preparation of faculty members.
foundation requirement in medical educa-        WHO studied the Buffalo School of Medi-
tion” (Guilbert, 2007).                         cine and School of Education project and
During his fourth year at AAMC, Jason of-       asked to George Miller to design an inter-
fered workshops on various aspects of           national program to train medical teachers
faculty development. Due to the budgetary       in the five continents. George Miller pro-
constraints, AAMC couldn’t keep Jason for       posed to identify an Interregional Centre in
longer so he moved to the University of         Chicago which could offer training in edu-
Miami where he created, with his wife Jane      cation to health professions personnel who
Westberg, the National Centre for Faculty       will man Regional Centres that will in turn
Development where they remained for 12          spawn National Teacher Training Centres.
years until 1992.                               Miller’s proposal was accepted and imple-
In those years they continued to offer, with    mented, and many regional and national
many collaborators from medical schools         centres were created worldwide. The Inter-


                                                                                          13
                        Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




regional Centre was established in the           quarter in Geneva, said at the 4th World
Centre for Educational Development at the        Conference on Medical Education held in
University of Illinois, the Regional Centres     Copenhagen in 1972, that considerable
were designated in Africa (Makerere Uni-         progress was made in the period 1962-65
versity in Kampala, Uganda as English-           since a total of 320 teachers from 33
speaking centre and University centre for        countries from the Americas received train-
the health sciences in Yaoundé, Cameroon         ing in pedagogy applied to medicine (Med-
for a French-language centre); in Eastern        ical teaching). Seminars, workshops and
Mediterranean Region at Pahlavi University       study tours also had been organized by
School of Medicine in Shiraz, Iran; in West-     WHO Regional Offices to promote the
ern Pacific Region at the University of New      same subject (Fulop & Millker, 1972).
South Wales; in South Asia Region at the         In the conduct of teacher training work-
University   of   Sri    Lanka     and     at    shops, Jean-Jacques Guilbert (WHO Chief
Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok; in          Medical Officer for educational planning) a
the American Region there were designed          physician who won his doctorate in Educa-
a centre at the Federal University of Rio de     tion at the University of Southern California
Janeiro and one in Mexico City. In Europe        Division of Research in Medical Education,
there were many health professions educa-        was without peer. Guilbert had both re-
tional research and development groups:          fined the workshop format and created an
the Canter for Medical Education in Dun-         educational handbook designed as a cen-
dee, Scotland; the medical education staff       trepiece for the individual and small-group
at the University of Maastricht, the Nether-     study that characterized most of work-
lands, the British Life Assurance Test Cen-      shops. (Guilbert, 1998)
tre for Health and Medical Education in          The Pan American Health Organization lat-
London, the faculty of medical Education in      er engaged Edward Bridge, who had
the central Institute for postgraduate stud-     planted the seed that grew in Buffalo Uni-
ies in Moscow.                                   versity, and he trained nearly 1200 medi-
The WHO Headquarters Division of Health          cal schoolteachers in a decade in Latin
Manpower Development was headed by               America.
Tamas Fulop, original driving force for the      Miller led a survey in 1977 and he identi-
sequential worldwide program.                    fied seventy-two medical schools in the
Tamas Fulop, Chief medical officer for           United States and Canada that seemed to
postgraduate education at the WHO Head-          have clearly established unit of educational


14
Volume 20, numero 1



research and development. The units                       among medical educators and to help
ranged in size from two with no-full time                 promote national associations for medical
professional to three with more than fifty,               education throughout Europe (Wojtczac,
the median number was 5. All units offered                2013). AMEE is the European regional as-
assistance to faculty in the design and de-               sociation of the World Federation for Med-
velopment of curriculum, instructional ma-                ical Education and a member of the WFME
terials and evaluation procedures as the                  Executive Council. Several European na-
improvement of teaching practices.                        tional medical education associations are
                                                          corporate members of AMEE. Over the
6. The role of Associations                               past decade AMEE has developed steadily
Many associations played a role in dissem-                both in size and in the sphere of its activi-
inating     medical      education       principles:      ties and is now a worldwide association
among them it is important to cite Asso-                  with members and contacts in over 90
ciation of American            Medical     Colleges       countries.
(AAMC),      American       Hearth      Association
(AHA), Association of Education and Re-
search in America (AERA) with their Special               Many journals and conferences worldwide
interest group dedicated to Medical Educa-                wit the lively activity of this field today in
tion like Conference on Research in Medi-                 the world.
cal Education (R.I.M.E.) at the AAMC, S.I.G.
Health Professions Education as formal                    CONCLUSIONS
AERA division (then called Division of Edu-               Faculty Development has an important role
cation in the Professions).                               in Medical Education and its roots can be
An extraordinary role was also played also                easily found in a group of passionate med-
by the Network of Community oriented In-                  ical   doctors      and     educationalists      who
stitutions for Health, gathering the most                 worked together, as pioneers, in Buffalo
innovative medical schools in the world                   University in the Fifties leaving a remarka-
under the auspices of WHO, which was                      ble and inspiring footprint.
founded in 1979.
In 1972 AMEE was founded in 1972 in                       REFERENCES
                1
Copenhagen , to foster communication                      Cantor, N. (1953). The teaching-learning
                                                              process. New York, USA: Dryden Press.

1 For Italy there was dr. Giovanni Lotti, Director, Italian Centre for Medical Education at the Villa Nobel,
San Remo, Italy
                                                                                                               15
                       Brief history of Faculty Development for Medical Education in United States




Fulop, T. & Miller, G.E. (1972). Teaching          Education, volume 29 (issue 1), page
  the teacher to teach. In The World Med-          28.
  ical Association, Educating Tomorrow’s        Miller, G.E. (1956). Adventure in peda-
  doctors. Fourth World Conference on              gogy. J.A.M.A., volume 162, (issue 15),
  medical education. Copenhagen 1972.              page1448.
  Chicago, Illinois: American Medical As-       Miller, G.E. (1961). Teaching and learning
  sociation.                                       in Medicine. Cambridge, USA: Harvard
Guilbert, J.J. (1998). Educational Handbook        University Press.
  for health personnel. 6th edition, Gene-      Miller, G.E. (1980). Educating medical
  va: WHO Offset publications n. 35.               teachers. Cambridge, USA: Harvard Uni-
Guilbert, J.J. (2007). Making a difference:        versity Press.
  an interview with Hilliard Jason. Educa-      Wojtczac, A. (2013). History of AMEE
  tion for Health, volume 20, (issue 3),           1972-2009. Occasional Paper No 5:
  page 110.                                        AMEE.
Jason, H., Westberg, J. (1984). Microcom-
  puters in faculty development: the Flor-
  ida FAC-NET Project. Journal of Family
  Practice, volume19 (issue 1), page72.
Miller, G.E. (1954). Bedside teaching for
  first-year students. Journal of Medical




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